UNIT 2: AC CIRCUITS

(Lecture 8 to 14 + Tutorial 4 to 6)
Prepared By:
Krishan Arora
Assistant Professor and Head (LPU)
Outcome: Understand the fundamental behaviour and notations of AC circuits and solve
AC circuit problems

Fundamentals of A.C. circuits : Alternating current and voltage, concept of notations ( i, v, I, V),
definitions of amplitude, phase, phase difference, RMS value and average value of an AC signal,
complex representation of impedance, steady state analysis of ac circuits consisting of RL, RC
and RLC (series), resonance in series RLC circuit, power factor and power calculation in RL, RC
and RLC circuits, three-phase circuits- numbering and interconnection (delta or mesh
connection) of three phases, relations in line and phase voltages and currents in star and delta
 UNIT-II

FUNDAMENTAL OF AC CIRCUITS

Lecture 8
Prepared By:
Krishan Arora
Assistant Professor and Head
 AC Fundamentals
 Previously you learned that DC sources have fixed polarities and constant
magnitudes and thus produce currents with constant value and unchanging
direction

 In contrast, the voltages of ac sources alternate in polarity and vary in

magnitude and thus produce currents that vary in magnitude and alternate in
direction.
 Sinusoidal ac Voltage

One complete variation is referred to as a cycle.

Starting at zero,
the voltage increases to a positive peak amplitude,
decreases to zero,
changes polarity,
increases to a negative peak amplitude,
then returns again to zero.

 Since the waveform repeats itself at regular intervals, it is called a periodic

signal.
 Symbol for an ac Voltage Source

Lowercase letter e is used

to indicate that the voltage varies with time.

3
 Sinusoidal ac Current

 During the first half-cycle, the  During the second half-cycle, the
source voltage is positive voltage polarity reverses
 Therefore, the current is in the  Therefore, the current is in the
clockwise direction. counterclockwise direction.
 Since current is proportional to voltage, its
shape is also sinusoidal

4
Quick Quiz (Poll 1)
The frequency of domestic power
supply in India is

(A) 200 Hz
(B) 100 Hz
(C) 60 Hz
(D) 50 Hz
 GENERATION OF AC VOLTAGE

An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy

to electrical energy in the form of alternating current

Principle: A conductor moving relative to a

magnetic field develops an electromotive
force (EMF) in it. (Faraday's Law).

This emf reverses its polarity when it moves

under magnetic poles of opposite polarity.
Generating AC Voltages

7
Generating AC Voltages

8
 Generating ac Voltages (Method A)
 One way to generate an ac voltage is to rotate a coil of wire at constant
angular velocity in a fixed magnetic field

 The magnitude of the resulting voltage is proportional to the rate at which flux
lines are cut

 its polarity is dependent on the direction the coil sides move through the field.

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany 9

 Generating ac Voltages
 Since the coil rotates continuously, the voltage produced will be a repetitive,

Time Scales  Often we need to scale the output voltage in time.

 The length of time required to generate one cycle depends on the
velocity of rotation.
600 revolutions in 1 minute = 600 rev / 60 s
= 10 revolutions in 1 second.

The time for 1 revolution = one-tenth of a second

= 100 ms

Dr. Vikram Kumar Kamboj

10
 Generating ac Voltages (Method-2)
 AC waveforms may also be created electronically using function (or signal)
generators.
 With function generators, you are not limited to sinusoidal ac. gear.

 The unit of Figure can produce a variety of variable-frequency waveforms,

including sinusoidal, square wave, triangular, and so on.
 Waveforms such as these are commonly used to test electronic

Dr. Vikram Kumar Kamboj

11
 Instantaneous Value
 As the coil voltage changes from instant to instant. The value of voltage at any
point on the waveform is referred to as its instantaneous value.

 The voltage has a peak value of 40 volts  at t = 0 ms, the voltage is zero.
 The cycle time of 6 ms.  at t=0.5 ms, the voltage is 20V.

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany 12

 Voltage and Current Conventions for ac
 First, we assign reference polarities for the source and a reference direction for
the current.
 We then use the convention that, when e has a positive value, its actual polarity is the
same as the reference polarity, and when e has a negative value, its actual polarity is
opposite to that of the reference.
 For current, we use the convention that
when i has a positive value, its actual
direction is the same as the reference
arrow,
 and when i has a negative value, its actual
direction is opposite to that of the
reference.

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany 13

Voltage and Current Conventions for ac

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany 14

 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
 Periodic waveforms (i.e., waveforms that repeat at regular intervals), regardless
of their wave shape, may be described by a group of attributes such as:
 Frequency, Period, Amplitude, Peak value.
Frequency: The number of cycles per second of a waveform is defined

 Frequency is denoted by the lower-case letter f.

 In the SI system, its unit is the hertz (Hz, named in honor of pioneer researcher Heinrich
Hertz, 1857–1894).

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany 15

 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
 Period:  The period, T, of a waveform, is the duration of one cycle.

 It is the inverse of frequency.

 The period of a waveform can be measured between any two corresponding

points ( Often it is measured between zero points because they are easy to
establish on an oscilloscope trace).

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany 17

 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
Amplitude , Peak-Value, and Peak-to-Peak Value
Amplitude (Em):
The amplitude of a sine wave is the distance
from its average to its peak.

Peak-to-Peak Value (Ep-p):

It is measured between minimum and maximum peaks.
Peak Value

The peak value of a voltage or current is its maximum

value with respect to zero.

In this figure : Peak voltage = E + Em

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany 18

Quick Quiz (Poll 2)

Peak to peak value of a sine wave is

a. Equal to the maximum or phase value of sine wave

b. Twice the maximum or phase value of sine wave
c. Half of the maximum or phase value of sine wave
d. Four times the maximum or phase value of sine wave
Quick Quiz (Poll 3)

The most common waveforms of ac is

a. Square
b. Triangular
c. Sinusoidal
d. Saw tooth
 UNIT-II

FUNDAMENTAL OF AC CIRCUITS

Lecture 9
Prepared By:
Krishan Arora
Assistant Professor and Head
 The Basic Sine Wave Equation

The voltage produced by the previously described generator is:

• Em: the maximum coil voltage and

• α : the instantaneous angular position of the coil.

 For a given generator and rotational velocity, Em is constant.)

 Note that a 0° represents the horizontal position of the coil and that one
complete cycle corresponds to 360°.

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany 2

 Radian Measure

 In practice, q is usually expressed in radians per second,

 Radians and degrees are related by :

For Conversion:

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany 4

 Relationship between ω, T, and f

 Earlier you learned that one cycle of sine wave may be represented as either:

 Substituting these into:

Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents as Functions of Time:

 We could replace the angle α as:

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany 5

 Voltages and Currents with Phase Shifts

 If a sine wave does not pass through zero at t =0 s, it has a phase shift.
 Waveforms may be shifted to the left or to the right

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany 6

 Quick Quiz (Poll 1 )

The time period or periodic time T of an alternating

quantity is the time taken in seconds to complete

a. one cycle
b. alternation
c. none of the above
d. Half cycle
 Quick Quiz (Poll 2 )

The time period of an alternating quantity is 0.02

second. Its frequency will be

a. 25 Hz
b. 50 Hz
c. 100 Hz
d. 0.02 Hz
 Quick Quiz (Poll 3 )

The angular frequency of an alternating quantity is a

mathematical quantity obtained by multiplying the
frequency f of the alternating quantity by a factor

a. π/2
b. π
c. 2π
d. 4π
Shifted Sine Waves Phasor Representation
 Quick Quiz (Poll 4 )

A phasor is

A. A line which represents the magnitude and phase of an alternating

quantity
B. A line representing the magnitude and direction of an alternating
quantity
C. A colored tag or band for distinction between different phases of a 3-
phase supply
D. An instrument used for measuring phases of an unbalanced 3-phase
load
 Phasor Difference
 Phase difference refers to the angular displacement between different
waveforms of the same frequency.

 The terms lead and lag can be understood in terms of phasors. If you observe
phasors rotating as in Figure, the one that you see passing first is leading and
the other is lagging.

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany 16

 Quick Quiz (Poll 5)

If the phase angle ф is positive then the phase difference is

said to a __________ phase difference

A additive
B Leading
C Lagging
D None of the above.
 Quick Quiz (Poll 6)
If the phase difference between them is equal to
zero, the two AC voltages (or any two AC quantities)
are said to be __________.

A in phase
B out of phase
C in phase opposition
D None of the above
 UNIT-II

FUNDAMENTAL OF AC CIRCUITS

Lecture 10
Prepared By:
Krishan Arora
Assistant Professor and Head
 AC Waveforms and Average Value
 Since ac quantities constantly change its value, we need one single numerical
value that truly represents a waveform over its complete cycle.

Average Values:  To find the average of a set of marks for example, you add
them, then divide by the number of items summed.
 For waveforms, the process is conceptually the same. You
can sum the instantaneous values over a full cycle, then
divide by the number of points used.
 The trouble with this approach is that waveforms do not
consist of discrete values.
Average in Terms of the Area Under a Curve:

Or use area

Electrical Circuits - Basem ElHalawany 2

 Derivation of Average Value
The average value of A.C. is the average over one complete cycle and is clearly zero,
because there are alternately equal positive and negative half cycles.
Alternating current is represented as I = I0 sin ωt
Root Mean Square Value
Derivation of RMS Value
Form Factor and Peak Factor
 Quick Quiz (Poll 1 )
What is referred as the average value in AC
opearation?

a) Average of all values of an alternating quantity.

b) Average of all values of the phase sequences.
c) Average of all values of the (+)ve and (-)ve half.
d) Average of all values of an alternating
quantity over a complete cycle.
 Quick Quiz (Poll 2 )
What is form factor?

a) Average value / R.M.S. value.

b) Average value / Peak value.
c) Instantaneous value / Average value.
d) R.M.S. value / Average value.
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
TRUE POWER:
The actual amount of power being used, or dissipated, in a circuit is called true
power, and it is measured in watts (symbolized by the capital letter P, as always)

REACTIVE POWER:
We know that reactive loads such as inductors and capacitors dissipate zero
power, yet the fact that they drop voltage and draw current gives the deceptive
impression that they actually do dissipate power. This “phantom power” is
called reactive power, and it is measured in a unit called Volt-Amps-
Reactive (VAR), rather than watts. The mathematical symbol for reactive power is
(unfortunately) the capital letter Q.

APPARENT POWER:
The combination of reactive power and true power is called apparent power, and
it is the product of a circuit’s voltage and current, without reference to phase
angle. Apparent power is measured in the unit of Volt-Amps (VA) and is
symbolized by the capital letter S.
Active Power, it is the true power which is
actually consumed in the circuit. We can say
that it is the product of voltage and current
and power factor.
Reactive power: It is the product of voltage
current and sin of the phase angle.
Apparent power: It is the product of voltage and
current.
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
For Resistive Load
For Reactive Load
For Resistive/Reactive Load
Example
 Quick Quiz (Poll 3 )

Reactive power is expressed in?

a) Watts (W)
b) Volt Amperes Reactive (VAR)
c) Volt Ampere (VA)
d) No units
 Quick Quiz (Poll 4 )

• Active Power is defined by

A) VI cos φ
B) VI sin φ
C) VI
D) All of the above
 UNIT-II

FUNDAMENTAL OF AC CIRCUITS

Lecture 11
Prepared By:
Krishan Arora
Assistant Professor and Head
 AC Circuits
•An AC circuit consists of a combination of
circuit elements and a power source.
•The power source provides an alternating
voltage, Dv.
•Notation note:
– Lower case symbols will indicate instantaneous
values.
– Capital letters will indicate fixed values.
Current and Voltages in Resistive,
Inductive and Capacitive Circuits
Phasor Diagram for Purely Resistive,
Capacitive and Inductive Circuits
 Resistors in an AC Circuit, final
•The graph shows the current
through and the voltage across the
resistor.
•The current and the voltage reach
their maximum values at the same
time.
•The current and the voltage are said
to be in phase.
•For a sinusoidal applied voltage, the
current in a resistor is always in
phase with the voltage across the
resistor.
•The direction of the current has no
effect on the behavior of the resistor.
•Resistors behave essentially the
same way in both DC and AC circuits.
 Quick Quiz (Poll 1)
• Find the value of the instantaneous voltage if
the resistance is 2 ohm and the instantaneous
current in the circuit is 5A.
a) 5V
b) 2V
c) 10V
d) 2.5V
 Quick Quiz (Poll 2)
• The correct expression for the instantaneous
current in a resistive circuit is?
a) i=Vm(sinωt)/R
b) i=Vm(cosωt)/R
c) i=V(sinωt)/R
d) i=V(cosωt)/R
 Concept of Power Factor
• Ratio of real power to apparent power is
called the power factor, Fp
• Fp = P/S = cos 
• Angle  is angle between voltage and current
POWER TRIANGLE
 Power Factor
• For pure resistance  = 0°
• For inductance,  = 90°
• For capacitance,  = -90°
• For a circuit containing a mixture,  is
somewhere between 0° and 90°
 Power Factor
• Unity power factor
– For a purely resistive circuit, the power factor will
be one
• For load containing resistance and inductance
– Power factor will be less than one and lagging
– Current lags the voltage
• For a circuit containing resistance and
capacitance
– Fp is less than one and is leading
 Power Factor Correction
• A load with a small power factor can draw a
large current
• Can be alleviated by
– Cancelling some or all reactive components of
power by adding reactance of opposite type to the
circuit
• This is power factor correction
 Power Factor Correction
• Industrial customers may pay a penalty for low
power factors due to large currents required
for highly reactive loads
 Quick Quiz (Poll 3)
What is maximum value of power factor?

a. 0.5
b. 1
c. 1.5
d. 0.95
 Quick Quiz (Poll 4)
For which among the following consumers is
penalty imposed for low power factor?

a. Residential and commercial consumers.

b. Industrial consumers.
c. Agricultural consumers.
d. All of the above.
 UNIT-II

FUNDAMENTAL OF AC CIRCUITS

Lecture 12
Prepared By:
Krishan Arora
Assistant Professor and Head
Inductors in an AC Circuit
Current in an Inductor
Phase Relationship of Inductors in an
AC Circuit
Phasor Diagram for an Inductor
Inductive Reactance
Inductive Reactance, cont.
Voltage Across the Inductor
 Quick Quiz (Poll 1)
• The two quantities are said to be in phase with each
other when
a. the phase difference between two quantities is zero
degree or radian
b. each of them pass through zero values at the same
instant and rise in the same direction
c. each of them pass through zero values at the same
instant but rises in the opposite directions
d. Both (a) or (b)
 Quick Quiz (Poll 2)
• The inductive reactance of a circuit ................
with the increase in supply frequency
a. increases
b. decreases
c. remains unchanged
d. unpredictable
Capacitors in an AC Circuit
Capacitors in an AC Circuit, cont.
More About Capacitors in an AC Circuit
Phasor Diagram for Capacitor
Capacitive Reactance
Voltage Across a Capacitor
 Quick Quiz (Poll 3)
• In a pure capacitive circuit, the current will

a. lag behind the voltage by 90 degree

b. lead behind the voltage by 90 degree
c. remains in phase with voltage
d. none of the above
 Quick Quiz (Poll 4)
• A phasor is a line which represents the
a. rms value and phase of an alternating
quantity
b. average value and phase of an alternating
quantity
c. magnitude and direction of an alternating
quantity
d. none of the above
 UNIT-II

FUNDAMENTAL OF AC CIRCUITS

Lecture 13
Prepared By:
Krishan Arora
Assistant Professor and Head
The RLC Series Circuit
The RLC Series Circuit, cont.
i and v Phase Relationships – Graphical
View
i and v Phase Relationships –
Equations
More About Voltage in RLC Circuits
Phasor Diagrams
Resulting Phasor Diagram
Vector Addition of the Phasor Diagram
Total Voltage in RLC Circuits
 Quick Quiz (Poll 1)
In a series RLC circuit, the phase difference
between the current in the capacitor and the
current in the inductor is?
a) 00
b) 900
c) 1800
d) 3600
 Quick Quiz (Poll 2)
In a series RLC circuit, the phase difference
between the current in the circuit and the
voltage across the capacitor is?
a) 00
b) 900
c) 1800
d) 3600
Impedance
Phase Angle
Determining the Nature of the Circuit
Power in an AC Circuit
Resonance in an AC Circuit
Resonance, cont.
 Quick Quiz (Poll 3)
• _________ the resonant frequency, the
current in the inductor lags the voltage in a
series RLC circuit.
a) Above
b) Below
c) Equal to
d) Depends on the circuit
Basic Three-Phase Circuit

2
 What is Three-Phase Power?

• Three sinusoidal voltages of equal amplitude

and frequency out of phase with each other
by 120°. Known as “balanced”.
• Phases are labeled A, B, and C. or R,Y and B.
• Phases are sequenced as A, B, C (positive) or
A, C, B (negative).

3
GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

N
Motion is parallel to the flux.
No voltage is induced.
GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

N
Motion is 45° to flux.
Induced voltage is 0.707 of maximum.
GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

S
x

N
Motion is perpendicular to flux.
Induced voltage is maximum.
GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

N
Motion is 45° to flux.
Induced voltage is 0.707 of maximum.
GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

N
Motion is parallel to flux.
No voltage is induced.
 GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

N
Motion is 45° to flux.
Notice current in the Induced voltage is
conductor has reversed. 0.707 of maximum.
GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

N
Motion is perpendicular to flux.
Induced voltage is maximum.
GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

N
Motion is 45° to flux.
Induced voltage is 0.707 of maximum.
GENERATING A SINGLE PHASE

N
Motion is parallel to flux.
No voltage is induced.
Ready to produce another cycle.
 Three phase system

• 4 wires
– 3 “active” phases, A, B, C
– 1 “ground”, or “neutral”
• Color Code
– Phase A Red
– Phase B Yellow
– Phase C Blue
– Neutral Black

13
Phasor (Vector) Form for abc
Vc=Vm/+120°

Va=Vm/0°

Vb=Vm/-120°
Note that KVL applies .... Va+Vb+Vc=0

14
GENERATION OF THREE-PHASE AC
S
x x

N
THREE-PHASE WAVEFORM
 THREE PHASE SYSTEM

BASICS
Line voltage VL= voltage between lines

Phase voltage Vph= voltage between a line and

neutral
 THREE PHASE SYSTEM

BALANCED STAR
Line Voltage VL= √3 Vph
Line current IL = Iph
 THREE PHASE SYSTEM

BALANCED DELTA
Line Voltage VL= Vph
Line current IL = √3 Iph
 Quick Quiz (Poll 1)
• Power in a Three Phase Circuit = _________.
a) P = 3 VPh IPh CosФ
b) P = √3 VL IL CosФ
c) Both a & b.
d) None of The Above
 3 phase Transformer connections

By connecting three single phase transformers

1. Star- Star connection
2. Delta- Delta connection
3. Star – Delta connection
4. Delta – Star connection
 Star- Star connection

 This connection satisfactory only in balanced load

otherwise neutral point will be shifted.
 Star- Star connection

Advantages

1.Requires less turns per winding ie cheaper

Phase voltage is 1/√3 times of line voltage

2.Cross section of winding is large i.e stronger to bear

stress during short circuit
Line current is equal to phase current

3. Less dielectric strength in insulating materials

phase voltage is less
 Star- Star connection
Disadvantages
1.If the load on the secondary side unbalanced
then the shifting of neutral point is possible

2.The third harmonic present in the alternator

voltage may appear on the secondary side. This
causes distortion in the secondary phase
voltages

3. Magnetizing current of transformer has 3rd

harmonic component
 Delta - Delta connection

 This connection is used for moderate voltages

 Delta - Delta connection

Advantages

1. System voltages are more stable in relation to

unbalanced load
2. If one t/f is failed it may be used for low power
level ie V-V connection
3. No distortion of flux ie 3rd harmonic current not
flowing to the line wire
 Delta - Delta connection

Disadvantages
1. Compare to Y-Y require more insulation

2. Absence of star point ie fault may severe

 Star- Delta connection

 Used to step down voltage i.e end of transmission

line
 Star- Delta connection

Advantages
1. The primary side is star connected. Hence fewer
number of turns are required. This makes the
connection economical

2. The neutral available on the primary can be

earthed to avoid distortion.

3. Large unbalanced loads can be handled

satisfactory.
 Star- Delta connection
Disadvantages

The secondary voltage is not in phase with the

primary. (30 ⁰ phase difference )

Hence it is not possible to operate this connection in

parallel with star-star or delta-delta connected
transformer.
 Delta - Star connection

 This connection is used to step up voltage ie.

Beginning of high tension line
 Delta - Star connection

Features
 secondary Phase voltage is 1/√3 times of
line voltage

 neutral in secondary can be grounded for 3 phase
4 wire system

 Neutral shifting and 3rd harmonics are there

 Phase shift of 30⁰ between secondary and

primary currents and voltages
Tutorial 4
A sinusoidal voltage is given by v= 20 sin ωt volts. (a) At
what angle will the instantaneous value of voltage be the
10 V? (b) What is the maximum value of the voltage and
at what angle?
 Example 2
An alternating current of frequency 60 Hz has
a maximum value of 12A (a) Write down the
equation for its instantaneous value. (b)
Calculate the value of current after 1/360
seconds. ( c) Find the time taken to reach 9.6A
for the first time.
 Example 3
Determine the phase difference of the
sinusoidal current i1= 4sin (100Πt + 30degree)
Amp with respect to current i2= 6sin (100Πt )
Amp. In terms of time and draw the phasor
diagram to represent the two phasors.
Example 4
 Example 5
Determine the average and rms value of current
given by i= 10 +5 cos314t Amp.
Unit 2 Problems
Tutorial 5
Example 1
An ac voltage is mathematically expressed
as v = 141.42sin(157.08t + Π/2) volts. Find
its (a) effective value (b) frequency ( c)
periodic time.
Example 2 Polar Notation Problem
• An AC current denoted by a phasor in complex plane as I= 4+j3 Amp.
Is flowing through a resistor of 10 ohm . Determine the power
consumed by the resistor.
Solution
Problem on Rectangular and Polar calculations
Addition subtraction and Multiplication
Addition subtraction and Multiplication
Division
Problem on Representation of sin wave
equations
Problem on XL and XC calculation
(a) What reactance will be offered (i) by an inductor of 0.2 H, (ii) by a
capacitance of 10 µF, to an ac voltage source of 10V, 100 Hz? (b) What,
if the frequency of the source is changed to 140 Hz?
Problem on Resonance Frequency
Problem on Series RL circuit
Problem on Power and RC circuit
Tutorial 6
 Example
When a two element series circuit is
connected across an ac source of frequency 50
Hz, it offers an impedance Z = (10+j10) ohm.
Find the values of two elements?
Solution
 Example
When a two element parallel circuit is
connected across an ac source of frequency 50
Hz, it offers an impedance Z = (10-j10) ohm.
Find the values of two elements?
Solution
 Example
• A circuit consists of a resistance R in series
with a capacitive reactance of 60 ohm.
Determine the value of R for which the power
factor of the circuit is 0.8.
Solution
 Example
A series RLC circuit has R= 12 ohm, L = 0.15 H
and C = 100 µF. It is connected to an ac source
of voltage 100 V, whose frequency can be
varied. Determine (a) the resonant frequency
of the source at which the current supplied by
it is maximum, (b) the value of this current.
Solution
 Example
• An iron choke takes 4 Amp current when
connected to a 20 V dc supply. When
connected to 65 V, 50 Hz ac supply, it takes 5
Amp. Current. Calculate (a) resistance and
inductance of the coil (b) the power factor (c )
the power drawn by the coil.
Solution
Problem on Power and RC circuit