CYTOGENETICS: RNA TRANSLATION EXPLANATION

DISCUSS THE RNA TRANSLATION

Translation is the 2nd step in Gene Expression
Gene Expression is a process by which information stored in DNA in the form of genes is use in
synthesis of functional gene products. These gene products are mainly proteins which have
numerous functions in your cells like repair and maintenance of cells energy synthesis and
enzymatic actions on biochemical reactions.
Gene expression essentially occurs in two steps. It begins in the nucleus with the process of
transcription in which the information on the DNA is copied into RNA. This RNA is known as
the Messenger RNA or the mRNA since the main job of this RNA is to carry this information or
message outside the nucleus and use it to perform the second step of gene expression known as
translation. In translation, the message stored on the mRNA is decoded in a ribosome to
produce a specific amino acid chain or polypeptide.
- It is a fundamental process in cells where the genetic information encoded in messenger
RNA (mRNA) is used to synthesize proteins
- It is the process through which information encoded in messenger RNA (mRNA) directs
the addition of amino acids during protein synthesis. Translation occurs in ribosomes,
which are cellular structures made of proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
In this process, mRNA is read and translated into amino acid chains that make up the
synthesized protein. The polypeptide later folds into an active protein and performs its functions
in the cell.
What are the structures in the cell that make the process of translation possible?
Besides the messenger RNA, translation also requires another type of RNA, known as the
transfer RNA or tRNA. Ribosomes are dedicated cellular machineries that make this whole
process possible. The ribosomes that read the message on the mRNA and the tRNA transfers
individual amino acids to the ribosome according to the sequence of base pairs on the mRNA.
These amino acids are then joined together by bonds to form a protein so the process of
translation occurs in three basic steps.
Initiation: The term "beginning" or "initiation" is used to describe this phase of transcription
because it signifies the commencement of the process of converting genetic information from
DNA into RNA. It's the first step in the synthesis of an RNA molecule, hence the association
with the concept of beginning.
Translation begins with the binding of an mRNA molecule to a ribosome. The ribosome scans
the mRNA until it encounters a specific start codon (usually AUG). This codon signals the
beginning of translation and also specifies the amino acid methionine. A transfer RNA (tRNA)
molecule carrying methionine binds to the start codon, positioning it at the ribosome’s P site.
Elongation: The term "middle" might not always be used to describe the elongation phase
explicitly. However, if it is, it likely refers to the fact that elongation occurs between initiation
and termination, essentially occupying the intermediate or middle stage of the transcription
process.
During elongation, tRNAs bring amino acids to the ribosome based on the mRNA codons. Each
tRNA has an anticodon that pairs with the complementary mRNA codon. The ribosome moves
along the mRNA, reading the codons in sequence. As it does so, tRNAs deliver their amino
acids to the growing polypeptide chain. Peptide bonds form between adjacent amino acids,
extending the chain.

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Termination: Translation ends when the ribosome encounters a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or
UGA). There are no tRNAs with anticodons for stop codons, so instead, release factors bind to
the ribosome. This triggers the release of the completed polypeptide chain, which folds into a
functional protein.
In the context of RNA translation, termination is the final stage of the process where the
synthesis of a protein is completed. Termination occurs when the ribosome encounters a stop
codon on the mRNA molecule.
Here's what happens during termination:
Stop Codon Recognition: When the ribosome reaches a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA) on
the mRNA, there are no corresponding tRNA molecules with anticodons to recognize these
codons. Instead, release factors (proteins) bind to the A site of the ribosome.
Release of the Polypeptide Chain: The release factors facilitate the hydrolysis of the bond
between the tRNA in the P site and the last amino acid of the polypeptide chain. This causes the
completed polypeptide chain to be released from the ribosome
Dissociation of the Ribosome: Following the release of the polypeptide chain, the ribosome
complex dissociates into its subunits (small and large ribosomal subunits), releasing the mRNA
molecule.
Recycling of Components: The ribosomal subunits, mRNA, and release factors are then
available to participate in another round of translation.
Termination is a crucial step in protein synthesis because it ensures that the correct length
of the polypeptide chain is synthesized based on the information encoded in the mRNA. It also
allows the ribosome and associated components to be recycled for use in subsequent rounds of
translation.

In summary, RNA translation involves decoding the mRNA sequence to build a

polypeptide (protein) by linking amino acids in a specific order. This process is essential for cell
survival and provides insights into antibiotic action against bacteria

Post-Translational Modifications
The translated proteins from mRNA undergo chemical or enzymatic modification before
functioning in the cell which alters the amino acid sequence after its synthesis. This
modification is known as post translational modification.
Ribosomes synthesizes proteins and translate mRNA into polypeptide chains which
undergo post translational modification and forms the mature protein.

The main function of post translational modification of protein is that it generates

Heterogeneity in proteins and helps in utilizing and functioning of each identical protein in
different cell of the body.
(Heterogeneity refers to the presence of diversity or variation within a system, group, or
population. It can manifest in various ways, such as differences in characteristics, behaviors, or
opinions.)

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Post translational modification of protein increases the proteome functional diversity by the
addition of functional groups, proteolytic cleavage of regulatory subunits or degradation of
entire proteins.
- influence protein’s structure, stability, activity and substrate specificity.
- occurs in the cell’s endoplasmic reticulum or sometimes in Golgi bodies.
- occurring at the peptide terminus of the amino acid helps in translocating proteins across
biological membrane in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
- also incorporated in various cellular and organelle membranes such as lysosomes,
chloroplast, mitochondria and plasma membranes.
- also takes part in modifying the end product of expression that is important in biological
processes and diseased conditions like heart disease, cancer, neurodegenerative diseases
and diabetes.
Most proteins are modified shortly after completion of translation process to mediate proper
protein folding or stability while other modifications occur after folding and catalytic activity
that are activated or inactivated after localization is completed. Proteins go through post
translational modification by cleavage and addition of functional groups through a mechanism
of protein maturation or activation.

There are around 25 to 30 examples of Post translational Modification.

There are many types of Post translational modifications which catalyzes the enzymes
that recognize the specific target sequences in proteins.
Based on the addition of chemical groups
Phosphorylation
Acetylation
Hydroxylation
Methylation
Based on the addition of complex groups
Glycosylation
AMPylation
Lipidation
Based on the addition of polypeptides
Ubiquitination
Based on the cleavage of proteins
Proteolysis
Based on the amino acid modification
Deamidation
Acetylation
o During acetylation, the first amino group methionine in the polypeptide chain is replaced
by acetyl group.

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 CYTOGENETICS: RNA TRANSLATION EXPLANATION
o The main function of acetylation is in gene expression that opens up the DNA for
transcription.
Glycosylation
o During glycosylation, carbohydrate is added to protein that forms from simple
monosaccharide to highly complex branched polysaccharide.
o This change occurs in cell surface receptor that helps in identifying different types of
cells like in identification of ABO blood group.
Phosphorylation
o Phosphorylation is the addition of phosphate group to certain amino acids like serine,
threonine or tyrosine found on the polypeptide chain.
o Phosphorylation helps in the regulation of many cellular processes like cell cycle, cell
growth, and apoptosis and in signal transduction pathways.
Ubiquitination
o Ubiquitination is a post-translational modification process in which a small protein called
ubiquitin is covalently attached to a target protein. This modification is catalyzed by a
series of enzymes known as ubiquitin ligases. Ubiquitin itself contains seven lysine
residues, any of which can serve as attachment points for another ubiquitin molecule,
leading to the formation of polyubiquitin chains on the target protein.
Methylation
o the addition of methyl group to the amino acid by an enzyme methyltransferase.
o Methylation increases the hydrophobicity of the protein and can neutralize a negative
amino aci2d charge by binding with carboxylic acids.
Methylation is a biochemical process that involves the addition of a methyl group (CH3) to a
molecule, typically occurring on DNA, RNA, proteins, or small molecules. In the context of
genetics, DNA methylation refers to the addition of a methyl group to the DNA molecule,
specifically to cytosine bases within the DNA sequence. This modification can regulate gene
expression by affecting how genes are read and interpreted by the cellular machinery.

DNA methylation plays crucial roles in various biological processes, including embryonic
development, genomic imprinting, X-chromosome inactivation, and the regulation of gene
expression. It can act as a mechanism for controlling which genes are turned on or off in
different cell types or in response to environmental factors.

In addition to DNA methylation, methylation can also occur on other molecules. For example,
RNA methylation, particularly on RNA nucleotides such as adenine or cytosine, can influence
RNA stability, translation, and other cellular processes. Similarly, protein methylation involves
the addition of methyl groups to specific amino acids within proteins, impacting their function
and interactions within the cell.

Overall, methylation is a fundamental biochemical process with widespread implications for

cellular function, development, and disease.

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Summary
SUMMARY ABOUT POST TRANSITIONAL MODIFICATION
Post-transitional modification typically refers to alterations or adjustments made after a
transitional phase or period has passed. This concept can apply to various contexts, such as
societal transitions, organizational changes, or personal transformations. In essence, it involves
modifications made to adapt to the new normal or to improve upon the initial changes
implemented during the transitional phase.
These modifications aim to address any lingering issues, optimize processes, or further
align with evolving goals or circumstances. Whether in business, politics, or personal
development, post-transitional modifications play a crucial role in ensuring continued growth,
stability, and effectiveness in navigating change.
SUMMARY ABOUT RNA TRANSLATION
RNA translation is a fundamental process in biology where the information encoded in
messenger RNA (mRNA) is used to synthesize proteins. This process occurs at ribosomes,
cellular organelles composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins.
During translation, the mRNA molecule is read by ribosomes in a three-nucleotide
sequence called a codon. Each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid or a signal to start or
stop protein synthesis. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules carry amino acids to the ribosome,
where they are matched with the appropriate codon on the mRNA through complementary base
pairing. This process ensures that the correct amino acids are assembled in the order specified
by the mRNA.
The ribosome catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between adjacent amino acids,
resulting in the elongation of the polypeptide chain. As the ribosome moves along the mRNA, it
reads each codon and adds the corresponding amino acid to the growing protein chain until it
reaches a stop codon, signaling the end of translation.
Post-translational modifications may occur after translation, where the newly synthesized
protein undergoes chemical modifications such as cleavage, phosphorylation, or glycosylation,
which can alter its structure and function.
Overall, RNA translation is a highly regulated process essential for protein synthesis,
which is crucial for cell function, growth, and development.

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What is the difference between transcription and translation?
Transcription and translation are essential processes in the flow of genetic information within a
cell. Let’s explore their differences:
Transcription:
: the process where DNA acts as a template to form a complementary RNA strand. It is the first
stage of protein production, allowing the transfer of genetic information from DNA to RNA.
Types of RNA: During transcription, three types of RNA are involved:
Messenger RNA (mRNA): Carries the genetic code from DNA to the ribosome during
translation.
Transfer RNA (tRNA): Helps deliver amino acids to the ribosome.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Forms part of the ribosome structure.
Stages of Transcription:
Pre-initiation: RNA polymerase binds to a promoter region on the DNA. The DNA
strands separate, allowing access to the template strand.
Initiation: RNA polymerase introduces the first complementary ribonucleoside
triphosphate.
Elongation: RNA polymerase synthesizes the RNA strand by adding complementary
ribonucleotides.
Termination: Transcription ends when RNA polymerase reaches a termination signal.
Differences:
Eukaryotic transcription occurs in the nucleus, while prokaryotic transcription occurs in the
cytoplasm.
Eukaryotic mRNA undergoes additional processing steps (such as splicing) before leaving the
nucleus.
Translation:
: converts mRNA into proteins. It occurs at the ribosome. During translation, the ribosome reads
the mRNA codons and assembles amino acids into a polypeptide chain.
Stages of Translation:
Initiation: The ribosome binds to the mRNA at the start codon (usually AUG). tRNA
brings the first amino acid (methionine).
Elongation: tRNAs deliver amino acids based on mRNA codons. Peptide bonds form
between adjacent amino acids.
Termination: Translation stops at a stop codon, and release factors help release the
completed polypeptide.
Summary: Translation decodes the mRNA sequence to build a protein.
Key Point: The genetic information flows from DNA (transcription) to RNA (mRNA) and
finally to proteins (translation).

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In summary, transcription produces RNA from DNA, while translation assembles proteins based
on the mRNA code. These processes are vital for cell function and protein synthesis

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Q&A
1. Give me three differences of RNA
 RNA – 1 helix structure DNA – 2/ double helix structure
 RNA is Ribose DNA is Deoxyribose
 RNA is Uracil DNA is Thymine
2. Among the three phases that I’ve mentioned/ discussed to you, what phase called
“beginning”? and why is it called the beginning?
 Initiation. Because it marks the start of the process of synthesizing an RNA molecule
from a DNA template.
3. What are the two steps that occurs in Gene Expression?
 Transcription and Translation

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 CYTOGENETICS: RNA TRANSLATION EXPLANATION
Anticodon Definition (Biology)
Anticodon refers to the sequence of three adjacent nucleotides located on tRNA. It
complementary-base -pairs with the codon of mRNA. For example, the anticodon for glycine is
CCC (Cytosine-Cytosine-Cytosine) that binds to the codon GGG (Guanine-Guanine-Guanine)
of mRNA.

Translation steps
Prior to initiation, a pre-translation step occurs. Called bio-activation, the amino acid binds to
the corresponding tRNA by a covalent bond.

Step 1: Initiation
Translation initiation is the first major step of translation wherein the genetic code carried by
mRNA is decoded to produce the specific sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. The
small subunit of the ribosome binds to the 5′ end of mRNA as facilitated by initiation factors
(IF). The first tRNA attaches to the initiation or start codon. An initiation codon is the codon
specified usually by AUG in mRNA. It is recognized by formyl methionyl-tRNA (tRNAf) in
prokaryotes and by methionyl-tRNA in eukaryotes.

Step 2: Translation elongation

After initiation is transcription elongation. This is when the next aminoacyl-tRNA in line binds
to the ribosome along with GTP and elongation factor (EF). The ribosome then translocates to
the next mRNA codon resulting in the elongation of the amino acid chain.

Step 3: Translation termination

The last step is translation termination. This is when a peptidyl tRNA encounters a stop codon
(e.g. UAA, UAG, or UGA). A stop codon does not code for any amino acid but serves as a
termination signal of translation. When the termination codon is reached, the newly produced
protein goes through maturation through protein folding or post-translation modifications.

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