Acta Astronautica 60 (2007) 588 – 593

www.elsevier.com/locate/actaastro

Architecture for space habitats. Role of architectural design in

planning artificial environment for long time manned
space missions
Vera Martinez
Fachgebiet Entwerfen und Raumgestaltung und Entwerfen und Baugestaltung, Faculty of Architecture,
Technical University Darmstadt, Germany

Abstract
The paper discusses concepts about the role of architecture in the design of space habitats and the development of a
general evaluation criteria of architectural design contribution. Besides the existing feasibility studies, the general requisites, the
development studies, and the critical design review which are mainly based on the experience of human space missions and
the standards of the NASA-STD-3000 manual and which analyze and evaluate the relation between man and environment and
between man and machine mainly in its functionality, there is very few material about design of comfort and wellbeing of man in
space habitat. Architecture for space habitat means the design of an artificial environment with much comfort in an “atmosphere”
of wellbeing. These are mainly psychological effects of human factors which are very important in the case of a long time
space mission. How can the degree of comfort and “wellbeing atmosphere” in an artificial environment be measured? How can
the quality of the architectural contribution in space design be quantified? Definition of a criteria catalogue to reach a larger
objectivity in architectural design evaluation. Definition of constant parameters as a result of project necessities to quantify the
quality of the design. Architectural design analysis due the application and verification within the parameters and consequently
overlapping and evaluating results. Interdisciplinary work between architects, astronautics, engineers, psychologists, etc. All the
disciplines needed for planning a high quality habitat for humans in space. Analysis of the principles of well designed artificial
environment. Good quality design for space architecture is the result of the interaction and interrelation between many different
project necessities (technological, environmental, human factors, transportation, costs, etc.). Each of this necessities is interrelated
in the design project and cannot be evaluated on its own. Therefore, the design process needs constant check ups to choose each
time the best solution in relation to the whole. As well as for the main disciplines around human factors, architectural design
for space has to be largely tested to produce scientific improvement.
© 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction of the space for the group (the micro community of the
crew) and the one for the single person.
Two aspects of the planning of space habitats can Architecture can provide answers for the needs of the
reach a further depths through architecture: the design social community as well as the needs for the wellbeing
of the single person in a totally artificial environment.
Architecture defines the “build” rules for the cultural
E-mail address: [email protected]. life of a community [1]. The division into public, semi
0094-5765/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.09.034
 V. Martinez / Acta Astronautica 60 (2007) 588 – 593 589

public and private spaces shows the changing relation- the evaluation. It is the aim to be able to better analyze
ships between group and individual person [2]. These the advantages and disadvantages in comparison.
architectural rules extend further than the plain func- An essential starting point for the planning will arrive
tional organization. Help to interpret the patterns of be- from the prescription of the mission design and will
havior that are important for the group. be developed corresponding to aims and expectations.
In a totally isolated environment, that is character- The more precise the mission is defined, the better the
ized by dangers there is no other choice for the indi- architectonical design process can be used and therefore
vidual person but to subscribe to the condition that are a qualitatively better solution can be developed.
valid for the whole group. This means that the rules The number of people, their composition and the
for the life within the community have to be easily un- countries they come from, their cultural background,
derstood and acceptable to everyone [3], even in the their necessary activities and their expectations will play
case of an international crew with varied cultural back- a big role in the architectonical design of their lives en-
ground. The wellbeing of the individual person in space vironment. The design will correspond to the composi-
relates to the condition between human being and envi- tion, space, order, room, program and organization of
ronment. It is also based on the experience of the senses the habitat [9].
[4–6]. Questions of definition of city planning (intended as
In comparison with the diversity which can be experi- built expression of community live) will have their ef-
enced by man on earth a severe reduction in the artificial fect on the design from the very start. Traditionally city
habitat (relation between natural and man-made places, planning is used to represent the accepted forms of com-
[7]) will be incremental. To give quality to human life munity organization on an urban level [10]. Also the
in the space habitat, despite its restriction, a sensitive micro community of the astronauts will not be able to
design of the environment is absolutely necessary [8]. miss the portrayal of the social aspects of communal
To give an answer to the problems of human factor life.
on space missions the design process has to take into The consideration of the conditions of environment or
account aspects of sociology (the portrayal of micro the conditions of limits and expectations, which depend
communities: “city planning”) and psychology (for the on the position in space (Moon, Mars or etc.), will influ-
definition of environment: architecture). ence the design from the very first sketch. The follow-
A range of criteria for the main design aspects con- ing parameter will form the base for successfully using
cerning the communal live of the crew as well as the the habitat. They include protection from radiation and
well being of the individual in the artificial environment meteorites, protection from heat or cold, adjustment to
helps to evaluate architectural designs. gravitation [11], in situ use of resources, topography
Since 2001, the architecture department of the Tech- and atmosphere of planets etc. Each one of these de-
nical University Darmstadt has been working on these mands will set borders for the planning and influences
themes. In the projects students have intuitively asked the options for design decisions.
these questions and looked for answers. The pictures The concept defines the inherent idea of the design.
that accompany my talk have been developed by stu- The search for the concept will facilitate the decision
dents as part of their design projects. making in the design process, for example the concept
Technical aspects of realization are the main part of of an “oasis” (see Fig. 2) in the design of team yellow in
designing a space habitat, in which we worked interdis- the task of planning a lunar base station is a clearly con-
ciplinary with the institute of astronautics Prof. Walter ceptual approach. The design was developed according
TUM. Aspects of design support the necessary technol- to the reference image. The use of the concept helps
ogy for the planning of space habitats. in finding simple and clear strategies for the planning
process.
2. Assessment strategies and catalogue of criteria Another important criteria will be the design quality
of the habitat, the architecture. Here not the portrayal
The catalogue of assessment criteria for the “space” of the dramaturgy of the living conditions of the group
architecture will be based on various qualities, which is important, but the special qualities of the artificial
will correspond to various design criteria. Following is spaces in which the human being will be forced to stay
a list of criteria, which will describe the problems of for quite a long time [8]. The compulsion in isolation
architecture and design of space habitats. The proposal and confinement and the impossibility of leaving make
of the criteria catalogue enables the assessment of the the difference: light, material, definition of space, de-
predefined topics, so for obtaining more objectivity in sign of space, definition of volume and form have to be
590 V. Martinez / Acta Astronautica 60 (2007) 588 – 593

used for the composition of a comfortable surrounding. Awareness of costs should influence the design from
Architecture alone has to substitute the diversity of the the start. The limitation of costs would help to evaluate
natural environment that the human being is used to, on the quality of designs, instead of only evaluating the
the face of the earth [7]. For the planning of space habi- design quality of the project. Even during the design
tats can be chosen from the diversity of architectural process the estimate of costs can lead to optimization
design possibilities. The pure aesthetic will play a much in a lot of respects without jeopardizing the quality.
bigger role in space than on earth because mankind can Whereas the optimization of projects according to costs
do without beauty only for a short while [12]. at the end of the design process often influences the
The habitat has to be functional. Ergonomics [13], quality of the design.
the right measurements for working, handling have to Good quality space architecture if integrated in the
be solved in a highly successful manner, therefore, not mission design process from the beginning will not pro-
risking the success of the mission. A lot has been re- duce higher costs just higher ambiance quality.
searched on this subject in the past years (as for ISS), One of most interesting feed-back by teaching to in-
but a lot more can be done. terdisciplinary student teams is to see that they take ad-
vantage from the collaboration and respect the different
2.1. Energy efficiency competences of each.
City planning, environmental conditions, concept,
Space habitats are closed systems. Water, oxygen and architecture, function, energy efficiency, realization,
energy, which are necessary for substain life, have to costing.
reusable to a high degree. Waste in solid and liquid Each one of the aforementioned criteria leads to the
form has to be minimized, for it cannot be disposed of definition of parameter which help to evaluate the qual-
in space or on foreign planets. On developing a micro ity of design, to reach more objectivity and to minimize
closed cycle on biological basis is being worked at the mistakes in the decision making. Through these criteria
moment. Planning a habitat with “greenhouse” as part the quality of design can be more clearly explained to
of a closed cycle can facilitate life in space and should a team of people from various professional fields.
be included in the design process [12]. The principle of introducing certain criteria reflects
The realization of the project should be possible (in the successful principle of judging Architectural com-
architectural design for space feasibility often faults). petitions. The various criteria can have different impor-
The observance of technical necessitie [14] has to tance in the decision process, therefore, adjusting to the
be included in the planning from the beginning [15]. particular needs of the mission. The various fields of
Questions of realization as well as design issues have science involved will define the different parameters.
to be part of the design process from the start, often the For the planning of space habitats is a definition of a
two aspects benefit from each other. The problems can micro world basically all the different fields of science
be solved effectively only through consequential and gain importance.
cooperative integration. The cooperation between the To speak with Norberg Schultz, architecture and the
department architecture Entwerfen and Baugestaltung work of architects can contribute to the design of a
(design and room planning) Prof. Johann Eisele and “genius loci” for space habitat.
Entwerfen und Raumgestaltung (design and space
planning) Lehrbeauftragte Vera Martinez Technical 3. Sociological aspects of the design of space
University Darmstadt and the Astronautics Institute habitats
Prof. Ulrich Walter Technical University of Munich
HAAL) was formed in order to develop this integration The design of space habitats is a highly complex task,
during the studies. for it touches various important aspects of human life
Integral part of the design are questions about the nec- [17]. The main assumption is that architecture (urban-
essary tools, which are to be integrated into the archi- ism) represents physically the social rules of a commu-
tecture of the habitat to perform certain tasks (specially nity and therefore influences behavior.
in microgravity), beginning with a chair (the best exam- The architecture of space habitats does not imply the
ple is the “Munich Space Chair”) to shower, bed, stor- definition of housing for human beings in a natural en-
age facilities, waste containers, etc. Good design means vironment in which the human being is able to survive
a precise adaptation to function and quality (aesthetics) on his own, but the design of a life ensuring environ-
of the objects. The ergonomic qualities have to ensure ment in the void of space. Various fields of science,
comfort and cosines [16]. arts, humanities, technics, have to be implemented into
 V. Martinez / Acta Astronautica 60 (2007) 588 – 593 591

the design therefore creating a comfortable “home in

space” for human beings. Technics are being used to
ensure the possibility of life outside the atmosphere of
the earth whereas psychology and sociology refer to the
field of human factors, in particular the psychological
condition of the individual person and the social com-
munity of the group (particularly important for longer
missions). Architecture defines the environment which
influences a society and its culture [18]. The human be-
ing can reflect the nature of its environment. Unwritten
rules define the face of urban and rural life. The rela-
tion between public and private is important, in this the
rules of the sociologically accepted life are defined. The
micro society which will live in a space ship or in the Fig. 1. Studentwork “space city”. Source: J. Vogel, T. von Makensen,
base station on a foreign planet, will reflect itself in an Technische Universität Darmstadt 2004.
environment which is defined through rules in public
and private life. Only functional approach cannot ful-
fill the demands of space design in a hostile environ-
ment. The architectural definition of the living environ-
ment of the group begins at the position and relation of
the rooms to each other (also question of quantity) [19]
and reaches the design of the public, semipublic and
private areas (question of quality) [2]. Questions arise:
how extensive should be the private space in compari-
son to the public ones? In the common design the pub-
lic spaces are rather smaller in order to provide more
room for laboratories, work and training facilities. Can
this relation work for extended time missions? If yes, Fig. 2. Studentwork “lunar base OASIS”. Source: F. Larisch,
then why? Which architectural criteria define the public S. Kassekert, G. Tagisade, D. Weirauch, Technische Universität
Darmstadt (architecture) in cooperation with Technische Universität
space compared to the private room? How much per- München (astronautics) 2005.
sonal quality can be admitted to public life? How open
or flexible has the habitat to be in order to adapt to the
changing needs of public life? How much room can be
allocated to specialized functions and how much room
can be given over to multifunctional tasks. Can in situ
resource (in case of stations on moon or mars) be used
for extending the habitat? Which new forms of social
life can develop through the new environment in space?
(for example permanent fear) How are these architec-
tonically expressed? How is the room composed which
reflects the community? How extensive does the space
have to be in order to create comfort, shelter and also
representation. A lot of the functions will overlap due
to the limitation of space. Many functions will be used
like tools [20] in various spaces therefore rooms will
be multifunctional. A clear distinction will be made for
private rooms (for recreation and diminishing of aggres- Fig. 3. Studentwork “space habitat”. Source: J. Vogel, T. von Mak-
sion). Because manned space travel will be done in in- ensen, Technische Universität Darmstadt 2004.
ternational cooperation the different cultural demands
will influence the design. This means the design has particular cultural interpretation and could also lead to
to be clear and unmistakably interpretable. This could a wider acceptance. Signals should be used for orien-
lead to a natural understanding of space not fixed to a tation purposes in particular situations and for working
592 V. Martinez / Acta Astronautica 60 (2007) 588 – 593

eye [21], in the background connections develop be-

tween the seen, the felt, the smelt and the heard. The
nature of the things and the living beings, which are
found in our environment, are not experienced only by
the eye. To the seen corresponds a certain “materiality”.
We connect a certain smell with certain things, for ex-
ample with wood: a certain material quality, a certain
temperature, a certain noise. The same is true for each
material which plays a role in our life: stone, glass, steel,
etc. The relation of all experiences is felt as a certainty.
The question of materiality plays a big role in manned
space travel, because the astronauts live in an environ-
ment which is artificial to a high degree. The sensual
quality of the materials could be used to harmonize the
space or the artificial environment.
Though widely used throughout architecture and de-
Fig. 4. Studentwork “lunar base”. Source: A. Dietrich, S. Rapp, S. sign the knowledge of the sensual perception of the en-
Reuss, Technische Universität Darmstadt (architecture) in coopera- vironment hardly influences the design process.
tion with Technische Universität München (astronautics) 2005.
The color design of the interior of space ships could
be used as an example (compare [14]). The use of neu-
tral colors, nonsaturated and gray, is also found in the
the steering panels (but not reflect the only possibility design of airplanes, trains, etc., because it works best
of orientation). The search for a common denominator in contrast to the colorful environment. It is different in
in various cultural backgrounds should help to mini- space where the void is endless and effects should be
mize misunderstanding and uncomfortable feeling or to questioned. Perception is as well defined through cul-
create a basis for discussion (Figs. 1–4). tural background (Think of the different use of colors
to express joy or mourning).
4. Psychological aspects of the design of space Analytical studies should show stronger connections
habitats and offer a theoretical construct as base for further em-
pirical studies. Partial areas can be empirically studied
The environment is experienced by human beings to gain objectivity even through minor factors (com-
through the senses. To see, hear, taste, smell and feel pare [22]). The development of a questionnaire (for
are used to experience the environment. The sense give astronauts and cosmonauts) to research factors of envi-
information to the space where the human being is sit- ronment quality in manned space travel could provide
uated. The definition of a so-called “green zone” con- support for various aspects of design. For the design
cerning the term of comfort for each sense is an aim of certain areas the sensual awareness is considered
of this study (“green zone” means the sector of a scale, and already used in a particular way: color, light, tem-
in which the state of comfortableness of one of the five perature, acoustics, smell, surface conditions. Aim:
senses is proven). concentration, comfort, safety, freedom of interference,
An ideal situation would be to develop an ambiance relaxation, personality, use, fun.
in which every sense reaches the “green zone” and Use of these studies can be made in the earthly every
which is harmonic in the whole design at the same time. day life (compare [23]).
Normally a good design is developed through sensitive
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