Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Acta Astronautica
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/actaastro

Adaptability of space habitats using the Rhythmic Buildings strategy

Layla van Ellen a, *, Ben Bridgens a, Neil Burford b, Matthew Crown c, Oliver Heidrich d
a
Hub for Biotechnology in the Built Environment, Newcastle University, NE1 7RU, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, UK
b
School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape, Newcastle University, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, UK
c
Hub for Biotechnology in the Built Environment, Northumbria University, NE1 8ST, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, UK
d
Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Space habitats, facing extreme conditions in space and on other planetary bodies, should have redundancy and
Space architecture versatility. Although the main challenges in the field have been identified as changes in gravity, radiation
Adaptability protection, extreme temperatures (fluctuations), changes in daylight patterns, and lack of (or less) atmosphere,
Design strategy
more (unknown) challenges will inevitably emerge. Therefore, space habitats should extend beyond redundancy
Sustainability
Martian habitat
and adapt to their surroundings. There are many adaptability strategies for terrestrial habitats but none of these
strategies were developed to work in the extreme conditions of outer space. This paper proposes application of a
novel adaptability strategy, the Rhythmic Buildings strategy, which aims to develop buildings that adapt to the
rhythms of the building’s context (frequency, speed, and intensity of changes occurring on the case study
location).
The strategy is applied to the case study of a Martian habitat at Jezero Crater. The Rhythmic Buildings strategy
includes the Rhythmic Framework and its 33 parameters (such as daylight and outdoor temperature) as well as
analytical, technical, and design tools – collectively the Rhythmic Toolbox. First, the Framework tool was used to
map the changes in the context following the environmental, economy, and society aspects. The rhythms of the
case study context include local temperature, pressure, solar radiation, strong weather events (i.e. storms), but
also comfort needs of the crew. These rhythms were then translated into a habitat design using an adapted
version of the bubble diagram method.
Lastly, novel technologies and materials were selected to address the rhythms which includes adaptive
properties of materials. Results of the study show that the context’s most important challenges are the daily
temperature fluctuations and weekly crew schedule, while the most promising adaptability opportunity lies in
the daily daylight rhythm. The design that followed the Rhythmic Buildings strategy directly addresses nine out
of the 33 parameters and indirectly addresses a further five parameters. The proposed Martian habitat utilises the
rhythms of daily temperature cycles and the 24 h daylight rhythm to reinforce the materials structures. The
habitat is adaptive and responsive to its surroundings and the crew’s needs. In the discussion, speculations are
made on how space architecture can develop itself by intrinsically adapting to the rhythms of the environment
and evolve into their own typologies, distinctly different than Earth architecture.

of manufacturing and assembly [11]. Manufacturing, assembly, and

1. Introduction maintenance depends on the habitat typologies and classification with
each presenting their own advantages and challenges. Habitat classifi­
Space habitats need to be redundant and versatile as they face cation is defined by Häuplik-Meusburger and Bannova [12] as follow:
extreme challenges due to the unique environment they are placed in, Class I or pre-fabricated habitats are manufactured and assembled on
whether in space or on other planetary bodies. The main technical Earth using all the available Earth resources and manufacturing and
challenges in space architecture are environmental changes in gravity, monitoring techniques. However, these habitats present significant
radiation protection, extreme temperatures (fluctuations), changes in challenges to launch into space and even greater challenges to land on
daylight patterns, and lack of (or less) atmosphere and pressure [1–10]. certain celestial bodies with an atmosphere, such as Mars. This class of
Additionally the remoteness of space environments presents challenges habitats is the most dominant in space architecture history with the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (L. van Ellen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2023.06.045
Received 17 January 2023; Received in revised form 18 April 2023; Accepted 26 June 2023
Available online 11 July 2023
0094-5765/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of IAA. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
L. van Ellen et al. Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

architecture should not only address the challenges, but also leverage
Acronyms/abbreviations the opportunities that working and living in space brings. Indeed, during
the IAC2021 Special Session on Rethinking the sustainability and inclu­
BEAM Bigelow Expandable Activity Module siveness of space exploration through the design of space habitats, rein­
ELMs Engineered Living Materials venting life in space (instead of copying terrestrial live) and the use of
ECLSS Environmental Control and Life Support Systems environmental aspects as resources rather than constraints was stressed
ISRU In-Situ Resources Utilization as future steps in the field [26].
ISS International Space Station Therefore, transplanetary habitats should not only have redundancy
NaCl Natrium Chloride but also the ability to adapt to the stimuli emerging from the specific
PCM Phase Change Material environment to ensure long term sustainability of the mission. There are
SPE Solar Particle Event many adaptability strategies for buildings on Earth such as adaptive
TRL: Technology Readiness Level comfort strategies [27–29] or the Circ-Flex strategy [30,31]. Each
strategy differs in its focus, as building adaptability defines to which
parameter of the context the building responds and adapt to. For
example, in the adaptive comfort strategies, the building responds to
Apollo lander modules and the International Space Station (ISS) falling weathering aspects such as outdoor and indoor temperatures and users’
in this habitat class. aspects such as their physiology. The adaptability strategies can be
Class II habitats are manufactured on Earth but assembled in space divided into different dimensions i.e. which elements or components of
using various techniques such as origami folding [13], inflatables the building respond to those contextual aspects in what is defined as
[14–16], etc. These habitats can be lighter and more compact to trans­ adaptability dimensions [32,33]. The adaptability dimensions (Table 1)
port whilst still using manufacturing on Earth. These classes of habitats define the scale at which elements respond ranging from smallest scale
are demonstrated with, for example, the Bigelow Expandable Activity (responsive) to largest scale (movable).
Module (BEAM) which is an inflatable module that has a small volume Adaptability strategies have been implemented into the built envi­
during transport (decreasing the costs of the mission) but once inflated ronment since the 1960s [32] but none of these strategies were devel­
can provide a large shelter for a crew in space [14]. oped to work for extreme environments such as space. Nevertheless,
Class III habitats are suggested by some to cut down the trans­ some space architectures focus on specific adaptability dimensions.
portation costs and create larger modular structures as these habitats Especially the flexible and adjustable dimensions are represented in an
would be manufactured, assembled, and maintained using only in-situ effort to maximise space use but also the movable dimension with Class
resources. Research is ongoing into how to use local resources such as II habitats. The prefabricated modules of Class II habitats assembled at
lunar or Martian regolith to construct habitats (and infrastructure) on destination can be flexible in space plan and structural elements such as
site using automated manufacturing process such as additive the Lunark project by SAGA Space Architects which is a design for a
manufacturing [17] or (solar) sintering [18,19]. The process of finding a lunar habitat that uses origami folds to deploy onsite [34]. The previ­
manufacturing, assembly, and maintenance process of habitats in space ously mentioned BEAM is another example of flexibility for a micro­
that is automated and in-situ includes a class of hybrid habitats which gravity environment using inflatable technology. In order to test this
combines in-situ resources utilization (ISRU) with some elements man­ novel concept, the BEAM was tested in lower Earth orbit on the ISS to
ufactured on Earth and assembled onsite [20]. show its capabilities as liveable space, testing its thermal, humidity, and
The choice of systems and materials to address these challenges vary. ventilation performance as well as monitoring its microbiome and ra­
In terms of systems, closed loop systems are chosen to maximise the use diation levels [14]. Other modules following the inflatable and flexible
of available resources (as any space environments has either a scarce strategy are being developed in novel designs such as the lower orbit
amount of resources onsite or resources are bound to travel from Earth) LIFE Habitat by Sierra Space [15] and the Spartan Space EuroHab
and limit waste. Closed loop systems draw on systems thinking theories designed for the Moon or Mars [16]. These modules are flexible on the
[21] with each different systems at different scale. Many examples of mission time scale but not (yet) flexible in the use phase and the systems
closed loop systems are present in architecture and in particular in space are still under development, being tested in simulations or analogue
architecture. Generally, there are energy and water systems (for environments at TRLs 2 to 6. On the responsive dimension scale, how­
example, the ISS makes uses of such systems by producing its own onsite ever, not many materials have been investigated specifically for their
energy via solar arrays and the Water Recovery System [22]), materials responsiveness properties for space habitats.
systems (following circular economy principles), or ecosystems (for
example the MELISSA project aims at developing a Micro-Ecological Life 2. The Rhythmic Buildings strategy
Support System Alternative [23] or the EDEN ISS project recreating a
closed loop greenhouse [24]). The choice of materials is also critical The Rhythmic Building strategy was developed with the aim to
whether the materials are launched from Earth or mined onsite. As the design buildings that respond to changes in the rhythms of the ‘sus­
extreme conditions found in space have great effects on materials and tainability context’ identified in van Ellen et al. [32]. The sustainability
structures, novel testing and manufacturing techniques are developed context is divided into three main categories which each contains
specifically for space [20] following the Technology Readiness Levels
(TRL) 1 to 9 which determine the maturity of a technology -with TRL 9
meaning the technology is ready for launch [25]. Table 1
These technical challenges are all vastly different depending on the Adaptability Dimensions, adapted from van Ellen et al. [32].
location type of the habitat. Three location types are identified by Netti Adaptability Meaning
and Bannova [10]: orbital infrastructures, interplanetary spacecrafts, dimension
and planetary architecture. All of these will affect the psychological and Responsive/ Materials and/or systems responding to diverse stimuli by
physiological aspects, and wellbeing of the crew. This research focusses Dynamic changing shape, geometry, and/or movement
on transplanetary architecture, aiming to benchmark the findings Adjustable Change of task/user
Versatile/Flexible Change of space
against terrestrial habitats i.e. buildings. The contextual aspects of any
Refitable Change of performance
planet greatly affects the design of the habitat, however, there is still Convertible Change of use
much to learn about space environments and when exploring and Scalable Change of size
inhabiting space, more (unknown) challenges will emerge. Space Movable Change of location

765
L. van Ellen et al. Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

specific parameters: society (e.g. physiological, physical, and behav­ both during the mission timeline and the daily activities of the crew
ioural parameters), environment (e.g. climate and topography parame­ which would lead to the functions needed as input for the design. The
ters), and economic (e.g. functional and resources parameters). This use of this schedule diagram is critical in using the bubble diagram to not
recently developed strategy presents opportunities for buildings and only define the different functions but also define their importance in
habitats to respond to all changes of their specific location. The strategy terms of percentage of time this function is performed and its associated
includes an analysis tool, design tool, and technical tool. These tools rhythm. The resulting Schedule Tool is inspired by Mart Stam’s diagram
form the Rhythmic Toolbox which has been developed through an Earth for mapping the daily schedule of a traditional family as depicted in
based design process. The aim of this paper is to test whether the Leupen [36].
Rhythmic Buildings strategy and the Toolbox can be applied to more The Schedule Tool (Fig. 7) is an analysis step before using the bubble
extreme environments such as space to enable more adaptable designs of diagram. The bubble diagram comes with its own set of instructions
space habitats. (also called key) and can be used to map current designs as well as guide
In short, the Rhythmic Toolbox is part of the Rhythmic Buildings future designs. The Häuplik-Meusburger’s diagram was amended in two
Framework - an analytical tool to identify the rhythms of the context. This aspects to form the Rhythmic Bubble Diagram. The first amendment to
Framework maps the environment, society, and economy changes the bubble diagram key is an added connection. The relations of func­
occurring in the sustainability context which are sub-divided into 33 tions that are technically connected but spatially closed off has been added
parameters [32]. These changes are visually mapped onto the Frame­ as can be seen in Fig. 2. The need for this extra feature is found through
work (see Fig. 1) following their range and rhythm of occurrence, the development of this case study, as the Environmental Control and
ranging from hourly changes, to daily, weekly, and seasonally. Life Support Systems (ECLSS) must be connected to all spaces techni­
Two design tools are used in step 2 and 3: an adapted version of cally. The second amendment to the bubble diagram, is addressing the
Häuplik-Meusburger’s [35] bubble diagram, which is a diagram map­ adaptability and rhythms described in the previous sections by creating
ping how different functions should be spatially connected to each other different diagrams for each different rhythm. These diagrams can then
when designing for space habitats, and the Schedule Tool, which high­ be overlayed to find the interrelations between function and form
lights which functions are needed and when. Häuplik-Meusburger’s [35] throughout the identified rhythms.
bubble diagram is missing one critical aspect for Rhythmic Buildings: The last tool used in this case study is the Material Catalogue. This
the dimension of time. Different approaches have been used to incor­ tool is still under active development, but, in brief, it identifies the
porate time in the bubble diagram, however they mostly address the 24 responsiveness of materials to stimuli and matches these responsive
h rhythm based on users’ daily schedules. The complexities and depth of materials to the rhythms identified with the Rhythmic Framework tool
the Rhythmic Buildings Framework means that we need to add the which addresses specifically the responsive and dynamic adaptability
different rhythm frequencies (hourly, daily, weekly, seasonally, etc.) as dimensions from Table 1.
well as multiple frequencies within the same design. However, before
starting with the Rhythmic Bubble Diagram, the functions needed to be 3. Case study: 2-year mission on Jezero crater
identified. Therefore, a diagram for daily activities was suggested as an
option to gather the activities of the crew and building of the habitat As the Rhythmic Buildings strategy enables buildings to respond to

Fig. 1. The Rhythmic Buildings Framework from Ref. [32] to analyse the context of the Martian habitat case study.

766
L. van Ellen et al. Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

Framework. The method followed for this case study was to first add the
rhythm’s frequencies visually (hourly, daily, seasonally and weekly) and
then explore each parameter and highlight which rhythms occur at the
location (Fig. 6). By analysing the contextual parameters in similar ways
to a normal architectural analysis, it starts to become obvious which
rhythm can guide the design. For example, while analysing the tem­
perature parameter of the local climate context, large fluctuations can be
observed daily (see Fig. 4). Indeed, on average daily temperatures hit a
peak around 14:00 at ~ − 20 ◦ C and a lowest average temperature
around 06:00 at ~ − 80 ◦ C. These are rhythms of a fluctuation of ±60◦
Celsius in only a matter of hours. In contrast, throughout the Martian
year (687 days), the temperature doesn’t fluctuate as heavily (see Fig. 3)
as Jezero crater is situated close to the equator thus isn’t affected as
much by seasonal changes. Other aspects of importance are the changes
in pressure and formation of H2O layer at the location as these fluctuate
throughout the day as well (see Fig. 5). In Fig. 6, all rhythms have been
highlighted for the legislation parameter of comfort. This is due to many
comfort aspects of the crew changing through different rhythms related
to the crew’s activities such as sleep/wake cycles occurring daily, or
bench work and exercise schedules occurring hourly or weekly, or
shielding from SPE occurring on a seasonal or decade timeline.
From this analysis, the daily rhythm was highlighted on the tem­
perature aspect of the Rhythmic Buildings Framework. Another impor­
tant parameter that highlights the distinct features of Mars as a design
location is toxicity. One of the main challenges in space exploration is
toxic radiation. High radiation doses are found constantly in space
Fig. 2. Rhythmic bubble diagram key, adapted (in orange) from Ref. [35]. emerging from Galactic Cosmic Rays, trapped radiation, and Solar
Particle Events (SPE). SPE (also called solar flares) vary in intensity and
specific aspects, the case study location and its properties is important to time but sometimes strong or even extreme SPE can occur and the crew
define. The context for the design follows the NASA 3D printed Habitat would need to shelter from it. Research has found that strong SPE occur
Centennial Challenge. This challenge asked for collaborations with ar­ approximately every decade [38], hence a fifth rhythm was added onto
chitects to design a Martian habitat for a crew of four. Although the the diagram to represent 10 year rhythms.
challenge (started in 2015 and completed in March 2019) was focussed The Framework acts as a guide to analyse the context, starting with
on the structures and materiality using remote technologies (here: ad­ any parameters (in this case at the top with the local climatic parameter
ditive manufacturing), the three phases of the challenges also include “daylight”) and systematically passing through each parameter.
the architectural design (Phase I). The outcomes of the challenge might Different data sources are needed to analyse the parameters (i.e. identify
be used to shape future Martian bases and habitats and are therefore an the rhythm, frequency of occurrence, and intensity). For example,
ideal design brief to follow for this case study. The design brief did not physiological aspects can be found in architectural studies relating to
include a specific location, however, Mars also has a wide range of wellbeing in space using senses [2] or medical and biological data on
factors changing depending on its location (such as topology, materials, how bodies adapt to various extreme environments [9,39]. In this case
temperatures, wind, etc.). As the Rhythmic Buildings strategy advocates study, the rhythms intensity and frequency of the parameters for hu­
for buildings that adapt to their specific context, a specific location was midity, temperature, precipitations, air flow, and resources were iden­
chosen. tified using plots derived from the Mars Climate Database. Once the
Jezero Crater was chosen for a number of reasons: (1) the crater is the available data has been collected, the frequency of the rhythm is drawn
landing site of the Perseverance rover by NASA which is looking for onto the Framework to show an overview of all the rhythms of the
signs of life, therefore making it an interesting location to explore, (2) sustainability context. Fig. 6 shows (in grey on the figure) that not all
the rover is relaying its collected data about the site, informing the
rhythmic Framework inputs, (3) the crater is relatively flat and situated
close to the equator, making it easy to land and launch respectively, (4)
the location is of particular scientific interest due to the former lake
occupying the surface and depositing interesting minerals, and (5) NASA
views this location as one of the potential landing sites for a future
crewed mission to Mars due to the aforementioned benefits, making it an
ideal site for a case study.

3.1. Analysis tool -design brief using the framework

The Rhythmic Framework is used to define the design brief (and use
as base for the design tool). The design brief comprises the analytical
step of mapping the contextual rhythms on the Rhythmic Buildings
Framework. Then the second step maps the schedule of the mission and
the crew. These will be used as input for the design process.

3.1.1. Step 1: mapping onto the framework Fig. 3. Yearly average temperature flux at Jezero crater. Data gathered from
The sustainability context is mapped using the Rhythmic Buildings Mars Climate Database and published in Ref. [37].

767
L. van Ellen et al. Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

schedules).
The daily schedule focused on the activities performed by the crew
within the habitat which can be translated into functions. This schedule
is adapted from the ISS schedule as presented in Architecture for Astro­
nauts [35] with a strong focus on lengthening the workday by alter­
nating shifts between the crew members. The mission timeline shows
how and when the habitat should be built: remotely within 16 months as
the crew departs from Earth after month 28 and should be guaranteed a
safe habitat on arrival. The mission timeline also shows the longevity of
the habitat (until month 44 for mission 1 and beyond month 60 for
mission 2). This timeline follows the DRA 5.0 (Design Reference Ar­
chitecture) mission developed by NASA [40] for human exploration of
Mars.

3.2. Step 3: mapping functions using the Rhythmic Bubble Diagram

Fig. 4. Daily average temperature flux at Jezero crater. Data gathered from The functions emerging from the schedule are drawn into two bubble
Mars Climate Database and published in Ref. [37]. diagrams following the schedule of the crew. During the day, the main
function is the scientific work performed by the crew while during the
night, sleeping is the main function. However, throughout the whole
mission, the Environmental Control and Life Support Systems (ECLSS)
are the most important technical function as it ensures the habitat is
viable for a crew. The ECLSS connect to all functions of the habitat
because it not only provides comfort but also provides all physiological
aspects needed to survive in the harsh Martian environment (breathable
air, acceptable temperature ranges, etc.). Further functions identified
are leisure and cooking (preparing food) which are overlapping with work
because when the crew is not working, they use their time to cook, eat,
exercise, talk, or read (leisure). Finally, shower and toilet are overlapping
but can be temporarily separated (when different users use different
functions). The resulting bubble diagram for the day and for the night is
depicted in Fig. 8.

3.2.1. Step 4: overlay

The day and night bubble diagrams were then overlayed as can be
seen in Fig. 9. This overlay shows the overlap in functions but most
importantly indicates when the functions should alternate. This alter­
nation of functions directly relates to the adjustable and versatile
adaptability dimensions from Table 1 and can be addressed by designing
adjustable features such as changing furniture or versatile spaces such as
a room which can be used for both eating and leisure depending on the
time of day.
This process of adjustable and flexible spaces is not novel but asso­
ciating these design strategies with specific rhythms and mapping the
functions with the extra dimension of time allows translation of inputs
into an architectural form. To demonstrate this process, a shape was
drawn around the bubble diagram overlay to start step 5 of the process.
This shape starts to resemble a dome which is an architectural form often
Fig. 5. Some of the environmental rhythms (pressure and H2O ice layer) in
used in (space) architecture due to its efficient structural properties
more details. Data gathered from Mars Climate Database and published
[37].
in Ref. [37].

3.2.2. Step 5: architectural design

data was available or that some parameters are static (i.e. no rhythmic
Using the overlay diagram and multiple design iterations, it was
changes). The rhythms that could be identified were mostly occurring
found that the Rhythmic Bubble Diagram is a good starting point for a
daily (eight daily rhythms were identified for the parameters of daylight,
section. This is due to the dome shape it creates but also the placement of
temperature, resources, speciality functions, clothing, legislation, ther­
ECLSS as its own storey above the other functions. This layout allows
modynamics and sensory). The static aspects of the sustainability
connections to each of the rooms whilst protecting the rooms from ra­
context are also important to design a habitat, however, the scope of this
diation as most radiation comes from the top.1 This leads to a two-storey
research lies in the rhythmic changes that occur in extreme environ­
dome shaped habitat with three main rooms (see Figure 10 for the
ments and how adaptability can enable designs that respond to those
development of the overlayed drawings into a section and architectural
changes.
design). The sleeping quarters and the bathroom on the sides, and the

3.1.2. Step 2: mapping the schedules

The Schedule Tool was used twice, both for the daily schedule of the 1
This is due to the location of Jezero Crater near the equator. Radiation can
crew and for the mission rhythm given that the mission has a targeted be compared to solar radiation on Earth in terms of direction and thus the ra­
end but will pave the way for future missions (see Fig. 7 for both diation intensity is higher on top of the habitat.

768
L. van Ellen et al. Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

Fig. 6. Mapping the rhythms using the Framework from Ref. [32] to analyse the rhythms occurring at Jezero Crater for a crew of four.

Fig. 7. Daily and Mission rhythm emerging from societal aspects of the Framework. Schedule Tool for daily rhythms (adapted from Ref. [35]), and mission schedule
following the DRA 5.0 mission.

main living quarters which host the kitchen, workspace (benches, lab Material Catalogue was developed which consists of a series of criteria to
equipment, etc.), exercise space, eating, and overall leisure space, situ­ match materials to the contextual rhythms. These materials address the
ated centrally. These are a lot of functions for one room and as space is technical and smallest scale on the adaptability dimensions: responsive,
scarce in the habitat, the infill should be flexible to the schedule. dynamic, and adjustable. The Material Catalogue is unique as it char­
acterises how responsive materials are. Materials are responsive to a
3.2.3. Technical design: materials and manufacturing range of stimuli such as changes in humidity or temperature; and the
To address the challenges of onsite manufacturing and assembly, a responses also vary with, for example, materials shrinking or expanding

769
L. van Ellen et al. Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

Fig. 8. Function mapping of the Rhythmic Martian habitat using the bubble diagram.

Fig. 9. Overlay of the day and night bubble diagrams and first step into designing.

Fig. 10. Design of a Martian habitat using the design tools.

at cellular levels. An example, is how wood can shrink and expand in need for new raw materials and bespoke maintenance tools As outlined
responses to changes in humidity which can be used to design elements in the introduction, bringing bulk materials to the surface of Mars is not
that open and close depending on the weather [41]. For Mars and space economically and technically feasible and ISRU is the only viable option
in general, self-healing properties in responses to stimuli is particularly [42]. Therefore, only materials already present on Mars can be used to
relevant as the structure can independently maintain itself without the build the bulk of the structure. These materials are regolith (various

770
L. van Ellen et al. Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

grades), ice containing salts (found underneath the regolith), and ther­ change in tasks. The design is also scalable as it is modular and can be
moplastics (which could either be fabricated from mission recyclables or expanded or even decreased depending on the mission rhythm as the
created from the Martian atmosphere following Sabatier and modified structure of the ice habitat responds to the local environment. The
Fischer Tropsch reactions [43]). The responsive properties of these three choice of material allows the habitat to self-heal daily and enables the
materials and the stimuli triggering these types of responsiveness were circadian rhythm of the crew whilst also allowing the habitat to protect
collected in Table 2 as they were not found in existing materials the crew during their mission against radiation, after which the habitat
factsheets. can sublimate into the Martian atmosphere. The design is refit-able to
The table shows that ice responds to more stimuli (both temperature changes in performance as it is built using local resources and remotely
fluctuations and pressure changes) and responds to those with four controlled, allowing for changes based on latest research. The design
different types of responsiveness. Hence, the responsiveness properties reflects the changes in functions from day to night by having convertible
of this material was analysed in more detail looking at the frequency, spaces such as the main room which acts as laboratory and workspace as
reaction speed, and reversibility. To find the properties of ice for the use well as breakroom and cooking space.
on Mars, data from a previous study [37] was used, in particular on NaCl
ice composites. Ice can self-heal or self-repair within minutes when the 5. Expanding - interactive workshop
changes in temperature occur at a similar rate. This is due to the liquid
phase of the material entering potential cracks and upon being exposed There are still many unknowns in this case study as the context
to extremely low temperatures (− 80 ◦ C), solidifying and expanding pushes for more innovative solutions. As the author has previous expe­
[37]. Self-healing properties are relevant for any material exposed to rience designing for space habitats, a follow-up study was performed
weathering. In the case of Mars, weathering can be harsh as asking participants from an interdisciplinary multi-cultural background
micro-meteorites are more abundant than on Earth [44]. to imagine their own habitat for Mars using the Rhythmic Toolbox. The
Hence, the ice composite can be seen as a phase change material. A participants were members of the public from an open day at the
phase change material (PCM) is a material that releases or absorbs en­ Summer Space Festival (SSF) in Brussels in June 2022 who have an in­
ergy during its phase transition [45]. For H2O, changes in state are terest in space. The participants were not recruited for the workshop as
dependent not only on temperature but also pressure. The pressure on the public was invited to participate in the session entitled “Martian
Mars is significantly lower than on Earth (around 600–630 Pa), which Habitats: architectural speculations”.
affects the ice composites much more than on Earth as these pressures The speculative study was targeted to:
are in close range of the triple point.2 This means that changing between
phases costs little energy and can be induced by the local environment, a) showcase the variety still possible in designs, even when using the
however it should be noted that the ice will, on top of repairing itself, same context and Toolbox,
also slowly sublimate [37] and is therefore only useful as material for a b) gain feedback on the Toolbox using a public audience (i.e. in­
short term mission. These properties would enable the ice composite to dividuals without a research or architectural background) to high­
be malleable and therefore the structure could be manufactured using light the limitations of the tool and determine next steps in its
additive manufacturing. Two studies [37,46] have looked at various development
additive manufacturing techniques to create an ice dome that will host a
crew of four on Mars using robotics for in-situ mining, transporting, and These targets are the first step into expanding the Toolbox beyond
assembly of the dome. the research presented in this paper to have a bigger impact. The
Additionally, ice needs a mould, and the moulding technique affects workshop started with a 10 min presentation on space architecture, an
the ice composition and therefore its structural and mechanical prop­ overview of the Rhythmic Toolbox, and finished with a few examples of
erties. However, if the mould remains constant, the process is reversible Martian architecture such as the Mars X House [47]. After this, the
[37] and could be infinite. These are based on assumptions of H2O ice as audience received an A3 sheet containing facts about Mars, the schedule
there is no study looking at the frequency of change for (NaCl) ice. of the crew, and the Rhythmic Bubble Diagram key (these can be seen on
the upper left side of Fig. 11). There was a large blank area for the
4. Results audience to start designing their own Martian habitat, with space for
multiple drawings, the title of the project, and participant’s name, age,
The resulting Rhythmic Martian Habitat is designed to adjust to the and profession (if they wished to share it). Individual participants were
daily rhythms of the context but also the mission rhythm. The habitat is invited to speculate and draw their own Martian habitat (15 min were
a dome structurally composed of two layers of locally mined NaCl ice allocated) using the Toolbox provided. In total, five designs (see Ap­
and separated from its two indoor levels with highly insulative trans­ pendix) were returned (via email and to the event organisers). The
lucent aerogel. The core of the habitat would have to be encapsulated numbers of participants was low but the resulting speculations show a
with an inflatable membrane to maintain pressure inside the dome and wide range of approaches to design and demonstrate creative outputs.
to host the aerogel layer as ice is not suitable for that purpose. This Fig. 11 shows a simplified drawing of all five entries highlighting
means that the habitat would be a hybrid design between Class II and III, their use of the Rhythmic Toolbox and the resulting designs. Each entry
using both ISRU (i.e. the ice) and elements manufactured on Earth and is randomly assigned to a letter to facilitate the analysis communication.
landed onsite (i.e. the membrane and robotics). All inputs show the function of each space as either a drawn plan, a
The resulting ground level hosts most of the crew’s functional section, or using the Rhythmic Bubble Diagram or all. The functions
quarters while the upper level hosts the ECLSS (including a greenhouse). from the Schedule Tool were used but most participants added other
The ground level consists of three main rooms, separated crew quarters functions as well such as the “abri” (participant C), meaning shelter in
for sleeping, a separated bathroom, and a main room where most daily French, which was discussed when the audience asked about SPE or
activities are held. This room not only has alternating functions, but also “hydroponic cultures” for food by participant D. Participant A designed
juxtaposed functions when two crew members are on break whilst the the Ice Mars Camp where the bubble diagram was used on the left corner
other two are working. This results in a design that is adjustable to the and then used to design a plan, while others overlayed their designs with
the initial Rhythmic Bubble Diagram (participants B and D). It is inter­
esting to note that none of the participants made multiple bubble dia­
2
The triple point is the temperature and pressure point at which the material grams, hence the rhythmic and adaptable aspect was not well
is in equilibrium between all three states: liquid, gas and solid. For H2O that is represented. Participant E added their own extra parameters of tem­
at 0,01 ◦ C and 611,657 Pa. perature fluctuations (represented by arrows) which guided the design

771
L. van Ellen et al. Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

Table 2
Responsiveness types (a to j) for Martian resources in response to stimuli (dark = material responds to stimuli; light
grey = material only partially responds to stimuli).

for alternating rooms depending on the temperature changes, which is in study and we advise future studies to elaborate on these dimensions.
line with the Rhythmic Buildings strategy. The sheets shows the variety Follow-up studies should focus on these dimensions and also include
in interpretations of the Toolbox -such as drawing separate steps how they might relate to habitats classifications as some adaptability
(participant A), overlaying them (participants B, D, and C to some dimensions directly relate to onsite assembly as seen from the BEAM
extent), or even expanding and using their own methods (participant E). example.
The sheets also show the variety in design as each individual focussed on The Rhythmic Toolbox could be elaborated on the other dimensions
different aspects of the context which influenced their designs. Indeed, a but the responsive dimension is well addressed as this small scale is
focus on technical aspects is shown in participants D and E, while intrinsically linked to materials and thus the Materials Catalogue. The
participant A focussed on other elements of space travels, and partici­ innovative approach to mapping materials based on their responsiveness
pant B on the need for views to the outside, and participant C drew the types and stimuli enabled the selection of a peculiar material: ice. This
same functions three times. material choice is distinctively different than most other design for a
Martian habitat which utilize the regolith instead [47–49]. Even though
6. Discussion and conclusions the ice is highly responsive to the Martian environment, more criteria
should be addressed in terms of long-term sustainability of using this
The main conclusions of the study are that the Rhythmic Buildings material. Indeed, although studies show that ice reinforced with NaCl
strategy can be successfully applied to a transplanetary case study and exhibit great compressive strength [42], the ice still needs to be mined
that the resulting design is adaptive to its context, especially on the and processed (onsite) under specific conditions in order to create the
responsive dimension. Indeed, the location has the right stimuli at the right types of crystals for great compressive strength. This process also
right frequency to enable the ice to self-heal when impacted by micro- requires quite a high amount of energy and relies on many assumptions
meteorites. The analysis of crew schedules and activities and mission on the behaviour of ice composites in an alien location. Hence, we
timeline also enable an adjustable and scalable design with the oppor­ suggest adding sustainability criteria to the table as well as general
tunity to build future modules to host a second crew to respond to the material properties used in architectural engineering such as mechanical
political rhythms. The case study shows that the habitat design makes and physical properties to not only assess the responsiveness of the
best use out of the daily temperature and daylight rhythms at Jezero materials, but all of the criteria needed to design transplanetary rhyth­
crater, as using an ice structure at that location means that the structure mic habitats.
repairs itself from potential micro-meteorite impacts daily and is also The assembly and manufacturing challenge influenced the choice of
translucent allowing daylight to enter the habitat. This technically material. Ice structures can theoretically be assembled via automated
efficient habitat therefore also addresses comfort demands of the crew in additive manufacturing, however only one demonstration has been
regulating their circadian rhythm.3 However, the larger dimensions found which is printing an ice composite (from its liquid form to solid
such as the movable dimension were not directly addressed in this case form) layer by layer [37]. The self-healing properties of the ice com­
posite means that the structure could repair itself using the environ­
mental changes (low versus extremely low temperatures and pressure
3
The circadian rhythm is critical in regulating sleep/wake cycles. This fluctuations). However, to assess the automation capabilities for larger
rhythm is triggered mostly by daylight intensity and colour changing daily. One repairs or expansions to the structure, additional material experiments
day on Mars is roughly the same length as one day on Earth, hence, having a are necessary. These experiments should be carried out in analogue
similar daylight pattern in the habitat would benefit the circadian rhythm of the environments to understand the behaviour of the materials in such
crew [1].

772
L. van Ellen et al. Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

Fig. 11. Analysis of the A3 sheets returned by the individual participant’s to the SSF workshop.

773
L. van Ellen et al. Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

extreme conditions and populate the Material Catalogue, this will not Rhythmic Toolbox works on a speculative long-term mission and how
only inform this design but the design of any infrastructure using ISRU these tools can be used by individuals with multidisciplinary back­
on Mars. grounds. To further integrate the rhythms will become increasingly
Emerging from this conclusion, future research should find materials more difficult as the inputs increase and more outputs are to be ex­
that respond to the rhythms of the Martian context and are technically pected. To address this complexity, we suggest the next iteration of the
feasible. These materials should be either found locally or be compact tools could be automated. In particular, many bubble diagrams could be
and lightweight, and they should be capable of self-assembly and have generated using a large dataset of rhythmic inputs which could then also
self-healing properties which are triggered by stimuli matching the enable some design freedom for space architects.
rhythms of the context – in this case meaning that self-assembly and self- This novel strategy to designing for adaptability presents great op­
healing should be triggered by either changes in pressure, temperature, portunities for terrestrial architecture as our environment becomes more
daylight, energy, or any combinations of these stimuli. The Framework extreme as a result of climate change. The strategy aims at not only
provides an overview of the frequency at which these stimuli rhythms responding to the rhythms of the context but also utilize the context to
occur at Jezero Crater which will be used to match with newly devel­ maximise efficiency and ISRU. Therefore, the Rhythmic Buildings
oped materials. Recent developments in biomimicry, biomaterials, and strategy not only enables adaptability in transplanetary habitats, but it
biotechnology suggest that using organisms or living materials could could also enable adaptability on Earth. Hence, this paper presents a
enable responsive and growing materials for space architecture appli­ novel adaptability strategy including analytical, design, and technical
cations [50]. For example, mycelium (the root network of fungi) has tools to design adaptable transplanetary habitats.
been suggested as a novel material for a Martian habitat that would grow
onsite to create its own structures or act as binder for regolith structures Declaration of competing interest
[51] and this study [52] also shows its self-healing properties.
It is important to note that space architecture research also includes The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
studies of human adaptability to space environments but that the focus interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
of this paper lies on adaptability strategies for transplanetary habitats, the work reported in this paper.
not on adaptive human physiology. Such studies can be found here [49,
53]. The importance of integrating sustainable food supplies into space Acknowledgements
architectural design has gained much research interest [24,54] and is
relevant for an increasingly extreme built environment on Earth as well. This research is funded by Research England’s Expanding Excellence
We suggest that next studies on the Rhythmic Buildings strategy for in England (E3) Fund as part of the Hub for Biotechnology in the Built
transplanetary habitats should include sustainable food supplies as part environment (HBBE), and supported by the research group Bio-Futures
of an enclosed ecosystems for habitats within the design process as for Transplanetary Habitats. The authors would like to thank all the
either a new tool or integrated within the technological tools. participants and organisers of the Summer Space Festival 2022 work­
The presented case study adapts to its location and shows how the shop in Brussels.

Appendix

Results from the speculative Martian Base Interactive Workshop during the Summer Space Festival in Brussels (BE) on June 25, 2022 described in
section 5.

774
L. van Ellen et al. Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

Fig. 12. Sheet from participant A from the SSF workshop.

775
L. van Ellen et al. Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

Fig. 13. Sheet from participant B from the SSF workshop.

776
L. van Ellen et al. Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

Fig. 14. Sheet from participant C from the SSF workshop.

777
L. van Ellen et al. Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

Fig. 15. Sheet from participant D from the SSF workshop.

778
L. van Ellen et al. Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

Fig. 16. Sheet from participant E from the SSF workshop.

References [15] Sierra Space, LIFE Habitat [Online]. Available: https://www.sierraspace.com/s

pace-destinations/life-space-habitat/, 2023 [Accessed: 10-Apr-2023].
[16] Spartan Space, “EuroHab,” 2023. [Online]. Available: https://spartan-space.
[1] L. van Ellen, Hybrid habitat for Mars: creating comfort with light, in: Proc. Int.
com/#:~:text=Spartan Space is a startup,Underwater Engineers%2C Astronauts
Astronaut. Congr. IAC, vol. 2019, 2019.
and Architects. [Accessed: 10-Apr-2023].
[2] M. Brandić Lipińska, L. van Ellen, V. Damann, Senses as drivers for space habitats
[17] B. Khoshnevis, X. Yuan, B. Zahiri, J. Zhang, B. Xia, Construction by Contour
design in microgravity, in: 50th International Conference on Environmental
Crafting Using Sulfur Concrete with Planetary Applications, 2016.
Systems, 2021.
[18] M. Brandić Lipińska, et al., PAVER - contextualizing laser sintering within a lunar
[3] N. Kanas, et al., High versus low crewmember autonomy during a 105-day Mars
technology roadmap, in: 73rd International Astronautical Congress, 2022.
simulation mission, Acta Astronaut. 69 (5–6) (2011) 240–244.
[19] K.W. Farries, P. Visintin, S.T. Smith, P. Van Eyk, Sintered or melted regolith for
[4] E. Messerschmid, R. Bertrand, Space Stations, Environmental Control and Life
lunar construction : state-of-the-art review and future research directions,
Support System, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 1999.
Construct. Build. Mater. 296 (2021), 123627.
[5] S. Häuplik-Meusburger, O. Bannova, Space Architecture Education for Engineers
[20] M.Z. Naser, A.I. Chehab, Materials and design concepts for space-resilient
and Architects, 2016.
structures, Prog. Aero. Sci. 98 (2018) 74–90.
[6] B. Imhof, An Architectural Approach to the Design of a Long Duration Human
[21] A. Waring, Practical Systems Thinking, Cengage Learning EMEA, 1996.
Space Mission, Vienna University of Technology, 2006.
[22] M.J. Kayatin, D.L. Carter, R.G. Schunk, J.M. Pruitt, N. George, C.M. Space,
[7] N. Kanas, Psychosocial stressors in space and in space analogs, in: Humans in
Upgrades to the ISS Water Recovery System, 2016, pp. 1–20.
Space, Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2015, pp. 3–15.
[23] J. Walker, C. Granjou, MELiSSA the minimal biosphere: human life, waste and
[8] J.P. De Vera, et al., Limits of life and the habitability of Mars: the ESA space
refuge in deep space, Futures 92 (2017) 59–69.
experiment BIOMEX on the ISS, Astrobiology 19 (2) (2019) 145–157.
[24] V. Maiwald, et al., From ice to space: a greenhouse design for Moon or Mars based
[9] I.L. Schlacht, Space Habilitability - Integrating Human Factors into the Design
on a prototype deployed in Antarctica, CEAS Sp. J. 13 (1) (2021) 17–37.
Process to Enhance Habitability in Long Duration Missions, 2012, p. 295.
[25] J.C. Mankins, Technology Readiness Levels: A White Paper,”, 1995.
[10] V. Netti, V. Netti, O. Bannova, “Space architecture : designing beyond the sky space
[26] J.-F. Clervoy, O. Bannova, Rethinking the Sustainability and Inclusiveness of Space
architecture, in: Designing beyond the Sky Tutorial Moby Dick Space Architecture,
Exploration through the Design of Space Habitats, 2021.
Progettare oltre il cielo, 2021.
[27] N. Alders, Adaptive Thermal Comfort Opportunities for Dwellings: Providing
[11] S.C. Patané, E.R. Joyce, M.P. Snyder, P. Shestople, Archinaut: in-space
Thermal Comfort Only when and where Needed in Dwellings in the Netherlands,
manufacturing and assembly for next-generation space habitats, AIAA Sp.
13, 2016.
Astronaut. Forum Expo. Sp. 2017 (2017) 1–10.
[28] F. Nicol, M. Humphreys, S. Roaf, Adaptive Thermal Comfort: Principles and
[12] S. Häuplik-Meusburger, O. Bannova, Space Architecture Education for Engineers
Practice, vol. 53, no. 9, 2013.
and Architects: Designing and Planning beyond Earth, Springer, Cham, 2016.
[29] S. Roaf, M. Fuentes, S. Thomas-Rees, Ecohouse: a Design Guide, fourth ed.,
[13] D. Hartl, R. Malak, COMPUTATIONAL DESIGN OF A RECONFIGURABLE ORIGAMI
Routledge, 2013.
SPACE, 2012.
[30] B. Geldermans, M. Tenpierik, P. Luscuere, Circular and flexible infill concepts:
[14] N. Wells, Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) ISS Year-Three Technology
integration of the residential user perspective, Sustain. Times 11 (1) (2019).
Demonstration, Utilization, and Potential Future Applications, 2018, pp. 1–33.

779
L. van Ellen et al. Acta Astronautica 211 (2023) 764–780

[31] B. Geldermans, M. Tenpierik, P. Luscuere, Circular and flexible indoor partitioning- [44] A.G. Tomkins, et al., High survivability of micrometeorites on Mars: sites with
a design conceptualization of innovative materials and value chains, Buildings 9 enhanced availability of limiting nutrients, J. Geophys. Res. Planets 124 (7) (2019)
(9) (2019). 1802–1818.
[32] L. van Ellen, B. Bridgens, N. Burford, O. Heidrich, Rhythmic buildings: a [45] Z. Liu, et al., A review on macro-encapsulated phase change material for building
framework for sustainable adaptable architecture, Build. Environ. 203 (2021), envelope applications, Build. Environ. 144 (2018) 281–294.
108068. [46] M. Morris, et al., Mars Ice House: Using the Physics of Phase Change in 3D Printing
[33] J.M. Kamara, O. Heidrich, V.E. Tafaro, S. Maltese, M.C. Dejaco, F. Re Cecconi, a Habitat with H2O, vol. Session, AIAA, 2016.
Change factors and the adaptability of buildings, Sustain. Times 12 (16) (2020). [47] M. Yashar, C. Ciardullo, M. Morris, R. Pailes-Friedman, R. Moses, D. Case, Mars X-
[34] SAGA, LUNARK: A Moon Habitat Analog, 2022. house: design principles for an autonomously 3D-printed ISRU surface habitat,
[35] S. Häuplik-Meusburger, Architecture for Astronauts, Springer-Verlag Wien, 2011. 49th Int. Conf. Environ. Syst. (2019) 1–20.
[36] B. Leupen, C. Grafe, N. Körnig, M. Lampe, P. Zeeuw de, Ontwerpen en Analyse, [48] C. van der Werf, Building on Mars: an evolvable design strategy for the
seventh ed., 2010. Rotterdam: 010. architectural engineer, TU Delft (2017).
[37] L. van Ellen, Building on Mars - research on in-situ resources utilisation (ISRU) for [49] C. McCormack, O. Bannova, S. Bishop, J.D. Camba, Designing for maximum
a sustainable habitat, TU Delft (2018). adaptability before, during and after spaceflight, in: Proc. Int. Astronaut. Congr.
[38] I.G. Usoskin, G.A. Kovaltsov, Occurrence of extreme solar particle events: IAC, vol. 18, 2017, pp. 12224–12230.
assessment from historical proxy data, Astrophys. J. 757 (1) (2012). [50] L. van Ellen, A.-S. Belling, M. Brandić Lipińska, P. Nerlich, Bio-futures for
[39] C.A. Piantadosi, The Biology of Human Survival: Life and Death in Extreme transplanetary habitats - a summary and key outcomes from the 2022 symposium,
Environments, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2003. in: 73rd International Astronautical Congress (IAC), 2022.
[40] NASA, Human Exploration of Mars: Design Reference Architecture 5.0, Texas, [51] M. Brandić Lipińska, et al., Biological growth as an alternative approach to on and
2009. off-earth construction, vol. 8, Front. Built Environ. (2022), https://doi.org/10.338
[41] T. Arends, L. Pel, H.P. Huinink, Hygromorphic response dynamics of oak: towards 9/fbuil.2022.965145.
accelerated material characterization, Mater. Struct. Constr. 50 (3) (2017) 1–16. [52] E. Elsacker, M. Zhang, and M. Dade-robertson“Fungal Engineered Living Materials
[42] L. van Ellen, D. Peck, Use of in situ ice to build a sustainable radiation shielding : the Viability of Pure Mycelium Materials with Self-Healing Functionalities.”.
habitat on Mars, in: Proc. Int. Astronaut. Congr. IAC, vol. 2018, 2018. [53] P. Gruber, A. Vermeulen, C. Yönetim, B. Imhof, Explorative growth for art and
[43] M. Flynn, In-situ production of high density polyethylene and other useful architecture, in: A. Adamatzky (Ed.), Slime Mould in Arts and Architecture, River
materials on Mars, in: 35th International Conference on Environmental Systems, Publisher, Bristol, 2019, pp. 149–170.
2005. [54] NASA and CSA, Deep Space Food Challenge. https://www.deepspacefoodchall
enge.org/challenge, 2021.

780