Application paper

Decarbonizing shipping
How Norway is setting the pace
for vessel electrification at scale

drives.danfoss.com
 Abstract
At Danfoss Drives we work every day in marine decarbonization. We operate in
many countries with diverse stakeholders: policy makers, shipbuilders, OEMs, system
integrators and not least, vessel owners. We would like to spread awareness of the main
factors influencing success and therefore this paper looks at three key issues in marine
decarbonization, seen from the perspective of Danfoss Drives.

The first section examines vessel electrification in terms of Energy Storage Systems (ESS),
mainly in the form of Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS). We look at the strengths of
BESS including primary economic and environmental benefits. In the second section, we
investigate the Norwegian experience to understand the background for its achievements.
Norway is widely recognized as by far the most successful nation in electrification of ships.
We also look briefly at the experience of other countries. Lastly, we close with case studies
from Danfoss’ experience in vessel electrification projects. The third section deals with
issues related to but beyond BESS. We review the three primary fuels hydrogen, methanol,
and ammonia. Finally, we comment on the relation between fuel cells and batteries, and
discuss shore power.

Contents
1. Introduction..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3
2. Why is ESS taking off in marine?..............................................................................................................................................................................................................4
3. The technology exists and it is mature enough to scale up...................................................................................................................................................6
4. But the future is not only electric......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
5. Concluding remarks..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16

2 Danfoss Drives · BE443631450584en-000101

1. Introduction
The volume of ocean shipping has Shipping was the last industry to arrive The shipping industry is now part
grown 175% since 1990 [0] and now at the climate change discussions of that gigantic transition process.
accounts for about 80% of goods - even later than aviation, another Healthy competition between the
transport, worldwide. Therefore, marine hard-to-abate sector. That is why the green fuels of the future is already
decarbonization has the greatest pressure to decarbonize seems so flourishing in full force. Hydrogen,
influence of all when reducing global overwhelming. It is not only a demand methanol, and ammonia are among
emissions from freight. by governments but also by some of the top contenders. No matter the
the largest shippers such as IKEA, Nike, energy sources which prevail, it is
The International Maritime Nestle, and Tesla. Civil society groups undeniable that battery storage
Organization (IMO) wants to reduce are also demanding change, with the and electric power are already an
GHG emissions from shipping by at youth around the Fridays for the Future indispensable part of the solution.
least 50 percent by 2050 compared movement being the most vocal. Batteries are already integrated into
to 2008. However, the ambition of the fully electric vessels and form part of
European Parliament is much higher: By developing state-of-the-art hybrid propulsion solutions.
at least 40% reduction in less than ten equipment for electrical applications,
years (2030). And the Getting to Zero we at Danfoss are contributing to
Coalition aims to have commercially the massive energy transition away
viable zero-emission vessels (ZEVs) from fossil fuels. We are convinced
operating along deep-sea trade by that in the future, the only sources of
2030. electricity will be wind, solar, or other
renewable sources. Nationwide grids
will always exist, but they will become
greener over time.

Transport volume of seaborne trade from 1990 to 2021

(in billion tons loaded)

12
Transport volume in billion tons loaded

10
8
6
4

1990 2000 2010 2021

Transport volume of seaborne trade, 1990-2021. Source: Statista

Danfoss Drives · BE443631450584en-000101 3

 2. Why is energy storage taking
off in marine?
The Maritime Battery Forum (MBF) has increased to an average capacity An energy storage system (ESS) stores
keeps a detailed register of battery- of 1.2 MWh per ship over the last four energy to supply electrical energy
powered ships, and identifies three years. The vessels with the largest later. Battery energy storage systems
recent periods in the expansion of battery systems are container ships, (BESS) are is the most common type of
battery power to vessels. These periods Ro-Ro, Ro-Pax, and cruise ships. And ESS, followed by flywheels (FESS) and
are the early years (1998–2013), the largest system installed in mid- supercapacitors (SESS), among other
the second generation of ships 2022 has a capacity of 10 MWh. alternatives.
(2014–2018), and the current period
(2019–2022) [1]. The salient features of Another trend is the predominance A current trend is to set up an ESS
the latter period are use of batteries of hybrid vessels, including plug-in on board, in a 20-foot container (or
in a wider range of vessel types and hybrids, over pure electric vessels. other sizes if needed). The container
the increasing size of these battery The expansion of shore power is accommodates all the required
systems. Installations are taking place reinforcing this trend. Regarding equipment, such as batteries, power
in all types of vessels, from offshore trends in battery types, the Maritime converters, transformers, battery
supply vessels to cargo vessels such Battery Forum says that Lithium-nickel- monitoring system, HVAC, fire
as container ships, bulk carriers, and manganese-cobalt oxide (NMC) has detection, and firefighting system.
tankers. And from fishing vessels and become the preferred Lithium-ion An ESS has important economic and
fish farm support vessels to cruise ships chemistry for ships. However, there environmental benefits. In the next
and ferries. The size of battery systems could be a challenge to NMC from two sections, we look at these benefits.
lithium-titanium-oxide (LTO) batteries
coming up.

DC Switchboard
Port

Battery

M M M

Bow Thruster Main Stern

Vessel Propulsion Thruster

Shore

PowerDock
Charging Station

AC Supply

Schematic diagram illustrating part of Future of The Fjords’ electric propulsion with battery energy storage and charging system [2]

4 Danfoss Drives · BE443631450584en-000101

2.1 The environmental benefits of ESS
The main environmental benefits better name—”Future of The Fjords.” [2] the world-first floating PowerDock
of an ESS are not only emission I would like to highlight the three main was set in operation to supply energy
reduction, but also less vibration environmental benefits of such a ferry. to the vessel at each stop. The vessel
and noise. There is an ESS is at the receives energy from the dock via two
heart of every hybrid propulsion First, “electric propulsion is almost charging cables, each delivering up to
system. Compared to traditional silent and is far quieter than any 1.2 MW. A reliable clean energy supply
technologies, hybrid propulsion other technology available today.” The is no problem in the Norwegian fjords
optimizes engine performance and fjords are popular tourist destinations because the country already has an
cuts fuel consumption, resulting in and therefore also highly vulnerable overcapacity of renewable energy.
lower emissions of all types (CO2, NOx, destinations. Silence on board is good
SOx, VOC, PM, and more). This emission for the crew and passengers, who Third, although energy for hotel
reduction contributes to climate can appreciate and enjoy the view load amounts only “to 30-35 kW,
change mitigation at the global level in peace. The noise reduction is also equivalent to about 3-4% of the energy
and brings down air pollution in kinder and less disruptive to the natural consumption on board,” the vessel
ports and coastal areas. Using electric environment. Towns around the fjords optimizes energy consumption by
power for propulsion or hotel load are also happier with the tourist traffic. using LED lighting and heat pumps/
when berthed reduces vibration and Strict regulations are already enforced heat recovery and having insulated
noise, making the life of seafarers in Norway for sightseeing vessels, but outer bulkheads to minimize heat loss.
more comfortable and ensuring lower the “Future of The Fjords” surpasses Another environmental advantage of
impact on sea life. them all, as it is designed to fulfil the the “Future of The Fjords” (not related
2026 regulations. to the ESS) is its low weight and
These are the benefits of ESS in a efficient hull design, which “prevent
nutshell. However, no explanation is Second, “the concept PowerDock wash induced shoreline erosion.” This
better than a case study, and since was set in operation for the supply of is important for protection of beaches
Norway is a world leader in marine energy” to the vessel. Since the local along Naeroyfjord and the adjacent
electrification, we illustrate the benefits grid in Flam (the home port) cannot Flamsfjord. In recent decades, ferries
of installing ESS on board ships with a provide enough energy to recharge and especially cruise ships with their
Norwegian example: a vessel owned the vessel during its 20-minute large size, have caused coastal erosion
by Brodrene Aa that could not have a stopover at the quay between trips, when the waves they create have hit
the beach.

2.2 The economic benefits of ESS

The main economic benefits of an Since the quality of batteries improves equivalent distance is the stretch from
ESS are the reductions it generates in every year while prices simultaneously Algeciras in Spain to Genoa in Italy
CAPEX and OPEX. A BESS can replace decrease, we take a forward-looking (1,572 km).
generators powered by fuels, and view of total cost of ownership (TCO),
sometimes, scrubbers or catalytic rather than examining studies made When environmental costs were taken
converters can be eliminated. In the in the past. A study that received into consideration (for example, carbon
long term. However, the greatest coverage by one of the top scientific tax), the profitable range increases to
reduction is seen in operating costs magazines, Nature, presented some about 5,000 km. This distance is further
because bunker fuel is the most astonishing numbers and information. than the extent of the Mediterranean
substantial operating cost in a vessel. The title already suggests the Sea, which reaches 3,547 km from
The operating cost reduction due conclusion: “Rapid battery cost declines Algeciras to Port Said.
to fuel replacement applies not accelerate the prospects of all-electric
only when the vessel is in transit interregional container shipping” [3]. The authors, however, argue, as the
but also when it is maneuvering, The authors claim that “battery-electric title indicates, that battery costs
anchored, or berthed. Besides, the ships powered by renewable electricity are declining rapidly. They claim: “If
more environmentally friendly vessels offer a near-term pathway to cut batteries achieve a 50 USD per kWh
increasingly have a competitive shipping emissions over intraregional price point, the economical range
advantage: with shippers, for cargo and inland routes.” They demonstrate nearly doubles.” That is why they boldly
vessels, and passengers, for cruise ships that at battery prices of 100 USD state that electrification can take place
and ferries. per kWh, electric powered short- in “over 40% of global container ship
sea shipping of less than 1,500 km traffic” already this decade.
becomes economical. A land-based

Danfoss Drives · BE443631450584en-000101 5

 3. The technology exists and it is mature
enough to scale up
Although not many years have the US, Germany or China, or there What has been done in Norway that
passed since BESS began to be is no clear dominance with several enables such a performance? Are those
installed on board ships and since countries disputing the leadership, in policies replicable to other countries of
hybrid propulsion has become one of the field of ESS and hybrid propulsion, the word? What exactly do we mean
buzzwords in the maritime industry the first spot is unquestionable. by the second part of the equation,
due to its great benefits (more about According to the registries of the hybrid propulsion? And are there some
this below), both technologies have Maritime Battery Forum almost half of case studies from our own experience
matured and are scaling up. The trend all the battery powered ships were in at Danfoss?
is towards bigger BESS, achieveable mid-2022 operating in Norway. That
due to the modularity of these devices, figure is almost double of the around
and the hybridization of vessels, either 25% of ships operating in the rest of
as new-build or retrofit. Europe. Asia has a share of 14%, and
the Americas, mainly North America)
And here is where one must look at barely have 8%. The rest (about 4%)
the top leading country in the world: operate globally[1].
Norway. While in most fields the
dominance is by large economies like

NORWAY 50%
EU 25%
ASIA 14%
AMERICAS 8%
REST OF WORLD 4%

Proportion of battery powered vessels operating worldwide, by country.

Source: “Current Status of Maritime Batteries and Future Outlook”, Syb ten Cate Hoedemaker, Maritime Battery Forum, 2022

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3.1 The Norwegian success
The Norwegian case has not been in helping market creation. The market Fourth, a crisis, the fall in oil prices in
analysed thoroughly because it is a creation in pursuit of zero or low 2014, accelerated the electrification of
recent process. Surely in some years emissions ferries started in 2011 when ferries. The positive impact on the ferry
there will be different interpretations NPRA launched the first tender (the so- industry was not a direct consequence
of how such a small country was able called Ampere tender after the name of falling oil prices, because in that
to overtake much bigger countries, of the first vessel). Such a process was case ferries would have preferred to
particularly other European countries reinforced with the ambitious climate continue operating with a dirty but
that are also following ambitious targets established by the government, cheaper fuel.
decarbonization strategies. guaranteeing that the private sector,
in this case the ferry companies, The impact was indirect and shipyards
The best explanation one has at the would have a sizeable market. The formed intermediary links in the
moment is the one provided by Rostad author also sees Enova, the Norwegian chain. The fall in oil prices severely
Saether in his paper: “A green maritime climate and energy support agency, impacted one of the most important
shift: Lessons from the electrification not as a bureaucratic institution but shipping sectors in Norway: the
of ferries in Norway” [4]. He argues as “an integral part of the innovation offshore supply vessels (OSV), which
that four critical factors explain the systems [that] support and accelerate represented most of the order book
country’s success: a national culture market creation and transformation.” for Norwegian shipyards. Due to the
of innovation, an entrepreneurial Concerning ferries, Enova offers oil crash, many orders were cancelled
behaviour of the state, lack of generous support, which can reach up and therefore shipyards supported
resistance from established interests, to a maximum of 40% of the cost. heavily the government policy for the
and the fall of oil prices in 2014. Let’s construction of zero or low emissions
look at each of them. Of course, we Third, there was no resistance from ferries: “It was a stroke of good luck for
also add insights based on our own vested interests. Although the the shipyards that there were ferries to
knowledge of the Norwegian ferry maritime industry is quite conservative be built.” While new-builds of OSV have
system. and opposes regulatory changes, the fallen in recent years, the orders for
decarbonization of ferries in Norway ferries increased from 562 during 2006-
First, competition between Norwegian did not result in the demise of any ferry 10 to 817 during 2016-20. Of course,
ferry companies has not cancelled companies “Instead, they were able the fall in oil prices also contributed
cooperation, information-sharing, and willing (and aided by the state) to to the 2015 parliamentary motion to
and mutual trust amongst them. On pursue the necessary transition.” The increase the use of green technologies
the contrary, “the Norwegian ferry ferry sector saw the change towards in the maritime industry in general.
actors are close-knit and collaborative.” lower emissions as a priority that could
They seemed to have behaved as not be stopped or denied. Contrary to One could certainly add more factors
a cluster, sharing knowledge and most cases, the ferry industry did not such as a state with such strong
being transparent to each other. One “influence policymakers to abandon or economic power that the climate
would say that such a cooperation is slow down electrification efforts.” change agency is able to support with
feasible because ferries cover different not only 5-10% of the cost of a low
destinations in the country, in other Lobbying power, with the negative emission ferry, but up to 40% of the
words, companies would not be connotation that usually brings as cost.
competing directly among themselves. resistance to change and defence of
The truth is that they compete heavily vested interests behave in a pro-active Future research will certainly enrich
each time a new tender is announced way supporting the government the already excellent review made by
by the government of the Norwegian efforts to speed up the process of the two Norwegian experts in their
Public Road Administration (NPRA): removing barriers for cleaner shipping. academic paper.
“Operators bid on contracts that usually Such a positive environment, helped
last 10 years.” by access to renewable energy
influenced the decision by Siemens
Second, while the Norwegian and Corvus Energy to build maritime
government certainly channels support battery factories in Norway, a decision
schemes as it is typical with public that reinforced an already virtuous
subsidies, it behaved entrepreneurially circle.

Danfoss Drives · BE443631450584en-000101 7

 3.2 Key learning for speeding up to scale
3.2.1 Political commitment and government funds
The previous section highlights the The government of the UK, another The German government launched
Norwegian government’s political important maritime country, launched a similar maritime strategy in 2017:
commitment and financial support. its maritime strategy in 2019: “Maritime “Maritime Agenda 2025: The future
Therefore, in this section, we refer 2050: Navigating the Future,” a long of Germany as a maritime industry
to similar policies and subsidies in 338-page document [6]. After claiming hub”[7]. The document states at the
two other European countries with that leading maritime nations need beginning that its maritime industry
important shipping sectors: the UK to adapt and plan and that the can react faster than other countries to
and Germany. However, before leaving maritime strategy must take the market changes because the maritime
the Norwegian experience, we make country well into the second half of industry “is mainly operated by the
some references to “The Government’s the 21st century, the document makes private sector.” Another important
action plan for green shipping,” [5] a series of commitments to create a statement is that efficient ports and
which has consolidated the route map competitive and sustainable maritime logistics and renowned research and
on the decarbonization of shipping. industry in Britain. Some of these training facilities are cornerstones in
In particular, we want to highlight the commitments are: the success of the German maritime
following five issues: industry. Some of the announced
First, the British government envisions policies are:
First, the government is more a sustainable maritime sector by 2050,
ambitious than the IMO for all vessel “reducing impacts to as close to zero First, the federal government
categories: to reduce emissions by half as possible, while leading the way on emphasizes its support to the maritime
by 2030 (IMO aims to cut emissions in green finance and setting international industry by developing long-term
half by 2050). standards.” strategies with specific support
programs and instruments.
Second, because of the considerable Second, it commits to lead: “[the
difference between different country will move] faster than Second, it also stresses the
segments of the Norwegian fleet, competitor countries and [will] be seen significance of a regular dialogue
different measures may be required to as a role model in the field.” with the stakeholders of the maritime
decarbonize each segment. industry through the regular and
Third, it is optimistic about well-established National Maritime
Third, since OSVs account for about environmental results: “the UK Conferences.
23% of Norway’s emissions from maritime sector will have negligible
domestic shipping, the government wider environmental impacts, with Third, the maritime industry does
may introduce zero- and low-emission minimization integrated into the not comprise the major ports in the
solutions for new-builds. Similar full ship life cycle from design and North Sea and Baltic Sea but includes
action may be taken for aquaculture construction to operation.” most of the country because of the
support vessels, given the increasing extensive inland navigation network
importance of the sector in Norway. Fourth, it offers an adaptation to (the largest in Europe), mainly Baden-
climate change, mainly regarding the Wuerttemberg, Bavaria and North
Fourth, the government will establish adaption by ports to the increased Rhine-Westphalia.
instruments such as carbon tax, lower flooding from tidal surges. The strategy,
electricity tax rates for commercial despite its length, is not specific about Fourth, the government plans to
vessels, and differential port fees based policies, but it certainly has plenty of expand technological leadership in the
on environmental grounds. aspirations. maritime industry because it is one of
the most research-intensive sectors in
Fifth, Enova will continue to support Germany.
installing shore power in Norwegian
ports. It has already provided about Fifth, the government will bring
1 M NOK . The goal is to achieve totally together three maritime funding
emission-free ports by 2030. programs on research, development,
and innovation under the headline of
maritime technologies.

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3.2.2 Hybrid propulsion is a mature technology
The installation of BESS on board a ship Our paper from 2019 explains that Besides lowering emissions, another
means, in most cases, that the vessel “pure diesel and marine gas oil have a significant benefit of BESS is a
will be powered by hybrid propulsion fairly fast dynamic performance reduction in noise and vibration levels.
unless the batteries are used only (100 kW/second for a 2 MW generator). This reduction is due to fewer running
for hotel load. Hybrid propulsion is However, other fuels like LNG or engines and generators on board.
a buzzword in the shipping industry biofuels are characterized by slower
these days. In this section, we follow a change response. They are not well- Our paper from 2019 clearly
paper published by us titled precisely suited to abrupt changes in loading. summarizes the benefits: improved
“Hybrid propulsion” [8]. By providing Hence a need to have an even load on vessel performance, reduced
two sources for power propulsion, the engines arises.” [8] emissions, lower operating costs due
the hybridization of vessels allows to lower fuel consumption, lower
the optimization of energy sources The traditional way to cope with maintenance costs related to engines,
depending on the task assigned to peak loads has been to have several reduced noise levels and vibrations
the vessel. Optimum energy power generators running as a spinning on board - also reducing noise in the
consumption results obviously in reserve. That scheme, however, wastes water, improved long-term efficiency
lower costs and less environmental fuel, becoming inefficient, expensive, of the power supply system, higher
emissions. and polluting. Since fuel-powered redundancy, and peak shaving - reduce
engines “run best at a static load of the dynamic load on generators. [8]
In hybrid propulsion with BESS, around 65-80% of capacity depending
electrical power is used to power the on make,” but power fluctuates all
motors connected to the propeller the time due to wind and waves or
shafts. The chief advantage is that the switching on and off of onboard
fuel-powered engines run closer to machinery, a stabilizing element is
the design point, which optimizes fuel required: generators, or even better,
consumption. When additional energy BESS.
is needed, the electrical motors can
cover the additional demand; on the BESS operates on electronics, and
contrary, when less energy is needed, “electronics are instantaneous, reacting
the excess can be stored in the in milli-seconds rather than seconds,”
batteries. Rather than sharp running making it possible for the batteries
curves, the “fuel-driven engines see to deliver the excess supply of power
smooth running curves.” Hybrid needed at any moment. There is no
propulsion helps improve vessel more need for engine-based spinning
performance to approximate the levels capacity. And the batteries, which are
defined by the stringent regulatory bidirectional, “will take back” the power
measures of the IMO. from the engines once the peak load
has ended. The engines will work near
the ideal static load. And, of course, the
main engines can even be stopped
when the vessel is idling, with the
BESS and smaller diesel generators
providing all the energy needed on
board.

Danfoss Drives · BE443631450584en-000101 9

 3.3 Case studies
In this section we look at our own projects. On our website we have published more than 30 marine case studies during recent
years. Here we highlight the most relevant facts about four of those projects; in some cases, the BESS has been used to convert
a vessel to fully-electric and in other cases, hybrid propulsion has been possible thanks to the installation of BESS. In all cases,
the system integrators have used our latest technologies. Before mentioning them, we would like to emphasize that one of the
competitive advantages of Danfoss against its competitors is that we offer both entire systems (turn-key solutions) as installed in
many of these vessels, and we can also support highly customizable solutions developed by system integrators, fine-tuning the
applications according to the very specific needs of a client.

3.3.1 Political commitment and government funds (Norway)

The ferry operator on the Hareid- The sister ferries Suloey, Hadaroey When the ferries are approaching, the
Sulesund crossing decided to replace and Giskoey were retrofitted with system receives information about
diesel propulsion with pure electric. batteries and the newest converter and the energy consumed on the trip
Although the crossing takes only 23 power control technology in order to that must be replaced. “By ensuring
minutes, the transition from diesel achieve an optimal electric-powered optimal charging power, the systems
to fully electric demanded not only solution. The existing power grid was avoid unnecessary wear on batteries
the installation of BESS and electric strengthened on both sides (also and power electronics, both on board
motors on board the ferries but also with BESS), allowing that with a single and on shore.” The annual reduction
the provision of all the needed shore touch on the charging display, the ferry of CO2 emissions achieved with the
power infrastructure for rapid charging charges 350 kWh of power in only six electrification of the ferries reaches
and stable grid supply. The systems minutes. The precise integration of about 7,000 tonnes, considering about
on board and on shore were designed both systems, on board and on shore, 32,000 vessel charging sessions every
as a single system by Norwegian is one of the main features because year.
Electric Systems (NES) using Danfoss by doing that the charging power
technology[9]. transfers exactly the energy required.

Hybrid or fully electric ferries

Better air quality Low or even zero emissions Low noise level

Batteries shave Peak shaving

power peaks reduces
generator size

Frequent crossings. Rapid charging from renewable energy sources.

Hybrid or electric ferries with rapid charging facilities powered by renewable electricity offer a near-term pathway to cut vessel emissions
on short-sea routes.

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3.3.2 Solar-powered river tours at Krka National Park (Croatia)
Krka National Park commissioned The main technical challenge in this The Croatian authorities chose the
two fully electric vessels, each with a project was to perfectly synchronize fully electric approach due to the
capacity for 50 passengers. The vessels the solar panels and the batteries in particularly sensitive nature of Krka
are equipped with solar PV panels the driveline system, to deliver an National Park, housing about 1,200
and BESS. On sunny days, solar panels optimal conversion from solar cells to species of plants, more than 200 bird
supply the power for the propulsion batteries. Inmel, the system integrator species, 17 species of bat, several
and for charging batteries. On cloudy of the project, installed all the species of amphibians, reptiles, and
days, the batteries provide the power necessary hardware and software from more. To protect the majority of the
required. Therefore, the ferries at Krka Danfoss[10]. land-based animals which live in or
National Park always operate as zero- near the Krka River, the authorities
emission vessels. The vessels operate required the most environmentally
a cycle of eight hours on battery and friendly type of vessel available.
twelve hours on solar panels.

3.3.3 The shortest ferry route in the country to Veno island (Denmark)
The trip from the mainland to Veno equipment, engine room pumps, Now the battery bank powers the
island lasts barely two-three minutes, and more, while the vessel was idle. energy for each crossing, and the
but it passes over a narrow 17-meter- The solution was to install BESS to ferry is recharged as soon as it arrives.
deep sound with strong currents. power each crossing. This conversion Between the BESS and two identical
The operator decided to convert the has dramatically reduced fuel Volvo Penta Marine diesel engines, the
traditional vessel to hybrid because consumption, since now the generator vessel has full redundancy.
although the trip is short, and it runs runs only 20 minutes daily. From 19 Although the route was short, the
every 30 minutes, it was consuming hours to 20 minutes, that is a saving, task was complex: “Danfoss Drives
a large volume of diesel. Two diesel indeed! [11]. thoroughly tested the system by using
auxiliary generators ran for 19 hours a test rig to simulate the generator.
each day, to power hotel load, bridge The actual battery and microgrid were
employed in this test. The ship’s load
was simulated by a Danfoss drive
with a load resistor and electrical
motors.” The project was a cooperation
between Danfoss, EPTechnologies,
Super B, Hvide Sande Shipyard, and
contractor Vest-El.

3.3.4 Hybrid propulsion for the Scottish offshore islands (UK)

Caledonian Maritime Assets Limited units.” A critical difference, however, of redundancy. For instance, a ferry
(CMAL), the shipowner of the CalMac is that the propulsion motors can be can continue to operate if one of its
Ferries, is the company that provides powered also by high-capacity BESS. two drive systems fails: the battery
most ferry services to Scotland’s The batteries are charged overnight power can run alone in the event that
offshore islands. In 2011, CMAL started from shore supply, while the vessels are diesel fuel is not available. In fact, on
the process to install hybrid propulsion docked [12]. certain short routes, such as the one
on its newest roll-on/roll-off (RORO) between Raasay and Sconser, ferries
ferries to reduce fuel consumption The first two vessels to be retrofitted are powered by battery alone, on
and emissions. The solution chosen were the sister ferries MV Hallaig and some days. After the two initial vessel
seems traditional in the sense that the MV Lochinvar. Each accommodates retrofits, a third vessel, MV Catriona,
“diesel engines drive generator sets 150 passengers and 23 cars or two was also retrofitted.
to produce power for electric motors large goods vehicles. The new drive
that drive the vessel’s propulsion systems installed provide a high level

Danfoss Drives · BE443631450584en-000101 11

 4. But the future is not only electric
Batteries are being used on board ships more often and the trend will not stop, but probably grow exponentially in the coming
years. Currently the only viable option is BESS. However, in the future flywheels (FESS) and supercapacitors (SESS) will also be
used. As we have explained before, the electronics embedded in any of those ESS can provide instantaneous power. The main
discussions about the decarbonization of the shipping industry, however, are not focused on batteries; these are considered
essential for complementary power and essential for short- and medium-distance routes, but not realistic for deep-sea voyages.

The discussion around sustainable deep-sea shipping focuses on the so-called green fuels of the future, mainly hydrogen,
methanol, and ammonia. Some experts also propose biofuels, and others, even nuclear energy. In this chapter we look at those
three green fuels; at the combination of hydrogen and fuel cells, on one side, and batteries on the other; and at the supply of
electricity from shore: so-called shore power or cold ironing.

4.1 The three leading contenders

Most of the sustainable fuel discussion in maritime conferences and webinars as well as in the shipping media has been about
hydrogen, methanol, and ammonia. One can say that each of the fuels has committed defenders and detractors. Projects across
the world are being supported by the European Union or national governments for all types of vessels and for those three
different fuels. Most organizations and initiatives, however, are taking a pragmatical approach and avoiding compromising fully
with any of them. The competition is certainly impressive because nothing like this had seen since the early 20th century, when
the steamships were replaced by bunkers. We highlight here the main characteristics of each fuel.

4.1.1 Hydrogen
The most likely fuel for the future is maritime sphere has been used only for Besides, as DNV points out, to power
green hydrogen (H2), produced from the construction of small and prototype a vessel, H2 will have to be stored
renewable energy using electrolysis. vessels. at very high pressures (350-700
Blue hydrogen, using natural gas, bar) as compressed gas or very low
would be another option, but it would One of the main criticisms against temperatures (-253 °C) as liquefied gas.
imply carbon capture and storage hydrogen is that its production requires However, the combination of fuel cells
(CCS). Gray hydrogen (also using natural considerable amounts of energy: and H2 would make the propulsion
gas or methane) would be impossible “Consequently, even if the energy and hotel load completely zero-
because that does not involve CCS. efficiency of H2 converted to electrical emission. Such a combination would
“H2 can be used in two forms, either energy in fuel cells may be high, the also eliminate noise and vibrations.
in fuel cells or internal combustion lifecycle energy efficiency is significantly When using hydrogen with internal
engines” [13], with the first option as lower due to the energy loss in H2 combustion engines, “the efficiency
preferred. Hydrogen is already used in production” [14]. Another criticism is its is lower than is possible to achieve by
public transportation buses, but in the volumetric energy content, which is the using fuel cells, and the combustion
lowest among the three. generates NOx” [14].

4.1.2 Methanol
Methanol is the simplest of all alcohols Methanol can be used on board in However, “methanol fuel tanks are
and has a high content of hydrogen as internal combustion engines. It can typically twice the volume of oil tanks
its formula indicate (CH30H), it is four be stored and transported using with the same energy content” [14],
parts hydrogen, one carbon, and one current infrastructure because at and furthermore, the combustion
oxygen. That is why green methanol normal temperature and pressure it performance of methanol is not the
can be produced with hydrogen, remains liquid (no need of cryogenic best. This means more fuel volume is
making methanol zero-emission if the or pressurized tanks). It is considered required in the combustion chamber
feedstock is green hydrogen. Green one of the safest alternatives because of an internal combustion engine, and
methanol could also be produced is it has been used for many years for consequently the chamber must be
from “lignocellulosic feedstocks such many energy purposes. The cost of larger than for other fuels.
as agricultural waste, from biomass conversion for existing vessels to run
collected from sustainable managed on methanol is lower than for any other
forests to produce bio-methanol, or green fuel, and it is already available for
from gasification of municipal solid bunkering at many ports.
waste” [13] but in those cases, it would
be only a low-emission fuel, not a zero-
emission one.

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4.1.3 Ammonia
In liquid form, ammonia NH3 has a There are several issues with ammonia combination of hydrogen with oxygen,
higher energy density than other as a shipping fuel. The first seems but it will also produce NOx, which
green fuels. Ammonia may be minor: it requires small amount of a is a greenhouse gas.. In other words,
liquefied by cooling it down to -33°C pilot fuel to combust, which means although ammonia could become
or by pressurizing it to about 10 bar that the pilot fuel needs to be also zero-carbon, will never really be zero-
[14]
; therefore, it is easier to store and carbon zero for the ammonia to emission. The third problem is its high
transport. Besides, the storage of become zero-emission. The second is toxicity, which could represent serious
ammonia in tanks is considered a that the formula clearly indicates the risks for crew in case of an incident.
mature and standard technology. And presence of nitrogen; that means that
green ammonia could be produced when combusted it will produce water
from hydrogen made by electrolysis vapor, on one side, because of the
sourced by renewable energy.

4.2 The future of ESS with hydrogen and

other fuels
The future use of green fuels will allow energy efficiency (>80%) and reducing And methanol is only one of the
many hybrid options. For instance, the heavy footprint of pure hydrogen possible options. ABS [16] considers
in a recent article published in the storage.”[15] a similar process for ammonia, also
magazine Electric & Hybrid Marine concluding that: “Once cracked, the
Technology International, the case We want to stress the convenience hydrogen from ammonia can be an
is made to use hydrogen with BESS, of fule cell modularity and scalability. abundant resource for fuel cells to
having methanol as the high-density Fuel cells come in all sizes, from a generate electric power.” They also
hydrogen carrier feedstock [15]. Such a few kilowatts to several megawatts. tackled a typical dilemma: Why convert
solution is interesting because of the They complement batteries almost the ammonia to hydrogen when that
difficulty of storing hydrogen, which, perfectly. Fuel cells and batteries implies energy losses and additional
even in liquefied form, would occupy working together have great potential equipment and when certain types
up to twice the volume of LNG. The to improve performance and efficiency. of fuel cells can run directly with
use of methanol or ammonia would During a voyage, batteries can power ammonia? A similar case can be
guarantee “a safe, constant flow of propulsion for shorter distances, while made for methanol. The answer to
ready-to-use hydrogen on board.” The methanol-based fuel cells can power this question comes down to nitty-
reformer systems that create hydrogen longer voyages. The match between gritty technical details: ammonia
from methanol as needed during both technologies increases the range can damage the fuel cells with
the voyage are PEM fuel cells , which of the ship. Since fuel cells can power acid electrolytes. This means use of
are just as modular and scalable as propulsion but cannot store energy, ammonia requires the installation of an
batteries, for convenient installation any surplus power which is generated acid scrubber to remove any remnant
on board vessels. The author claims will not go to waste, but can be stored of ammonia gas.
that such a combination of multiple in the batteries. This is one potential
cabinets would handle megawatt solution for the shipping industry of
applications while ensuring high the future.

Danfoss Drives · BE443631450584en-000101 13

 4.3 ESS is not only on board but also onshore
Cold ironing, also known as shore The European Maritime Safety Agency The consensus at the macro level faces
power or onshore power has one and the European Environment plenty of difficulties when one gets
purpose: to bring power from the Agency say: “Onshore power supply down to the nitty-gritty of installing
national grid (or a local grid) to is a promising solution to improve the equipment, beginning with the
berthed vessels, rendering diesel air quality in ports and coastal areas. classical egg-and-chicken dilemma:
powered generators unnecessary. In place of using fuel, ships ‘plug in’ Which party should make the first
The evidence in favor of shore power at ports. If electricity supply relies move to install shore power: the ports
is overwhelming. According to the on clean and renewable energy or the ships? The expenses for ports
US Environmental Protection Agency sources, onshore power supply can to supply shore power are certainly
(EPA), “[in optimum conditions] when reduce emissions at berth to zero much higher than for ships to receive
a vessel is connected to shore power, and decrease noise levels. Close to it. Port infrastructure involves not
overall pollutant emissions can be 10% of ships calling at ports of the EU only the equipment to connect to
reduced by up to 98% when utilizing are equipped with it, with numbers the vessel but also, given the huge
power from the regional electricity steadily growing” [18]. Even the IMO says: amounts of energy required by the
grid.” [17] “IMO is addressing the need for global largest vessels, the very expensive
standards for the process of providing expansion of infrastructure to connect
For ports, shore supply is not only shoreside electrical power to a ship at that equipment to the national grid.
about decarbonization, but also about berth.” However, the tab for equipping
elimination of air pollution (NOx, SOx, vessels is not cheap for shipowners
particulate matter) and noise while Despite its benefits, the expansion or operators either, because each on-
vessels are berthed. That is why public of shore power has not been easy. board retrofit can easily cost 1 M EUR,
backing is high in Europe and other Although the first installation of HV if not more. Besides, there are many
countries, and likewise there is active shore power took place in 2000 in more ships than ports.
endorsement from national, regional, the Port of Gothenburg, and shore
and local authorities. The following power has been expanded in Nordic Another important difference between
excerpts are clear enough: countries, the coverage is limited. Even shore supply equipment for ports and
The EU Green Deal states: “It [the in Europe, which is the region with the ships is that the onshore equipment
Commission] will take action in relation highest installation density, barely 14% needs to adapt to the type of vessels
to maritime transport, including to of ports and 10% of ships calling at its calling at a particular berth: terminals
regulate access of the most polluting ports have shore power capability. for containers will need a different
ships to EU ports and to oblige docked type of equipment than for bulk carrier
ships to use shore-side electricity.” terminals or passenger vessel terminals.
Even the differences between cruise
ships and ferries may result in different
equipment requirements onshore.
However, the equipment on board
vessels can be installed relatively easily
during a period in dry dock or even
during commercial sailing. A new
positive trend is that most new-builds
are either designed and built with
shore connection capability, or at least
prepared for such a connection.

14 Danfoss Drives · BE443631450584en-000101

 2000 2023

1 14% 10%
port equipped with of ports are equipped with of vessels are able
shore power supply shore power supply to connect to shore power

The shore power capability of ports - and ability of vessels to connect to it - has grown in the period 2000-2023. [18]
However, there is still plenty of scope for future growth.

4.3.1 Shore power supply installation paid back in less than five months (Denmark)
We close this section with a case study To avoid damage to vital systems, these Trefor, the electricity company, was
on shore power [19]. Because of the low vessels are stored ‘warm’, which means also involved because they had to
oil price and challenges in the oil and that the diesel engines are preheated install a 10 kV to 450 V (max. 1800 A)
gas industry, Maersk Supply Service and the electrical control systems and transformer at the quay.
had some of its anchor handling ventilation systems are kept running. In the end, despite the civil
vessels and platform supply vessels in Initially, the vessels were powered by engineering costs needed to
layup waiting for the next job in 2016. onboard harbor generators. This was install several hundred meters of
Up to 10 vessels are parked between not a satisfactory solution though, 10 kV underground cables to the
jobs in the Port of Fredericia, Denmark, due to diesel exhaust pollution and transformer, there was a reduction in
where the location and facilities are constant noise. costs and a significant environmental
well-suited for longer-term storage. improvement. The business case
The solution was shore power proved to be even better than
supply installed by Caverion: a projected with a payback time of less
container-based solution comprising than 5 months.
switchboards and system integration,
according to a topology designed by
Danfoss.

Danfoss Drives · BE443631450584en-000101 15

5. Concluding remarks
The 21st century adventure in the performance and efficiency to enable We complement such macro
quest for the decarbonization of genuinely carbon-free vessels of the experience with our micro vision,
shipping will have several passengers future. Hybrid and e-vessels, therefore, which comes from installing batteries
on board, such as hydrogen, methanol, are buzzwords all of us in the industry on board ships and retrofitting existing
or ammonia. At this stage, it is not must get used to. vessels, converting them to become
clear which of them will sit on the bow hybrids. And we have closed this white
of this zero-emission vessel. What is In particular, we have looked at the paper with the case of shore power: an
undeniable is that batteries will be part experience of Norway, the country impressive trend bringing high voltage
of the solution. leading the global electrification to berthed vessels. As a result, more
of shipping. Certainly, lessons from docked ships will stop not only their
The time when batteries were suitable Norway can be extrapolated for main engines but also the auxiliary
only for land-based applications are adoption by other maritime countries. ones and run entirely on electricity
gone. New, more powerful and more It is interesting to see how the provided by the national grid or local
resistant batteries are being designed combination of an entrepreneurial grids at the port. That is the perfect
for the maritime industry, and at some state with an environmentally complement for an industry aiming to
point, flywheels or supercapacitors conscious ferry industry has decarbonize in the second half of this
will also play a role in ESS. Any ESS that transformed the sector in Norway. With century.
supplies propulsion when needed this approach, Norwegian short-sea
and stores excess energy produced by shipping has delivered a clear example
the engines or fuel cells will improve of success to other countries.

References:
[0] Statista: Ocean shipping worldwide - statistics & facts | Statista, Worldwide maritime trade - transport volume 2021 | Statista
[1] “Current Status of Maritime Batteries and Future Outlook” Syb ten Cate Hoedemaker, Maritime Battery Forum, 2022.
[2] “Brodrene Aa and The Fjords pioneering with “Future of The Fjords” – offering zero emission fjord cruise”, Brodene Aa, 2019.
[3] “Rapid battery cost declines accelerate the prospects of all-electric interregional container shipping”, J. Kersey, N.D.,
Popovich, and A.A. Phadke. Nat Energy 7, 664–674 (2022).
[4] “A green maritime shift: Lessons from the electrification of ferries in Norway”, Simen Rostad Sæther and Espen Moe, Energy
Research & Social Science 81 (2021).
[5] “The Government’s action plan for green shipping”, Norwegian Government (2019).
[6] “Maritime 2050: Navigating the Future”, UK Department of Transport (2019).
[7] “Maritime Agenda 2025: The future of Germany as a maritime industry hub”, (2017).
[8] “Hybrid propulsion”, Danfoss, 2019.
[9] “Where smart ferry charging begins with a smart grid”, Danfoss, 2022.
[10] “Solar-powered river tours protect Krka National Park”, Danfoss, 2020.
[11] “Battery retrofit not only saves fuel but improves air quality”, Danfoss, 2017.
[12] “Fuel savings with Danfoss Drives at the heart of electric hybrid ferries”, Danfoss, 2017
[13] “A pathway to decarbonise the shipping sector by 2050”, International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2021.
[14] “Alternative fuels for Canada: Pointing the direction towards low/zero-emission shipping”, DNV, 2020.
[15] “Hydrogen on board, on demand,” Bryan Reid, Electric & Hybrid Marine Technology International, 2022.
[16] “Ammonia as marine fuel”, ABS, 2020.
[17] “Shore Power Technology Assessment at U.S. Ports”, US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2022.
[18] “European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2021”, European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) and European
Environment Agency (EEA), 2021.
[19] “Maersk Supply Service – shore power supply with a payback period of less than 5 months”, Danfoss, 2018.

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