Earth and Solar System

Gravitational force

-
Centripetal force
Orbital motion of earth around
Elliptical orbits
Earth's spin 24 hour tilt
sun

n
Orbital motion around earth
of moon

separation b/w earth and sun

ransfer of light
rbital speed
v =
S
F &
M , m2 A
Orbital
2 7
radius
8
F Gravitational attraction 0 =
22

E
>
L

Orbital
m and M > Masses
,
speed -
Period of Orbital
motion (1 year
r >
Separation b/w masses

SUR
=
22

8
18m Earth
+

957 6 .

10 m
+
.
6 /0
% 5 .
x
· ·

ot
=
as
v = S
A

t =
1 . 5x10 . 4x
6 18+ 6 957x188
.

3x108
Speed of a satellite v =
GM
J

A 497
. sec = 500sec &
I

zo

Light takes
approx. 500 sec to
reach earth
. G Gravitational const.
M Mass
of the sun for orbital speed
the speed of light in vacuum is 3x18ms -
~ Orbital radius of earth

Light rays emitted by sun take approximately

to reach earth's
500 sec .
surface

v = S
A

E
0300
t =
5 2488833

A 500 sec

> Close approximation

 Gravitational Field
Strength

g =
F
A test mass placed

g = 7 in
planet's field
const
Planet
=
=
20 · F
g
22
S

gxp2

Gravitational= Gravitational Force test particle 1 6N

on a
19 >
- .

Field strength Mass

of
test particle.
3 2N
2kg >
- .

g = 1 6
.

NK'

Earth
Field'oudary
s
R
R R R R

--
CD E -

=a
= N g g g 16 g 25

Every two masses exert a

force on each other called gravitational
force .
Nu
&

Gravitational force is always attractive.

Sun IIIIII
-
*
Gravitational force depends upon masses and
separation
E
b/w objects.
F2 M , m2
2
p

Weight of an object is the gravitational force exerted by planet earth

.

Earth revolves around sun in (almost circulan orbits due to gravitational

attraction
of sun acting as centripetal force .
 the Solar System

Sun ; the only star centre

of planetary orbital
-
;
Planets
motion Dwarf
7 .
4x1
> Sun >
Mercury , Venus , Earth ,
Mars L J
Pluto Harmea
Jupiter Saturn , Uranus , Neptune L 4 6x 18g
1 31 x 18 kg
, ↓ .

Ceres Makemake
1x180kg 1x18g
>
Dwarf Planets > Pluto , Ceres , Eris
9 .

Ers10 3 .

Makemake , Harmea

My eryExcellentMothea

·
Speed of a satellite v =
GM
J

&
I

zo

G Gravitational const.
M Mass the sun
of

Gravitational attraction F2
mm
.
>

bw masses m and me
,

·heorbit outoe
plane of planetary orbital
motion. Its period is 248

years of planet earth

.

Astroids , eteors and

comets are all components
of planetary system ;
all orbit around sun
.

Moons are natural satellites

of planets .
 ·
Gravitational attraction >
F2 m , m2

bw masses m and me 22
,

Gravitational attraction >

Fx Mm
22
6 w masses
planet and
satellite

Period
of orbital motion > · us
Z

speed of orbital motion > &

I
OR L

2 z

Gravitational Field Strength >

&
g >

↳
2 3
T =
42 Ju
GM V =
GM
Const N

- & -
...
.... Y
, . - ↑
&
& T
F
~ J
<
,
&
, I
"
N I
1
,I
S
~
- - /
& -
-
-
L
- ...
S
Asteroid > small rocky objects which are observed as bright spots when viewed
through telescopes due to reflection of light .

Generally asteroid fill space

the randomly but most asteroids are

asteroid belt b/w orbits

found in
of Jupiter and Mars.
Comets > small particles objects made up of cosmic dust and ice ,
revolve
around in elliptical Orbits
sun assumed to be circular)
.

When a comet reaches close to the sun

,
it is
vaporized by
extra-ordinary heating disintegrating comet tail
. A
appears to have a

when viewed by a telescope.

Meteorites the
> asteroids and comets revolve in circular orbits around
sun
, they frequently collide with each other and break into smaller

pieces called meteroides .

When a meteroides
enters earth's gravitational its gravitational ,

potential energy converts into kinetic as earth attracts the meterside

towards the centre , it gain extremely high
speed and kinetic energy
converts into heat , it burns up and track followed by
subsequently
shooting star
of light
a burning meteroid streak called .
appears as a a

Cosmic Dust The interstellar is

filled with the small smoke like particles
space
-

called cosmic dust. They have

different sizes and shapes .

Dwarf Planets Dwarf I

clanets are small sized planetary bodies revolving
around Most these have comparable to the
sun .
of masses mass
of
moon .
around earth

Ceres is the only dwarf that revolve in asteroid belt , all other
dwarfs
revolve in orbits beyond planet Neptune .

Galaxy > A galaxy ishuge cluster of many billions of stars .

Sun (a star
is family member
of Milky-way galaxy.
A constellation is small stars.
of
a
group
 3
the Sun as a Star

Composition -
>
Hydrogen
protons ,
neutrons n S Ms = 1 99 x .
180kg = 2x180kg

·fin
↳
↳ Cosmic
Helium
dust
= 6 .
96x18m = 100m
~ -

Infra-red ME 6 x18kg
Emission - Visible light
~
=

3
·

4 x 10 m
>

& ultra-violet RE = 6 .

About planet earth

Source Nuclear Fusion
>
of Of
energy Hydrogen nuclides and
free nucleons

>
Age of a Depends upon amount of
star hydrogen (Fusion fuel

Distance covered by
> Distance measured
light in vacuum
for
in light years by
one year of planet earth
s = vt
= 3x 108 x 365 x 24 x 3600

9 5
.
x 10 m

↑ light year = 9 5 .
x 10m
Life cycle of a star > Intersteller clouds
-

> Gravitational attraction

O·
M2 >
Increasing size temp rise
F
.

: Prostar
>
<
I

Balance of inward and outward forces Stable stars

I

>
Hydrogen Hydrogen
dust cloud dust cloud > Limited fusion fuel
> Red giant and red super giant

⑳
- -

:...... > Less massive stars turn into nebula and white dwarf

: integral
/

explosion
/

,
-
>
one massive stars eventually explode is

. called supernova
.

> A supergiant explodes

red with the
supernova as

formation of nebula containing hydrogen and other

..... relatively heavier elements
=... .

·
I I

·
Clouds convert

&H ;H He
↑

into huge ball

!n
↑

J
+ + +
E
dust and gas
of
-

..

particles
~

...........
.

2x1030kg
-

3 4

Critical temp. for fusion ? H +, > He + !n +

E

Protostar > A
young (red
hot star
2p +
2n >
"He +
E
Stable star
> when inward
forces balanced
out by outward forces (amongst particles

> In
hydrogen particles form clouds with cosmic dust.
space ,

small hydrogen-dust clouds attract each other and form bigger clusters/clouds .

Eventually it converts into a huge ball of gas and dust particles /

The particles frequently collide with each other and lose fractions
of their KE into heat causing a gradual increase temperature
in .

temp of minimum temp.

The .
the huge ball eventually exceeds the
required
for fusion of hydrogen nuclides (critical temp . .
This is when nuclear

fusion begin and the ball

of gas converts
into protostar ,
a
young (red-hot)
star .

Due to nuclear
fusion ,
the temp of .
star increases
further and eventually
the inward forces amongst particles due to gravitational
their attraction are balanced
outward
out by the
forces due to extremely high temp and ,
the protostar converts
into a stable star.
Red Giants
> When all the hydrogen at the core star has undergone nuclear fusion decayed
of a
,

to helium the fusion of hydrogen in outer layer begins ,

the star turns into a Red
,

Giant .

..

.....
..

·
... > core has undergon
-
&

fusion
......
.......
...... -
-

...
-

-
-
> Hydrogen-dust
· ·
·

·...
& ↑

·
......
&

:
-
- &
-

:... : ·
- ·
&

· ·
· ·
-

:
- -

:::
- ↑

...s
↑

...
.. : ......
- ·
·

the fusion of outer shell causes huge expansions and

subsequent decrease in

temperature .
The red giant stars are close to star death and eventually the star
dies either in a
supernova or a planetary nabula
.

The red giant contains helium and outer spherical shell contains
core
of a

hydrogen The .
red giant from a more massive star is known as Red Supergiant.

Nebula -
> A dense cloud of cosmic dust and gas particles forms a nebula
.

Most
of the times nebulae come
from gas and dust particles ejected by
star
explosions from a dying from a
supernova . hen outer layers of an

old star are thrown

off into space , planetary nabulae are observed and the
called white dwarf
remaining dense fraction left at core is .

A white considered hydrogen fuel dust gas

dwarf is as dead as no is leftThe
.

particles clusters during formation of star are also referred as nabula

.

Supernova > A
supernova is an explosion of a star that occurs in space and observed

in galaxies. As result, large amounts of matter ejects in

a
space.

eutron star > After a

supernova explosion ,
the core is left.
and Black hole

If the core is less dense ,

the core turns into a neutron star,
made neutrons mostly The proton electron in the
a
sphere up of ·
and

core combine and convert into neutron

.

the neutron stars are dead stars with extremely high density

If the core is more dense , it turns into a black hole

. A
black hole is denser than neutron star
.
 all
of star has
When the the
hydrogen in core

undergone fusion decayed to helium fusion begins in ,

outer layers the star converts into red giant

, red-super giant.

dust and gas

A dense cloud
of cosmic
particles
nebula
form a .

Most of the times nebula ,

come
from gas particles and
cosmic dust ejected from explosions from dying star) from a
supernova

When outer layers of an old star thrown into

are
off
outer space , planetary nebula
formed and
are the remain dense
section is known white dwarf (remaining helium at the core)

A white dwarf is considered as a dead as there is no hydrogen

left. The dust-gas particles clusters during formation of a star

can also called nebula.

Less massive star

Red-Giant

Planetary White
Nebula
Dwarf

Red-giant :.... .....

I -

Red Super giant

I

,
·
/

Li um
·
-

' Ite
I
.
-

S
·
: /

L ·

.........
~

J
Plane tary -

White Nebula
-

nebula -
↓

dwarf Neutron-star
Op

Black hole
Nebula -
> A dense cloud of cosmic dust and gas particles forms a nebula
.

Most
of the times nebulae come
from gas and dust particles ejected by
star
explosions from a dying from a
supernova . hen outer layers of an

old star are thrown

off into space , planetary nabulae are observed and the
called white dwarf
remaining dense fraction left at core is .

A white considered hydrogen fuel dust gas

dwarf is as dead as no is leftThe
.

particles clusters during formation of star are also referred as nabula

.

Red Giants When all the hydrogen at the core star has undergone nuclear fusion decayed
>
of a
,

to helium the fusion of hydrogen in outer layer begins ,

the star turns into a Red
,

Giant .

the
fusion of outer shell causes
huge expansions and
subsequent decrease in

temperature .
The red giant stars are close to star death and eventually the star
dies either in planetary nabula
a
supernova or a .

The core
of a red giant contains helium and outer spherical shell contains

hydrogen The .
red giant from a more massive star is known as Red Supergiant.

Supernova > A
supernova is an explosion of a star that occurs in space and observed

result, large amounts

in galaxies. As a
of matter ejects in space.

eutron star > After a

supernova explosion ,
the core is left.
and Black hole

If the core is less dense ,

the core turns into a neutron star,
made neutrons mostly The proton electron in the
a
sphere up of ·
and

core combine and convert into neutron

.

the neutron stars are dead stars with extremely high density

If the core is more dense , it turns into a black hole

. A
black hole is denser than neutron star
.
Asteroid Small rock objects that
-
appear as
bright spots when viewed through a
telescope
due to reflection of light
Most asteroids are
found in asteroid belt b/w the orbits of Jupiter and Mars .

Asteroid have different shapes; symmetric and assymetric.

Comet small objects made ice and dust revolving around in elliptical
up of sun

orbits .

When a comet goes close to sun

,
it vaporizes due to extra-ordinary heating
.

A decaying comet appears to have a tail when viewed through a telescope.

the Astroids and comets revolve around sun

,
mostly in astroid belt ,

they encounter frequent collisions and break into smaller pieces called
meteorides .

When meteorids enter earth's atmosphere ,

their gravitational potential energy
converts into KE
, they gain extremely high speed and
subsequently burns
up
and hence their track
appear as a streak of light called a shooting star .

Cosmic Dust > The intersteller space is filled with tiny smoke like particles
called cosmic dust .
These particles have
different shapes and sizes
.

Dwarf Planets -Dwarf planets are small sized planetary objects revolving around
Most of these planets have masses
sun .

comparable to that of moon of

. Ceres is the only dwarf revolving in asteroid belt and
planet earth
rest revolve in orbits beyond planet neptune.

A galaxy is a cluster of many stars.

Sun is a part of milky way galaxy .

 the Universe

> Galaxies contellation

>
Milky was approximate dimension

Doppler effect Red shift

-

>
Spectrum , spectral lines

>
Receding radiating objects

Receding and amount of red shift

Speed
-

>
Telescopic Observations Big Bang theory

Spectrum > A photographic film that shows change

of colour -

When light electromagnetic radiations is .

incident Source
Observer
< III -------

Spectral line the coloured band strip on photographic film

on incidence
of light is called spectral line. Source

------------- Observer

Spectral lines arranged in an order according

are

to their wavelengths due to dispersion .

line indicates X increases
Any change in the position of a spectral >

Red shift or Blue shift. Red Shift > R

Coppler's effect -
hen a source
of radiations is moving away from
an observer
, wavelength of signals received is
the

greater than the actual wavelength the freg. of

signals received is less than the actual frequency; the
change in observed wavelength or observed frequency
is known as Dopplen shift.

Red shift Increase in observed wavelength for a source

of radiations moving away from an observer

.

Blue shift Decrease in observed wavelength for a source

radiations moving towards observer

of an .
Big Bang Theory

Hubble studied continuous expansion

of universe by observing light
Edwin
received . It was observed that spectral lines
distant galaxies stars
from Of
emmisions distant stars red shifted the wavelengths elongated
.
from
were were
,

The red shift observation for different individual stars was used to
calculate recession , the at which the stars moving
the
speed of speed are
-

earth
.
away from

away the galaxy greater

The further
shift faster the galaxy
and
-
is, the
is moving
.
the size
ofe

According to Hubble's law the distant galaxies are

moving away from earth.
It also shows galaxies all moving
away each other hence the universe
are
from
. Astronomers
must believed that the universe was created
therefore expanding
be
massive explosion and has been
in a
expanding ever since .

The idea is reffered as Big Bang /heory

.

Since all distant stars and galaxies are moving away from
rs; red shifted ,
the
whole universe is expanding
.

Hubble's law provides the evidence the idea and the

key for of Big Bang theory
model
of expanding universe
.

Hubble's law suggested that the fabric

of space
and time is expanding in all

directions such that not but the actual

,
only galaxies moving away from earth
are

space b/w galaxies

is also
expanding Therefore the galaxies that
. are
further away
from us more faster than those nearer tors .