What is Fluid Mechanics?

 A fluid is either a liquid or a gas.

 A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously
under the application of a shear stress.
 A stress is defined as a force per unit area
 Next, what is mechanics?

 Mechanics is essentially the application of the

laws of force and motion.
 Fluid statics or hydrostatics is the study of fluids
at rest. The main equation required for this is
Newton's second law for non-accelerating bodies,
i.e. ∑ F = 0 .
 Fluid dynamics is the study of fluids in motion.
The main equation required for this is Newton's
second law for accelerating bodies, i.e. ∑ F = ma .
 Mass Density, ρ, is defined as the mass of
substance per unit volume.
ρ = mass/volume

 Specific Weight γ, is defined as the weight per unit

volume
γ = ρ g = weight/volume
 Relative Density or Specific Gravity (S.g or Gs)
S.g (Gs) = ρsubstance / ρwater at 4oC
 Dynamic Viscosity, µ
µ = τ / (du/dy) = (Force /Area)/ (Velocity/Distance)
 Kinematic Viscosity, v
v = µ/ ρ
 Primary Dimensions
 In fluid mechanics there are only four primary
dimensions from which all other dimensions can be
derived: mass, length, time, and temperature.
 All other variables in fluid mechanics can be expressed
in terms of {M}, {L}, {T}
 Quantity SI Unit Dimension
Area m2 m2 L2
Volume m3 m3 L3
Velocity m/s ms-1 LT-1
Acceleration m/s2 ms-2 LT-2

-Angular velocity
s-1 s-1 T-1
-Rotational speed

N
Force
kg m/s2 kg ms-2 M LT-2
Joule J
energy (or work) N m,
kg m2/s2 kg m2s-2 ML2T-2
Watt W
Power N m/s Nms-1
kg m2/s3 kg m2s-3 ML2T-3
Pascal P,
pressure (or stress) N/m2, Nm-2
kg/m/s2 kg m-1s-2 ML-1T-2
Density kg/m3 kg m-3 ML-3
N/m3
Specific weight
kg/m2/s2 kg m-2s-2 ML-2T-2
a ratio
Relative density . no dimension
no units
N s/m2 N sm-2
Dynamic viscosity
kg/m s kg m-1s-1 M L-1T-1
Kinematic viscosity m2 s-1 m2 s-1 L2 T-1
N/m Nm-1
surface tension
kg /s2 kg s-2 MT-2
Table (1.1) Dimensions and Systems

Dimension Length Time Mass Force

(L) (T) (M) (F)
System

Slug
Pound
1-American system Foot (ft) Sec 1 Slug = 32.2 Ib
(Ib.wt)
mass

Pound mass Poundal

2-English system Foot (ft) Sec
( Ib mass) (pdl)

3-French system gm.mass Dyne

Cm Sec
(Metric system ) metric slug (gm.wt)

4-International Newton
m Sec Kg.mass
system (S.I system) (N)
Newton's Second Law
The fundamental relation between the mass and the
weight is defined by Newton's Second Law and can be
expressed as
F=ma (1)
where
F = force (N)
m = mass (kg)
a = acceleration (m/s2)
Mass
Mass is a measure of the amount of material in an object,
being directly related to the number and type of atoms
present in the object. Mass does not change with a body's
position, movement or alteration of its shape, unless
material is added or removed.
Weight
Weight is the gravitational force acting on a body mass.
Transforming Newton's Second Law related to the weight as a force due
to gravity can be expressed as
W=mg (2)
where
W = weight (N)
m = mass (kg)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
The handling of mass and weight depends on the systems of units that
is used. The most common systems of units are the
International System - SI
British Gravitational System - BG
English Engineering System - EE

1 kg = 2.20462 lbf
1000 kg = 1 tonne (metric) = 0.9842 tons (imperial)
1 ton (US) = 2000 lb = 907.185 kg
The International System - SI
In the SI system the mass unit is the kg and since the
weight is a force - the weight unit is the Newton (N).
Equation (2) for a body with 1 kg mass can be expressed as:
w = (1 kg) (9.807 m/s2)
= 9.807 (N) (2b)
where
9.807 m/s2 = standard gravity close to earth in the SI system
As a result:
a 9.807 N force acting on a body with 1 kg mass will
give the body an acceleration of 9.807 m/s2
a body with mass of 1 kg weighs 9.807 N
1N= 1 kg m/s2
1N = 105 dyne
1 dyne = 1 gm cm/s2
The British Gravitational System – BG
 The British Gravitational System (Imperial System) of units is
used by engineers in the English-speaking world with the same
relation to the foot - pound - second system
 The three base units in the Imperial system are the foot, the
second, and the pound-force.
 In the BG system the mass unit is the slug and is defined from
the Newton's Second Law (1). The unit of mass, the slug, is derived
from the pound-force by defining it as the mass that will accelerate at
1 foot per second when a 1 pound-force acts upon it:
1 lb = (1 slug)(1 ft/s2)
1slug = 1 Ib / 1ft/s2
 In other words, 1 lb (pound) force acting on 1 slug mass will give
the mass an acceleration of 1 ft/s2.
 The weight of the mass from equation (2) in BG units can be
expressed as:
w (lb) = m (slugs) g (ft/s2)
 With a standard gravity - g = 32.17405 ft/s2 - the mass of 1 slug
weights 32.17405 lbf (pound-force).
 The English Engineering System - EE
In the English Engineering system of units the primary dimensions are
force, mass, length, time and temperature. The units for force and mass
are defined independently
 the basic unit of mass is pound-mass (lbm)
 the unit of force is the pound (lb) alternatively pound-force (lbf).
 In the EE system 1 lb of force will give a mass of 1 lbm a standard
acceleration of 32.17405 ft/s2.
 Since the EE system operates with these units of force and mass, the
Newton's Second Law can be modified to
 F=ma (3)
 or transformed to weight
 w=mg (4)
 1 lbf = (1 lbm)(32.174 ft/s2)
or
 Since 1 lbf gives a mass of 1 lbm an acceleration of 32.17405 ft/s2 and a
mass of 1 slug an acceleration of 1 ft/s2, then
 1 slug = 32.17405 lbm
 Density
 Density is defined as an objects mass per unit volume.
 The density can be expressed as
ρ = m / V = 1 / vg (5)
where
ρ = density (kg/m3)
m = mass (kg)
V = volume (m3)
vg = specific volume (m3/kg)
 The SI units for density are kg/m3. The imperial (U.S.) units
are lb/ft3 (slugs/ft3). While people often use pounds per
cubic foot as a measure of density in the U.S., pounds are
really a measure of force, not mass. Slugs are the correct
measure of mass. You can multiply slugs by 32.2 for a rough
value in pounds.
 Relative Density (Specific Gravity)
 Relative density of a substance is the ratio of the
substance density to the density of water at 4oC.

Substance Relative density

Alcohol 0.82
Mercury 13.95
Paraffin 0.8
Petrol 0.72
Water (4oC) 1
Sea water 1.02
Aluminum 2.72
Brass 8,48
 Specific Weight
 Specific Weight is defined as weight per unit volume.
Weight is a force.
 Specific Weight can be expressed as
γ=ρg (6)
where
γ = specific weight (N/m3)
ρ = density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
 The SI-units of specific weight are N/m3. The imperial
units are lb/ft3. The local acceleration g is under
normal conditions 9.807 m/s2 in SI-units and 32.174
ft/s2 in imperial units.
 Example - Specific Weight Water
Specific weight for water at 39 oF (4 oC) is 62.4 lb/ft3
(9.81 kN/m3) in imperial units. Specific weight in SI
units can be calculated like
γ = (1000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2)
= 9810 N/m3
= 9.81 kN/m3
Specific Weight Some Materials
Specific Weight - γ

Product Imperial Units SI Units

(lb/ft3) (kN/m3)

Ethyl Alcohol 49.3 7.74

Gasoline 42.5 6.67
Glycerin 78.6 12.4
Mercury 847 133.7
SAE 20 Oil 57 8.95
Seawater 64 10.1
Water 62.4 9.81
 Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
 The Specific Gravity - SG - is a dimensionless unit
defined as the ratio of density of the material to the
density of water at a specified temperature. Specific
Gravity can be expressed as
SG = ρ / ρH2O (7)
where
SG = specific gravity
ρ = density of fluid or substance (kg/m3)
ρH2O = density of water (kg/m3)
 It is common to use the density of water at 4 oC (39oF)
as reference - at this point the density of water is at the
highest - 1000 kg/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3.
Example - Specific Gravity
 If the density of iron is 7850 kg/m3, 7.85 grams per
cubic centimeter (cm3), 7.85 kilograms per liter, or 7.85
metric tons per cubic meter - the specific gravity of
iron is:
 SG = (7850 kg/m3) / (1000 kg/m3)
= 7.85
 water density is 1000 kg/m3
 Dynamic (absolute) Viscosity
 Absolute viscosity or the coefficient of absolute viscosity is
a measure of the internal resistance. Dynamic (absolute)
viscosity is the tangential force per unit area required to
move one horizontal plane with respect to the other at unit
velocity when maintained a unit distance apart by the fluid.
 The shearing stress between the layers of non turbulent
fluid moving in straight parallel lines can be defined for a
Newtonian fluid as:
 The dynamic or absolute viscosity can be expressed like
τ = μ du/dy (8)
where
τ = shearing stress
μ = dynamic viscosity
Equation (8) is known as the Newton's Law of Friction.
 In the SI system the dynamic viscosity units are N s/m2, Pa s
or kg/m s where
 1 Pa s = 1 N s/m2 = 1 kg/m s
 The dynamic viscosity is also often expressed in the
metric CGS (centimeter-gram-second) system as g/cm.s,
dyne.s/cm2 or poise (p) where
 1 poise = dyne s/cm2 = g/cm .s = 1/10 Pa . s
 10 p = 1 kg/m . s
 For practical use the Poise is to large and it's usual divided by
100 into the smaller unit called the centiPoise (cP) where
 1 p = 100 cP
 Water at 68.4oF (20.2oC) has an absolute viscosity of one
centiPoise.
 Kinematic Viscosity
is the ratio of absolute or dynamic viscosity to density - a quantity in
which no force is involved. Kinematic viscosity can be obtained by
dividing the absolute viscosity of a fluid with it's mass density
ν=μ/ρ (9)
where
ν = kinematic viscosity
μ = absolute or dynamic viscosity
ρ = density
In the SI-system the theoretical unit is m2/s or commonly used
Stoke (St) where
1 St = 10-4 m2/s
1stoke= cm2/s
 Since the Stoke is an unpractical large unit, it is usual divided by 100
to give the unit called Centistokes (cSt) where
1 St = 100 cSt
1 cSt = 10-6 m2/s
 Since the specific gravity of water at 68.4oF (20.2oC) is almost one (1),
the kinematic viscosity of water at 68.4oF is for all practical purposes
1.0 cSt.
1 slug = 32.2 Ib = 14.6 kg
 Example
 The viscosity of water (fresh or salt) at 20°C is
approximately 0.01 P. Express this value in (a) SI and
(b) BG units.
Solution
(a)  = 0.01 poise = [0.01 gm /(cm .s)] (1kg /1000gm)
(100cm/m) = 0.001kg /(m .s)
(b)  = [0.001 kg/(m . s)] (1slug/14.59kg)(0.3048m/ft) =
2.09 × 10-5 slug/(ft . s)
 Note: Result (b) could have been found directly from (a)
by dividing (a) by the viscosity conversion factor 47.88
listed in Table.
 Example
The coefficient of dynamic viscosity () of water is
1.505 × 10-5 slug/ft . s; what is the value in:
(a) poises (b) SI units.
Solution
 = 1.505 × 10-5 ×32.2 × 453.6 × (1/30.48) =
= 7.2 × 10-3 gm/cm . s = 7.2 × 10-3 poises
[ Ib = 453.6 gm, slug = 32.2 Ib ]
 = 1.505 7.2 × 10-5 ×32.2 × (453.6/ 1000) × (1/0.3048) =
= 7.2 × 10-4 kg / m . s
Example :
The density of an oil is 850 kg/m3. Find its
relative density and Kinematics viscosity if the
dynamic viscosity is 5 x 10-3 kg/m .s .
Solution
oil= 850 kg/m3 water = 1000 Kg/m3
SGoil = 850 / 1000 = 0.85
Dynamic viscosity =  = 5×10-3 kg/m s
Kinematics viscosity = = / 
𝜇 5 ∗ 10−3
𝑣= = = 5.88 ∗ 10−6 𝑚2 𝑠 −1
𝜌 850
Example
5.6m3 of oil weighs 46 800 N. Find its mass density , , and
relative density, SG.
solution
Weight 46 800 = m g
Mass m = 46 800 / 9.81 = 4770.6 kg
Mass density  = Mass / volume = 4770.6 / 5.6 = 852 kg/m3
Relative density
𝜌 852
SG = = = 0.852
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1000
 Example
In a fluid the velocity measured at a distance of 75mm from the
boundary is 1.125m/s. The fluid has absolute viscosity 0.048 Pa s
and relative density 0.913. What is the velocity gradient and shear
stress at the boundary assuming a linear velocity distribution.
Solution
 = 0.048 Pa . s , S.G = 0.913
dv/dy = 1.125/0.075 = 15 s-1
 =  dv/dy = 0.048 × 15 = 0.72 Pa
COMPRESSIBILITY
 The compressibility is the measure of change of
volume (or density) when a substance is subjected to
pressure. The reciprocal of coefficient of compressibility
β is known as (1/ the bulk modulus of elasticity). Thus
The reciprocal of Coefficient of compressibility =
Percentage change in volume for a given change in
pressure.
 or β= 1/Ev
 A fluid may be compressed by the application of
pressure, thereby reducing its volume and giving rise to a
volumetric strain. Such a compressed fluid will expand to
its original volume when the applied pressure is
withdrawn. This property of compressibility of a fluid
is expressed by bulk modulus of elasticity.
 If by applying a pressure dp, the decrease in the fluid volume
is dV, then the bulk modulus of elasticity is defined as:

Ev = -dp/(dV/V)

where V = original fluid volume. The negative sign indicates

a decrease in volume with the increase in pressure. Since
most of the liquids have a comparatively high value of bulk
modulus of elasticity, the compressibility is very close to
zero and hence the liquids are considered practically
incompressible under ordinary conditions. The bulk
modulus of elasticity of fluid is not a constant but increases
with increasing pressure.
Example
 At standard atmospheric conditions, determine the increase in
pressure necessary to cause 1 % reduction in the volume of
water (Ev =1.96*109N/m2(Pa) ) ,
Solution
Ev = - dp / dV / V
 Reduction of volume by 1% results in , dV / V = 1/100 = 0.01
 (i)Increase in pressure of water to produce 1%
reduction in its volume
dp =1.96*109*0.01=1.96*107 N/m2 =19.6 MN/m2 =19.6 M Pa
Surface Tension and Capillarity
 Surface tension is a property
of liquids which is felt at the
interface between the liquid
and another fluid (typically a
gas). Surface tension has
dimensions of force per unit
length, and always acts
parallel to the interface.
Surface molecules are subject
to an attractive force from
nearby surface molecules so
that the surface is in a state of
tension.
 In case of a liquid drop or inside a jet, the action of the surface tension is to
increase the pressure inside, in relation to the outside pressure. In a liquid
drop of diameter d, if ∆p, is the difference of pressure between the inside
and outside of the drop.
 ∆p. (π d2/4) = σ π d
∆p = 4 σ/d
A soap bubble in air has two surfaces in
contact with air, one inside and the other ∆p. (π d2/4)
outside. The forces that act on the
hemispherical section are same as those 2σ π d
for the drop, but the surface tension force
is twice as great. The pressure difference
is given by: ∆p. (π d2/4)
∆p. (π d2/4) = 2σ π d
∆p = 8 σ/d
 When a glass tube is dipped vertically into water, the water rises
in the tube. If the glass tube is placed in mercury, the surface of
mercury inside the tube will be lower than the outside level.
 T. cos θ = (π d2/4).γh
 T=σπd
 σ π d. cos θ = (π d2/4).γh
 h = (4 cos θ).σ/γd
T σπd

(π d2/4).γh
 Example
 Calculate the capillary effect in millimeters in a glass tube of 4
mm diameter, when immersed in (i) water and (ii) mercury. The
temperature of the liquid is 20o C and the values of surface tension
of water and mercury at 20o C in contact with air are 0.0736 N/m
and 0.51 N/m respectively. The angle of contact for water is zero
and that for mercury130o.
Solution
Capillary rise in a circular tube is given by
h = (4 cos θ).σ/γd
 For water : σ = 0.0736 N/m, γ at 20oc = 9790 N/m3 , Θ = 0o ,d = 4*10-3 m
 h= (4 cos 0)×0.0736/(9790 * 4 * 10 -3) = 7.51 * 10-3 m =7.51mm (rise of water)
 For mercury: σ = 0.51 N/m, γ =13.6*9790=133 kN/m3 ,Θ =130o ,d = 4*10-3 m
h= (4 cos 130)×0.51/(133000* 4 * 10 -3) = 2.46 * 10-3 m
= 2.46mm(depression of mercury)