TYPE Policy and Practice Reviews

PUBLISHED 30 November 2022

DOI 10.3389/frsus.2022.1038323

Textiles in a circular economy:

OPEN ACCESS An assessment of the current
landscape, challenges, and
EDITED BY
Idiano D’Adamo,
Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
REVIEWED BY
Gianmarco Bressanelli,
opportunities in the
University of Brescia, Italy
Asela Kulatunga,
University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
United States
*CORRESPONDENCE
Kelsea A. Schumacher Kelsea A. Schumacher * and Amanda L. Forster
[email protected]
SPECIALTY SECTION
Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),
This article was submitted to Gaithersburg, MD, United States
Circular Economy,
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Sustainability The production and consumption of textile products traditionally follows a
RECEIVED 06 September 2022 largely linear (take, make, use, discard) economic model. Textiles are currently
ACCEPTED 27 October 2022
PUBLISHED 30 November 2022
being produced in greater volumes than ever before, even after accounting for
population growth, and unwanted products are discarded in mass quantities,
CITATION
Schumacher KA and Forster AL (2022) most of which ends up in landfills or incinerated. This model causes serious
Textiles in a circular economy: An social and environmental impacts and, thus, a transition to a more circular
assessment of the current landscape,
challenges, and opportunities in the economic model – where materials and products are kept within the economy
United States. through reuse, repair, and recycling – is necessary. However, many challenges
Front. Sustain. 3:1038323.
face a circular economy (CE) for textiles. Herein we discuss challenges and
doi: 10.3389/frsus.2022.1038323
opportunities with the current textiles recovery system in the United States
COPYRIGHT
© 2022 Schumacher and Forster. This
and outline activities and resources necessary to facilitate the transition to a
is an open-access article distributed CE in the U.S. Specifically, we describe the overarching need for collaboration,
under the terms of the Creative
system harmonization, and data and information exchange. We further outline
Commons Attribution License (CC BY).
The use, distribution or reproduction necessary actions in terms of standards development, labeling advancements,
in other forums is permitted, provided design characteristics, alternative business models for brands and retailers, end
the original author(s) and the copyright
owner(s) are credited and that the
market development for recyclers, community engagement and educational
original publication in this journal is programs, research and development, and the role of policy and regulation.
cited, in accordance with accepted
academic practice. No use, distribution
or reproduction is permitted which KEYWORDS

does not comply with these terms. circular economy (CE), textiles, sustainability, recycling, circularity

Introduction
The traditional life of textile products has followed a largely linear path, where raw
materials are extracted/harvested, manufactured, distributed, used, and then disposed,
typically in either landfills or incinerators. Interest and momentum are growing for a
transition to a circular economy (CE) to keep products and materials cycling within
the economy and out of unwanted sinks (e.g., land, air, and water systems) (Ellen
MacArthur Foundation, 2017; Piribauer and Bartl, 2019; Oregon State Legislature,
2021; European Commission, 2022). Unlike the linear economy, a circular economy

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Schumacher and Forster 10.3389/frsus.2022.1038323

aims to eliminate waste entirely by designing products Textiles production and waste
that are durable, reusable, and repairable using materials generation
that can be recovered and recycled at end-of-life (EoL)
(NIST, 2022). As a result, public and private organizations Textiles introduction
at the national and global scale are urging increased
circularity to address climate change, conserve limited Textiles are a broad category of flexible materials made
natural resources, reduce pollution, and lessen supply through spinning raw fibers into long and twisted lengths
chain disruptions (e.g., Ellen MacArthur Foundation, that are interlocked into bundles of yarns or threads and
2017; European Commission, 2018, 2022; United Nations, then woven, knitted, matted, or otherwise bound together
2022). into fabrics (The Textile Museum, 2021). Fibers generally
The textiles’ manufacturing industry is global and are categorized by their chemical origin, falling into two
fragmented, and while collection for resale (e.g., thrift classifications: natural and manmade/manufactured/synthetic
stores, donation bins) is practiced to some extent in the (Figure 1). Textiles can be comprised of single fiber types or
U.S., the majority of EoL textile products are discarded in a blend of two or more fiber types depending on the desired
landfills and burnt in incinerators (Adler, 2020; SMART, product characteristics (stretch, stain and/or water resistance,
2022). This represents a significant loss of material and durability, expense, etc.). Many products utilize textiles, and
economic value and causes acute social and environmental several (e.g., mattresses) have developed individual supply
impacts. Progress is being made in the transition to a CE chains and management programs at EoL. For this reason,
for textiles, but many challenges persist. Recent academic textiles herein refers to those used in clothing and apparel,
research has applied multi-modal methods to assess and outdoor equipment (e.g., tents), home and hospitality (e.g.,
prioritize challenges facing the circular textiles industry towels, linens, etc.), upholstery fabrics, stuffed toys, and post-
in Taiwan (Huang et al., 2021). Others have established industrial textiles such as manufacturer clippings, overstock,
a conceptual framework to tackle barriers to CE supply deadstock, off-spec, and returns.
chains for textiles in select economies (Kazancoglu et al.,
2020). Several other recent review articles (Jia et al., 2020;
Bressanelli et al., 2022a) have applied thorough literature
analysis, expert surveys, and convened panels of experts in an Growth of textiles production and fast
effort to identify the greatest challenges impacting circularity fashion
in the textiles industry, some at a regional level, and some
more broadly. Textile production has increased dramatically over the last
The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology two decades, reaching nearly 100 million metric tons (Mt)
(NIST) has recently undertaken a research effort to identify produced in 2020, nearly double that produced in 2000 and
the technical and economic barriers inhibiting a CE for quadruple the production of 1970 (Niinimäki et al., 2020). While
textiles in the U.S., and methods of addressing those barriers demand for cotton, wool, and cellulosics has remained fairly
domestically. The focus of this effort included extending constant over the decades, demand for synthetics, especially
beyond the literature to directly engage with stakeholders polyester, has increased tremendously (Textile Exchange, 2021).
in the industry to identify these needs and potential next It is estimated that today 60% of clothing and 70% of household
steps to address them. This paper begins with a background textiles comprise synthetic fibers, and this trend is expected to
on textiles, their production and waste generation, and the increase into the future as consumers in emerging economies
social and environmental impacts associated with the current adopt Western lifestyles and attire (Niinimäki et al., 2020;
industry. We then discuss challenges and opportunities with the Mortensen, 2021). Currently, 60% of global fiber produced
current recovery system, diving into the various practices (e.g., is destined for the fashion industry, with the remainder
collection, sorting, grading, repair, and recycling) associated used for interiors, industrial textiles, geotextiles, agrotextiles,
with textiles circularity as well as overarching aspects that and hygienic textiles, among other uses (Niinimäki et al.,
influence circularity, for better or worse (e.g., economics 2020).
and the direct relationship between plastics and textiles). The textile manufacturing sector is a complex industry
NIST conducted a workshop to engage with this stakeholder due to its fragmented and heterogeneous nature that
community and better understand their needs (Schumacher and is dominated by small and medium enterprises (SMEs)
Forster, 2022). To the authors’ knowledge this manuscript is (Hasanbeigi and Price, 2012). In the current linear model
the first comprehensive publication to evaluate the circularity of (Figure 2), the value chain of textiles is characterized by
the textiles system in the U.S. based on insight from experts in vertical disintegration and global dispersion of successive
the field to identify concrete steps that may facilitate a circular processes that span several industries including agriculture
economy for textiles. (natural fibers) and petrochemicals (synthetic fibers) as well

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FIGURE 1
Classification by fiber type [as defined in Morton and Hearle (2001); Code of Federal Regulations (2022)].

FIGURE 2
Current linear supply chain of textile products with associated natural capital inputs and environmental impacts [adapted from Niinimäki et al.
(2020); European Environment Agency (2021)].

as manufacturing, distribution logistics, and retail (Niinimäki manufacturing and labor costs. China now dominates the
et al., 2020). production market, annually exporting an estimated $109.9
Growing production of textiles has aligned with a global shift billion worth of textiles and $158.4 billion worth of apparel (Lu,
of textile and garment production from developed to developing 2021). Other major textile and garment producing countries
countries, which generally have a competitive advantage in include India, Turkey, South Korea, Bangladesh, Pakistan,

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and Vietnam (Bevilacqua et al., 2014; Niinimäki et al., 2020).

Currently, more than 90% of apparel sold in the U.S. is imported
from other countries (Yao, 2021). This global shift in production
has led to increased complexity and reduced transparency of
supply chains as each step of the supply chain often occurs in a
different geographical region with unique labor, economic, and
environmental policies (Niinimäki et al., 2020). The textile and
clothing industry is a major contributor to economies around
the world and is estimated to be worth over $3 trillion and
employs 300 million people, many of them women (Hiller, 2021;
UN Alliance for Sustainable Fashion, 2021).

Fast fashion
The tremendous growth in textiles production, particularly
since the mid-1990s, has been largely driven by the rise of fast
fashion. Taxes on imports/exports diminished at that time, and
FIGURE 3
manufacturing moved to countries with lower labor costs and Percent change since 1960 of textile waste and total municipal
reduced regulatory requirements (Niinimäki, 2021). The term solid waste (MSW) generation in the U.S., based on EPA data (US
EPA, 2020; Code of Federal Regulations, 2022).
fast fashion describes the mass manufacturing and marketing
of low-cost clothing that is quickly transferred from a design
concept to retail stores. It is thus “fast” in several ways: (1) rate of
production, (2) number of fashion cycles, delivery, consumers’
decision to purchase, and (3) rate at which garments are worn The rate of both pre- and post-consumer textile waste
and disposed (Crumbie, 2021). generation has increased significantly over the last several
Social media has also been a driver of fast fashion, as higher decades. Figure 3 presents the percent change since 1960 of
visibility has increased the rate at which trends cycle. From a post-consumer textile waste generation and total municipal
business model perspective, fast fashion has been exceptionally solid waste (MSW) generation, per U.S. EPA data (US EPA,
successful. However, it has caused negative social impacts on 2020). Textile waste generation increased 868 % during the
the workforce, and has resulted in a situation where cheap reported timeframe while total MSW increased 232%. On a
product prices lead to unsustainable consumption behavior per capita basis, textile waste grew 55% between 2000 and
and ultimately fuels a culture of consumption and disposal. 2018, indicating that the increased textile waste generation is
Additionally, fast fashion products tend to be lower in quality not only due to population growth but also increased affluence
and, therefore, are often not durable or suitable for resale, repair, (Adler, 2021). Each American discarded an average of 47 kg (104
or repurposing into alternative textile products (e.g., wiping lbs) of textiles in 2018. By comparison, the annual per capita
rags) (Niinimäki et al., 2020). discard rates in Finland and Sweden are 17 kg per capita and
24 kg per capita, respectively (Niinimäki, 2021). In 2018, textiles
comprised 5.83% of the total municipal solid waste (MSW)
Textile waste generation stream generated in the U.S. (roughly 15.5 million metric tons)
(US EPA, 2021a). It must be noted, however, that the U.S. EPA
Textile waste sources include clothing and apparel, does not track or measure the volumes of textiles donated to
home and hospitality textiles, contract textiles, uniforms and non-profits or charities for reuse, which potentially comprises a
workwear, and upholstery fabrics as well as manufacturer or large, unrepresented segment of the total volume of discarded
retailer overstock, deadstock, off-spec, damages, and returns textiles. Additionally, insufficient data exists to confidently
(Adler, 2021). Distinctions are made between pre-consumer measure pre-consumer textile waste generated through different
(often referred to as post-industrial) waste, which is generated supply chain production stages (e.g., fiber processing, textile
during the manufacturing process (i.e., before it reaches the production, garment manufacturing). That said, it is estimated
consumer), and post-consumer waste, which is generated by the that somewhere between 2 to 20% of all textiles produced
consumer after use (Federal Trade Commission, 2012). The are discarded as waste during garment production (Magruder,
former tends to be the cleanest and easiest stream to identify 2022).
material compositions, while the latter represents the highest The current recovery rate for textiles in the U.S. is
volume stream that includes blends of all fiber types and often approximately 15%, while the remaining 85% of discarded
contain contaminants (Wang, 2010; Johnson et al., 2020). clothing and textiles are sent for landfill or incineration (King,

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FIGURE 4
Current fate of used textiles in the United States. Question marks indicate flows for which reliable data are unavailable. Shoddy is made from
shredded fibers and used for insulation and stuffing. Based on data from Adler (2021), US EPA (2021b), Magruder (2022).

2021; US EPA, 2021b). The volume recovered are collected nations. The major importing countries are in Africa, Asia, and
either through donation to thrift stores and charities or collected Central America and the benefits and detriments of importing
through curbside collection programs and retail store takebacks used textiles are a subject of significant debate (Adler, 2021).
(Figure 4) (Adler, 2020). It is estimated that thrift stores sell Several countries in Eastern Africa have collectively banned the
approximately 20% of textile donations, while the remainder are import of used textiles to protect their own domestic textile
sold to sorters-graders who assess and sort the textiles based industries (United Nations, 2018).
on quality, condition, and format to be sold to appropriate
downstream markets, such as reuse/resale in domestic or
international markets, down cycled to rags or stuffing, or sent for Social and environmental impacts of the
disposal (Adler, 2021; King, 2021). Industry experts claim that textiles industry
a significant amount of textiles are not sorted or graded before
being exported and sold internationally (Magruder, 2022). The textile industry is rife with negative social and
Currently, less than 1% of textiles collected go to fiber-to-fiber environmental impacts due to the high usage of energy, water,
recycling (Adler, 2021). and chemicals; the leakage of pollutants to environmental sinks;
The cost of managing textile waste in the U.S. is significant. and the lack of sound and enforced environmental and social
In 2020, it was estimated that textile collection and disposal regulations in nations where production and manufacturing
cost Americans over $4 billion based on average disposal fees currently takes place. Figure 2 displays the resource inputs and
and collection costs (Adler, 2021). This cost will likely increase resulting emissions along the textiles supply chain. Natural
as transportation costs rise and available landfill capacity fibers, especially cotton, require large amounts of land, water,
is reduced. and agrochemicals for production. By comparison, synthetic
Export of used clothing to low-income regions is a common fibers such as polyester and nylon rely heavily on petroleum
practice for garments that do not have a market in wealthier feedstocks and therefore have high climate change impacts, but

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have low demand for land and mineral resources, and low While many modern wastewater treatment plants can effectively
toxicity during production. Ultimately, all textile materials have capture MPF, they generally do so in the sewage sludge which, in
environmental impacts and shifting away from one to another the U.S. and Europe, is then often used on agricultural soils, thus
may only serve to shift the environmental burden; therefore, directly releasing the MPF to the environment (Cai et al., 2020).
efforts should focus on reducing the impacts of all fiber types. Furthermore, as discussed above, many low-income countries
The textile industry consists of many production and do not have modern wastewater treatment facilities and, thus,
manufacturing facilities that together consume a significant untreated wastewater is often directly discharged to waterways
amount of energy (Niinimäki et al., 2020). Many of these (WWAP, 2017). Other sources of MPF leakage are expected
facilities are in regions of the world where fossil fuels dominate to be through textiles production (wastewater effluent from
the energy supply and as a result are a substantial source production facilities) as well as the degradation or fragmentation
of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Further, the global of textiles during use and EoL (i.e., in landfills) (Henry et al.,
distribution of the textiles supply chain requires substantial 2019; Lynch, 2021). Discarded fishing nets, which are made of
transportation, which itself is a significant source of carbon synthetic fibers, are also expected to be a significant source of
emissions (European Environment Agency, 2021). Therefore, MPF in the oceans (Lynch, 2021).
reducing GHG emissions associated with textiles production is While any country producing textiles and textile products
necessary to address climate change. experiences negative social impacts, the globalization of
Additionally, the textile industry is a major water consumer the textile and fashion industry has resulted in the uneven
and source of water pollution. Quantifying the global water distribution of environmental consequences. Low-income
consumption used by the industry is challenging, and estimates countries are largely responsible for producing textiles and
range from 20 trillion liters (L) to 215 trillion L (World Bank, clothing and, thus, most exposed to the impacts associated with
2019; Niinimäki et al., 2020; Hiller, 2021; UN Alliance for production. As such, they bear the burden for wealthy countries,
Sustainable Fashion, 2021). Nearly all phases of the supply chain who represent the largest share of consumers.
utilize water in some capacity, and water demand of textiles use, Working conditions and labor rights should also be included
particularly for clothing, is high due to laundering. Furthermore, in a discussion about the social impacts of the textiles
some areas where fibers and textiles are produced are already industry. Undeniably, the textiles industry is a major source
facing water stress, which is exemplified by the fact that many of of employment, particularly for women. However, producing
these regions do not have the water purification infrastructure nations often lack occupational health and safety regulations,
in place to properly treat and recirculate water (Niinimäki minimum wage requirements, or child labor restrictions,
et al., 2020; Hiller, 2021). The amount of water used in the making labor justice an issue. The collapse of the Rana
textiles industry is expected to increase, which combined with Plaza building in Dhaka, Bangladesh that housed five garment
population growth, will further stress water availability. factories resulted in the death of over 1,100 people. The
Chemicals are used or applied in nearly every stage of event has become a symbol of the working conditions of
the textile supply chain. While agrochemicals are used on garment manufacturers and spurred movements to improve
natural fiber crops, synthetic fiber production is a complex labor standards, although many still face resistance (Bair et al.,
industrial chemical process with many petrochemical inputs. 2020).
Textile manufacturing processes such as spinning and weaving Transitioning to a CE for textiles has the potential
utilize lubricants, accelerators, and solvents and wet processing to address many of these impacts and impart social and
of fabrics use chemicals such as bleaches, dyes, water, and stain environmental benefits. Extending the life of products and
repellents, among others (Niinimäki et al., 2020). Some of these recycling at EoL reduces the resource demands and emissions
chemicals can be harmful to the environment, factory workers and pollution associated with the production of new garments.
and local communities, and consumers. For example, per- and At present these environmental benefits are difficult to quantify,
polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are widely used synthetic as they are process and location dependent and necessitate
chemicals that make clothing, carpets, and other products to sufficient and reliable data and lifecycle assessments. Additional
impart water or stain repellent properties yet are of concern work is needed to measure these benefits. Textile circularity
because of their persistence in the environment, solubility in also has social benefits particularly through the donation
groundwater, and potential adverse health effects (Peaslee et al., of used products to charities for resale. The donation and
2020; US EPA, 2021c). resale ecosystem provides reliable jobs (often to marginalized
Microplastic fibers (MPF), also known as microfibers, are populations), supports charities’ fundraising efforts and social
small (less than 5 millimeters in length) plastic threadlike missions, and enables such organizations to extend the
fibers that are increasingly being recognized as a source of life and value of textiles (Schumacher and Forster, 2022).
environmental pollution. The predominant leakage pathway is Additionally, textile repair and recycling industries have the
expected to be through the laundering of synthetic clothing, potential to provide many job opportunities domestically
where abrasion causes the shedding of MPF to the water effluent. and abroad.

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Challenges and opportunities with TABLE 1 Challenges and opportunities for textiles collection
(Schumacher and Forster, 2022).
the current textiles recovery system
Collection
This section presents current practices employed, Challenge Opportunity
challenges, and opportunities for advancement regarding No established infrastructure for Need significant evolutionary change,
the collection, sorting-grading, and recycling of textiles, convenient, consistent, widespread, not incremental improvement
with a primary focus on the U.S. system. Furthermore, the and reliable collection
complex market relationship between the plastics and textile Current system is fragmented and Expanding collection on the scale
industries, particularly with respect to the demand for recycled ad hoc necessary requires involvement and
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), is also discussed. cooperation from brands and retailers as
well as legislation
No harmonized textile collection Need harmonized collection rules with
rules or standards: materials must an emphasis on preserving the quality
Collection, sortation, and grading be clean, dry, and have no odor or without contamination
hazardous chemicals to maintain
Current textile collection generally includes thrift stores
value
and charities, drop-off centers, curbside collection programs,
High transportation costs Consumers need to recognize the value
donation bins, and retail store takeback programs. However,
of used textiles and know options and
availability of these programs differs greatly across the U.S.
best practices for collection
As mentioned previously, only 15% of textile waste is
currently recovered in the U.S., with the remainder going
Sorting/Grading
to incineration/landfill. This represents a significant need to
Challenge Opportunity
educate consumers on the value of post-use textile products
Currently relies on manual labor, Development of high-speed automated
and available collection alternatives. Further, products not sold
which is expensive sorting systems
through resale are sorted and graded for cascading uses and
Manual sorting cannot identify Advancements in sorting technologies,
end markets (such as wiping materials, shoddy, fiber recycling).
fiber composition identification of fiber composition, and
Specific challenges and opportunities facing textiles collection,
digital identification on products
sorting, and grading are identified in Table 1.
Widespread access to consistent collection services is Existing technologies are incapable Advancements in artificial intelligence

essential to support downstream markets for used textiles. of screening for current styles and (AI) algorithms to identify and

Textiles cannot be readily added to existing recycling services trends or identifying rips, stains, or automatically screen textile inputs

due to contamination and because municipal recycling facilities wear

are not typically equipped to separate out textiles. Textiles could No harmonized sorting standards Standards and best practices for sorting

potentially be collected separately as part of waste/recycling or criteria criteria

collection services (e.g., in a separate container), but this comes Lack of dedicated textile sorting Establishment of dedicated domestic

with increased cost and logistics (Brasch, 2021). It is argued that facilities sorting facilities

if the downstream processes and end markets are improved,

waste management haulers can readily extend collection services
to include textiles but implementing collection programs before Currently, approximately 20% of collected textiles are reused
end markets are ready for large volumes can be damaging for through domestic resale (Figure 4) and some is directly exported
local programs (Brasch, 2021). and sold internationally (Adler, 2021; Magruder, 2022). Textiles
That said, recyclers are hesitant to invest in large-scale not sent for resale are sorted and graded for alternative uses
infrastructure without major improvements in collection to and markets. This involves the identification and categorization
provide reliable, high-volume feedstock streams. For example, of textiles based on quality, condition, and format for sale in
a major recycler will not invest the required $20 million to downstream markets (Adler, 2021). While some sorting and
$25 million to construct a recycling facility without knowing grading is done in the U.S. (namely in Texas and California),
it can collect 34,000 to 45,000 metric tons (75 million much of it is done in the United Arab Emirates, India, Pakistan,
to 100 million pounds) of textiles. Increasing collection to and Central America where labor costs are lower (King, 2021).
warrant this investment requires a combination of brands However, freight costs for overseas shipping have increased
and retailer takeback programs, charity, for profit, and significantly in recent years along with decreased availability
municipal collection programs as well as legislation to of shipping containers. These factors, together with the import
stimulate the investment needed to transition from a linear to bans discussed previously could influence the export of textiles
circular economy. for these practices.

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At present, sorting and grading is primarily performed TABLE 2 Challenges and opportunities for textiles reuse and repair
(Schumacher and Forster, 2022).
manually, although technologies are increasingly being
employed, particularly to aid in fiber identification. Near- Challenge Opportunity
infrared (NIR)-spectroscopy is one such technology, which Lagging consumer and industry Education regarding garment care, reuse,
is widely used in automated sorting applications for other acceptance that reuse is highest and repair
segments of the recycling industry, such as PET recycling and best use for the Education to support increased popularity
(Barker, 2021). Challenges ensue, however, as post-consumer environment and awareness of the benefits of reused/
textiles increasingly consist of different fiber blends. At present, repaired products
the margin of error for fiber identification technologies is still General public lacks knowledge, Workshops or educational resources that
too large for many recyclers (namely chemical recyclers) who tools, interest, or time to repair help the general public learn basic garment
require very pure feedstock (e.g., 80 to 95% purity) (Schumacher garments repair skills
and Forster, 2022). As a result, many identification technologies Disenfranchised repair industry Programs aimed at assisting those employed
on the market still require some level of human labor. in the repair industry
A need exists for the development and expansion of
Materials must be clean and dry Consumer education on best practices for
high-speed automated sortation systems. This is necessary to
and have no odor or hazardous donating and purchasing used products
reduce the cost of manual labor, especially given the volume
chemicals
of textiles required to support large-scale textile-to-textile
People throw unwanted Build industry acceptance and support for
recycling as well as rapid fiber identification. Such a system
materials away and do not resell and repair industries
would ideally combine NIR spectroscopy, artificial intelligence,
understand reuse capabilities
and robotics; the former to identify fiber types and provide
Fast fashion clothing quality is Consumer education on the true impact of
percentages of polymer/material compositions, and the latter
inferior, not suitable for resell or fast fashion and lower quality goods and
two to separate the textiles based on desired categories (e.g., fiber
conversion and appropriate standards for quality and durability of textiles
composition, color, etc.). Efforts are underway in this regard
only for lower uses, e.g., wiping
(Fibersort, 2021) and necessitate the simultaneous expansion in
rags
collection of feedstock as well as growth in demand of outputs.
Automated sorting systems could be included in domestic textile
sorting facilities (e.g., textile material recovery facilities, MRFs)
distributed across the country to allow for the development of The repair sector is integral to the circularity of textiles,
regional textile recovery hubs and increased waste diversion forming partnerships and collaborations may take additional
(Adler, 2021). effort. Furthermore, large-scale, franchised garment repair is
Digital identifiers (IDs) such as Quick Response (QR) not economical in the current system due to increasing
codes or Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags on textile transportation costs, time consuming processes, decreasing
products have the potential to increase the speed and efficiency quality of clothing due to Fast Fashion trends, and the relatively
of textile sorting. Rapid attribute identification such as fiber low cost of new garments. Efforts must be made to educate
composition, chemical additives, etc., would greatly enhance the consumers on the value and pathways for used products, as well
sorting-grading process. This topic is discussed in further detail as build industry acceptance for reused and repaired garments
in the Section Labeling. (e.g., brand takeback and resell programs). Some brands have
recently launched a repair service for consumers to send in
damaged garments for repair and have reported significant
Reuse and repair consumer participation with this model (Feitelberg, 2018).

Reuse of used textile products is the highest value approach

when compared to alternative pathways (e.g., repurposing or Recycling
recycling) and offers the lowest impact from an environmental
standpoint (King, 2021). However, several challenges currently Recycling is the next approach to retain value in textile
face reuse and repair industries, which are outlined in Table 2. products after reuse and repair. In general, textile recycling
As previously mentioned, 85% of post-consumer textiles are involves reprocessing post-industrial or post-consumer textiles
currently discarded in the municipal waste stream, eliminating into new products, but several classifications of textile recycling
the potential for circularity. This signifies a lack of consumer routes exist that require defining. The term recycling refers to
knowledge about the continued value and reuse capabilities. the conversion of textile waste into something approximating
Furthermore, today’s consumers lack the ability, interest, or time the same value (e.g., recovery of fibers back into fibers), but
to repair broken or damaged products and choose to discard and is often also used as the catch-all for all forms of recovery
buy new rather than seek repair support. pathways. Upcycling refers to turning discarded textile material

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into something of higher value (e.g., making new garments or recycling still requires pre-processing for most raw materials to
products with materials from waste textiles). Downcycling is meet input specifications and material handling requirements,
the turning of waste textile material into something of lower which generally include mechanical processes.
value such as rags. In closed-loop recycling, the material from a Both chemical and mechanical recycling processes are
product is recycled and used in a similar or identical product, sensitive to feedstock purity. Current recycling technologies
whereas in open-loop recycling material from a product is cannot process mixed material inputs (e.g., garments made
recycled and used in different products (often referred to as from two or more fibers) nor can they process chemicals
cascade recycling). and finishes applied to garments. As such, un-processable
Textile recycling generally includes mechanical and/or fractions, or low-purity, low-value feedstocks must be removed
chemical processes that turn textile fabrics back into their fiber and disposed of properly, which represents considerable waste
components to then be remanufactured into fabrics. Mechanical by itself (Wang, 2022). In general, the higher the feedstock
recycling processes generally include shredding waste textiles purity, the lower the availability, and vice versa, and lower
into small fractions, carding to release the fibers, bleaching, and feedstock purity generally results in higher processing costs.
then re-spinning those fibers into new yarns. This process is best Purity requirements of feedstock for chemical recycling range
suited for mono-fiber materials (e.g., acrylic, pure cotton, and from 80 to 95%, depending on the method employed (Bender,
wool) due to their fiber yield. That said, mechanical recycling 2021). Color-independent processes naturally increase the
shortens the staple fiber length, compromising the strength feedstock availability. This reinforces the need for identification
and softness of recycled fibers. As a result, fabrics that include and composition of fiber types and blends (e.g., percent of
mechanically recycled fibers can generally only use 20 to 30% fiber composition).
of recycled fibers before the quality of the fabric is reduced Modern consumers have expressed a preference for comfort
(Johnson et al., 2020). Post-consumer waste results in lower- and stretch in their clothing, thus increasingly products include
quality recycled fiber due to degradation during wear, therefore, small amounts of elastane. This practice is problematic for
only pre-consumer waste is typically recycled mechanically recycling as elastane is difficult to separate from other fibers,
(Johnson et al., 2020). and current technologies are not capable of recovering elastane.
Chemical recycling refers to the process of using chemical Therefore, a need exists for processes to separate out and
methods to disassemble textiles back to their basic chemical recycle elastane.
components. Most chemical recycling technologies are in the Currently, post-industrial (or pre-consumer) streams are the
start-up research and development phase (between technology most successful for mechanical recycling because they comprise
readiness levels 3 to 7) with only a few operating at scale a designated stream with known characteristics and have not
(e.g., Aquafil Global, 2022; Lenzing, 2022). Chemical recycling lost quality due to wear and laundering. However, they also
approaches for synthetic, polymer-based textiles, typically represent a smaller volume than post-consumer waste streams
include depolymerization to reclaim the monomer or oligomer that comprise a mixture of garment types, fiber types/blends
constituents which can then be repolymerized and re-spun and quality, colors, additives, and finishes/coatings. However,
into new, virgin-like fibers (Wang, 2010). Natural or cellulosic as discussed previously, the post-consumer textile supply chain
fiber approaches include dissolution in solvent systems or is currently not capable of supplying future recycling plants
derivatization into viscose compounds. The former produces (namely chemically recycling plants) with the volume needed
cotton fibers that can be re-spun into recycled fibers while to drive circularity. Further, due to high processing costs,
the latter produces viscose products that can be used for fiber recycled fibers are often more expensive than their virgin-
production as well as other applications (Johnson et al., 2020). based counterparts. Therefore, to increase the uptake of recycled
It is worth noting that, due to the nature of chemical recycling, textiles requires market acceptance of a premium cost associated
where recycled polymers become indistinguishable from their with recovered textiles, increased support and demand for
virgin counterparts, accounting tools such as Mass Balance recycled content from brands, and/or subsidies to support the
Accounting (MBA) will be required to trace recycled content development and expansion of recycling infrastructure.
through the process (Beers et al., 2022).
Table 3 presents challenges and opportunities facing the
mechanical and chemical recycling of textiles. Recycling Plastics vis-à-vis textiles
routes often consist of a combination of mechanical and
chemical processes. For example, garments are first subjected to While “fiber-to-fiber” recycling is not yet widely practiced,
mechanical pretreatment to remove items such as zippers and “bottle-to-fiber” is common practice, in which PET bottles are
buttons, then ground or shredded and, in some cases (e.g., carpet mechanically recycled into polyester textiles. Nearly all recycled
recycling), separation and debonding of components using polyester is derived from PET bottles and, as a result, textiles are
mechanical methods (e.g., loop-clipping, density separation, currently the largest outlet for recycled PET, greater than bottle-
centrifugation) is needed (Wang, 2010). In this regard, chemical to-bottle recycling. This is largely due to the more forgiving fiber

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TABLE 3 Challenges and opportunities for textiles recycling (Schumacher and Forster, 2022).

Challenge Chemical Mechanical Opportunity

recycling recycling
Recycling economics require subsidization • • Establishment of post-consumer textile supply chain and
new economic prospects
No dedicated funding for scaling of recycling • • Development of domestic recycling options
technologies
Removal of dyes, additives, finishes • • Advancements in separation of components and removal of
buttons, zippers, etc.
Does not work well for blends • • Advancements in separation of blended fibers
Degradation of fibers during processing • Advancements in recycling methodologies
Post-consumer textiles result in lower quality recycled • Advancements in spun yarn technology to take advantage of
fiber shorter fiber lengths
High temperature, pressure, time, and cost • Advancement in chemical recycling processes
requirements
Use or production of hazardous chemicals • Evaluation of alternative/greener chemicals for recycling
Requires pure, reliable, high-volume feedstock • Development of clear guidelines and input feedstock metrics
No processes for select, common fiber types • Development of methods to separate and process
non-cellulosic/polyester content
Unknown energy consumption and overall • Quantification of environmental impact for chemical
environmental impacts recycling

market and favorable cost structure compared to food-grade the business model (Bender, 2022). Options to address this
end markets (Adler, 2020). Polyester currently constitutes the concern include industry or public policy requirements for
most widely used fiber in the apparel industry and while only mandatory post-consumer recycled content, or policies such
14% of polyester currently comes from recycled inputs, industry as Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR). The latter might
stakeholders would like that to increase to 45% by 2025 (Textile allow for a funding mechanism that supports circular business
Exchange, 2022). However, as more food and beverage brands models through options such as eco-modulated fees, which are
commit to recycled content targets, and regulation of packaging varying levels of fees on virgin raw materials and products that
companies increases, competition for recycled PET will increase do not meet different thresholds of minimum recycled content
and recycled content for textile and apparel brands will be criteria, that could drive design for recyclability. Consumer-
harder to achieve. This tremendous crossover between recycled driven initiatives, such as sustainable fashion driven by pop
polyester and PET packaging must be considered holistically to culture and social media could also influence the economics of
ensure adequate supply for all end uses and selection of the most textiles circularity.
efficient circular pathway for all materials. The globalization of the textiles industry has resulted in
the shift of garment production from developed countries in
the West to developing countries, primarily in southeast Asia.
Economics and globalization While this shift has complicated supply chain logistics and
transparency therein, it may also be viewed as an opportunity to
Circularity for textiles is not economical in the current revitalize former textile industrial districts in the West to expand
system. As indicated above, large-scale textile reuse and repair is CE practices. As experienced in the industrial district of Prato,
hindered by high transportation and labor costs and decreasing Italy, historically a center for textile production of international
quality and cost of new clothing due to fast fashion. Similarly, relevance, has become recognized for its reorganization and
the cost to collect and recycle textiles exceeds the price revitalization with a focus on circular textiles, primarily the
that end users are willing to pay for the product. Often, recovery and recycling of woolen products (Bressanelli et al.,
consumers are unwilling to pay “the circular premium”, that 2022a,b). Similar opportunities for enhanced circularity have
is, the difference in price for a circular product (e.g., made also been identified other geographic regions (Kazancoglu
from bio-based or recycled materials) than a traditionally et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2021). In this sense, the traditional
manufactured product (D’Adamo and Lupi, 2021). Even if the labor market, supply chain structure and relationships, and
U.S. were to expand collection systems, processing systems, political environment can be utilized and adapted to support the
and market demand, the economics do not currently support transition of industrial districts to a CE.

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The challenges described above closely align with those and serving the diverse perspectives and needs of various
identified in several recent research reviews. Bressanelli et al. stakeholders. Innovative strategic partnerships including
(2022a) discerned design, legislation, and labor competences public-private partnerships can be powerful tools in developing
as key challenges preventing a CE for the textile industry in recovery systems, advancing successful business models,
Prato, Italy. Kazancoglu et al. (2020) recognized the primary and raising capital and financing for public and private
challenges facing circularity were management and decision- infrastructure. Collaboration can drive information sharing,
making (the business decision to pursue circularity), high labor organizational learning, and technology exchange, and thus
intensity (e.g., for collection, sorting, and repair of textiles), requires trust and transparency. As such, communication
design challenges, materials (the inclusion of non-recyclable channels must be enabled and supported that are participatory
materials, chemicals, and additives in textiles), rules and and inclusive. Collaborations must include the stakeholders
regulation, knowledge and awareness of circularity, integration depicted in Figure 5.
and collaboration, cost, and technical infrastructure. Jia et al. Several challenges face this collaboration, particularly for
(2020) described organization barriers, meaning those related select stakeholder groups. Some stakeholders are unable to
to a particular company’s policies, such as internal support for participate in external events such as virtual meetings or
circularity, metrics for performance, access to resources such as workshops because they do not have the computing capability,
training for employees, and adequate strategic planning. Next, access, or the time. Despite these challenges, collaboration
they discussed financial barriers, given that cost is a major with these communities is vital to the successful transition
obstacle to adopting new practices, and finally they named policy to circularity and as such, may require additional effort
barriers, such as a lack of regulations and laws surrounding to connect with these stakeholders. For example, doing
sustainable practices that extend beyond waste management personal outreach, lessening restrictions, or providing access and
and consider the full value chain for textiles. Similar barriers translation services.
were also explored by Huang et al. (2021) who found
governmental and regulatory issues, economic and financial
issues, technological issues, societal issues, organizational and
managerial issues, and infrastructural, supply chain, and market Harmonizing communications and
issues, many of which were also identified by the other systems
reviews and discussed herein. This indicates that there is
general consensus amongst the community regarding the biggest There is a significant need to harmonize many aspects of
challenges facing a CE for textiles and the next section will the textiles system including identifying and agreeing upon
discuss some methods to address them. aspects such as a common language, definitions, classifications,
industry tools, and standards. For example, the very definition
of textiles, as well as what products are included is not well
Steps to a circular economy for established. Definitions and classifications of waste, second-
textiles hand, and materials for recycling is particularly ambiguous
across countries (e.g., in trade codes) and need to be further
Addressing the challenges and fostering the opportunities clarified (OECD, 2020). Similarly, agreement is needed on
identified above necessitates several actions. Collaboration concepts such as biodegradable and bio-based polymers.
across the textiles value chain can support system harmonization Agreement is also needed regarding whether contamination
and the collection and exchange of data and information, includes chemicals introduced by design, stains and residue
which are all necessary for circularity. The following section resulting from product use, or both. Classifications for waste
explains each of these steps in greater detail. Note that all audit studies must also be harmonized to enable comparisons
the steps discussed below are deemed necessary to realize a and compilation.
circular economy for textiles and thus are not presented in any Standards related to a circular economy for textiles
prioritized order. are emerging at various levels around the world (e.g.,
Global Standard GmbH, 2021; ISO, 2022; Textile Exchange,
2022). Harmonization of these standards at the international
Collaboration level is needed to promote interoperability and facilitate
trade for businesses with circular modes of operations
Transitioning to a circular economy for textiles requires an (OECD, 2020).
uncommon amount of cross-sectoral collaboration. Increased Additionally, tools to characterize and model textiles
communications between stakeholders throughout the value circularity must be comprehensive, consistent, and transparent.
chain and reverse logistics are necessary to understanding Lifecycle assessment (LCA), techno-economic analysis (TEA),
the many different dimensions of the issue and recognizing and material flow analysis (MFA) are examples of systems-level

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FIGURE 5
Connections and collaborations needed between stakeholders to facilitate a CE for textiles.

assessment tools that can serve as a baseline for environmental Acquiring or collecting reliable data is a significant challenge
impacts, identify supply vulnerabilities, and support cost-benefit for several reasons, including opaque supply chains, proprietary
analysis, policy evaluations, supply-demand scenarios, and information, lack of data tracking by brands, cost of data
economic feasibility studies. However, to be accurate and useful, collection and reporting, lack of resources or knowledgeable
these tools need more consistency between data inputs, system personnel, inconsistent use of terms, and a general lack
boundaries, functional units, and assumptions. As a result, of transparency across the industry. Further, while many
any comprehensive assessment of the circularity of textiles will companies and organizations (e.g., Producer Responsibility
require significant advances in the tools and data currently Organizations) are collecting significant amounts of data, they
available to evaluate the entire economic, manufacturing are often proprietary, splintered, and/or not interoperable across
(including design), social, and environmental landscape. the industry. Table 4 identifies some of the specific data needed
to facilitate a CE.
A need exists for a unified infrastructure for collecting
FAIR data and information exchange and managing significant amounts of data. Publicly
available databases, repositories, and registries can be
Significant data gaps currently inhibit the advancement of managed by private and/or public institutions for use
many CE efforts. Without quality and available data, it is not by industry stakeholders, but they must be harmonized
possible to reduce the industry’s environmental footprint, design (e.g., consistent terminology) and interoperable. Data
effective policy, or drive social change. publishers and stewards should follow the FAIR Data

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TABLE 4 Data needs to facilitate a CE for textiles. products and thereby promote circularity. However, strategies
are needed to facilitate data transparency while protecting
Level Data needs
proprietary information. Such strategies could include the
Material - Waste composition by fiber type
development of a data framework to guide establishment of data
- Prevalence of different blends
standards, auditable data protocols, and other data tools suited
- Feedstock availability and quality (for recyclers)
to the needs and integrity of the entire supply chain.
- Current and projected fiber demand/usage
Information sharing also necessitates increased connectivity
- Chemicals/additives content and associated risk
between stakeholders across the CE. This is necessary
Product - Regionally distinct data on sales, collection, and disposition
to understand different dimensions and recognize the
- Product lifespans
diverse perspectives of various stakeholders. Communication
- Chemicals, additives, and finishes used during production and
channels must be enabled and supported that are participatory
applied to products
and inclusive.
- Waste composition by product type, quality, and condition
- Supply chain tracking/traceability
Market - Quantity of textiles reused (thrifted), exported, recycled
Labeling
- Quantity of post-industrial scrap use
- Reuse markets, formal and informal (e.g., charity/thrift, peer-to-
Much of the data necessary to drive circularity could come
peer)
in the form of improved labeling on textile products. In the
- Recycler market economies
U.S., Customs and Border Protection (CBP) and the Federal
- Industry employment
Trade Commission (FTC) enforce labeling laws and acts which,
- Cost of manual sorting
in general, require that textile and apparel products sold in the
- Industry data on yield ratio
U.S. be labeled with the following information: fiber content,
- Waste generators (residential, commercial, industrial)
country of origin, manufacturer or dealer identity, and the care
- Fate of exported used textiles
instructions (FTC, 2021, 2000; Office of Textiles and Apparel,
System - Lifecycle inventory data (e.g., inputs of energy, water, and raw
2021). Only fibers that comprise 5% or more of a product need
material, outputs to air, soil, water)
to be identified (< 5% should be disclosed as “other fibers”) and
- Microplastic emission estimates
non-fibrous materials such as plastic, glass, wood, paint, metal,
- Mapping of textiles processors and infrastructure (e.g., locations
or leather, do not have to be included on the label (FTC, 2014).
and processes associated with collection, reuse, and recycling)
While states and localities are preempted from implementing
- Current and future technology options for product and material
tag and label laws, they can require disclaimers for things like
recovery
recycled content and toxic substances (Benson and Reczek,
- Losses at each node in the supply chain and EoL
2016).
- Data on behavior and programs for collection
Table 5 outlines challenges facing labeling for circularity
and opportunities for improvement. Current labeling does
not provide the data necessary to support decision making
Principles of Findability, Accessibility, Interoperability, for appropriate reuse and recycling pathways. Despite fiber
and Reusability to ensure effective data discovery content requirements, more than 40% of garment labels contain
and application (Wilkinson et al., 2016). Additionally, inaccurate fiber composition information (Circle Economy,
access to data and databases needs to be available and 2020). Additionally, current labeling is designed for the
affordable to all stakeholders, including resource-limited consumer, not circular partners, and are often removed prior to
local governments. reaching post-consumer stakeholders.
Improving traceability and transparency has become a Alternative labeling strategies are necessary to support
priority in the textile industry to manage supply chains more and communicate textile traceability throughout the
effectively and to identify and address social and environmental lifecycle of products. Such a strategy could include, for
impacts. A garment is said to change hands 7 to 10 times examples, digital product identification (often called a
in the supply chain, each time undergoing some level of digital passport) in which a garment is equipped with a
alteration (Zaroff, 2021). Development of traceability platforms permanent digital identifier such as a QR code, RFID tag,
is necessary to track and trace products through development watermark, or Near-field Communication (NFC) technology
and provide the data necessary to enable downstream decision- to allow access to data collected at each stage of the supply
making. chain. Such identifiers could provide the necessary data to
Transparent information exchange can enhance system support reuse/recycling decision-making including brand
performance, stimulate investment, and help strengthen identification, product characteristics (year, size, style, etc.),
relationships between stakeholders across the lifecycle of and production information (fiber origin and composition,

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TABLE 5 Challenges and opportunities for labeling of textile products TABLE 6 Challenges and opportunities for circular design.
for circularity.
Challenge Opportunity
Challenge Opportunity Contradiction between design for Improved design guidelines for
Fiber composition on labels is Enhanced transparency of
durability and design for recycling performance/fashion AND
often inaccurate materials and chemicals in (DfR) recyclability
products
Current design does not consider Guidelines to consider designing
Labels are designed for consumer, Advancements in digital product
the full lifecycle of product with the full lifecycle in mind
not circular partners identification/product traceability
Inclusion of EoL procedures into Increase demand for sustainable
Labels are often removed Advancements in permanent label design fiber types (e.g., organic, recycled)
technologies
and pure fiber compositions (not
Only fibers that comprise 5% or Revised standards for product blends)
more of a product need to be labeling No existing mechanisms to Increased mechanisms for
identified
facilitate communication between communication and feedback
Non-fibrous materials not required Revise guidelines to include designers and the recovery loops across the life cycle chain
to be identified identification of non-fibrous industry to understand full life
materials cycle of product
The production and use of popular Innovative material design that is
textile materials are a major source regenerative, sustainable,
chemicals/additives/dyes, certifications). Naturally, such digital of environmental pollution and non-toxic/polluting, and recyclable
identification requires an online database to host the data. GHG emissions
Nascent efforts of this nature are already underway (EON,
2021; TextileGenesis, 2021), however, they have been criticized
for their cost and network structure as being prohibitive to
current design practices fail to consider the full lifecycle of
resource-limited stakeholders. Future research is necessary
products. Table 6 presents several circular design challenges
to explore appropriate hardware options for the digital
and opportunities.
identifier, for instance to understand how they can endure
To support circularity, product design must balance the
wear and tear and how they impact the recycling process. In
needs of quality, durability, and recyclability, with customer
addition, standards and policy development is needed to ensure
demand and cost. Design-for-recycling (DfR) entails that
accuracy and verifiability of the identifier information through
products are ideally 100% pure (not blended), contain only
conformity assessment.
polymers, chemicals, additives, dyes, and finishes that do not
contaminate the recycling system, and are easy to disassemble
(e.g., removal of buttons, zippers). That said, these features are
The role of fashion brands often what make garments (specifically outdoor apparel) durable
and long-lasting. Improved data and decision tools would be
Fashion and textile brands have a significant role in useful to aid designers in prioritizing design characteristics.
facilitating a CE for textiles. While many brands are taking Similarly, design guidelines could help designers to incorporate
steps to increase the circularity of their products through DfR principles.
design for circularity, use of recycled materials, and zero Increased communication between designers and the
waste production [see Moorhouse and Moorhouse (2017) recovery industry is also necessary. This includes the need
for examples], these practices are not the mainstream and for feedback loops from recovery practitioners to designers
thus significant room for improvement remains. This section with data pertaining to garment failure modes and recovery
discusses design strategies that brands can employ to drive challenges and successes. Currently, the knowledge of sorters,
circularity as well as alternative business models that can graders, dismantlers, and recyclers is not codified to be used
help to curb textile waste generation and support their by designers for the re-design of products. As such, a need
bottom line. exists for practical guidelines to formalize information sharing
between EoL service providers and designers. This necessitates
agreed upon terminology, metrics, evaluations, and information
Design sharing mechanisms.
Fashion brand designers have a significant influence on the Additionally, the design of textile materials themselves
circularity of textile products, including upstream innovations needs to be more sustainable and circular. As mentioned
and fiber sourcing, manufacturing processes and quality, as well previously, modern textile materials are increasingly synthetic
as product durability and recyclability. However, in general, in nature, which causes significant environmental impact during

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production and use and can be difficult to recycle at EoL. The use TABLE 7 Standards needs to facilitate a CE for textiles.
of biomaterials and bioengineered polymers specifically is one
Life cycle phase Standards needs
area that has seen increased interest to address some of these
Design - Product and Performance: e.g., recycled content
challenges (e.g., Schiros et al., 2021), but materials engineers
standards, minimum quality or performance (e.g.,
and designers must consider the lifecycle impacts of materials
fabric strength, resistance to abrasion, resistance to
including compatibility with recycling infrastructure.
wear, and laundering), product certifications
Consumption and use - Best practices for sustainable purchasing and
maintenance (such as laundering practices to reduce
Alternative business models
or capture microfibers) of textiles
Brands can also facilitate circularity by advancing new
EoL - Convenient collection standards
business models such as repair, resell, renting, or even
- Feedstock standards for chemical and mechanical
the application of artificial intelligence (AI) and on-demand
recycling operations
manufacturing to optimize production and avoid excess. Some
- Guidelines to harmonize waste composition audits
brands have initiated garment take-back programs (through
mail-in or drop-off programs) in which they may sort and Environmental - Testing standards for microfiber pollution in

clean garments for direct resale, repair, or transformation into monitoring waterways

alternative textile products (e.g., Gama, 2021; Patagonia, 2022). - Test methods for identification of microfiber-borne

Alternatively, some organizations (e.g., The Renewal Workshop, pollution, such as dyes or additives in water supplies

2022) work on behalf of brands to clean, sort, and repair - Environmental monitoring protocols to detect the

damaged or returned items for resale either on brand-specific successes and failures of societal changes

online platforms or shared marketplaces. Ultimately, there is

value in reuse applications for used textile products, and several necessitates increasing consumer awareness and acceptance of
ways brands can help keep their products in circulation while used textiles as well as systems and infrastructure to support
simultaneously supporting their bottom line. the market. Additionally, brands and retailers must continue
Brand takeback and resale programs, together with the use of to commit to circular sources, and industry and brands need
sustainable (e.g., recycled) textiles, could significantly influence to participate in pilot projects, partnerships, and engagement
consumer acceptance for reused/recycled products, a much- with recyclers.
needed factor in transitioning to circularity. Takeback programs
should be accessible to all customers and can include store drop-
off or mail back. Brands can offer incentives for returning used Standards and certification programs
garments, such as discounts, access to exclusive sets, or priority
for the launch of special products. One challenge with takeback Industry standards, specifications, and certification
is ensuring that collected garments are appropriately processed programs can establish requirements and consistency for
through reuse, repair, and recycling channels. products, feedstocks, and processes. Current standards generally
support organic and sustainable production of natural fibers
(e.g., cotton, wool, down), address social and environmental
End market development impacts of supply chains and manufacturing, and provide
chain of custody verification tools of recycled content claims.
Traditional recycling end markets include rag, shoddy, and Additional standards needed are outlined in Table 7.
mechanical fiber recycling while emerging recycling end markets
include fiber-to-fiber (chemical) recycling. Traditional reuse end
markets are thrift, donation, and export while re-commerce The role of policy/regulation
and resale are emerging reuse end markets. So, while there
is a variety of end markets for textiles, they are at different The current linear model is highly incentivized for waste:
stages of maturity. Further, most of these markets are distributed it is less expensive to discard a textile product than it is to
globally and the transport costs can be prohibitive. Thus, efforts redirect it toward a circular business model. Further, the current
are needed to identify and advance more opportunities for system taxes labor, which is generally the highest cost for a
local markets. company, and not waste (i.e., taxes the desired input rather than
Reuse markets, such as resale and rental, offer significant undesired output). Currently, circularity is considered additive
value and promise. For example, the clothing rental sector is (e.g., takeback and resell is an added business strategy for
expected to reach $2.5 billion by 2023, while resale is expected brands) rather than a replacement to the existing model.
to grow eleven times faster than the broader retail clothing Many argue that a CE for textiles is not possible without
sector by 2025 (ThredUp, 2021; Zaroff, 2021). But this growth policy and legislation to serve as a catalyst. Designed

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thoughtfully, policy and legislation can create a level TABLE 8 Policy approaches to facilitate a circular economy for textiles
at the local, state, and/or federal level [adapted from Adler (2021),
playing field, promote investment, incentivize textile recovery
Brasch (2021), Hughes (2021)].
and infrastructure development, and ultimately encourage
innovation and participation in recovery. Policy approaches Policy approach Description
need to be carefully crafted to lessen creation with new Partnerships With recovery stakeholders (incl. charities) and require
resources, disincentivize waste, and instead drive efficiency reporting
and reuse of materials. That said, textiles policies need to Public database Provide publicly accessible database of textile
avoid material monopolies, deterrence from reuse/repair, and processors
unfair access (Brasch, 2021). Table 8 presents several policy Green purchasing Require public agencies to procure environmentally
approaches that can be implemented at the local, state, and/or preferable products and include contracts with repair
federal level that can aide in facilitating a circular economy and recycling
for textiles. Disclaimer laws Require disclaimers on products (e.g., recycled content)
Outside of regulating landfills and waste-to-energy plants, Disposal bans and Prohibit textiles from entering landfills/incineration;
the U.S. EPA does not currently have the regulatory authority mandatory effective only when alternative collection and
to manage municipal solid waste (e.g., post-consumer material) recycling processing options are available and easily accessible
as this responsibility is left to the state or municipality. Extended Producer Require brand owner to take financial and/or
As a result, several states are currently introducing bills to Responsibility operational responsibility for EoL management of
manage textile waste, most focused on carpet stewardship (EPR) post-consumer textile waste with specified performance
programs (e.g., Illinois General Assembly, 2021; Minnesota standards
Legislature, 2021; Minnesota House of Representatives, 2021; Fees Eco-modulated fees (i.e., varying levels of fees on virgin
Oregon State Legislature, 2021; The New York State Senate, raw materials and products that do not meet different
2021) and one state aiming to ban the disposal of textiles thresholds of minimum recycled content criteria)
(MassDEP, 2021). To date, however, California has the only PFAS and Increased research on toxicity and source reduction
fiber recovery law in the U.S.: a carpet stewardship program microplastics
which passed in 2011. The disparate nature of state and
Development Encourage the domestic development of recovery
local initiatives may ultimately hinder the broad scale-up
incentives infrastructure and supply chains through grants,
and distribution of recovery infrastructure. Rather, cohesive
low-interest loans, tax incentives, zoning allowances,
policy is needed that supports the timeline of scale-up and
etc.
recovery capacities.
Incentives for Reduce cost pressures and reward brands/retailers who
EPR is a comprehensive policy approach that extends
sustainable sourcing implement sustainable sourcing, use sustainable
a producer’s financial and managerial responsibility for its
materials, make fewer new products, manage repair
products beyond the manufacturing stage – both upstream
programs, e.g., through favorable duty treatment, tax
to product design and downstream to post-consumer reuse,
incentives, etc.
recycling, or disposal (Cassel, 2021). In effect, this approach
Product and May include recycled content standards, mandatory
transitions away from taxpayers/governments funding recovery
performance retailer takeback, product certifications, etc.
programs and internalizes these costs into the cost of
standards
manufacturing. To date, 33 U.S. states have passed 124 EPR
Remove subsides On virgin fossil fuels and cotton production
laws covering 15 products, however no EPR laws cover textiles.
Labeling standards Include traceability of supply chain and provide data
Internationally, France currently has the only EPR law for
necessary for recovery/recycling
textiles (Légifrance, 2007).
Preferential duty Selective tariff rates to influence where products are
Recent European Union (EU) regulation includes the
benefits made and with what materials
establishment of separate collection for textiles waste by January
1, 2025 (European Commission, 2018). Additionally, in 2022,
the EU will introduce the Sustainable Textiles Strategy, laying
the policy foundations aimed at making the EU textiles industry
more sustainable. The strategy includes measures such as Community engagement, education, and
developing eco-design requirements, improving the business outreach
and regulatory environment for circular textiles in the EU,
and boosting the sorting, reuse, and recycling of textiles with Community engagement and education geared to all
measures such as EPR (Šajn, 2021). These requirements will age ranges is critical to drive sustainable consumption and
undoubtedly drive innovation and boost the competitiveness production of textiles and can take many forms. Table 9 provides
and resilience of the textiles industry in the EU and may several possible approaches to education and engagement
influence the U.S. market. activities that can help facilitate a CE.

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TABLE 9 Engagement and education approaches to support textiles TABLE 10 Research areas and associated data/information to be
circularity. collected.

Audience Education needs Research area Date/information needed

Industry - Webinars and courses about transitioning from Economic - Markets for collected materials
linear to circular business models assessment - Grades with highest value and easiest to collect
- Training programs to support repair, recycling - Economic benefit for county/region to collect materials
workforce - Feasibility (economically and practically) of textile MRFs
- Certification programs in circular - Needed sorting capacity for a given region or waste-shed
materials management - Local employment and economic impacts of the
Academic - Lessons about material origin, characteristics, reuse/thrift industry
durability, and recyclability - Regions/states where organizations operate
- Link textiles to climate change - Cost of manual sorting and grading
- Lessons about consumer role in (un)sustainable - Distance textiles can be economically transported
consumption - Equipment and technologies needed for accurate and cost-
- Lessons about recycling processes, role of design effective sorting
- Social benefit of conscientious consumerism - Available market development support in a municipality
and donation or region
General Public - - Do it yourself (DIY) education (e.g., repair, simple Waste composition - Generator types: single-family vs. multi-family residential,
Repair tailoring classes) audits retail, hospitality, healthcare, government (uniforms and
- Repair Cafes prisons), post-industrial, thrift and donation
- Lending libraries of repair equipment (e.g., sewing - Product types: clothing, household textiles, footwear,
machines) accessories, soft toys, etc.
- Knitting clubs, repair clubs - Fiber content: pure fiber vs. blend, prevalence of items that
General Public - - Where and how to donate used textiles are multi-material or multi-layered
Recycling - What textiles can and should be donated/recycled - Inclusion of finishes/chemicals
- What happens to textiles once they are donated or - Quality and condition
recycled Consumer behavior - Current consumption behaviors (e.g., how often, what, and
- Support for clothing exchanges or swaps to studies from where textile products are purchased)
promote reuse - Current usage behaviors (e.g., how often textiles are
worn/used, how long are they kept)
- Current disposal behaviors (e.g., how often, how, and
Compelling outreach that drives engagement with where textiles are discarded)
consumers, brands, and communities is needed to drive textiles - Perspectives about reuse and thrift/charity (e.g., what,
circularity. Repair skills should be introduced early in childhood and how often people donate, how often people shop at
education such as through crafting and home economics charities/buy secondhand)
lessons. Sustainable consumption and production can be taught - Necessary motivators or drivers for behavior change
through cross-disciplinary activities throughout the education
Technical R and D - Materials science advancements in textiles production
system. DIY courses, clubs, and repair cafes can allow the
for recovery (e.g., separation of blends, applications for
general public to engage in circularity. Further, consumer
degraded fibers, etc.)
education campaigns can guide residents on where and how to
- Rapid fiber identification and composition mechanisms
donate used textiles, as well as what happens to textiles once they
(e.g., percentage of blends)
are donated or recycled. Controlled education and outreach
- Advancement of AI and robotics to identify, assess, and/or
campaigns can also help to address misconceptions about textile
disassemble products
reuse and recycling, such as what happens to donated clothes or
- Development of product and/or material traceability
what can and should be donated. Such messaging needs to be
system (e.g., blockchain as distributed ledger for tracing
clear, concise, and ongoing.
material content and product life)
Education of workforces and training of experts in the
- Analytical methodologies for the assessment of recycled
field of CE is also critically needed. Educational program
material composition
development should aim to strengthen and enhance the
- Publicity of product materials/composition, while
technical and practical skills of a workforce prepared to
protecting Intellectual Property (IP)
support the increased recovery and recycling of textile products.
- Analysis of purity tolerances for recycled feedstocks
Academic programs could produce expertise tailored to the
- Elastane separation and recycling process development
needs for circularity, including design strategies, technology

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Schumacher and Forster 10.3389/frsus.2022.1038323

innovation for collection, sorting, separation, and recycling, or prompting the development and deployment of cost-efficient
business development to keep materials in the economy. Further, reuse and recycling processes.
training programs should aim to promote the development of a
skilled and distributed workforce focused on the growing field of
circular materials. Conclusions
A transition to a CE for textiles will support economic
Research needs growth, provide reliable jobs, as well as reduce the
environmental impact of textiles and associated products.
Continued research is necessary to understand the current However, many challenges persist that must be addressed
system and prioritize where and how advancements can be to facilitate textiles circularity in the United States. We
made. As displayed in Table 10, needed fields of research span discussed many of the technological, economic, and social
from broader economic assessments and system-wide waste barriers to a CE for textiles and identified specific data, tools,
generation and social behavior studies to technical research standards, R&D, and educational approaches to address
and development. them. This works reveals the need for harmonization of
Economic assessment is also necessary to evaluate the terminology, classifications, industry tools, and standards
development of textile recovery and recycling infrastructure, to unify approaches, increase interoperability of tools and
including the feasibility of regional textile sorting facilities resources, and promote broad adoption of CE strategies.
(MRFs). Such facilities could aide in domestic processing Further, none of the opportunities identified can be pursued
of textiles and dramatically increase the volume of textiles in isolation. Many factors, including economic, social, and
sorted for reuse and recycling, and thus reduce both export environmental influence the motivation to shift toward a CE,
and landfill/incineration. But it is yet unknown if they and therefore moving toward circularity necessitates broad,
are economically and practically feasible. Assessment should multidisciplinary, multi-stakeholder collaboration. Through
include partners, operators, suitable end markets for sorted this cooperation, we can reach an optimized CE that depends
materials, grade specifications, potential commodity value on reciprocity, trust, transparency, and cooperation between
relative to collection and processing expenses, as well as all players.
potential public and private funding support for infrastructure
development (e.g., low-interest loans, tax incentives, zoning
allowances, etc.).
Author contributions
A need also exists for advanced and consistent waste
KS wrote the first draft. AF revised and edited the draft. KS
composition audits to measure the volume of textiles that can
and AF were involved in the writing of this paper. Both authors
be reused, repurposed, or recycled but are currently ending up
approved the final version of the paper.
in waste streams. Table 10 provides data that should be included
in textile waste audits.
Consumer behavior studies are also necessary to collect Acknowledgments
qualitative data regarding behaviors and motivations around
textile consumption, use, and disposal. This information can be The authors are very grateful to Dr. Kathryn Beers, Director
used to direct information/outreach campaigns, design effective of the CE program at NIST, for supporting the textiles circular
policy, and guide infrastructure development for collection. economy program at NIST.
Research and development must also be advanced on
the technical aspects of sustainable textiles production and
technological processes for textile sorting, separation, and Conflict of interest
recycling. In many cases, the transition from laboratory
and bench-scale research to pilot projects and eventually The authors declare that the research was conducted in
commercialization is hindered by lack of investment. This is the absence of any commercial or financial relationships
particularly the case for chemical recycling processes due to the that could be construed as a potential conflict
low volume of materials collected for recycling which does not of interest.
support significant investment. This situation is not justification
for delayed research on recovery methods, but rather supports
the need for government-funded research and development Publisher’s note
(R&D) in the field. Government-funded R&D could enable
private investment in sectors of the CE by providing the data and All claims expressed in this article are solely those
information necessary to alleviate market uncertainties and thus of the authors and do not necessarily represent those

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Schumacher and Forster 10.3389/frsus.2022.1038323

of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, Author disclaimer

the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be
evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by These opinions, recommendations, findings, and
its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the conclusions do not necessarily reflect the views or policies
publisher. of NIST or the United States Government.

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