Lecture 17.

Gauss’s law.
Symmetry of the charge distribution.
Applications: E-field of:
• point charge
• infinite sheet of charge
• infinite line of charge
• charged sphere (if time permits)
 Last Time
1
Gauss’s law = 𝑘𝑘
4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0
𝑄𝑄in
 Net electric flux through a closed surface = charge inside that surface/ε0 Φ𝑒𝑒 =
𝜀𝜀0
⃗ We get:
• Now, let’s recall the definition of the flux: Φ𝑒𝑒 = ∮ 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴.

𝑄𝑄in
𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 : total (net) charge
+ Φ𝑒𝑒 = � 𝐸𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴⃗ =
inside a closed surface.
+
𝜀𝜀0
The ∮ … 𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴⃗ notation:
integrate the flux over
+
a closed surface −
(enclosing the charge 𝑄𝑄in ) Gauss’s law relates electric field with charges
that create this field
Q: Rank the magnitudes of the electric flux passing through the 4 surfaces.

−𝑄𝑄 4

A. 1=2=3=4 1
B. 1>2=4>3 +3𝑄𝑄
C. 3>2>1>4 −2𝑄𝑄
D. 3>2>1=4 2
E. None of the above
Q: Rank the magnitudes of the electric flux passing through the 4 surfaces.

Surface 1: Net charge is +3𝑄𝑄 ⇒ Φ𝑒𝑒 =

3𝑄𝑄 We are interested in the magnitude
𝜀𝜀0
𝑄𝑄 of the flux, so B. Note that the flux
Surface 2: Net charge is +𝑄𝑄 ⇒ Φ𝑒𝑒 = through region 2 is outward (+), while
𝜀𝜀0
Surface 3: Net charge is 0 ⇒ Φ𝑒𝑒 = 0 the flux through region 4 is inward (−).

Surface 4: Net charge is −𝑄𝑄 ⇒ Φ𝑒𝑒 =

𝑄𝑄 3
𝜀𝜀0

−𝑄𝑄 4

A. 1=2=3=4 1
B. 1>2=4>3 +3𝑄𝑄
C. 3>2>1>4 −2𝑄𝑄
D. 3>2>1=4 2
E. None of the above
Q: What is the sign (positive or negative) of the NET electric flux passing through the
four side surfaces of this cube?
(Remember the cube has 6 sides. It has a TOP, BOTTOM and 4 SIDE surfaces)
z
1
5 L
6 4
+𝑄𝑄 +𝑄𝑄
3
2
y
Top view
3-D view
x
A. Positive
B. Negative
C. Zero
D. Not enough information is given to answer
Q: What is the sign (positive or negative) of the NET electric flux passing through the
four side surfaces of this cube?
(Remember the cube has 6 sides. It has a TOP, BOTTOM and 4 SIDE surfaces)
z
Φ5 > 0 Φ1 > 0
1
5 Φ4 > 0 L
6 4
+𝑄𝑄 +𝑄𝑄
Φ6 < 0 3
2
y
Top view Φ3 > 0
3-D view Φ2 > 0
x
• Φ1 > 0 & Φ2 > 0 (since the flux is outwards)
A. Positive
• Since there is no charge inside: Φ1 + Φ2 + Φ3 + Φ4 + Φ5 + Φ6 = 0
B. Negative
C. Zero • Hence, Φ3 + Φ4 + Φ5 + Φ6 < 0
D. Not enough information is given to answer
How to make Gauss’s law user-friendly?
where the integral is taken over an arbitrary surface
𝑄𝑄in enclosing the charge 𝑄𝑄in .
⃗
Φ𝑒𝑒 = � 𝐸𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴 =
𝜀𝜀0  Note that here 𝐸𝐸 is the electric field at that surface.

• Gauss’s law is useful only if we can calculate this integral easily. We could do it if:

 𝐸𝐸 is tangent to the surface: 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴⃗ = 𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 cos 90𝑜𝑜 = 0. Then:

Φ𝑒𝑒 = 0

 𝐸𝐸 is normal to the surface, and constant at every point of that surface. Then:

Φ𝑒𝑒 = ∮ 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴⃗ = ∮ 𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

How to make Gauss’s law user-friendly?

𝑄𝑄in
Φ𝑒𝑒 = � 𝐸𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴⃗ =
𝜀𝜀0

• How can we choose the integration surface (“Gaussian surface”) with such properties?
⃗ (b) same magnitude of the field, 𝐸𝐸, on the surface
(a) fixed angle between 𝐸𝐸 and 𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴,

• We can do it only in some convenient circumstances:

1. The charge distribution has high symmetry;
2. We can come up with a surface (Gaussian surface) that would match this symmetry.

• Remember that in the Gauss’s law the integral is taken over any arbitrary
surface enclosing the charge – the choice of the Gaussian surface is ours!
Using Gauss’s law (example 1) Q: Use Gauss’s law to find electric field of a
point charge +𝑞𝑞 at a distance 𝑟𝑟 from it.

• Which Gaussian surface matches the symmetry of the charge?

+𝑞𝑞
𝑟𝑟 P
+

• What is the flux through it?

• Use Gauss’s law to set up the charge-field relationship.

Using Gauss’s law (example 1) Q: Use Gauss’s law to find electric field of a
point charge +𝑞𝑞 at a distance 𝑟𝑟 from it.

• Which Gaussian surface matches the symmetry of the charge?

+𝑞𝑞
𝑟𝑟 P  Sphere centered on +𝑞𝑞, passing through P
+  Same 𝐸𝐸 at all points of this sphere, perpendicular
to its surface

GS • What is the flux through it?

Φ𝑒𝑒 = � 𝐸𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴⃗ = � 𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴 = 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴 = 𝐸𝐸𝐴𝐴sphere = 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝐸𝐸

sphere sphere sphere

• Use Gauss’s law to set up the charge-field relationship.

𝑞𝑞 1 𝑞𝑞 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 Coulomb’s
Φ𝑒𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝐸𝐸 = ⇒ 𝐸𝐸 𝑟𝑟 = = 2
𝜀𝜀0 4𝜋𝜋𝜀𝜀0 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑟𝑟 law
Q: How is that possible that the flux through these two Gaussian surfaces is equal to the
same value, 𝑞𝑞/𝜀𝜀0 ? They have different areas!

GS-2

+ +𝑞𝑞

GS-1
Q: How is that possible that the flux through these two Gaussian surfaces is equal to the
same value, 𝑞𝑞/𝜀𝜀0 ? They have different areas!

• Indeed, they have the same flux: the same

number of electric field lines through them!
GS-2

𝐸𝐸(𝑟𝑟2 ) • The key to this is the magnitude of E-field:

+ +𝑞𝑞
Φ𝑒𝑒 = � 𝐸𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴⃗ = 𝐸𝐸𝐴𝐴sphere = 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝐸𝐸
GS-1 𝐸𝐸(𝑟𝑟1 )
sphere

Larger distance away from the charge

(and hence larger area over which the
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 flux is distributed) is compensated by
𝐸𝐸 𝑟𝑟 = 2 a smaller electric field magnitude
𝑟𝑟
 Symmetries
Q: You are asked to use Gauss’s Law to calculate the electric field at a
distance 𝑟𝑟 away from a charged cube of dimension 𝑎𝑎. Which of the
following Gaussian surfaces is best suited for this purpose?

D. None of them
E. All of them

A B C
 Symmetries
Q: You are asked to use Gauss’s Law to calculate the electric field at a
distance 𝑟𝑟 away from a charged cube of dimension 𝑎𝑎. Which of the
following Gaussian surfaces is best suited for this purpose?

D. None of them
E. All of them

A B C

• What are the properties of a useful Gaussian surface?

 It should, at least, clearly have the same value of 𝐸𝐸 in all its points.
 To make it possible, the charge distribution should have “enough symmetry”
Gauss’s law can be used to calculate electric fields only in cases of highly-symmetric
charge distributions.
Q: Which of the objects below have an electric field that is symmetric enough to
make Gauss’s law useful?

A. Only electric dipole

B. Only point charge & insulating cube
C. Only long uniformly charged cylinder
D. Only point charge
E. Only the point charge & long cylinder
 Gauss’s law can be used to calculate electric fields only in cases of highly-symmetric
charge distributions.
Q: Which of the objects below have an electric field that is symmetric enough to
make Gauss’s law useful?
• Directions:
• Directions: not equivalent
not equivalent

•A.All Only
pointselectric dipole
at a distance 𝑟𝑟 from the point charge
are equivalent => expect same field magnitude.
B.Direction:
Only point charge & insulating cube
radially away form the charge (there is • All points at a distance 𝑟𝑟 from the rod are
equivalent => expect same field magnitude (no
C.noOnly
reasonlong
for ituniformly
to be tilted charged cylinder
in any direction)
reason to be different below or above the rod).
D. Only point charge Direction: perpendicular to the rod (there is no
reason for it to be tilted left or right)
E. Only the point charge & long cylinder
 Gauss’s law can be used to calculate electric fields only if we manage to come up with a
Gaussian surface that matches the symmetry of the charge distributions.

Q: To successfully apply Gauss’s law, which Gaussian surface will work for a large
(infinite) sheet of charge?

A. Only the sphere

B. Only the cube
C. Only the cylinder
D. Only the cylinder and the cube
E. All Gaussian surfaces will work
 Gauss’s law can be used to calculate electric fields only if we manage to come up with a
Gaussian surface that matches the symmetry of the charge distributions.

Q: To successfully apply Gauss’s law, which Gaussian surface will work for a large
(infinite) sheet of charge?

• E-field will be the same at

the flat surfaces of cube
and cylinder parallel to
the plane

A. Only the sphere

B. Only the cube
C. Only the cylinder • Shape of electric field
D. Only the cylinder and the cube that we expect from
E. All Gaussian surfaces will work symmetry arguments
Using Gauss’s law (example 2) Q: Find electric field of an infinite charged plane at a
vertical distance 𝑑𝑑 from it. Assume uniform surface
𝑄𝑄
1. Matching GS? charge density 𝜎𝜎 = (C/m2)
𝐴𝐴

2. Flux: Φ𝑒𝑒 = ∮ 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴⃗ = ?

P

𝑑𝑑
3. Enclosed charge: 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = ?

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
4. Gauss’s law: Φ𝑒𝑒 = 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ⁄𝜀𝜀0
Using Gauss’s law (example 2) Q: Find electric field of an infinite charged plane at a
vertical distance 𝑑𝑑 from it. Assume uniform surface
𝑄𝑄
1. Matching GS? charge density 𝜎𝜎 = (C/m2) Ex 22.7
𝐴𝐴

• Prism / cylinder, with horizontal sides above and below the sheet
by 𝑑𝑑
𝑛𝑛1 𝐸𝐸1
P
𝑑𝑑
𝑛𝑛4 𝑛𝑛3
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + • By symmetry, the electric field
lines should be perpendicular to
𝑑𝑑 the sheet => no flux is lost through
the vertical sides of the prism =>
all flux goes through the top and
𝑛𝑛2 𝐸𝐸2 the bottom
Using Gauss’s law (example 2) Q: Find electric field of an infinite charged plane at a
vertical distance 𝑑𝑑 from it. Assume uniform surface
𝑄𝑄
1. Matching GS? charge density 𝜎𝜎 = (C/m2)
𝐴𝐴 Ex 22.7
Prism / cylinder (only T = top, B = bottom)

2. Flux: Φ𝑒𝑒 = ∮ 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴⃗ = ?

Φ𝑒𝑒 = � 𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 cos 00 = 𝐸𝐸 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝐸 𝐴𝐴top + 𝐴𝐴bottom = 2𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

T,B T,B

3. Enclosed charge: 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = ?

Charge sitting on the area 𝐴𝐴: 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝜎𝜎𝐴𝐴

4. Gauss’s law: Φ𝑒𝑒 = 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ⁄𝜀𝜀0

𝜎𝜎
𝐸𝐸(𝑑𝑑) = does not depend on 𝑑𝑑
2𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝜎𝜎𝐴𝐴/𝜀𝜀0 2𝜀𝜀0