Human resource

management

Human resource management (HRM or HR) is the strategic and coherent approach to the
effective and efficient management of people in a company or organization such that they
help their business gain a competitive advantage. It is designed to maximize employee
performance in service of an employer's strategic objectives.[1] Human resource
management is primarily concerned with the management of people within organizations,
focusing on policies and systems.[2] HR departments are responsible for overseeing
employee-benefits design, employee recruitment, training and development, performance
appraisal, and reward management, such as managing pay and employee benefits
systems.[3] HR also concerns itself with organizational change and industrial relations, or the
balancing of organizational practices with requirements arising from collective bargaining
and governmental laws.[4]

The overall purpose of human resources (HR) is to ensure that the organization can achieve
success through people.[5] HR professionals manage the human capital of an organization
and focus on implementing policies and processes. They can specialize in finding, recruiting,
selecting, training, and developing employees, as well as maintaining employee relations or
benefits. Training and development professionals ensure that employees are trained and
have continuous development. This is done through training programs, performance
evaluations, and reward programs. Employee relations deals with the concerns of employees
when policies are broken, such as in cases involving harassment or discrimination. Managing
employee benefits includes developing compensation structures, parental leave programs,
discounts, and other benefits. On the other side of the field are HR generalists or business
partners. These HR professionals could work in all areas or be labour relations
representatives working with unionized employees.

HR is a product of the human relations movement of the early 20th century when researchers
began documenting ways of creating business value through the strategic management of
the workforce.[6] It was initially dominated by transactional work, such as payroll and benefits
administration, but due to globalization, company consolidation, technological advances, and
further research, HR as of 2015 focuses on strategic initiatives like mergers and acquisitions,
talent management, succession planning, industrial and labor relations, and diversity and
inclusion. In the current global work environment, most companies focus on lowering
employee turnover and on retaining the talent and knowledge held by their workforce. New
hiring not only entails a high cost but also increases the risk of a new employee not being
able to replace the position of the previous employee adequately. HR departments strive to
offer benefits that appeal to workers, thus reducing the risk of losing employee commitment
and psychological ownership.

History

Precedent theoretical developments

The human resources field began to take shape in 19th century Europe. It is built on a simple
idea by Robert Owen (1771–1858) and Charles Babbage (1791-1871) during the industrial
revolution. These men concluded that people were crucial to the success of an organization.
They expressed the thought that well-being of employees led to perfect work; without healthy
workers, the organization would not survive.[7]

HR emerged as a specific field in the early 20th century, influenced by Frederick Winslow
Taylor (1856–1915). Taylor explored what he termed "scientific management" (sometimes
referred to as "Taylorism"), striving to improve economic efficiency in manufacturing jobs. He
eventually focused on one of the principal inputs into the manufacturing process—labor—
sparking inquiry into workforce productivity.[8]

Meanwhile, in London C S Myers, inspired by unexpected problems among soldiers who

alarmed generals and politicians. During First World War 1914–1918, co-founded the
National Institute of Industrial Psychology (NIIP) in 1921.[9] He set seeds for the human
relations movement, this movement, on both sides of the Atlantic, built on the research of
Elton Mayo (1880-1949) and others to document through the Hawthorne studies (1924–
1932) and other studies how stimuli, unrelated to financial compensation and working
conditions, could yield more productive workers.[10] Work by Abraham Maslow (1908–1970),
Kurt Lewin (1890–1947), Max Weber (1864–1920), Frederick Herzberg (1923–2000), and
David McClelland (1917–1998), forming the basis for studies in industrial and organizational
psychology, organizational behavior and organizational theory, was interpreted in such a way
as to further claims of legitimacy for an applied discipline.

Birth and development of the

discipline
By the time there was enough theoretical evidence to make a business case for strategic
workforce management, changes in the business landscape—à la Andrew Carnegie (1835-
1919) and John Rockefeller (1839-1937)—and in public policy—à la Sidney (1859–1947) and
Beatrice Webb (1858-1943), Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal of 1933 to 1939—had
transformed employer-employee relationships, and the HRM discipline became formalized as
"industrial and labor relations". In 1913 one of the oldest known professional HR associations
—the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD)—started in England as the
Welfare Workers' Association; it changed its name a decade later to the Institute of Industrial
Welfare Workers, and again the next decade to Institute of Labour Management before
settling upon its current name in 2000.[11] From 1918 the early Soviet state institutions began
to implement a distinct ideological HRM focus[12] alongside technical management—first in
the Red Army (through political commissars alongside military officers), later (from 1933) in
work sites more generally (through partorg posts alongside conventional managers).[13]

In 1920, James R. Angell delivered an address to a conference on personnel research in

Washington detailing the need for personnel research. This preceded and led to the
organization of the Personnel Research Federation. In 1922 the first volume of The Journal of
Personnel Research was published, a joint initiative between the National Research Council
and the Engineering Foundation.[14] Likewise in the United States, the world's first institution
of higher education dedicated to workplace studies—the School of Industrial and Labor
Relations—formed at Cornell University in 1945.[15] In 1948 what would later become the
largest professional HR association—the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM)
—formed as the American Society for Personnel Administration (ASPA).[16]

In the Soviet Union, Stalin's use of patronage exercised through the "HR Department"
equivalent in the Bolshevik Party, its Orgburo, demonstrated the effectiveness and influence
of human-resource policies and practices,[17][18] and Stalin himself acknowledged the
importance of the human resource,[19] exemplified in his mass deployment of it, as in the five-
year plans and in the Gulag system.

During the latter half of the 20th century, union membership declined significantly,[20] while
workforce-management specialists continued to expand their influence within organizations.
In US, the phrase "industrial and labor relations" came into use to refer specifically to issues
concerning collective representation, and many companies began referring to the proto-HR
profession as "personnel administration".[21] Many current HR practices originated with the
needs of companies in the 1950s to develop and retain talent.[22]

In the late 20th century, advances in transportation and communications greatly facilitated
workforce mobility and collaboration. Corporations began viewing employees as assets.
"Human resources management" consequently, became the dominant term for the function—
the ASPA even changing its name to the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM)
in 1998.[16]

"Human capital management" (HCM[23]) is sometimes used synonymously with "HR",

although "human capital" typically refers to a narrower view of human resources; i.e. the
knowledge the individuals embody and can contribute to an organization. Other terms
sometimes used to describe the HRM field include "organizational management", "manpower
management", "talent management", "personnel management", "workforce management",
and simply "people management".

In popular media
Several popular media productions have depicted human resource management in operation.
The U.S. television series The Office, HR representative Toby Flenderson is sometimes
portrayed as a nag because he constantly reminds coworkers of company policies and
government regulations.[24] Long-running American comic strip Dilbert frequently portrays
sadistic HR policies through the character Catbert, the "evil director of human resources".[25]
An HR manager is the title character in the 2010 Israeli film The Human Resources Manager,
while an HR intern is the protagonist in 1999 French film Ressources humaines. The main
character in the BBC sitcom dinnerladies, Philippa, is an HR manager. The protagonist of the
Mexican telenovela Mañana es para siempre is a director of human resources. Up In the Air is
centered on corporate "downsizer" Ryan Bingham (George Clooney) and his travels. As the
film progresses, HR is portrayed as a data-driven function that deals with people as metrics,
which can lead to absurd outcomes for real people.

Practice

Business function
Dave Ulrich lists the function of HR as:[26]

Aligning HR strategy with business

strategy
Re-engineering organization processes
Listening and responding to
employees, and managing
transformation and change.
At the macro level, HR is in charge of overseeing organizational leadership and culture. HR
also ensures compliance with employment and labor laws and often oversees employee
health, safety, and security. Labor laws may vary from one jurisdiction to the next. In a
workplace administered by the federal government, HR managers may need to be familiar
with certain crucial federal laws, in order to protect both their company and its employees. In
the United States of America, important federal laws and regulations include:

1. Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938: It establishes a minimum wage and protects the right of
certain workers to earn overtime.

2. 1964 Federal Civil Rights Law : It prohibits workplace discrimination and bans the use of
race, age, sex, or gender as the basis for decisions to hire or fire workers.

3. Family and Medical Leave Act : It implies that eligible employees may take twelve weeks of
unpaid leave for family and medical reasons.

An important responsibility of HR is to ensure that a company complies with all laws and
regulations, thus protecting the company from legal liability.[27] In circumstances where
employees exercise their legal authorization to negotiate a collective bargaining agreement,
HR will typically also serve as the company's primary liaison with employee representatives
(usually a labor union). Consequently, the HR industry lobbies governmental agencies (e.g., in
the United States, the United States Department of Labor and the National Labor Relations
Board) to advance its priorities.

Functions of Human resource management :

1. Staffing: The process of the

recruitment and selection of
employees through the use of
interviews, applications and
networking. Staffing involves two
main factors. The first is to attract
talented recruits who meet the
organization's requirements, and
 doing so by using tools such as
mass media; the second is to
manage hiring resources. Managers
can use hiring resources to exercise
different strategies.
2. Training and Development:It
involves a continuous process of
training and developing competent
and adapted employees. Here,
motivation is seen as key to keeping
employees highly productive. This
includes employee benefits,
performance appraisals, and
rewards. Employee benefits,
appraisals, and rewards are all
encouragements to bring forward
the best employees.
3. Maintenance: involves keeping the
employees' commitment and loyalty
to the organization. Managing for
employee retention involves
strategic actions to keep employees
motivated and focused so they
remain employed and fully
productive for the benefit of the
organization.[28] Some businesses
globalize and form more diverse
teams. HR departments have the
role of making sure that these
teams can function and that people
can communicate across cultures
and across borders. The discipline
may also engage in mobility
management, especially for
 expatriates; and it is frequently
involved in the merger and
acquisition process. HR is generally
viewed as a support function to the
business, helping to minimize costs
and reduce risk.[29]
In startup companies, trained professionals may perform HR duties. In larger companies, an
entire functional group is typically dedicated to the discipline, with staff specializing in
various HR tasks and functional leadership engaging in strategic decision-making across the
business. To train practitioners for the profession, institutions of higher education,
professional associations, and companies have established programs of study dedicated
explicitly to the duties of the function. Academic and practitioner organizations may produce
field-specific publications. HR is also a field of research study that is popular within the fields
of management and industrial/organizational psychology, with research articles appearing in
a number of academic journals, including those mentioned later in this article.

One of the frequent challenges of HRM is dealing with the notion of unitarism (seeing a
company as a cohesive whole, in which both employers and employees should work together
for a common good) and securing a long-term partnership of employees and employers with
common interests.[30]

Careers
There are half a million HR practitioners in the United States and millions more worldwide.[31]
The Chief HR Officer or HR Director is the highest ranking HR executive in most companies.
He or she typically reports directly to the chief executive officer and works with the Board of
Directors on CEO succession.[32][33]
Within companies, HR positions generally fall into one of two categories: generalist and
specialist. Generalists support employees directly with their questions, grievances, and work
on a range of projects within the organization. They "may handle all aspects of human
resources work, and thus require an extensive range of knowledge. The responsibilities of
human resources generalists can vary widely, depending on their employer's needs."
Specialists, conversely, work in a specific HR function. Some practitioners will spend an entire
career as either a generalist or a specialist while others will obtain experiences from each
and choose a path later. The position of HR manager has been chosen as one of the best
jobs in the US, with a #4 ranking by CNN Money in 2006 and a #20 ranking by the same
organization in 2009, due to its pay, personal satisfaction, job security, future growth, and
benefit to society.[34][35]

Human resource consulting is a related career path where individuals may work as advisers
to companies and complete tasks outsourced from companies. In 2007, there were 950 HR
consultancies globally, constituting a US$18.4 billion market. The top five revenue generating
firms were Mercer, Ernst & Young, Deloitte, Watson Wyatt (now part of Towers Watson), Aon
(now merged with Hewitt), and PwC consulting.[36] For 2010, HR consulting was ranked the
#43 best job in America by CNN Money.[37]

Some individuals with PhDs in HR and related fields, such as industrial and organizational
psychology and management, are professors who teach HR principles at colleges and
universities. They are most often found in Colleges of Business in departments of HR or
Management. Many professors conduct research on topics that fall within the HR domain,
such as financial compensation, recruitment, and training.

Virtual human resources

Technology has a significant impact on HR practices. Utilizing technology makes information
more accessible within organizations, eliminates time doing administrative tasks, allows
businesses to function globally, and cuts costs.[38] Information technology has improved HR
practices in the following areas:
E-recruiting
Recruiting has mostly been influenced by information technology.[39] In past, recruiters relied
on printing in publications and word of mouth to fill open positions. HR professionals were
not able to post a job in more than one location and did not have access to millions of people,
causing the lead time of new hires to be drawn out and tiresome. With the use of e-recruiting
tools, HR professionals can post jobs and track applicants for thousands of jobs in various
locations all in one place. Interview feedback, background checks and drug tests, and
onboarding can all be viewed online. This helps HR professionals keep track of all of their
open jobs and applicants in a way that is faster and easier than before. E-recruiting also helps
eliminate limitations of geographic location.[39]

Human resources information systems

HR professionals generally handle large amounts of paperwork on a daily basis, ranging from
department transfer requests to confidential employee tax forms. Forms must be on file for a
considerable period of time. The use of human resources information systems (HRIS) has
made it possible for companies to store and retrieve files in an electronic format for people
within the organization to access when needed, thereby eliminating the need for physical files
and freeing up space within the office. HRIS also allows for information to be accessed in a
timelier manner; files can be accessible within seconds.[40] Having all of the information in
one place also allows for professionals to analyze data quickly and across multiple locations
because the information is in a centralized location.

Training
Technology allows HR professionals to train new staff members in a more efficient manner.
This gives employees the ability to access onboarding and training programs from virtually
anywhere. This eliminates the need for trainers to meet new hires face-to-face when
completing necessary paperwork for new employees. Training in virtual classrooms makes it
possible for HR professionals to train a large number of employees quickly and to assess
their progress through computerized testing programs.[38] Some employers choose to
incorporate an instructor with virtual training so that new hires are receiving training
considered vital to the role. Employees have greater control over their own learning and
development; they can engage in training at a time and place of their choosing, which can
help them manage their work–life balance. Managers are able to track the training through
the internet, which can help to reduce redundancy in training and training costs.

Services
Recruitment and Talent Acquisition: HR consulting firms assist organizations in identifying,
attracting, and hiring the right talent to meet their business needs.[41]

Talent Management: HR consulting firms help organizations develop strategies to effectively

manage their workforce, including employee engagement, retention, succession planning,
and career development.

Compensation and Benefits: HR consultants advise organizations on designing competitive

compensation and benefits packages to attract and retain talent.

Employee Relations: HR consulting firms provide guidance on managing employee relations

issues, such as conflict resolution, employee grievances, and workplace investigations.

Training and Development: HR consultants help organizations develop and implement

training programs and professional development opportunities for their employees.[42]

Performance Management: HR consulting firms assist organizations in designing and

implementing performance management systems to evaluate employee performance and
align it with organizational goals.

Legal Compliance: HR consulting firms ensure that organizations are compliant with labor
laws and regulations, including employment standards, workplace safety, and anti-
discrimination policies.
Education

The School of Industrial and Labor

Relations at Cornell University was the
world's first school for college-level study
in HR.

Some universities offer programs of study for human resources and related fields. The
School of Industrial and Labor Relations at Cornell University was the world's first school for
college-level study in HR.[43] It currently offers education at the undergraduate, graduate, and
professional levels, and it operates a joint degree program with the Samuel Curtis Johnson
Graduate School of Management.

Many colleges and universities house departments and institutes related to the field, either
within a business school or in another college. Most business schools offer courses in HR,
often in their departments of management. In general, schools of human resources
management offer education and research in the HRM field from diplomas to doctorate-level
opportunities. The master's-level courses include MBA (HR), MM (HR), MHRM, MIR, etc. (See
Master of Science in Human Resource Development for curriculum.) Various universities all
over the world have taken up the responsibility of training human-resource managers and
equipping them with interpersonal and intrapersonal skills so as to relate better at their
places of work. As Human resource management field is continuously evolving due to
technology advances of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, it is essential for universities and
colleges to offer courses which are future oriented.[44]

In the United States of America, the Human Resources University trains federal employees.
Professional associations
There are a number of professional associations, some of which offer training and
certification. The Society for Human Resource Management, which is based in the United
States, is the largest professional association dedicated to HR,[31] with over 285,000
members in 165 countries.[45] It offers a suite of Professional in Human Resources (PHR)
certifications through its HR Certification Institute. The Chartered Institute of Personnel and
Development, based in England, is the oldest professional HR association, with its
predecessor institution being founded in 1918.

Several associations also serve niches within HR. The Institute of Recruiters (IOR) is a
recruitment professional association, offering members education, support and training.[46]
WorldatWork focuses on "total rewards" (i.e., compensation, benefits, work life, performance,
recognition, and career development), offering several certifications and training programs
dealing with remuneration and work–life balance. Other niche associations include the
American Society for Training & Development and Recognition Professionals International.

A largely academic organization that is relevant to HR is the Academy of Management that

has an HR division. This division is concerned with finding ways to improve the effectiveness
of HR.[47] The academy publishes several journals devoted in part to research on HR,
including Academy of Management Journal[48] and Academy of Management Review,[49] and
it hosts an annual meeting.

Publications
Academic and practitioner publications dealing exclusively with HR:

Cornell HR Review[50]

HR Magazine (SHRM)[51]
 Human Resource Management[52]

Human Resource Management

Review[53]

International Journal of Human

Resource Management[54]

Perspectives on Work (LERA)[55]

Related publications:

Academy of Management Journal[48]

Academy of Management Review[49]

Administrative Science Quarterly[56]

International Journal of Selection and

Assessment[57]

Journal of Applied Psychology[58]

Journal of Management[59]
 Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology[60]

Journal of Personnel Psychology[61]

Organization Science[62]

Personnel Psychology[63]

See also

Aspiration management
Domestic inquiry
Employment agency
Human resource management system
Organization development
Organizational theory
Realistic job preview
Recruitment
Notes

1. Johnason, P. (2009). HRM in changing

organizational contexts. In D. G.Collings &
G. Wood (Eds.), Human resource
management: A critical approach (pp. 19-
37). London: Routledge.

2. Collings, D. G., & Wood, G. (2009). Human

resource management: A critical
approach. In D. G. Colligs & G. Wood
(Eds.), Human resource management: A
critical approach (pp. 1-16). London:
Routledge.

3. Paauwe, J., & Boon, C. (2009). Strategic

HRM: A critical review. In D. G. Collings, G.
Wood (Eds.) & M.A. Reid, Human resource
management: A critical approach (pp. 38-
54). London: Routledge.
4. Klerck, G. (2009). "Industrial relations and
human resource management". In D. G.
Collings & G. Wood (Eds.), Human
resource management: A critical
approach (pp. 238-259). London:
Routledge.

5. Armstrong, Michael (2009). Armstrong's

handbook of human resource
management practice. Armstrong,
Michael, 1928- (Eleventh ed.). London:
Kogan Page. ISBN 9780749457389.
OCLC 435643771 (https://www.worldcat.
org/oclc/435643771) .
6. Obedgiu, Vincent (2017-01-01). "Human
resource management, historical
perspectives, evolution and professional
development" (https://doi.org/10.1108/J
MD-12-2016-0267) . Journal of
Management Development. 36 (8): 986–
990. doi:10.1108/JMD-12-2016-0267 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1108%2FJMD-12-2016-02
67) . ISSN 0262-1711 (https://www.world
cat.org/issn/0262-1711) .

7. Griffin, Ricky. Principles of Management.

8. Merkle, Judith A. (1980-01-01).
Management and Ideology (https://archiv
e.org/details/managementideolo0000mer
k) . University of California Press. p. 1 (htt
ps://archive.org/details/managementideo
lo0000merk/page/1) . ISBN 978-0-520-
03737-3.
 9. Mark O'Sullivan, 2014, What Works at
Work, The Starbank Press, Bath, page 3.

10. Mayo, Elton (1945). "Hawthorne and the

Western Electric Company" (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20120106052538/http://x
a.yimg.com/kq/groups/30802428/18864
32542/name/elton+mayo+++studiu+de+c
az.pdf) (PDF). Harvard Business School.
Archived from the original (http://xa.yimg.
com/kq/groups/30802428/1886432542/
name/elton+mayo+%2B+studiu+de+caz.p
df) (PDF) on 6 January 2012. Retrieved
28 December 2011.
11. "History of HR and the CIPD" (https://web.
archive.org/web/20160715093051/http://
www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/factsheets/
history-hr-cipd.aspx) . Chartered Institute
of Personnel and Development. Archived
from the original (http://www.cipd.co.uk/h
r-resources/factsheets/history-hr-cipd.as
px) on 2016-07-15. Retrieved 2016-07-19.

12. Itani, Sami (22 September 2017). The

Ideological Evolution of Human Resource
Management: A Critical Look into HRM
Research and Practices (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=tE80DwAAQBAJ) .
Critical Management Studies Book Set
(2016-2019). Bingley, Yorkshire: Emerald
Group Publishing (published 2017).
ISBN 9781787433908. Retrieved 3 April
2021.
13. Ardichvili, Alexandre; Zavyalova, Elena K.
(8 May 2015). "HRD in the Former Soviet
Union (1917-1990)". Human Resource
Development in the Russian Federation (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=IPQjC
QAAQBAJ) . Routledge Studies in Human
Resource Development. New York:
Routledge (published 2015). p. 43.
ISBN 9781317815846. Retrieved 3 April
2021. "[...] features of personnel
management that were typical for the
socialist Soviet Union [...]: Ideologization
of all definitions, regulations, concepts,
and explanations; linking the fundamental
principles of personnel management with
the classical works of the Marxist-Leninist
theory as well as the obligatory
references to the Communist Party
documents of various levels [...]; and
 administrative and even criminal liability
for non-working, enshrined as a separate
item in the constitution of the USSR."

14. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/

web/20210119145405/https://www.workf
orce.com/files/Reasons-and-Plans-for-Per
sonnel-Research-James-R-Angell.pdf)
(PDF). Archived from the original (https://
www.workforce.com/files/Reasons-and-P
lans-for-Personnel-Research-James-R-An
gell.pdf) (PDF) on 2021-01-19. Retrieved
2020-10-05.

15. "About Cornell ILR" (http://www.ilr.cornell.

edu/about/) . Cornell University School of
Industrial and Labor Relations. Retrieved
2010-01-29.
16. "About SHRM" (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20090116112745/http://shrm.org/abo
ut/) . Society for Human Resource
Management. Archived from the original
(http://www.shrm.org/about/) on 16
January 2009. Retrieved 22 December
2011.
17. Hale, Henry E. (2014). Patronal Politics (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=1MC0
BAAAQBAJ) . Problems of International
Politics. Cambridge University Press.
p. 49. ISBN 9781107073517. Retrieved
2015-08-24. "Not seen as having the right
stuff for high-profile posts such as the
one held by Trotsky, Stalin thus occupied
a series of relatively low-level positions in
the Communist leadership after the
revolution. One of these, which he
acquired in 1919, was the de facto head
of the Communist Party's Organizational
Bureau (Orgburo), seen then as a
technical body in much the same way a
human resources department is seen in a
modern institution. [...] Stalin's genius was
to recognize that [...] this was precisely
the position to occupy. Using his position
to influence who was appointed to lower-
level party posts, each relatively
unimportant in its own right, Stalin
systematically advanced people he
believed would support him in the future,
thereby constructing a large network of
political clients within the party and the
state which it dominated. [...] This
patronalistic mechanism constituted what
Robert V. Daniels later called the great
'circular flow of power' that essentially
decided Communist Party leadership
disputes and solved succession crises
from Stalin straight through to Gorbachev.
The power to influence lower-level
appointments was concentrated, though
still largely seen as a technical matter,
with the creation of the post of general
secretary in 1922, a post-Stalin was in a
perfect position to occupy, and he did."
18. Pipko, Simona (2002). Baltic Winds:
Testimony of a Soviet Attorney (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=_6LnhLxIUls
C) . Xlibris Corporation. p. 451.
ISBN 9781401070960. Retrieved
2015-08-24. "The Secretariat personified
the Stalinist system. [...] It runs the day-to-
day affairs of the State as well as the
Party. Can you imagine that huge body of
bureaucratic anachronism, which was
also responsible for the selection and
promotion of 'cadres'? The model
invented by Stalin to consolidate his
power existed up to contemporary time.
[...] Stalin had both the time and the ability
to shape human resources to his own
ends, teaching secrecy, brutality and
duplicity."
19. Quoted in: Stalin, Joseph (1936). Против
фашистского мракобесия и демагогии
(https://books.google.com/books?id=evM
fBwAAQBAJ) [Against Fascist
Obscurantism and Demagoguery].
Directmedia (published 2013). p. 81.
ISBN 9785446087181. Retrieved
2015-08-24. "Надо, наконец, понять, что
из всех ценных капиталов, имеющихся
в мире, самым ценным и самым
решающим капиталом являются люди,
кадры. [Finally, one must understand that
of all the valuable forms of capital
existing in the world, the most precious
and the most decisive capital is people,
cadres.]"
20. Compare: Belous, Richard S. (1986).
Union Membership Trends: The
Implications for Economic Policy and
Labor Legislation (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=2RFYAAAAYAAJ) .
Congressional Research Service, Library
of Congress. p. 27. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
"Given the 'continued union membership
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