𝐒𝐭𝐨𝐤𝐞𝐬 𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐦

𝘿𝙚𝙛𝙞𝙣𝙚 : Stokes theorem (also known as Generalized Stoke’s Theorem) is a declaration about the
integration of differential forms on manifolds, which both generalizes and simplifies several theorems
from vector calculus. As per this theorem, a line integral is related to a surface integral of vector fields.
Learn the stokes law here in detail with formula and proof.

𝙈𝙖𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙢𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙘𝙖𝙡 𝙙𝙚𝙛𝙞𝙣𝙚: Stokes’ theorem says we can calculate the flux of curl F⇀ across surface S
by knowing information only about the values of F⇀ along the boundary of S

. Conversely, we can calculate the line integral of vector field F⇀ along the boundary of surface S by
translating to a double integral of the curl of F⇀ over S

. Let S be an oriented smooth surface with unit normal vector N⇀

. Furthermore, suppose the boundary of S is a simple closed curve C

. The orientation of S induces the positive orientation of C

if, as you walk in the positive direction around C with your head pointing in the direction of N⇀, the
surface is always on your left. With this definition in place, we can state Stokes’ theorem.

𝙎𝙩𝙤𝙠𝙚𝙨’ 𝙏𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙚𝙢 𝙁𝙤𝙧𝙢𝙪𝙡𝙖: The Stoke’s theorem states that “the surface integral of the curl of a
function over a surface bounded by a closed surface is equal to the line integral of the particular vector
function around that surface.”

(𝔽𝕀𝔾𝕌ℝ𝔼 𝟙)

Where,
C = A closed curve.

S = Any surface bounded by C.

F = A vector field whose components have continuous derivatives in an open region of R3 containing S.

This classical declaration, along with the classical divergence theorem, fundamental theorem of calculus,
and Green’s theorem are exceptional cases of the general formulation specified above.

2𝙉𝘿 𝘿𝙄𝘼𝙂𝙍𝘼M:(𝔽𝕀𝔾𝕌ℝ𝔼 𝟚)

This means that:

If you walk in the positive direction around C with your head pointing in the direction of n, the surface
will always be on your left.

S is an oriented smooth surface bounded by a simple, closed smooth-boundary curve C with positive
orientation.

𝙎𝙩𝙤𝙠𝙚𝙨 𝙏𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙚𝙢 𝙎𝙩𝙖𝙩𝙚𝙢𝙚𝙣𝙩: The line integral around S (the boundary curve) of F’s tangential
component is equal to the surface integral of the normal component of the curl of F.

The positively oriented boundary curve of the oriented surface S will be ∂S.

Thus, stokes theorem can also be expressed as:(𝔽𝕀𝔾𝕌ℝ𝔼 𝟛)

𝙂𝙖𝙪𝙨𝙨 𝘿𝙞𝙫𝙚𝙧𝙜𝙚𝙣𝙘𝙚 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙚𝙢: The Gauss divergence theorem states that the vector’s outward flux
through a closed surface is equal to the volume integral of the divergence over the area within the
surface. Put differently, the sum of all sources subtracted by the sum of every sink result in the net flow
of an area.

Gauss divergence theorem is a result that describes the flow of a vector field by a surface to the
behavior of the vector field within the surface.

𝙎𝙩𝙤𝙠𝙚𝙨’ 𝙏𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙚𝙢 𝙋𝙧𝙤𝙤𝙛: We assume that the equation of S is Z = g (x, y), (x, y) D

Where g has a continuous second-order partial derivative.

D is a simple plain region whose boundary curve C1 corresponds to C. (𝔽𝕀𝔾𝕌ℝ𝔼 𝟜)

 𝐋𝐀𝐏𝐋𝐀𝐂𝐄 𝐓𝐇𝐄𝐎𝐑𝐄𝐌

𝘿𝙚𝙛𝙞𝙣𝙚:Laplace transform is named in honour of the great French mathematician, Pierre Simon De
Laplace (1749-1827). Like all transforms, the Laplace transform changes one signal into another
according to some fixed set of rules or equations. The best way to convert differential equations into
algebraic equations is the use of Laplace transformation.

Laplace transformation plays a major role in control system engineering. To analyze the control system,
Laplace transforms of different functions have to be carried out. Both the properties of the Laplace
transform and the inverse Laplace transformation are used in analyzing the dynamic control system. In
this article, we will discuss in detail the definition of Laplace transform, its formula, properties, Laplace
transform table and its applications in a detailed way.

𝙏𝙖𝙗𝙡𝙚 𝙤𝙛 𝘾𝙤𝙣𝙩𝙚𝙣𝙩𝙨:

Definition

Formula

Properties

Table

Laplace Transform of Derivative

Step Function

Bilateral Laplace Transform

Inverse Laplace Transform

Convolution Integral

Laplace Transform in Probability Theory

Applications

Examples

Laplace Equation

FAQs
𝙒𝙝𝙖𝙩 𝙞𝙨 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙇𝙖𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚 𝙏𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙨𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙢?

A function is said to be a piecewise continuous function if it has a finite number of breaks and it does not
blow up to infinity anywhere. Let us assume that the function f(t) is a piecewise continuous function,
then f(t) is defined using the Laplace transform. The Laplace transform of a function is represented by
L{f(t)} or F(s). Laplace transform helps to solve the differential equations, where it reduces the
differential equation into an algebraic problem.

𝙇𝙖𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚 𝙏𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙨𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙢 𝙁𝙤𝙧𝙢𝙪𝙡𝙖

Laplace transform is the integral transform of the given derivative function with real variable t to
convert into a complex function with variable s. For t ≥ 0, let f(t) be given and assume the function
satisfies certain conditions to be stated later on.

The Laplace transform of f(t), that is denoted by L{f(t)} or F(s) is defined by the Laplace transform
formula:(𝔽𝕀𝔾 𝟙)

whenever the improper integral converges.

𝙎𝙩𝙖𝙣𝙙𝙖𝙧𝙙 𝙣𝙤𝙩𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣: Where the notation is clear, we will use an uppercase letter to indicate the
Laplace transform, e.g, L(f; s) = F(s).

The Laplace transform we defined is sometimes called the 𝙤𝙣𝙚-𝙨𝙞𝙙𝙚𝙙 𝙇𝙖𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚 𝙩𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙨𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙢. There is a
two-sided version where the integral goes from −∞ to ∞.
𝙇𝙖𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚 𝙏𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙨𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙢 𝙤𝙛 𝘿𝙞𝙛𝙛𝙚𝙧𝙚𝙣𝙩𝙞𝙖𝙡 𝙀𝙦𝙪𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣

The Laplace transform is a well-established mathematical technique for solving a differential equation.
Many mathematical problems are solved using transformations. The idea is to transform the problem
into another problem that is easier to solve. On the other hand, the inverse transform is helpful to
calculate the solution to the given problem.

For better understanding, let us solve a first-order differential equation with the help of Laplace
transformation,

Consider y’- 2y = e3x and y(0) = -5. Find the value of L(y).

First step of the equation can be solved with the help of the linearity equation:

L (y’ – 2y] = L(e3x)

L(y’) – L(2y) = 1/(s-3)

(because L(eax) = 1/(s-a))

L(y’) – 2s(y) = 1/(s-3)

sL(y) – y(0) – 2L(y) = 1/(s-3)

(Using Linearity property of the Laplace transform)

L(y)(s-2) + 5 = 1/(s-3) (Use value of y(0) ie -5 (given))

L(y)(s-2) = 1/(s-3) – 5

L(y) = (-5s+16)/(s-2) (s-3) …... (1)

here (-5s+16)/(s-2) (s-3) can be written as -6/s-2 + 1/(s-3) using partial fraction method

(1) implies L(y) = -6/(s-2) + 1/(s-3)

L(y) = -6e2x + e3x

𝙎𝙩𝙚𝙥 𝙁𝙪𝙣𝙘𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙨:

The step function is often called the Heaviside function, and it is defined as follows:

(𝔽𝕀𝔾 𝟚)

The step function can take the values of 0 or 1. It is like an on and off switch. The notations that
represent the Heaviside functions are uc(t) or u(t-c) or H(t-c)

𝘽𝙞𝙡𝙖𝙩𝙚𝙧𝙖𝙡 𝙇𝙖𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚 𝙏𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙨𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙢

The Laplace transform can also be defined as bilateral Laplace transform. This is also known as two-sided Laplace
transform, which can be performed by extending the limits of integration to be the entire real axis. Hence, the
common unilateral Laplace transform becomes a special case of Bilateral Laplace transform, where the function
definition is transformed is multiplied by the Heaviside step function.

The bilateral Laplace transform is defined as:(𝔽𝕀𝔾 𝟛)

The bilateral Laplace transform is defined as:(𝔽𝕀𝔾 𝟛)

𝙄𝙣𝙫𝙚𝙧𝙨𝙚 𝙇𝙖𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚 𝙏𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙨𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙢:

In the inverse Laplace transform, we are provided with the transform F(s) and asked to find what
function we have initially. The inverse transform of the function F(s) is given by:

f(t) = L-1{F(s)}

For example, for the two Laplace transform, say F(s) and G(s), the inverse Laplace transform is defined
by:

L-1{aF(s)+bG(s)}= a L-1{F(s)}+bL-1 {G(s)}

Where a and b are constants.

In this case, we can take the inverse transform for the individual transforms, and add their constant
values in their respective places, and perform the operation to get the result.

𝘾𝙤𝙣𝙫𝙤𝙡𝙪𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣 𝙄𝙣𝙩𝙚𝙜𝙧𝙖𝙡𝙨

If the functions f(t) and g(t) are the piecewise continuous functions on the interval [0, ∞), then the
convolution integral of (t) and g(t) is given as:

(f * g) (t) =0∫t f(t-T) g(T)dT

As, the convolution integral obey the property, (f*g) (t) = (g*) (t)

We can write, 0∫t f(t-T) g(T)dT = 0∫t f(T) g(t-T) dt

Thus, the above fact will help us to take the inverse transform of the product of transforms.

(i.e.) L(f*g) = F(s) G(s)

L-1 {F(s)G(s)} = (f*g)(t).

𝙇𝙖𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚 𝙏𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙨𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙢 𝙞𝙣 𝙋𝙧𝙤𝙗𝙖𝙗𝙞𝙡𝙞𝙩𝙮 𝙏𝙝𝙚𝙤𝙧𝙮

In pure and applied probability theory, the Laplace transform is defined as the expected value. If X is the
random variable with probability density function, say f, then the Laplace transform of f is given as the
expectation of:

L{f}(S) = E[e-sX], which is referred to as the Laplace transform of random variable X itself.

𝘼𝙥𝙥𝙡𝙞𝙘𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙇𝙖𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚 𝙏𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙨𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙢

It is used to convert complex differential equations to a simpler form having polynomials.

It is used to convert derivatives into multiple domain variables and then convert the polynomials back to
the differential equation using Inverse Laplace transform.

It is used in the telecommunication field to send signals to both the sides of the medium. For example,
when the signals are sent through the phone then they are first converted into a time-varying wave and
then superimposed on the medium.

It is also used for many engineering tasks such as Electrical Circuit Analysis, Digital Signal Processing,
System Modelling, etc.

𝐅𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐥𝐲 𝐀𝐬𝐤𝐞𝐝 𝐐𝐮𝐞𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝐨𝐧 𝐋𝐚𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐓𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦- 𝐅𝐀𝐐𝐬

𝙌1

𝙒𝙝𝙖𝙩 𝙞𝙨 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙪𝙨𝙚 𝙤𝙛 𝙇𝙖𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚 𝙏𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙨𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙢?

The Laplace transform is used to solve differential equations. It is accepted widely in many fields.
We know that the Laplace transform simplifies a given LDE (linear differential equation) to an
algebraic equation, which can later be solved using the standard algebraic identities.

𝙌2

𝙃𝙤𝙬 𝙙𝙤 𝙮𝙤𝙪 𝙘𝙖𝙡𝙘𝙪𝙡𝙖𝙩𝙚 𝙇𝙖𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚 𝙩𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙨𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙢?

The steps to be followed while calculating the Laplace transform are:

Step 1: Multiply the given function, i.e. f(t) by e^{-st}, where s is a complex number such that s = x
+ iy

Step 2; Integrate this product with respect to the time (t) by taking limits as 0 and ∞.

This process results in Laplace transformation of f(t), and is denoted by F(s).

𝙌3

𝙒𝙝𝙖𝙩 𝙞𝙨 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙇𝙖𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚 𝙢𝙚𝙩𝙝𝙤𝙙?

The Laplace transform (or Laplace method) is named in honor of the great French mathematician Pierre Simon De Laplace (1749-1827).
This method is used to find the approximate value of the integration of the given function. Laplace transform changes one sig nal into
another according to some fixed set of rules or equations.

𝙌4

𝙒𝙝𝙖𝙩 𝙖𝙧𝙚 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙥𝙧𝙤𝙥𝙚𝙧𝙩𝙞𝙚𝙨 𝙤𝙛 𝙇𝙖𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚 𝙏𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙨𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙢?

The important properties of Laplace transform include:

Linearity Property: A f_1(t) + B f_2(t) ⟷ A F_1(s) + B F_2(s)

Frequency Shifting Property: es0t f(t)) ⟷ F(s – s0)

nth Derivative Property: (d^n f(t)/ dt^n) ⟷ s^n F(s) − n∑i = 1 s^{n − i} f^{i − 1} (0^−)

Integration: t∫_0 f(λ) dλ ⟷ 1⁄s F(s)

Multiplication by Time: T f(t) ⟷ (−d F(s)⁄ds)

Complex Shift Property: f(t) e^{−at} ⟷ F(s + a)

Time Reversal Property: f (-t) ⟷ F(-s)

Time Scaling Property: f (t⁄a) ⟷ a F(as)

𝙌5

𝙒𝙝𝙖𝙩 𝙞𝙨 𝙩𝙝𝙚 𝙇𝙖𝙥𝙡𝙖𝙘𝙚 𝙩𝙧𝙖𝙣𝙨𝙛𝙤𝙧𝙢 𝙤𝙛 𝙨𝙞𝙣 𝙩?

The Laplace transform of f(t) = sin t is L{sin t} = 1/(s^2 + 1). As we know that the Laplace transform of sin at
= a/(s^2 + a^2).

(Properties of Laplace Transform

Laplace Transform Table

Laplace Transform Examples

Laplace Equation)

Laplace Transform Examples:

Laplace Equation: