As a first approximation, the stress-

displacement curve can be written as

For small x/b

At small displacements, Hooke's law should apply

Hence the maximum shear stress at

which slip should occur
Dislocations play diverse roles in determining materials structures
and behaviours
The most important role is to weaken the crystal strength
The role of dislocations in materials involves the interactions of a
dislocation with other dislocations and defects in the material,
which result in 'hardening of the crystal, i.e., strengthening of the
weakened crystal.
Historical Overview
The continuum construction of a dislocation had been proposed by
Volterra in 1905.
But as late as in 1930. the reason behind the weakening of a crystal
was still not clear: Why a rod of copper can be bent easily.
In 1934. Taylor. Orowan and Polanyi postulated the presence of
dislocations as a mechanism of weakening of a crystal.
The presence of dislocations was confirmed by election microscopy
in 1950s
“Crystals are like people,
it is the defects in them which tend to make them
interesting!”

Defects in Solids
1. 0 D, Point defects vacancies, interstitials, impurities, weight &
composition
2. 1 D, Dislocations edge, screw
3. 2 D, Grain boundaries tilt, twist
4. 3 D, Bulk or Volume defects
5. Atomic vibrations
Real crystals are finite in extent. They have a surface as their
boundary, where some of the atomic bonds are broken. The surface
itself is then an imperfection.
Occasional disruptions in periodicity within a crystal also exists i.e.
the disrupted regions ( as small as 0.01% of the total volume).
why at all then we are bothered about such infrequent disruptions?
If we were studying structure- insensitive properties such as the density of
a crystal. If 0.01% of the atoms were missing from the atomic sites, the
density of the crystal would be lower by the same amount (0.01%), which is
small enough to be ignored for all practical purposes.
However, many of the properties of crystalline materials are structure-
sensitive properties. They vitally depend on the presence or absence of
imperfections,.
Few parts per million of aluminium impurity may radically change the character of a silicon
semiconductor
Likewise, line imperfections known as dislocations decrease the mechanical strength of
crystals drastically
Crystalline imperfections can be classified on
the basis of their geometry
a. Point defects (zero-dimensional)
b. Line defects (One dimensional)
c. Surface defects (two dimensional)
d. Volume defects (three dimensional)
Point Imperfections
Typical size of a point defect is about 1-2 atomic diameters.

Different Kinds of point imperfections

Different kinds of point imperfections

Vacancy Substitutional
Impurity
Different kinds of point imperfections
Ionic Crystal
Overall electrical neutrality
is maintained

Interstitial
Impurity
Frenkel defect
Different kinds of point imperfections

When ionic crystal does not correspond

to exact stoichiometric formula

Schottky
defect
NaCl, KCl, KBr, AgBr and CsCl
 Schottky Defect Frenkel Defect
Schottky defect occurs in those ionic Frenkel defect usually occurs in those ionic
crystals where difference in size crystals where size of anion is quite large as
between cation and anion is small. compared to that of the cation.
In Schottky defect, both cation and anion In Frenkel defect, only the smaller ion (cation)
leave the solid crystal. leaves its original lattice site; whereas, the anion
remains in original lattice sites.
The atoms permanently leave the Here, atoms leave the original lattice site and
crystal. occupy interstitial position. So atoms reside within
the solid crystal.
One Schottky defect leads to the One Frenkel defect creates one vacancy and one
formation of two vacancies. self-interstitial defect.
Two atoms reduce from the crystal for The number of atoms present in the crystal before
each Schottky defect. and after Frenkel defect remains same.
Due to vacancy formation, Schottky Density of the solid crystal before and after Frenkel
defect reduces density of the solid. defect remains same as no atom leaves the solid.
Common materials where Schottky Common materials where Frenkel defect can be
defect can be found are: found are:
•Sodium Chloride (NaCl) •Zinc Sulfide (ZnS)
•Potassium Chloride (KCl) •Silver Chloride (AgCl)
•Potassium Bromide (KBr) •Silver Bromide (AgBr)
•Silver Bromide (AgBr)
•Cerium Dioxide (CeO2)
•Thorium Dioxide (ThO2)
A point imperfection is distinguishable from the parent atom, the
configurational entropy of a crystal increases from zero for a perfect crystal to
positive values with increasing concentration of the point imperfection.
When we introduce n point imperfections, in one mole of a crystal, the change in the free energy G of the
crystal can be written as

The minimum in Curve also

corresponds to the minimum in G
(note that G is negative here). By
setting dG/dn = 0, we obtain the
equilibrium concentration:

The variation of Gibbs free energy G with the number of point imperfections n
(schematic).
When we introduce n point imperfections, in one mole of a crystal, the change
in the free energy G of the crystal can be written as

Hf is energy required to
create vacancies
T temperature

N is very large compared to n

k is Boltzman constant
Prob.1 Find the equilibrium concentration of vacancies in aluminium at -273oC and 27oC [ Hf = 68x103
J/mole

Prob.2 The vacancy of formation of shottky defects in sodium chloride as determined by conductivity
measurement is 40Kcal/mole. Calculate the fraction of shottky defects at 500oC.
Line imperfections are called dislocations. The word ‘dislocations’ is used by
convention to denote only line imperfections, even if the word means any
general discontinuity in the crystal.

Line imperfections are

one dimensional
imperfections in the
geometrical sense.

Perfect crystal An incomplete plane in a crystal results in

an edge dislocation
An alternative way of looking at an edge dislocation

ABCD Slip Plane

ABFE Slipped Part
B
B
EFCD Unslipped Part
EF Dislocation Line
D The boundary between the slipped and
D
the unslipped parts

Displacement of the top part with respect to the bottom by one step across the hatched area
introduces an edge dislocation EF in the crystal
 Screw Dislocation

ABCD Slip Plane

ABFE Slipped Part
EFCD Unslipped Part
B
C
B
EF Dislocation Line
The boundary between the slipped and
D
the unslipped parts
D A

B
B

D
D
A screw dislocation EF is created by displacement of the top part of the crystal with respect
to the bottom across the hatched area
The magnitude and the direction of the displacement are defined by a vector
called the Burgers vector (BV), which characterizes a dislocation line.

t BV is perpendicular to edge
dislocation and parallel to
screw dislocation
4 step

Burgers circuits (a) in a perfect crystal; and (b) in an imperfect crystal with an edge
dislocation
Under an observation of Al film with TEM. one usually finds curved
dislocation lines, indicating that dislocations have a mixed character
and ideal Edge and Screw dislocations are extremes.

The character of the dislocation will change from position to

position along the dislocation line.

Under special circumstances Pure Edge. Pure Screw or a Mixed

Dislocation with
a fixed percentage of edge character can form.
Displacement across the hatched area with a curved boundary produces a mixed
dislocation line at the boundary
 6

1
(a) Mixed Dislocation Left front
face –Edge
side face screw
(d) Between A and C Mixed
dislocation
Strain energy of a dislocation per unit length

Es 
Prob. 1 Compute the line energy of dislocations in BCC iron.
The Burgers vector in iron is of the

1/2 <111> type [b = 2.49 Å.].

The shear modulus of iron is 80.2 GN m–2.

Ans.

The line energy of the dislocation =

E = 80.2 × 109 × 2.492 × l0–20/2

= 2.49 × 10–9 J m–1
 Difference between Edge and Screw Dislocation
Sl. Properties Edge dislocation Screw Dislocation
N.
1 Burger Vector Perpendicular to edge Parallel to edge dislocation
dislocation
2 Movement of dislocation Dislocation moves parallel to Dislocation moves
relative to burger vector burger vector perpendicular to burger vector
3 Slip direction Atoms move parallel to Atoms move perpendicular to
burger vector burger vector
4 Movement of dislocation Atoms move parallel to Atoms move perpendicular to
relative to slip direction motion of dislocation motion of dislocation

5 Method of leaving slip By climb up or down By cross slip

plane
6 Velocity of motion Faster than screw Slower than edge dislocation
dislocation
7 Strain energy of dislocation More strain energy than Less strain energy than edge
screw dislocation dislocation
 1. Burger vector defines the dislocation whether
it is EDGE or SCREW dislocation.
2. Burger vector of a dislocation line is invariant
(No change in magnitude and direction)
C F B b Slip Plane

Slipped
B part
Slip Plane

D b Unslipped
part
D A b
E
3. Dislocation can not end abruptly with in a crystal
4. Dislocation can extend from one surface to another,
or to a grain boundary, or to another dislocation, or to
a node or it forms a closed loop
5. When two dislocations b1 and b2 combine resultant dislocation with
burger vector (b1 +b2) will form.
If similar they tend to repel each other resultant 2b
If opposite in nature resultant is zero.

6.Dislocation slip under shear stress

7. Actual materials have high dislocation density due to accidents in
growth.
If solidified under utmost precaution dislocation free crystals are formed
(known as WHISKERS)
SURFACE DEFECTS: TWO DIMWNSIONAL : AREA OF DEFECTS
THAT LIE ABOUT A SURFACE OF THICKNESS OF
FEW ATOMIC DIAMETERS
Types of surface defects
(i) Free Surface: Unsatisfied atomic bonds
Growth of the crystal has stopped abruptly
at surface. Atoms at free surface have higher free Surface
energy than the atoms inside

Broken
bonds

Two surfaces are created only after breaking of

bonds
(ii) Grain Boundaries
 STAKING FAULTS

(b) Deformation Fault ABCABABC (c) Twin Fault in FCC

(a) FCC, ABCABCABC ABCACBCABC

(e) FCC fault in HCP

(d) HCP ABABAB…

it is not energetically favorable in BCC crystals due to the lack of close packed planes,
but that doesn't mean it's impossible
VOLUME DEFECTS: THREE DIMENSIONAL
Types of VOLUME defects

(i) PRECIPITATES

(ii) VOIDS

(iii) PORES

(iv) BLOW HOLES