Signal Analyzers

INTRODUCTION

• In the CRO we discussed measurement techniques in the time domain, that is, measurement of parameters
that vary with time. Electrical signals contain a great deal of interesting and valuable information in the
frequency domain as well. Analysis of signals in the frequency domain is called spectrum analysis, which is
defined as the study of the distribution of a signal's energy as a function of frequency.
This analysis provides both electrical and physical system information which is very useful in performance
testing of both mechanical and electrical systems. This chapter discusses the basic theory and applications of
the principal instruments used for frequency domain analysis: distortion analyzers, Wave analyzers,
spectrum analyzers, and Fourier analyzers
Each of these instruments quantifies the magnitude of the signal of interest through a specific bandwidth, but
each measurement technique is different as will be seen in the discussion that follows.
The extent to which the output waveform of an amplifier differs from the waveform at the input is a measure
of the distortion introduced by the inherent nonlinear characteristics of active devices such as bipolar or
field-effect transistors or by passive circuit components. The amount of distortion can be measured with a
distortion analyzer.
Applying a sinusoidal signal to the input of an ideal linear amplifier will produce a sinusoidal output
waveform. However, in most cases the output waveform is not an exact replica of the input signal because of
various types of distortion.
DISTORTION ANALYZERS
• When an amplifier is not operating in a linear fashion, the output signal will be distorted. Distortion caused
by nonlinear operation is called amplitude distortion or harmonic distortion. It can be shown
mathematically that an amplitude-distorted sine wave is made up of pure sine-wave components including
the fundamental frequency f of the input signal and harmonic multiples of the fundamental frequency, 2f, 3f,
4f . . . , and so on.
When harmonics are present in considerable amount, their presence can be observed with an oscilloscope.
The waveform displayed will either have unequal positive and negative peak values or will exhibit a change
in shape. In either case, the oscilloscope will provide a qualitative check of harmonic distortion. However
the distortion must be fairly severe (around 10%) to be noted by an untrained observer.
In addition, most testing situations require a better quantitative measure of harmonic distortion. Harmonic
distortion can be quantitatively measured very accurately with a harmonic distortion analyzer, which is
generally referred to simply as a distortion analyzer.
DISTORTION ANALYZERS
• A block diagram for a fundamental-suppression harmonic analyzer is shown in Fig. 1. When the
instrument is used switch S, is set to the "set level" position, the band pass filter is adjusted to the
fundamental frequency and the attenuator network is adjusted to obtain a full-scale voltmeter reading.

Fig. 1 Block diagram of a distortion analyzer.

Switch S, is then set to the "distortion" position, the rejection fi1ter is turned to the fundamental frequency,
and the attenuator is adjusted for a maximum reading on the voltmeter.
• The total harmonic distortion (THD) which is frequently expressed as a percentage, is defined as the ratio
of the rms value of all the harmonics to the rms value of the fundamental, or

This defining equation is somewhat inconvenient from the standpoint of measurement. An alternative
working equation expresses total harmonic distortion as the ratio of the rms value of all the harmonics to the
rms value of the total signal including distortion. That is,

--------- Eq 2

On the basis of the assumption that any distortion caused by the components within the analyzer itself or by
the oscillator signal are small enough to be neglected. Eq. 2 can be expressed as

-------------- Eq 3

Where
THD = the total harmonic distortion
Ef = the amplitude of the fundamental frequency including the harmonics
E2E3En = the amplitude of the individual harmonics

EXAMPLE 1:
Compute the total harmonic distortion of a signal that contains a fundamental signal with an rms value of 10
V, a second harmonic with an rms value of 3 V, a third harmonic with an rms value of 1.5 V, and a fourth
harmonic with an rms value of 0.6V.
SOLUTION

A typical laboratory-quality distortion analyzer is shown in Fig. 2. The instrument shown, a Hewlett-
Packard Model 334A. is capable of measuring total distortion as small as 0.1% of full scale at any frequency
between 5 Hz and 600 kHz. Harmonics up to 3 MHz can be measured.
Harmonic distortion analyzers measure the total harmonic content in waveforms. It is frequently desirable to
measure the amplitude of each harmonic individually. This is the simplest form of analysis in the frequency
domain and can be performed with a set of tuned filters and a voltmeter.
WAVE ANALYZERS
• Such analyzes have various names, including frequency-selective voltmeters, carrier frequency
voltmeters, selective level meters and wave analyzers. Any of these names is quite descriptive of the
instrument‘s primary function and mode of operation.

Fig. 3 Basic wave analyzer circuit

A very basic wave analyzer is shown in Fig. 3. The primary detector is a simple LC circuit which is adjusted
for resonance at the frequency of the particular harmonic component to be measured. The intermediate stage
is a full-wave rectifier, and the indicating device may be a simple do voltmeter that has been calibrated to
read the peak value of a sinusoidal input voltage.
Since the LC filter in Fig. 3 passes only the frequency to which it is tuned and provides a high attenuation to
all other frequencies. Many tuned filters connected to the indicating device through a selector switch would
be required for a useful wave analyzer.
Since wave analyzers sample successive portions of the frequency spectrum through a movable "window."
as shown in Fig. 4, they are called non-real-time analyzers. However if the signal being sampled is a
periodic waveform its energy distribution as a function of frequency does not change with time. Therefore,
this sampling technique is completely satisfactory.
• Rather than using a set of tuned filters, the heterodyne wave analyzer shown in Fig. 5 uses a single tunable,
narrow- bandwidth filter, which may be regarded as the window through which a small portion of the
frequency spectrum is examined at any one time.
In this system, the signal from the internal, variable-frequency oscillator will heterodyne with the input
signal to produce output signals having frequencies equal to the sum and difference of the
oscillator frequency fo and the input frequency fi.
Heterodyne-type wave analyzer
• In a typical heterodyne wave analyzer, the band pass filter is tuned to a frequency higher than the
maximum oscillator frequency. Therefore, the "sum frequency" signal expressed as is passed by the filter to
the amplifier.
Fs = fo +fi

As the frequency of the oscillator is decreased from its maximum frequency a point will be reached where
fo+fi is within the band of frequencies that the band pass filter will pass. The signal out of the filter is
amplified and rectified.
The indicated quantity is amplified and rectified. The indicated quantity is then proportional to the peak
amplitude of the fundamental component of the input signal. As the frequency of the
oscillator is further decreased, the second harmonic and higher harmonics will be indicated.
• The bandwidth of the filter is very narrow, typically about 1% of the frequency of interest. The attenuation
characteristics of a typical commercial audio-frequency analyzer is shown in Fig. As can be seen, at 0.5f and
at 2f, attenuation is approximately 75 db. The bandwidth of a heterodyne wave analyzer is usually constant.
What is a RF Spectrum Analyser?
The name says it all – it is an instrument that enables the analysis of a spectrum. In our case this is the Radio
Frequency (RF) spectrum. In its simplest form, a Spectrum Analyser is simply a radio receiver with a
calibrated ‘S meter’.
Spectrum analysers are widely used to measure the frequency response, noise and distortion characteristics
of all kinds of RF circuits by comparing the input and output spectra.
• In telecommunications applications, spectrum analysers can be used to determine the occupied bandwidth
and track interference sources. In EMC testing applications, a spectrum analyser can be used for basic pre-
compliance testing (detecting radiated and conducted emissions).
• With suitable additions, such as a Tracking Generator and a VSWR Bridge, RF filters and band limited
functions can be easily checked and transmission line losses/impedance mismatches plus antenna matching
measurements at multiple frequencies is simply achieved.
A spectrum analyser may be used to determine if a wireless transmitter is working according to licence
defined standards for purity of emissions. Output signals at frequencies other than the intended
communications frequency (harmonics) will be apparent on the display. The analyser may also be used to
determine, by direct observation, the bandwidth of a digital or analogue signal.
A spectrum analyser interface is a device that connects to a wireless receiver or a personal computer to allow
visual detection and analysis of electromagnetic signals over a defined band of frequencies.
This is called panoramic reception and it is used to determine the frequencies of sources of interference to
wireless networking equipment, such as Wi-Fi and wireless routers. Spectrum analysers can also be used to
assess RF shielding. This is particularly important for high RF power devices such as transmitters, where
poor shielding can lead to unwanted cross coupling between units, or even danger to nearby personnel.
Difference between a Spectrum Analyser and an Oscilloscope.
Both items enable measurement of the level of a signal, but An RF Spectrum Analyser measures a signal
with respect to frequency, i.e. in the FREQUENCY DOMAIN An Oscilloscope measures a signal with
respect to time, i.e. in the TIME DOMAIN .An RF Spectrum Analyser usually presents a terminated input to
the signal to be measured at a defined impedance – usually 50Ω. An Oscilloscope usually resents high
impedance input to the signal being measured (usually 1MΩ) but can be set to 50Ω as well for some
instruments.
Signal Analysis, frequency and time domains

Oscilloscope Display, amplitude modulated signal

Spectrum Analyser Display, amplitude modulated signal

Spectrum Analyser Display, Harmonic Distortion