DIPLOMA IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING /CRAFT IN
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
GENERAL BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION (G.B.C)

MODULE I

Dip: TechEdu. Dip: Bld Const. Hdip: Bld Const. BTech: Const Mgt.
MSc: const mgt

GENERAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION (G.B.C)

 COURSE OUTLINE MODULE I

1. Introduction to GBC
 History of building
 Building process
a) Preliminaries.
 Site investigation
 Site clearing
b) Setting out
 Tools
 Equipment
 Procedure
c) Leveling
 Methods of leveling
 Tools used
 Equipment
2. Foundation
 Tools & equipment
 Excavation
 De-watering
 Lottoming
 Timbering to trench
3. Types of foundation
 Building code
 Types of foundation
 Underpinning

4. Wall construction
 Functional requirements
 Forms of wall construction
 Classification of walls
  Dimensional co-ordination
 Moisture prevention
 Opening in walls
 Termite control
5. Door frames
 Functional requirements
 Types of door frames
 Methods of installation
6. Window frames
 Functional requirements
 Materials of window frames
 Methods of installation
7. Fire places, flues and chimneys
 General principles of design of fire places
 Terminologies for fire places and flues construction
8. Ground floors
 Functional requirements
 Procedure of construction

HISTORY OF BUILDING

Introduction

Evolution of built Environment

Building construction is the art of providing shelter to human being. It is the oldest industry
which started with the existence of man. This is because man had to protect himself from
atmospheric inconveniences such as rain, wind, sunshine, snow etc. Construction is the action of
building something

Built environment is the man-made environment that provides the settling for human activities
ranging from buildings to cities and beyond. It can also be defined as human made space in
which people live, work and recreate on a day today basis

Features /elements of natural environment

a) Grasses &wild flowers

b) Deciduous &coniferous trees
c) Shrubs &bushes
d) Rocks
e) Waterways &lakes

Features /elements of built environment

a) Buildings
b) Paved areas
c) Retaining walls
d) Planted trees
e) Pools &ponds
f) Crops

a. Pre-historic dwellings

The first pre historic man who lived during Stone Age lived in caves which were either
excavated on stone or on firm grounds. The excavation tools being sharp stones or sharpened
pieces of wood. The caves protected man from harsh sun and heavy rains
 b. Traditional dwellings

As man continued to become more civilized there came to existence of constructed shelters such
as traditional grass thatched houses with mud walls e.g. maasai manyattas, the Eskimo igloos etc.
the materials were made from less durable materials. the houses were cheap to build and didn’t
require skilled labour. They too provided shelter from rain and sun

c. Modern dwellings

Today we have modern construction technology in building industry with very much diversified
fields such as:-

 Masonry / concreting
 Plumbing / drainage works
 Carpentry / joinery
 Painting
 Electrical works
 Air conditioning
 Gases installation

Modern dwellings have gone beyond providing shelter and protection but comfort too. They are
made from durable materials such as stones, concrete and metals. They require both skilled and
unskilled labour to construct. They have amenities such as parks, swimming pools, garage, lifts
etc

Modern dwellings include the following;

i. Residential
 Cottage
 Bungalow
 Maissonette
 Apartments
 Flats
  Villa
ii. Commercial
 Offices
 Retails
 Hotels
 Banks
iii. Industrial
 Factories
 Ware houses
iv. Infrastructure
 Roads
 Railways
 Bridges
 Dams
v. Special buildings
 Educational
 Government( courts, police station)
 Military barracks

BUILDIND PROCESS

i) Inception
 ii) Conception
iii) Selection of site
iv) Construction
i) Inception
It involves proper briefing to concerned parties. The client initiates the idea
ii) Conception
Involves communication among the design team, the architecture executes the
idea of the client .He visits the sites and prepares preliminary plans with estimates
It involves briefing, planning and tendering .

iii ) Selection of site

It involves selection of the most suitable land for the proposed project.

iv ) Construction

Involves supervision, specification, compliance, statutory obligations.it entails

execution of construction work as per the design and within the agreed cost, time
and quality. It is the implementation stage

Building team

These are parties involved in the construction process of various engineering projects. they
include the following:

 Client
 Architect
 Contractor
 Clerk of works
 Engineers
  Site agents
 Quantity surveyor
 National construction authority
 Factory inspector
 Suppliers
 Foreman
 Operatives

Assignment: a) explain the functions of each of the above mentioned members of the building
(10marks) team

b)Discuss five factors that are involved in planning a building environment (10marks)

c)explain the term site preliminary works hence outline six preliminary items
included in construction works (8marks)

PRELIMINARIES

Site investigation

i) Site access
ii) Existing services
iii) Adjoining structure
iv) Soil conditions

Site clearance

I) Removal of trees and bushes

II) Removal of vegetable soil
III) Removal of termite nests
IV) Demolition
Demolition methods

 Hand demolition
 Winch demolition
 Ball arm demolition

Hand demolition

Involves the progressive demolition of a structure by operatives using hand tools, . The order of
demolition is the reverse to that of construction.

Ball arm demolition

Involves demolition by swinging a heavy steel ball suspended from jib of a crane, Its limited for
building over 30m in height and should be supplemented by hand demolition in that pitched roof
as well as floors that should be removed by hand.

Winch demolition

Steel ropes with a circumference of 38mm or more should be used for demolishing part of the
structure. Frequent inspection of these ropes is encouraged to make sure that their strength has
not been impaired by use. No persons should be standing between the winch and the building
being demolished. Nearer by distance equal to 75% of the distance between winch and structure
on either side of the rope
SITE PREPARATION

Introduction:

It involves the investigations that are carried out by an architect, a builder or a contractor. It
covers the soil characteristics, regulations required by the local authority concerned, the labour
force, equipments, tools, materials required and safety precautions to be observed during the
construction activities.

Site investigation

It’s the work carried out on the proposed site for putting up a building after the client has
selected the site. Also known as site recconaissannce

Basically there two types of investigations:

a) Those carried out by an architect or somebody with building experience ( usually the
clients agent)
b) Those carried out by a builder or a contractor

Investigation carried out by an architect or somebody with building experience.

An architect carries out an investigation for the purpose of determining:

i) Land topography: the surface of the site should have a gentle slope to facilitate
natural drainage to prevent flooding.
ii) Vegetation: the trees should be planted to provide shades and protect the building
from being damaged by wind. The grass and flowers need to be provided to improve
the surrounding and stop soil erosion.
iii) Types of soil: an architect needs to know the characteristic of the soil so as to enable
him to design a suitable foundation for the house and material required.
 iv) Service: an architect needs to know the availability of water, telephone, electricity
and road so as to be in a better position to advice the builder.

Investigation carried out by a builder

A builder would carry out his investigation for the purpose of:

i) Planning the offices, stores, workers hutments, car packing bays, latrines and water
points.
ii) Fencing the plot to keep away animals and an unauthorized people to minimize theft.
iii) Checking on the availability of the local skilled and unskilled labor to help the
builder in his estimates for the labor.
iv) Identifying suitable tools and equipments for the construction work.
v) Planning access roads: the access roads when being constructed should not interfere
with the existing building and protected trees.
vi) Determine the security of the area
vii) Determine the water table of the soil

Regulations governing preparation of site

Regulations and by laws which are set out in the Kenya building code, for site preparation must
be observed and met before the construction starts.

These regulations include:

a) Position of building lines

b) Provision of access roads
c) Erection of hoarding
d) Precautions while demolishing
e) Damage to streets
f) Closing and obstruction of streets
g) Disposal of rain water from the site
 Method of investigation

a) Trial holes
b) Shallow bore holes
c) Deep bore holes

Trial hole

 The hole is excavated by hand or mechanical excavator to the required depth which
allows good visual inspection.
 Hand auger or other hand tools are used when the hole is dug manually. The trial hole
is dug in order to determine the ground profile.

Hand tools used for excavating trial hole

Gravel auger drive shaft clay auger

Jembe pick spade

Typical section of a trial hole

Ground level

Silt

Fine sand

Coarse sand

Sand with gravel

Safety on site

Safety precautions must be observed throughout construction activities.

Protective devices: workers must be advised strongly to wear safety goggles, helmets, gloves,
and clothing’s to protect their bodies from injuries.

Tools and equipments: care must be taken when using the tools during trial holes preparation so
as to prevent injuries. The trial holes should be guarded to prevent people from falling in them.

SETTING OUT

This is the name given to measuring out the building and its parts on the site. The positioning of
the building is usually described as the setting out drawing which are produced by the architect.
The actual location can be indicated using the survey stations, road kerbs or related to permanent
objects.

Setting out the building

To mark the position of a building a series of profile are used.

The profile: a profile consists of posts and a board as shown in diagram 1. The advantage of
profiles is that the position of walls, trenches and their thicknesses can be relocated at any time.
To mark those positions a string is stretched across two profiles and using a level or plumb bob
the positions can be obtained (diagram 2)

NB/ profile should be placed at all corners and firmly placed on the ground. The pegs should be
kept vertical and boards kept horizontal. They should also be placed one metre away from trench
to avoid disturbance during excavation.

Setting out a right angle

There several ways of obtaining a right angle. The most commonly used in building are:

1. Using the 3, 4, 5 method. The base line is marked 3 units long and then 4 units and 5
units one crossing the triangle so formed is 90º
2. Using the builder’s squire. This is a triangle made from timber with side lengths of
3metres or 2metres long. The triangle is placed in the corner and strings are stretched
both ways

Frontage line required measurement to road / boundary

A C 3 D B

Large square 5 4

Diagonal checks

G H

E Fig 1 F
 Nail ranging line

Peg

Fig 2

Profiles

When pegging out has been cheeked, profiles are set up clear of the trench runs and the positions
of the ranging lines transferred to them. Figure3. Profiles consist of a horizontal boards fixed to
posts or pegs. The position of the wall and trench being marked on them (boards) by saw cuts or
nails. Profiles are placed at all corners and at the ends of cross walls figure 4. The positions of
walls can be obtained from lines strained between them. Figure5.

Setting out peg

Profiles

Trench Lines wall

Peg for marking position of drawing

Fig 3

Profiles

Trench
 Fig 4

Alternative arrangement for corner profile

Foundation width

Lines

Drop bob

Level

Position of wall

Peg fixing level of concrete

FOUNDATION
 Foundations are generally regarded as the lowest part of the building which
eventually transmits load into the ground in conjunction with the immediate ground
(natural foundation) that receives the loading.
 The artificial foundation must be able to safely do the transmission without causing
unnecessary movement of the structure.
 There are different types of foundations, the type chosen depending on.
 a) the type of structure used
 b) the soil bearing capacity
 c) the load imposed

Types of foundation

1) Strip foundation
These are suitable where there are continuous load bearing walls from the foundation.
The strip may either be made from concrete (mass or reinforced) or from masonry
construction e.g. brickwork. For mass concrete, the load is transmuted at an angle of
45º hence making the effective width of the strip is three times more the thickness of
the wall. The depth should be equal to this thickness as well. If it exceeds this the
foundation would have a tendency to crack along the line of shear unless
reinforcements are included.

Load bearing wall line of shear axial load

Line of load transmission
t t
o
45
 Mass conc strip
3t tendency to fail if strip exceeds
3t with no reinforcement

2) Wide strip foundation

This type is used where the soil has a low bearing capacity and the aim is to distribute
load over as much an area as possible. The strip in this case should be reinforced so as
to arrest the shear failure together with the cracking (flexural) failure at the bottom
due to bending moment.

Distribution bar

Main bar
Tendency to pull due to bending moment

3) Deep strip foundation

These are used where the suitable bearing is way down and since concrete is good in
compression strength, it is mostly done in mass concrete.
 Deep strip

4) Stepped foundation
These are done where the site is sloping for an economical solution. The strip is
stepped in series according to the land and fall and the lap between two sections of
the strip must be equal to the depth of the strip.
Where the step is substantial, the foundation is designed like column. The height of
the step should be such that a whole number of courses for the foundation walling fit
to avoid a fraction of a course.

Land fall
Whole number of wall course

If the height is > 600mm it should be H

designed as a column

Stepped foundation strip

Leveling of trench bottom for stepped foundation

Same as that for ordinary strip foundation except for gauging the levels for steps
Factors to consider:
1. Slope of land
2. Depth of foundation at the highest point on site
3. Thickness of foundation concrete
4. Level of next step
Procedure of leveling
A gauge rod with the thickness of the foundation and the total height of walling units
required to reach the step marked on it is used. The gauge rod is used to get the level of
the next step. Cut and plumb the vertical part of the foundation step, and then continue
leveling the bed (horizontal) as for ordinary stripped foundation.

5) Pad foundation/ isolated area

This is done for isolated load bearing elements (column) and its mostly in reinforced
concrete since the tendency for failure is to cup in, the reinforcements are placed in
either direction.

Reinforced pad
Foundation

Main bars in both direction

6) Combined foundation
This is where two or three pad foundations are combined so as to distribute the load
effectively. This may be due to may be site boundary where the load cannot be
transmitted to the neighbors plot, a second column inside the site may be combined
with the first one so as to ease the loading on it.

Columns carrying equal loads

7) Raft foundations
These are used where the building has a basement, the bearing capacity of the soils
are quite low.
There are three types of raft foundations namely:
 Solid slab raft foundation
 Slab and beam raft foundation
 Cellular raft foundation
Solid slab raft foundation
This consists of a continuous slab of reinforced concrete forming the foundation.

Foundation wall

Solid R.C raft (maximizes the load bearing area)

Slab and beam raft foundation

Beams are combined with the slab to give more rigid base for heavier loading. These
beams may either face downwards or can be upwards on which the floor rests.

Floor finishing on beam

 Slab Foundation
Basement wall

Space created may be used as horizontal ducts

Cellular raft foundation
This is where the up stand beams are large as to form walls (basement walls) in lattice
manner (cells) these cells can be utilized i.e. used as rooms (i.e. for boilers or
storage). This type is done where very rigid bearing for heavy loading is required.
The cellular raft foundation may be combined with raft beam type and have down
facing beams.

R.C wall forming lattice cell

Slab

PILES (foundation)

Piled Foundations ~ these can be defined as a series of columns Constructed or inserted into the ground to
transmit the load(s) ofa structure to a lower level of subsoil. Piled foundations can be used when suitable
foundation conditions are not present at or near ground level making the use of deep traditional
foundations uneconomic.
They span between the bearing stratum and the building so as to transfer the load. They are
similar to those in underpinning but they are done together with the building.

Piles are classified according to:

a) Mode of bearing load
b) Mode of placing load

a) Mode of bearing load

i) End bearing piles: these simply bears load by transferring it to the lower
end where the bearing stratum is.

Load weak soil

Strong stratum

ii) Friction piles: these bears the load as a result of the frictional forces
created between the sides of the pile and the ground.

Load

Frictional force

b) Mode of placing
 i) Displacement piles: this includes those piles that are driven into the
ground hence displacing the ground material in its way.

Driving force

Material being displaced

ii) Replacement piles: These piles are casted into pre-drilled or bored holes
to replace the grounds material be casted insitu concrete piles.

Concrete

Reinforcement

Driven piles

This type of piles consists of rigid materials designed to be able to take the hammering often
done by mechanical means (and the design load). They are normally circular or hexagonal in
section so as to allow for easy penetration to the ground. The driving action is normally noisy
and causes a lot of vibration into the ground. This make it unsuitable in a heavy built up locality
where the vibration can easily destabilize existing foundation
 Hammer

Supporting frame

Pile

Bored piles

These are typically replacement piles and involve casting or inserting piles in predrilled holes.
The process involves little vibration and so the more suitable in heavily built environment than
driven piles

Piles are designed to take certain load (i.e. bearing capacity) and since they should not be so
bulky so as to necessitate easy driving where more load is anticipated the piles are combined
(grouped)

Pile grouping
These grouping are joined at the top by means of a slab (pad) which intern supports the ground
beam on which the building rests.

Driven tube piles

These piles consist of a hollow tube made from either precast concrete or steel, driven into the
ground and then filled with cast insitu concrete. There are two basic types:

i) Open end tube Pile; the hollow tube is simply plugged by means of hammering and
once driven filled up.

Space filled after drilling

Concrete/steel tube

ii) Closed end tube pile; the lower end in this case is closed by means of a steel cap and
again once driven, the hollow space is filled up say with reinforced concrete

Hollow tube
 Steel cup

Structural stability
This concern the change in the soils caused by the imposed loading from the building
(dead & live loads) due to the variations in the soil, the nature of the soil must be
investigated before the design of a suitable foundation that would affect maximum
stability and to avoid overstressing the soil.
Bearing capacity
 This is the property of the soil dictating the maximum loading that it can take. This
measure is force per m². in determining this, soil sample is subjected to a load and the
point of failure determined. The bearing capacity is also a function of the
compactness of the soil.
 If the bearing capacity of the soil is known and the load imposed by the building also
known, the safe bearing area of the foundation can be worked out by using the
relationship

Bearing capacity = load imposed

Foundation area
NB/ as long as the ratio L/A does not exceed the bearing capacity, the soil would be
able to support the load without excessive settlement.
 Foundation area = length × width for strip foundation
 While for raft foundation = area of the raft
Distribution of contact pressure
 This is an effect which results from a combination of varying soil conditions and
foundations stiffness which causes unequal pressure distribution underneath the
foundation. It creates points of maximum pressure.
The pressure bulbs (diagrams)

Strip foundation

BC = load
area

Maximum pressure

Minimum pressure

Maximum pressure

Distribution of pressure

This is given by load

Area at any depth

The pressure distribution would more or less be uniform across any horizontal section and would
reduce as you go deeper since most of the loading is counteracted by the soil resistance. For strip
foundations, it would define a triangle at an angle of 45.
 Pressure distribution with depth

45º 45º

Mass concrete foundation

) 45º

Increased area also reduced pressure

Distribution of shear stress

Soils under the foundation are always subjected to shear stress due to resistant to the downward
force of the foundation. This is normally not uniformly distributed. Stress bulbs like those of
pressure can also be determined each bulb linking points of equal shear stress.

Ultimate bearing capacity

This is a measure of the soil strength. A point where the soils fail to support a load (imposed) due
to the safe bearing point or shear resistance bearing exceeded

Maximum bearing capacity

At this point the soil shear resistance is not exceeded though considerable settlement takes place.

Safe bearing pressure (capacity)

A point where the soils are loaded without any shear failure and settlement is within acceptable
limits.
PREPARATION FOR THE FOUNDATION
After site investigation it may be found that the top soil is soft and has poor bearing
capacity. It is usually economical to dig down to a layer of soil firm enough and of
good bearing capacity on which to lay foundation.
Before the start of any foundation trench work on the site the outlines of the
foundation concrete and the foundation wall has to be set out. After the setting out is
done and the diagonals checked for accuracy, work on trench excavation can began.
For small jobs work for excavation is done manually to a layer of good bearing
capacity. A width of at least 600mm is required for a man to be able to work in.
The sides of the trench should be trimmed vertically by hand and supported for the
safety of the people who will work in them. This is done so as to get a straight,
vertical and a fair finished face of the sides.

Supports for deep foundation

Supporting or propping of trench sides is done to keep the sides in place in case of
loose soil or wet sides which may cave- in.
Timbering is used to refer to temporary supports to the sides of the excavations. It is
sometimes referred to as plunking and strutting.
The main factors to be considered whether timbering will be provided or not are:
a) Safety of the men working in the trench. This is to protect them from the
collapsing sides.
b) The safety of the surrounding property and roads.
c) The nature of the sub soil.
d) The length of the time the trench will remain open before backfilling.

Terminology

Poling boards: boards varying in length depending on depth of excavation, it is

placed vertically against the face of the ground.

Walling: horizontal timber member which supports the polling boards between struts,
sizes vary from 75mm × 75mm to 225mm × 75mm

Struts: horizontal member holding the poling board apart, usually placed 1.8m to2m
depending on the type of soil and to allow for working space.

225 x 50 polling board

225 x 75 walling board

 150 x 50mm struts @ 180 c/c

Leveling of the trench bottom

The base of foundation concrete should rest of a firm and level base for it to distribute
the loads uniformly on to the adjoining soil below.

Transfer of datum to the bottom of trench

The practice usually is to fix level pegs in the trench one at each corner of the
building. The use of a gauge rod together with a spirit level may only be used easy in
shallow trenches while in deep trenches other methods such as the use of water levels
or dumpy levels may be adopted.

The first peg is driven into the bottom of the foundation and with the aid of water
level (water filled in a clear hose pipe) and a gouge rod; the peg is driven down until
the required height of the foundation is attained. One end of the hose pipe is held
level with top of the site datum which is at the same level with the proposed floor
level. The other end is held level with the height of the foundation wall up to damp
proof course. The heights of the courses are marked on the gouge rod.

Water level

Straight edge on datum peg

 Datum peg

Gauge rod

Establishing levels

After the first peg has been driven to the required level, the levels for the other pegs
can be transferred from the established one. This may be done by the use of a long
leveling board and a spirit level.

Spirit level straight edge board

Level peg

Trench bottom

NB: care must be taken to reverse the leveling board each time you work from peg to
peg so as to minimize errors in leveling.

Bottoming
This is referred to as the leveling of the bottom of the trench. It is done by cutting the
high positions, filling the low areas and compacting the loose earth as may be found
necessary after establishing the level pegs. Preparation of the bottom is done to ensure
that the foundation rests on an even firm bed.

Procedure for laying the foundation

1) Leveling: any of the methods of leveling the bottom trench may be used ( hose
leveling, spirit level with board )
2) Pegging: for deep strip foundation, it is necessary to transfer the level of the site
datum to some other pegs at corners and along the foundation trench. These level
pegs are also placed at junctions of wall. The pegs will help in obtaining the
leveled top of the mass concrete in the foundation trench. The desired level of
concrete can be obtained by transferring levels from these pegs to the top of
concrete by using a gauge rod and a straight edge.

3) Wetting: before the mixed concrete is poured into the foundation trench, during
dry and hot season, the trench must be wetted to minimize rapid loss of water
from the concrete to dry soil. This rapid loss of water would weaken the
foundation.
4) Placing the concrete: concrete should be poured into the foundation trench
carefully in uniform layers not exceeding 300mm. these layers should be
thoroughly compacted and leveled until the required thickness is achieved in
order to avoid segregation and air pockets forming in the concrete, it should be
poured at low heights.
When pouring manually the concrete should be lowered to the bottom in mortar
pans (karais) and buckets. At no time should the concrete be poured from a height
greater than 1.5m. The poured concrete should be cured for not less than three
days by wetting the top twice a day.
GROUND WATER CONTROL

Ground water is that which is held either temporally or permanently in the soils within or above
the water table

Water affects the stability of the soil and the extent of this effect depends on the soils
characteristics especially on the particle size. It lubricates the particles hence causing the soil to
move or give way when subjected to a force e.g. foundation loading.

Excavation in water logged soils creates a deference in the hydrostatic pressure and hence the
tendency for water to flow into the excavated area. This is due to the imbalanced caused when
the soil (previous resistance) is removed.

Excavated ground water flows in the pit due to

(Pit) reduced pressure

This means that if the ground is to be excavated, ways have to be devised to keep off this water
so that construction works (basements or foundations) can be done effectively.

The methods used to do this falls into two broad classifications.

a. Permanent exclusion of ground water

b. Temporally exclusion of ground water

The method chosen would depend on:

i. The amount of the hydrostatic pressure (which depends on whether its within the
water table , temporally submerged or above the water table)
ii. Depends on the depth of excavation
iii. Depends on the type of soils

Permanent exclusion method

a. Sheet piling: this is used to form a barrier or cutoff wall to the flow of ground water. It
can be of permanent nature being designed to act as a retaining wall or it can just be
temporally enclosure of excavation works. This method requires driving and hence
causes noise and vibration hence making it unsuitable in some situations e.g. near
existing foundation.
 Typical joint between individual pieces

Area to be excavated

Direct piling driven in

Advantages

i. They are economical in that they are reusable in different places

ii. They enclose a space without any need for timbering

Disadvantage

i. They have a high initial capital

ii. The driving operation is quite expensive
iii. There is always a tendency of leaking through the joints (though this can be contained
by a sump)
b. Diaphragm walls: this is usually insitu reinforced concrete casted to form a dividing
membrane in the context of a building. It can also be used as a retaining wall to keep off
both the water and mass soil. It has the following advantages
i. Like sheet piling, they can be constructed before the actual excavation takes place
thus eliminating the need for timbering
 ii. The method is relatively quiet and also involves no vibration hence making it
suitable in wall built up neighborhood and the work can be carried out adjacent to
an existing structure
iii. These walls can be designed structurally (as per the situation) to effectively take
both horizontal and vertical forces
iv. The walls are completely watertight
v. They can also be built in different shapes due to their involving on initially plastic
media (i.e. concrete)
vi. It can be designed and constructed as part of the final walling (structure) hence
being economical

Final structure

excavated ground

Diaphragm wall (as retaining wall)

c. Grout membrane (e.g. cement grout): cement grout are used to form a ‘curtain’ in the
soils which have a high permeability (and water logged) hence causing ‘temporary’
permanent exclusion of water. The grout is injected into the ground through a series of
bored holes in line. This can be mixture of cement/sand 1:1 with 2 parts of water by
weight. Other grouts commonly used include chemical grouting (sodium silicate with
calcium chloride which forms silica gel resin grout, bituminous grout e.t.c)
d. Freezing: suitable for use in grounds with a moisture content exceeding 8% of void
space. This principal is to insert freezing tubes into the ground and circulate freezing
solution around the tube to form ice in the voids, thus creating a wall of ice to act as
impermeable barrier. A typical circulating compound is magnesium chloride at -20ºc
which takes 10 to 15 days to produce ice wall 1m wide.

Freezing compound supply

Return

Freezing tube
 Ground water around the tube freezes to form a barrier

Temporary exclusion

a. Sump technique: this involves sinking a sump next to the area being excavated which is
at a lower level than the excavation. Due to this, water from the excavation and
surrounding ground drains into the sump from where it is pumped out. Note several
pumps may be used in any particular case.
Sumps can either be open or jetted into the ground. The later have an advantage over the
earlier in that it retain the stability of the surrounding soils where as in the open type the
sump sides becomes unstable due to the passage of water.

Pump pump
Drain pipe

Sand media filter excavation

Drain pipe

Intake strainer
Jetted sump open sump
 b. Electro- osmosis: this method utilizes the fact that water molecules are Di-polar or have a
slightly positive and slightly negative ends affected by the distribution of electrons within
the distribution of electrons within the molecule structure. This means that these
molecules can be attracted by either a cathode or an anode (i.e. electrodes). A cathode in
the form of a well point is inserted into the ground and this attracts the +ve end of the
water molecules hence causing water to flow towards the sump where it’s pumped out.

c. Well point system: this system aims at lowering the water table so as to allow for
construction to take place. Well points are sunk at various suitable places around the site
being worked on decreasing in depth as you move away from the site. These points are
then connected to pumps which continually draw out the water as it creeps back and
hence maintain the water table at a low level. Since the water pumped out is that which
creeps in, the method is not suitable to cohesive soils which does not allow for creeping.

Header connected to pipe

Leveled earth forming platform for header pipe

Riser pipe

Well point

Lowered water table

d. horizontal control of ground water: sometimes it becomes necessary to control the

horizontal movement of ground water (say where the problem is water creeping in from
 the sides rather than from the bottom). In such cases, drainage points are laid horizontally
with as much surface area as possible. These may take the form of perforated P.V.C pipes
covered with a suitable filter media e.g. nylon to stop the penetration soil particles or
trench drains connected to a pump or if the terrain allow drained using gravity. To further
enhance the filtering action, these drains can be surrounded with broken stones which
form a blanket drain around them. This is a popular method used in the control of ground
water in basements.

R/c basement wall

Tanking

Perforated drainage pipe laid at a slight

slope towards the collection end

Drain raid horiz draining water to sump

UNDERPINNING

This is the action of transferring the loading of an existing foundation to a deeper depth. It may
become necessary due to:

a) As a rescue (corrective) measure re-distractive the foundation loading, and may be

caused by:
i) uneven loading of a building
ii) action of the tree roots
iii) action of the ground water (softening)
iv) unequal settlement
v) unequal resistance of the soil (bearing capacity)
b) it may be necessary so as to increase the bearing capacity of the foundation so as to allow
for say extension to an existing building (vertically)
c) Underpinning may be carried out as a preliminary activity which would allow for the
excavation of a basement to an already existing building which would otherwise interfere
with the bearing of the existing foundation level.
Survey (precaution) to be carried out before underpinning
a) Inform the neighbors on the intention to underpin
b) Reduce the loading (imposed) as much as possible
c) Carry out a subsoil survey (study) to determine the most suitable bearing level (strata)
d) Check for the defects e.g. cracks on the existing building to move when the exercise
is being carried out
e) During the underpinning exercise movement checks should be carried out as a
precaution

Methods of underpinning

1) Wall underpinning
This is done by excavating alongside the excising wall in bays not exceeding 1.5m in
length and going as deep as the suitable bearing subsoil level.
When the level is reached, the new bearing foundation strip is casted with steel
dowels embedded at the end so as to provide continuity with the concrete in the next
bay. Adjacent bays must not be casted together as this can destabilize the existing
foundation.
The new foundation walling is built on this strip and this too must be toothed at the
end so as to bond with the walling in the next bay.
The total number and length of bays would depend on:
a) Subsoil conditions (encountered)
b) The total length of the wall to be underpinned
c) The loading on foundation
d) Width of the existing foundation

3 2

Wall to be underpinned

5 4

2 4 1 3 5 1
In the above typical schedule, the bay marked the same number are done together in order from
1to5 GL

Timbering

Existing foundation

Concrete fill New foundation wall

New bearing strip

2) Pretest method of underpinning

The approach to this method of underpinning is more or less similar to that of wall
underpinning where bays are first excavated and then the new foundation (bearing)
casted. Instead of building the new walling right away, the building is however
supported initially by means of hydraulic jack resting on the existing foundation by
means of say a precast concrete beam. This is carried out in all the bays until finally
the building rest on the jack, then the wall is built in the spaces between the jacks and
when they actively support the building the jacks are removed and the walling
completed
This method is particularly suitable in situations where underpinning is being done to
arrest settlement of the building since the walling is not done until the load that is
causing the settlement is balanced by the hydraulic jack.

Existing foundation
 RC beam

Hydraulic jack

New foundation

3) Mega pile underpinning

This method is particularly suitable where the suitable bearing is much deeper for the
walling to be economical and simply involves sinking piles ( or casting) which are
actually underground columns supporting the existing foundation and transferring the
load to the harder ground. The piles are casted individually and often don’t actually
reach the bottom of the existing foundation. This gap is filled by either a horizontal
beam (in case of weak foundation) on which foundation rests or filled with concrete
to act as part of the column.

Bay existing foundation

Horizontal beam linking pile/ conc infill

Mega pile

Ground with high bearing capacity

Pile position foundation strip

Wall position
 This spacing of the piles would depend on the imposed load, soil bearing capacity and
the strength of the existing foundation.

4) Needle and pile underpinning

This is done in the cases of weak existing foundation strip and involves supporting it
by means of short beams (needles) and vertical support (piles) if resembles to shoring
method of supporting building

Existing foundation

Pile needle

SITE LAYOUT

This shows how building materials, stores, workers, dormitories, site offices etc are physically
located on site.
WALLS

Walls basically form the enclosing element of a building

Functional requirements

i. Offer privacy to the defined space

ii. Offer some thermal and acoustic insulation (i.e. create suitable environment
characteristic)
iii. Be able to bear and keep off the element of weather e.g. rain, wind e.t.c.
iv. Give a building the desired aesthetic value
v. Provide sufficient sound insulation
vi. Offer adequate resistance to fire

Classification of walls

Walls are classified in three broad ways

 a. Bearing characteristics
This classifies them according to whether they form a part of the buildings load bearing
structure or not. And divides them into two categories
i. Load bearing walls: these helps in the transfer of the load from above axially into
the foundation. Load bearing walls have to be structurally designed so as to offer
necessary compression strength. All load bearing walls should have a foundation
underneath
ii. Non load bearing wall: these are sometimes termed as separation walls since they
have no structural significances, and only serve the purpose of defining space.
They carry their own self weight and as such they are regarded as live load in
structural calculations. Special characteristics may however be impacted in them
e.g. acoustic and thermal properties so as to isolate a space in such areas.
Partitions (non-load bearing) walls should be light weight so as to minimize their
self weight.

Roof load

Load bearing wall

under compression

Non load bearing wall

Ground resistance

Foundation under load

b. Position walls
Walls can be classified according to where they occur in a building
i. External walls: these are those forming the outside envelope of a building and
since they are the walls exposed to the element of weather, they should be hard
wearing (durable), have good thermal properties (to keep off or stop heat building
up in the building), be able to keep off noise and also they should have good
aesthetic values (appearance).
In small buildings these are also load bearing in nature i.e. helps to carry the load,
but in larger structures (framed) they may simply take the form of an infill
between structural elements i.e. columns.

Column

External wall

Beam
ii. Internal walls: these are walls built in the interior of the building or within the
external envelope. The most properties of these walls include;
a). built in light weight units.
b). have good acoustic properties so as to separate adjacent spaces acoustically.
c). they should resist the spread of fire.

Room 1 Room 2
iii. Parapet walls: these are walls which occur at the roof of building and are
normally short (not more than 1.2m) so as to have structural stability. Due to their
position they should be able to withstand the elements of weather and should have
coping to stop the penetration of rain from the top.
Coping

Throat to shed water

1.2m
Fillet
Concrete roof

iv. Boundary wall: these are walls occurring at the boarder of two adjacent
properties. They are normally self standing and carry their own self weight. They
should be equipped with a foundation for structural stability. Since they are
continuous they are affected by differential movements due to settlement or
ground movement e.g. land slide. They therefore should have movement joint
spaced at a max distance of 30m. Columns spaced at suitable distance (say 3 –
4.5m) are mostly used to offer lateral stability.
 Movement joint @ < 30m

v. Apron walls. These are walls which are suspended from the top or sides i.e. those
used in the septic tanks. Such walls are best done in RC since the reinforcing
details are used to suspend {support) the wall from above.

Support beam above

Apron wall

vi. Cantilevered walls. These are walls supported from the side and also are best
done in RC. They are however of limited span where this gets bigger bracing
(anchoring) becomes necessary.

Vertical support

Limited span

Longer span

Vertical support
 Bracing

vii. Retaining walls: special walls used to retain (hold) the ground in position

Max height 1.2m Ground retained

Water seep thro

Stone/ units pile held by gravity

c. Method of construction
Classification according to this takes two forms
i. Monolithic construction
ii. Masonry wall
i. Monolithic construction walls: These are those formed using a joint less media e.g.
reinforced concrete, plastic e.t.c. concrete monolithic walls may either be precast or
insitu. Where the former, the wall panels are casted elsewhere and brought to the site
where they are joined, while insitu technique the walling plastic material is poured in
some formwork and allowed to dry.
Monolithic construction should have some movement joints to avoid cracking which
may be caused by either shrinkage or settlement. These joints should run right
through the structure to foundation

Space for plastic concreting

 Sheeting

One section horizontal tie

peg sole plate

ii. Masonry wall: these are walls consisting of discrete walling units jointed together by
suitable binders. They may also be in the form of dry construction (i.e. not having any
binder) where the wall is held together by the units self weight.
Where a binder has been used, its strength must be less than that of the units so that
any cracking that take place do so through the joints and not the units.

Cracks where joints are stronger Cracking where the joints are weaker

Atypical mix in case of S/C mortar is 1:4 for concrete blocks and up to 1:3 or quarry
stones. To give the walls more resistance against settlement, hoop iron is Inco-
operated in every alternative course within the horizontal joints.

Bonding
This is the arrangement of walling units into a pattern avoiding the occurrence of
straight joints hence giving the walling same stability. This contrasts with stacked
wall which consists of straight joints and such wall is only used for cladding where
such aesthetics are desired.

Wall units’ not straight Straight wall units

The most commonly used masonry wall in units includes quarry stone, clay bricks
and concrete blocks.

RETAINING WALLS
This is a kind of a wall whose purpose is to hold the ground (retain it) in a given
situation. In the design of RW, it should be such that
i. The forces tending to make it slide are controlled (countered)
ii. The forces tending to overturn it are effectively balanced
iii. The soil bearing is not overloaded
iv. The materials used are not over stressed.

RW overturning forces
 Active ground pressure

Sliding effect

Active pressure; this is the combined effect of forces tending to topple the wall

Passive pressure: those forces tending to counter the active pressure to ensure that the wall is
equilibrium, these must equal the active pressure.

Factors to consider in the design of RW

a. Nature of the wall

b. Water table
c. Type of wall construction and the material used
d. Subsoil water movement

Note: trapped water build up behind the RW particularly creates substantial hydrostatic pressure
behind the wall and this problem is solved by including some weep holes at the base of the wall
to allow it to escape

Effects of water on RW

i. Water increase the pressure behind the wall

ii. Reduces the shear resistance below the wall hence making it possible for the wall to
slide
iii. Water reduces the soil bearing capacity (under the wall)

Weep holes or other suitable methods of draining the area behind the RW is applied to minimize
these effects

Types of RW
 a. Mass or gravity RW: these are those where the walling units or the wall itself is held by
gravity (self weight) it may take the simple form of units piled together (dry construction)
or masonry wall standing on its weight. Due to the nature it cannot be more than 1200mm
high otherwise it become unsuitable. The dry construction RW has the advantage in that
water simply seeps through the units and this significantly minimizes the hydrostatic
forces.

Hydraulic pressure

Active pressure may course wall to slide

Passive pressure reduced due to reduced passive pressure

Wall may settle due to reduced soil bearing capacity

b. Cantilevered RW: these are normally constructed from reinforced concrete and utilize the
principle of leverage to support the imposed load. There two basic types

Main bar

Nominal bar

H/c blanket drain

Weep hole

Drain hole
 Toe and knee beam Toe designed beam

NB/ when the RC walls are being casted, it should be in sections so as to allow for movement
joints. Bays should be at say 3.6 – 7.5m and be casted alternately.

Height up to 6m

Lower ground level weeps holes

Bay 1 is casted, then 3 and finally 2 so as to create a joint between them. These RW can have a
height of up to 6.0m

c. Counter fort RW: these can be of either normal RC or pre-stressed concrete and is most
suitable of height of over 4.5m. This type is normally very strong and stable due to the
counter fort which are triangular braces set at the back of the wall. They may
alternatively formed where they are formed as buttresses.

Straight face

Counter fort

Brace

Counter fort retaining wall

Ground retained
 Counter forts

Lower ground

Ground retained

Weep hole

Buttered RW

d. Precast concrete RW: These are manufactured precast concrete RW sections and also
utilize the cantilever principles of bearing. They can be used to temporally hold the soil
where they are simply dug in or the permanent installation where they are mounted on a
 prepared base. They have holes in them used to hoist them in position. Other advantages
include:
i. They are quite flexible in use and can be done in various shapes to suit different
situations
ii. They facilitate a quick and easy way of assembly
iii. They are economical in that no formwork or curing is required.

600mm

Holes for hoisting

Bolts for fixing RW

Prepared base fdn

Base

BASEMENTS

A basement is that floor (or storey) whereby the general floor level is at least 1.2m below the
highest ground level point (generally with at least ½ a floor under the ground. This means that on
sloping sites, if the back wall retains the ground to an extent and though the front may be fully
exposed, it qualify to be a basement (partial basement)

Typical basement

i. Full basement

Ground ground
 ii. Partial basement fully covered

1200mm

Partially covered fully exposed

NB: basements may go several storeys under hence creating deep basements. In basement
constructions, the greatest problem to overcome is water proofing it (i.e. stopping the penetration
of water).

Methods of water proofing basements

There are generally three methods used for this:

i. Monolithic construction
ii. Membrane application
iii. Drained cavities
i. Monolithic construction: this method involves constructing a solid monolithic
basement structure using impervious aggregates which stops the moisture penetration.
RC well compacted and treated with water proofing additives forms an excellent
mono-construction. When this takes the form of pre-cast concrete units, the
performance is improved since they are adequately (properly) treated and formed at
factory. However in the assembling of the units, the joints must be treated or fitted
with suitable moisture barriers. The most commonly being PVC or rubber barriers

Typical joint treatment

 RC wall units

Joint btn unit wall bedded rubber moisture

vapour barrier internal side

ii. Membrane method: this involves covering the entire basement structure with a
continuous thin water proof barrier (sheet) which stops the penetration. Such barriers
are normally flexible and prone to damage and hence have to be adequately protected.
Where the lap the joint should be well treated with enough allowance. The treatment
may involve sealing it with a suitable compound. The membranes are mostly
synthetic in nature (i.e. from hydrocarbons either manufactured or naturally occurring
e.g. bitumen).

Ground

Basement Basement

Continuous membrane (well protected)

iii. Drained cavities: these become suitable where a lot of water is involved and is often
done in combination with other methods as a catch to any water that manages to go
through. It involves the construction of basement wall in two leaves, the inside and
outside where the latter may be monolithic in form. Any water or vapor that manage
 to penetrate the outer leaf is trapped between them and drains into a sump and
pumped out.

Outer leaf Inner leaf

Cavity in between water drains to bottom

Floor construction

Sump where the water collects and is pumped out

TANKING

This is water proofing a basement by means of asphalt applied as a membrane. Asphalt is

obtained from bitumen which occurs naturally in some lime stones or in vast deposits occurring
as bitumen lakes.

Just like in other cases of membranes the basic principal is to make it continuous without any
break where water can seep through. It is normally applied on basement wall surfaces in several
layers and can also be done on the inside (internal tanking) or on the outside (external tanking).
Since it can very easy be damaged, a protective wall is built when it is on the outside but the
internally applied asphalt can be protected by the plaster (wall finish). Layer must be applied
such that the water proofing is not ruptured.

Advantages of asphalt

i. It is able to stop both water and vapor

 ii. It’s non-toxic and hence does not pose a health hazard.
iii. It’s not affected by bacteria of vermin’s hence making it very durable (as long as it’s
properly protected from mechanical abuse).
iv. It is not attacked by the sulphates in the soil
v. Since it becomes plastic when heated, it’s very workable and where a layer joins a
subsequent one, a join less situation can be achieved if heat is applied.
vi. It’s cheap since it occurs naturally.

NB: tanking is a specialized work which may require experts to execute it.

External tanking

Basement wall

Protective wall

3 coats of asphalt water proofing

Floor slab

Sub base
 Internal tanking

Basement wall inside

Internal wall finish

3 coats of asphalt (applied hot)

Floor slab

Sub floor base

Blinding

GROUND FLOOR

These are floors found at the ground level and they either rest directly on the ground or are
suspended at a little height above the ground. For these floors resting on the ground, they should
particularly be protected from the ground water and also be provided with a solid sub-base.

Typical ground floor section (of concrete) consists of layer of hardcore (> 250mm) forming the
sub-base whose surface is blinded by means of murram or sand so as to form a smooth base for a
suitable water proofing membrane (e.g. heavy gauge polythene) on which the floor slab is casted.
Shrinkage and settlement causes cracks to develop within the slab and this is arrested by means
of a suitable mesh placed within the concrete (in top half) when pouring concrete, this mesh must
first be supported by means of spacer blocks made from mortar so that it can maintain its
position.

Section through a concrete ground floor slab

 25mm thick Floor screed

BRC 100mm thick concrete slab

500g polythene DPM

50mm thick blinding layer

250mm thick well compacted hardcore

Functions of ground floor

 Withstand the loads that will be imposed upon them.

 Prevent the growth of vegetable matter inside the building by the provision of over
site concrete
 Prevent damp penetrating the building by inserting DPM in or below the floor.
 Meet certain prescribed insulation standards
 Be reasonable durable
 Provide an acceptable surface finish
Solid ground floors
With domestic building a choice has often to be made between solid and suspended
ground floors. Solid ground floors are likely to be cheaper on level site because:
i. Reduction in the quantity of walling materials
ii. It may eliminate the need for under floor ventilation
iii. Reduce heat lose through the floor
iv. Can avoid the risk of dry rot
v. It can offer greater selection of floor finishes
For these reasons, modern dwelling are of solid floor construction comprising
a concrete slab laid on a bed of hardcore. The concrete slab usually supports a
cement and sand screed on which the floor finish is bedded

Functions of H/C

 Fill the hollows

 Raise the finished level
  Provide a firm working surface
 Prevent condemnation
 Reduce amount of rising moisture

Functional requirements of H/C

 Hard and durable

 Not subjected to decay or break down by weather
 Not liable to chemical attack
 Drain easily

Suspended ground floor

Suspended ground floor takes the light construction for economy and so they are most done in
timber or steel construction. Due to high cost steel, timber is the most common material.
Sometimes these are combined.

Where timber is used, the space between floor and the ground must be adequately ventilated to
minimize fungi growth which causes rots. Solid supports are also built for these floors and this
can either take the form of a concrete floor slab on which short supporting walls (sleeper
walls)are built which are also perforated (honey combed) to allow for air movement.

The wall plate which supports the floor joists rests on these walls. Alternative system consists of
short columns (on pad foundation) supporting the main floor joists.

100mm hard wood skirting

Floor finish

150 x 25mm floor boards

Perforated wall 150 x 50mm floor joists

75 x 100mm wall plate

100mm conc ground slab

 50mm blinding

100mm thick honey combed stepped wall at 600 c/c 250mm hardcore

Floor board

Floor joist

Wall plate

Concrete base

Space in sleeper wall to allow for air movement

Main floor joist

Floor finishes timber floor boards

Secondary floor joist

Pad foundation
DAMP PREVENTION

Spread of dampness is prevented by damp proof course (D.P.C) or damp proof membrane
(D.P.M) layer of non – absolvent material

Functional requirements

 Must remain intact and have longer life as the structure itself
 Thin enough to resist imposed loads
 Tough enough not to be torn
 Be impervious

Materials

Capable of resisting passage of moisture continuous through out

1. Mastic asphalt

 It’s tough and sufficiently elastic to resist fracture

 It’s able to stop both water and vapor
  It’s non-toxic and hence does not pose a health hazard
 It’s not affected by bacteria or termites hence making it very durable
 It is not attacked by the sulphates in the soil
 It’s cheap since it occurs naturally

2. Slates

 Hard and tough in texture

 Suit any thickness of wall

3. Bituminous felt

 Built up on tough fibrous base

4. Engineering bricks

- Cross joints must be left open and free from mortar to avoid percolation of moisture through
capillary attraction

5. Sheet lead or copper

Ends suitably welded/ soldered

Dampness

Sources of damp penetration

1. Moisture rising from the ground

Prevention

 Timber floor above ground level

 Site concrete positioned to stop surface is not below the ground surface
 Building honey comb sleeper walls
 Ventilation
 Concrete floors above GL: hardcore prevent settlement and being of a porous nature
prevent dampness
Concrete floors below GL D.P.M throughout floor/walls and at least 150mm above
G.L

2. Moisture entering through face of walls

 Tilting are means of preventing penetration of moisture

3. Moisture percolating the tops of wall

 Top of walls must be finished with impervious material e.g. engineering bricks

MOISTURE PREVENTION IN BUILDINGS

Moisture may enter into the building through one of the following ways:

1. From the adjusting ground – rain water from the adjusting ground is absolved through
capillary action into the building. The moisture can be prevented by inserting a damp
proof course in the wall and a damp proof membrane in floor.

Moisture protect from ground

Floor screed

DPC Floor slab

Moisture hardcore

GL DPM

Concrete foundation

2. Rain water beating against the wall – water from the external walls can be prevented by
construction of: i) cavity walls.
 ii) By providing a cill at the bottom of the windows.

Rain water Floor screed

Floor slab

GL hardcore

DPM

Concrete foundation

Moisture prevented by a cavity wall

Lintel

Window opening

Cill

Throat DPC under the cill

Floor screed

DPC Floor slab

Moisture hardcore

GL DPM

Concrete foundation

Preventing moisture from entering the building through the window opening
 Coping – for the walls which are constructed beyond the roof level, a coping should be
provided to prevent dump entering from above. The coping should be provided with a
throat to shed off the rain water. Under the coping, a DPC is inserted. The top of the
coping is finished with a slope (weathered).
Slope (weathered

Coping
Throat throat
External wall

Preventing moisture from above the wall

Cavity walls

 Wall constructed in two leaves with a space (cavity) between them. Its purpose is to
prevent rain penetrating internal surface. Bridged in any way as long it provide
moisture movement
Advantages
 Able to withstand driving rain in all situations from penetrating
 Gives good thermal insulation
 No need for external rendering
 Cheaper and attractive materials
 Higher sound insulation
Disadvantage
 High standard of design/workmanship
 Vertical D.P.C to all openings
 Slightly costly

Curtain walling
  Cladding walling with thin sheets consists of transoms and mullion panels
 Its non load bearing
Advantages
 Light in weight
 Economical related to size of building
 Give greater floor area (relatively thin)
 Quick assembly
 Freedom to architectural
Disadvantage
 Less resistance to fire (light weight)
 Regular cleansing
 Carefully design of jointing
 Poor resistance to heat loss/ air bone sound

Choice of curtain walling (aspects)

 Joints must allow expansion and contraction due to temperature changes

 Wall and structure connections must allow for differential thermal movements
 Sufficiently strong to withstand wind pressure
 Avoid danger of condensation forming on the inner surfaces

Arches

 Wedge shaped bricks called voussoirs. Support each other and carry load over
openings
Types
 Soldier arches: row of bricks
 Rough arches: ordinary uncut bricks
 Gauged arches: true arches cut bricks

Centres
  Temporary structures (timber) to support arches until are sufficient set to support
them self. Centers depend upon
a) Weight to be supported
b) Span
c) Width of the soffit

Assignment: notes on termite control

SYSTEM BUILDING AND DIMENSION CO-ORDINATION

System building: this is an industrialized method of construction.

The term system building refers to a method of building in which the component parts of the
building fabric are wholly factory produced and site assembled.

Closed system building: this term refers to a system in which the components parts will not
normally fit with components of other systems. It is usually related to a specific building type
such as houses or schools or to restricted range of types. Usually limited to one development

Open system building: (component building) like system building, this is a method of building
in which the component parts of the building fabric are factory produced and site assembled.
These components may however be used freely in conjunction with parts of the fabric
constructed on traditional lines. Such as brick work, block work, roof tiling e.t.c. (components
are interchangeable) this interchangeability could well be the result of the acceptance of
dimensional coordination.
The method differs from the closed system in that:

i) The production of the components is not limited to one manufacture or development

ii) Each component is interchangeable with those produced by any other manufacture
It is for these reasons often called open system building

Traditional construction techniques

 Most of the work is in sections (i.e. walls, floors, roofs constructions) it is time
consuming.
 Requires skilled labour (i.e. masons, carpenters, plumber’s e.t.c.)
 Quality is difficult to control on site e.g. aesthetics, workmanship, strength e.t.c.

Dimensional co-ordination

 This is a system of managing the dimensional framework of a building so that

components can be used within the framework in an interrelated pattern of sizes.
 The system is specially suited to buildings that use a large number of factory made
components but tends to inhibit original architectural style.
 In buildings of strictly utilization nature there is much to commend it and it is likely
that all except the smallest building will eventually be based on this system.

Modular grid

This shows the space allotted to each component, these being smaller than the space with a ±
tolerance to allow for variations that may appear during manufacture

NB/ the modular grid does not give the size of the component but allots space for it

Terms used

1). Dimensional co-ordination: is the application of arrange of related dimensions to the sizing
of a building components and assemblies and the building incorporating them.

2). Modular co-ordination: dimensional co-ordination using the international basic modular of
100mm. multi-producer sub module and a modular reference system
3). Module: this is a convenient unit of size used as an increment unit of dimensional co-
ordination or coefficient in dimensional coordination

4). International basic module: a 100mm module

5). Multi module: multiple of number usually 300, 600, and 1200

6). Sub-module: sub multiple of 100 usually 50 or 25

7). Modula grid: this is a reference grid in which the distance between consecutive parallel lines
is the international basic module or multiple there of

8). Building component: building material formed as distinct unit

9). Modular building component: a building component whose co-ordination sizes are in
accordance with BS

10). Assembly: an aggregate of building components used together

11). Preferred size: a size chosen in preference to others

The increment of pattern of change of dimension within a system is important since it determines
the form to which a group of component can be produced in a range of sizes appropriate to the
particular components in each case the designer should use the largest increment available.
Compatible with function in use and economy in manufacture

All the theoretical sizes and basic sizes are stated before any deduction is made for fixing or
manufacturing tolerances and jointing
FIRE PLACES

Terms and definitions

Ref: a). brick work ii by mash pg 206

b). structure and fabric part 1

Definitions

 Hearth - pit
 Breast - gather in
 Stack - man tie
 Jambs - throat
 Fire back - gather over
 Hood - surround
 Fire place: a framed opening in a chimney or frame in a free standing position to
hold an open fire
 Flue: passage for gasses, smoke, flame or air
  Chimney: the structure enclosing a flue which continues up above the roof level in a
stack
 Primary air: air which feeds the fire bad containing the oxygen necessary for
combustion
 Secondary air: air heated up by fire (lighter than cool air) rising up the flue (draught)
carrying with it the products of combustion

Classification of chimneys

i) Residential or domestic
ii) Commercial or intermediate (for hospitals, schools, community centres e.t.c.)
iii) Industrial chimneys: determined by the height (over 20m high)

Primary function of chimney

The development of adequate draft to ensure maximum combustion efficiency and also the
transmission of gasses produced by combustion to a height at which they may be released witout
objections effects

Draft: Is the difference in pressure which is available for producing a flow of flue gases up
through the stack. Available draft is affected by;

i. Altitude above sea level

ii. Coefficient of friction of the inside of the chimney
iii. Density of flue gases
iv. Heat loss of gasses as they rise in the flue..

Functional requirements of a chimney

i. Strength and stability

ii. Weather resistance
 iii. Fire resistance
iv. Thermal insulation

Design

Fire places must be designed so that its room’s occupants maintain a max amount of heat either
directly by convention and radiation or indirectly by convention and conduction.

Therefore there must be sufficient air available for combustion and for efficiency removal of the
combustion gasses

Kenya building code requirements for the design and construction of fire places

Ref by law No 101 – 117

Construction of fire place

To be constructed of suitable non-combustible materials

Fire place hearth

i. It should extend under and in front of the opening

ii. Extend at least 500mm from the breast and at least 150mm beyond the opening
iii. Min thickness 150mm
iv. The upper surface not be lower than the surface of combustible floor
v. Combustible materials to be at least 25mm under the upper surface of the hearth

Construction of chimney

i. To be of solid material min thickness 100mm. material applicable are bricks, concrete
and stones
ii. Where the roof is covered with combustible materials e.g. shingles, thatch, dried reeds
e.t.c. the chimney stack for this wall above the roof should not be less than 215mm
iii. Chimney to be properly projected
iv. Domestic chimneys of less than 215mm to be rendered
v. Combustible materials to be not less than 225mm from the flue or the opening
 vi. Metal fastening attached to combustible material to be at least 50mm from the flue or
fire place opening
vii. For stability purpose min width of chimney = 1/6 its height
viii. A flue communicating with a habitable room should not communicate with other
room

Flue design

Vertical height of flue from the entry to the outlet to be within 3.65 – 4.25m this ensures
adequate difference in weight between the internal gasses and external air. The entry is restricted
so as to increase the velocity of air which makes the air rise up. Further restriction at the terminal
is desirable if downward drought has to be eliminated. Min cross section dimension of a flue is
175mm diameter

Air tightness: this is important since it ensures the strength of the drought and eliminates escape
of smoke

Insulation: important if condensation has to be eliminated

Position in zones outlet: to be positioned in zones where there is no high wind pressure

Chimney

Flue
Rendering

Breast
 Gathering

Throat
Jamb
Fire back

Concrete hearth

DOORS
Definition
A door is amusing part of a building and will be subjected to constant use and often abuse
throughout its life
Functions
The function of a door is to give access to a house, room or passage
Functional requirements
The door must be carefully designed and made from good material. It must also be
remembered that condition of temperature and humidity will often be different in rooms
or spaces on each side of the door, which will produce tendency for the door to warp or
twist. The material and design must counteract this.
a. Durability; proper maintenance allied to the choice of good material with good
design workmanship will ensure satisfactory durability throughout the life of the
building. Timber doors need special consideration in particular external doors and
regular painting or clear treatment is necessary.
 b. Weather protection; with external doors it concerns the exclusion of air and water.
The top and bottom of the door is particularly vulnerable and special precautions in
the form of throttling and provision of weather bars should be taken. Outward
opening doors should wherever possible be set back into the opening. Where possible
the edges for the meeting stiles of doors hung in pairs should be rebated. Doors
should as far as possible be drought proof and the use of same form of weather
stripping at the rebate is a wise precaution
c. Sound and thermal insulation; with regard to thermal insulation the loss of heat
through a closed door is minimal. For good sound insulation doors must be solid with
tight seals at all edges. The passage of sound between the doors and frame must be
restricted. Where the specification requirements are high for both sound and thermal
insulation the two sets of door with an intervening space or vestibule will be
necessary.
d. Fire resistance; precautions in respect of an outbreak of fire fall into three categories
i. Structural fire precaution; concerned with restricting the spread of fire within
the building
ii. Means of escape is to enable the occupants to leave the building in safety
iii. To restrict the movement of smoke throughout a public building
e. Strength and stability; the strength of the door is dependent on its method of
construction. In terms of stability a door is called upon to resist a number of stresses
that will vary according to its use and position. Normal closing and opening, barging,
slamming, bumping from articles being carried through and even kicking are to be
expected. In addition to these factors the door must withstand stresses due to the
variation in humidity that occur through changes in weather condition and artificial
conditions within the building

Classification of doors

Doors can be classified as internal or external. The reason for this is that external doors are
subjected to weather while internal doors are not. The entrance door of a house in an external
door, while the doors to rooms or passage are internal doors, a door opening must be large
enough for people to walk through with ease and to allow the passage of goods and equipment.
Therefore external doors are normally slightly bigger than the internal door

Types of doors

1. a). Flush door; it has a plain face which is easy to clean and decorate it is also free of
molding which collect dust. It can be faced with hardwood, plywood or plastic laminate.
Three of the more commonly used constructional methods are a;
i. Laminated solid timber core
ii. Solid core
iii. Timber railed

In every case the frame work is covered with plywood on both faces and a hard wood
edging strip 69mm thick on both long edges to protect the plywood

The strongest form of flush door is the solid core, often made up of longitudinal
laminations of precision planned timber butt jointed with resin based adhesive under
pressure. It has excellent fire check and sound reducing qualities

Half solid flush door is cheaper and lighter. It is made up of a timber frame in corpora
ting horizontal rail not more than 63mm apart and the whole forming a 50% solid timber
core. In its strength it can satisfactorily accommodate standard ironmongery

Timber railed door is even lighter. It consists of horizontal rails not more than 125mm
apart. Used extensively in local authority and private housing where stringent cost limit
per rail. It is possibly faced with hard board.

b). fire check flush door; these doors provide an effective barrier to passage of fire for the
time designated by their type, but to achieve this they must be used in conjunction with
correct frame. Two types are designed by BS 459, half hour type door are hung using one
pair of hinges where as one hour type door requires one and a half pair of hinges.

2. Match boarded doors; can be used as external or internal door they are constructed in
three forms
 i. Ledged and battened
ii. Ledged and braced
iii. Framed, ledged and braced

The ledged and braced door are for external use, however the framed, ledged and braced
doors are stronger and widely used as external doors possibly made of cedar

2. Paneled door; paneled doors are usually described by the number of panels which they
contain and which may vary from one to six. These doors are stronger than flush doors
and match boarded doors without frames. They can be used for external as well as
internal. They consist of stile and rails framed around panel of timber or plywood. They
are framed by joining the members where they intersect by dowels or mortise and tenon

Door frames

The function of a door frame is to provide a fixing and support for doors. A door frame consists
of three members i.e. two upright posts (jambs) which are secured at top by a cross piece called
head. Head usually projects 50 – 100mm beyond the post and these projections are called horns.
They assist in making the frame secure

Section sizes

Post on which the doors are hung must be large enough to enable the frame to remain rigid. The
section piece must be related to the weight and the size of the door they have to carry.

Types of door frames

i. Basic door frame; the simplest type of door frame consisting two jambs and head.

A C

A
 X X

C C-C

Rebate

Doorstop A-A X- X

ii. Ceiling height frame; this is a door frame with fanlight

Fanlight

Transom
Squaring strips and horns

In order to keep the frame rigid and square digging operation, transport or setting on the wall all
ordinary door frames bracing with square strips which are usually 18 x 50mm are cut into the
rebate while the horns protect the frame during transport

Ironmonger

Hinges, locks, door handles, fasteners, fixing e.t.c. which are used for doors and windows are
generally described as hardware or ironmongery.

Hinges; are used for hanging doors and window casements in their frames. Normally three
hinges are used for each door. Hinges are available in a very wide range, small and type. The
cheapest and most commonly used hinge is braced steel butt hinge

Fixing and fasteners; door frames and window frames are normally built into block or brick
wall. “L” shaped built in lug are used to secure frames into wall. The shorter arm of “L” shaped
lug is screwed to the back of the frame. When the door is placed to the wall horizontal openings
have to be chiseled for the longer arm. When the door is set to the right position the opening are
to be filled again with mortar. Fixing can also be made of hoop iron or nails. The frame should
be fixed into the walls with three lugs to each jamb. It avoids any unnecessary force on the
frame. The hinges of the door must be fixed at the same height to the frame as the lugs are fixed
 Jamb

Wall

Framed door
12mm thick plaster with plastic emulsion paint

A 215mm thick brick wall

215

150 100 x 50mm top rail

Insitu lintel (1:2:4)

100 x 50mm stile 16mm Ø m.s. bar

100 x 25mm braces 25mm quadrant mould

125 x 75mm frame

2100 25mm quadrant mould 100 x 50mm top rail

B B 200 x 25mm middle rail 75 x 25mm T & G battens

100 x25mm brace

100 x 50 mm meeting stiles

75 x 25mm T & G battens

100 x 25mm bottom rail 100 x 25mm middle rail

 A 1640

FRONT ELEVATION
20 x100mm swd skirting

12mm thick plaster with plastic emulsion paint

25mm quadrant mould 100 x 25mm brace

125 x 75mm frame

100 x 50mm stile

100 x 25mmbrace 100 x 25 bottom rail

75 x 25mm T & G battens 25mm thick (1:4) screed

100 x 50mm meeting stiles g.lvl

215mm thick brick wall

Fixing cramp

25mm quadrant mould

SECTION B-B SECTION A-A

Flush door B

B
2190 x 900mm solid Core flush door

300 x 300mm Glazed opening

A
A
 Exterior flush door

200 x200mm insitu conc lintol

200mm thick solid conc block wall 200mm thick solid conc block wall

12mm thick c/s rendering 12mm thick c/s plaster

150 x 25 x 3mm m.s cramp 40 x 20m wrot h/wood architrave

100 x 75mm wrot h/wood door frame

45mm thick solid cored f/door

45mm thick solid cored f/door

40 x 20mm wrot h/wood architrave

Section A – A