The Ministry of Education and Training

HCMC university of Technology and Education

o0o

MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCT

TECHNOLOGY

Principal Lectuter: Ms.E. ĐẶNG THỊ NGỌC DUNG

11/21/2022

2
 Cheese production technology

A. Introduction
B. Production materials
C. Overview of factors affecting cheese quality
D. Process manufacturing
E. Different types of cheese
F. Defects of cheese
G. By-products of cheese
H. Review question
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 Introduction
 Definition
Cheese is the fresh or matured solid or semi-solid product obtained
by coagulating milk, skimmed milk, cream, whey cream, buttermilk, or
any combinations of these materials through the action of rennet or
other coagulating agents and by partially draining the whey resulting
from such coagulation.

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 Introduction
 Classification

Note:
(*) MFFB equals the percentage moisture on fat-free basis
(**) FDB equals the percentage fat on dry basis
(***) Milk intended for this type of cheese to be pasteurized
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 Introduction
 Classification (Term III)
 Cured or ripened cheese is a cheese that is not ready for
consumption shortly after manufacture but which must be held for
such time, at such temperature, and under such other conditions as
will result in the necessary biochemical and physical changes
characterizing the cheese.
 Mould-cured or mold-ripened cheese is a cured cheese in which
the curing has been accomplished primarily by developing
characteristic mould growth throughout the interior and/or on the
surface of the cheese.
 Uncured, unripened, or fresh cheese is the cheese that is ready for
consumption shortly after manufacture.
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 Introduction
 Classification
Example:

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 Introduction
 Classification
 Based on the coagulating agent (Term IV):
 Rennet cheeses: most major international varieties.
 Acid cheeses: for example, Cottage, Quarg, Queso Blanco, Cream
cheese.
 Heat/acid: for example, Ricotta, Manouri, Sapsago, Ziger,
Schottenziger, some forms of Queso Blanco.

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 Introduction
 Classification

11/21/2022 Fig: The diversity of cheese. 9

 Introduction
 Nutritional Aspects of Cheese
Table: Composition of Selected Cheeses, per 100 g.

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 Introduction
 Nutritional Aspects of Cheese
Table: Vitamin Content of Selected Cheeses, per 100 g.

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 Introduction
 Nutritional Aspects of Cheese
Protein

 Cheese contains a high level of biologically valuable protein.

 The protein content of cheese ranges from approximately 3% to 40%,
depending upon the variety.
 The protein content of different cheese varieties tends to vary inversely
with fat content.
 Cheese protein is almost 100% digestible as the ripening phase of
cheese manufacture involves a progressive breakdown of casein to
water-soluble peptides and free amino acids.

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 Introduction
 Nutritional Aspects of Cheese
Carbohydrate

 Most of the lactose, the principal carbohydrate in milk, is lost in

whey during cheese manufacture, and hence most cheeses contain
only trace amounts of carbohydrates.
 The residual lactose in cheese curd is usually fermented to lactic
acid by the starter bacteria.
 Cheeses can be consumed without ill effects by lactose-intolerant
individuals who are deficient in the intestinal enzyme β-galactosidase.

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 Introduction
 Nutritional Aspects of Cheese
Fat and cholesterol
 Fat affects the cheese's firmness, adhesiveness, mouthfeel, and flavor.
 In some varieties of cheese, free fatty acids and their catabolites are
important flavor constituents.
 From a nutritional point of view, the digestibility of the fat in different
types of cheese has a range of 88 –94%.
 Cheese fat generally contains ∼66% saturated, 30% monounsaturated, and
4% polyunsaturated fatty acids.
 The cholesterol content of cheese is a function of its fat content and
ranges from approximately 10 to 100 mg/100 g, depending on the variety.
Cholesterol oxides are formed to a negligible extent in cheese under
normal conditions of manufacture, ripening, and storage.

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 Introduction
 Nutritional Aspects of Cheese
Vitamin
 The concentration of fat-soluble vitamins in cheese is influenced by the
same factors that affect its fat content.
 Most of the fat-soluble vitamins in milk are retained in the cheese fat
 The concentration of water-soluble vitamins in cheese is generally lower
than in milk due to losses in the whey.
 The loss of some of the B vitamins is offset, to a certain extent, by
microbial synthesis during cheese ripening. In particular, propionic acid
bacteria synthesize significant vitamin B12 in hard cheeses like Emmental.
 In general, most cheeses are good sources of vitamin A, riboflavin,
vitamin B12, and, to a lesser extent, folate.

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 Introduction
 Nutritional Aspects of Cheese
Minerals

 Cheese is an essential dietary source of several minerals, particularly

calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium.
 Acid-coagulated cheeses, for example, Cottage, contain considerably
less calcium than rennet-coagulated varieties
 Cheese has a potential role in supplying extra, highly bioavailable,
calcium.
 The salt content of natural cheeses tends to be lower than that of
many processed cheeses.

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 Production materials

Milk Fat

Ingredients Coagulation
agent
Additives

Microorganisms

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 Production materials
 Milk (review previous chapters): not contain Clostridium,
bateriophage, Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes,… Somatic Cell Count (SCC) >
105 −3×105 may not be suitable for cheesemaking after 72 h of cold
storage
 Fat: Cream or buttermilk
 Microorganisms:
 Lactic acid bacteria (thermophilic, mesophilic) → coagulates casein in
milk and creates acidity in curds.
 Propionic bacteria → creates holes in the structure of some hard
cheeses and contributes to the characteristic flavor of the product
 Molds of the genus Penicillium such as P. camemberti, P. roqueforti...

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 Production materials
Additives
CaCl2
 The coagulum will be soft if the milk is of poor quality for cheese
making. This results in heavy losses of fines (casein) and fat as well as poor
syneresis during cheese making.
 5 – 20 grams of calcium chloride per 100 kg of milk is normally enough
to achieve a constant coagulation time and result in sufficient firmness of
the coagulum.
 For the production of low-fat cheese, and if legally permitted, disodium
phosphate (Na3PO4), usually 10 – 20 g/kg, can sometimes be added to the
milk before the calcium chloride is added.
 This increases the coagulum's elasticity due to the formation of colloidal
calcium phosphate, which will have almost the same effect as the milk fat
globules entrapped in the curd.

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 Production materials
 Additives
 CO2:
 Adding CO2 is one method of improving the quality of cheese milk.
 Carbon dioxide occurs naturally in milk, but most of it is lost in the
course of processing.
 Adding carbon dioxide by artificial means lowers the pH of the milk: the
original pH is usually reduced by 0.1 to 0.3 units.
 This will then result in a shorter coagulation time.
 The effect can be utilized to obtain the same coagulation time with a
smaller amount of rennet.
 NaNO3/KNO3: Inhibits and destroys microorganisms. Content: max
30g/100kg milk.

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 Production materials
 Coagulation agent
 Colorants: Carotenoides, Chylorophylle
 Other substances: sucrose, honey, fruit jam, ...
 Rennet:
 All cheese manufacture depends upon curd formation by the action of
rennet or similar enzymes, except in cottage cheeses.
 Coagulation of casein is the fundamental process in cheese making.
 It is generally done with rennet, but other proteolytic enzymes can
also be used.
 The active principle in rennet is an enzyme called chymosin, and
coagulation takes place shortly after the rennet is added to the milk.

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 Production materials
 Coagulation agent
 Rennet:
 The two major processes that occur after the addition of rennet are:
1. Transformation of casein to paracasein under the influence of rennet
2. Precipitation of paracasein in the presence of calcium ions
 The whole process is governed by the milk's temperature, acidity,
calcium content, and other factors.
 The optimum temperature for rennet is in the region of 40°C, but
lower temperatures are normally used in the practice, basically to
avoid excessive hardness of the coagulum.

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 Production materials

 Coagulation agent
 Rennet:
 Rennet is extracted from the stomachs of young calves and
marketed as a solution with a strength of 1:10000 to 1:15 000, which
means that one part of rennet can coagulate 10000 – 15000
amounts of milk in 40 minutes at 35°C.
 Bovine and porcine rennet are also used, often in combination with
calf rennet (50:50, 30:70, etc.).
 Rennet in powder form is usually ten times as strong as liquid
rennet.

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 Production materials
 Coagulation agent
Rennet:
 Diagram showing the action of rennet on the casein micelle. The enzyme in
rennet cleaves the casein releasing a large peptide.
 The surface of the micelle changes from being hydrophilic and negatively
charged to hydrophobic and neutral. Consequently, the micelles aggregate
to trap fat globules and microorganisms in developing curd.

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 Production materials
 Coagulation agent
 Substitutes for animal rennet:
 Found substitutes for animal rennet about 50 years ago, concerning
the vegetarians in India, Israel, and the Middle East who refused to
accept cheese with animal rennet.
 Use of porcine rennet is out of the question in Muslim world, also
was a reason to find substitute for animal rennet.
 In recent years the quality of the animal rennet is a concern which
also is a reason.
 There are two main types of substitute coagulants
1. Coagulating enzymes from plants and
2. Coagulating enzymes from microorganisms

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25
 Production materials

 Coagulation agent
 Substitutes for animal rennet:
 Plant enzymes best show coagulation ability, but the cheese tastes
bitter during storage.
 Enzymes from thistle or Cynara are used in some traditional cheese
production in the Mediterranean.
 Phytic acid, derived from unfermented soybeans, or Fermentation-
Produced Chymosin (FPC) may also be used.
 Today, the most widely used Fermentation-Produced Chymosin (FPC)
is produced either by the fungus Aspergillus niger or Kluyveromyces
lactis.

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 Production materials
Coagulation agent
 Acid coagulation:
 Any soft cheeses are produced without the use of rennet by
coagulating milk with acids, such as citric acid or vinegar, or the lactic
acid produced by soured milk.
 Cream cheese, paneer, and rubbing are traditionally made this way
 The acidification can also come from bacterial fermentation, such as
in cultured milk.

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27
 Overview of factors affecting cheese quality

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 Overview of factors affecting cheese quality
 Calcium chloride
 The positive effects of CaCl2 on rennet coagulation properties are
due to the following effects on the cheese milk
 Increase in the concentrations of ionic Ca2+ and CCP.
 An increased attractive force between para-casein molecules due to
calcification of ionized glutamate and aspartate residues.
 A concomitant decrease in pH, resulting from the interaction of Ca2+
ions with soluble sodium phosphate salts and resulting in an increase
in the hydrogen ion activity
 Improves the rennet coagulation properties, reducing rennet
gelation time and increasing curd-firming rate and curd firmness.
 The addition of CaCl2 may also increase the milk fat recovered to
cheese, cheese moisture, and cheese yield.
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 Overview of factors affecting cheese quality
 Calcium chloride
 40 mg/L CaCl2→help strengthen the Ca3(PO4)2 bonds, stabilize the
micelle system in the cheese structure
 The curd-firming rates and curd firmness plateau at addition rates of 2–9
mM CaCl2 decrease again at levels greater ≥ 9 mM CaCl2 (∼1gL−1).
 Salt
 A major inhibitory effect on growth of the microflora;
 A significant effect on the activity of many enzymes;
 A direct effect on flavor;
 Ripening is retarded at high salt concentrations while defects, e.g.,
bitterness, are common at low concentrations.

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 Overview of factors affecting cheese quality
 Salt
 An excessive dietary intake of NaCl has several undesirable effects.
 High concentrations of NaCl (e.g., >8 % S/M in Cheddar) probably
inhibit the growth of NSLAB, but concentrations in the range
normally encountered in Cheddar (4.6–5.6 % S/M) appear to have
little or no effect.
 The lower pH favours a higher ratio of proteolytic-to-peptidase
activity, which promotes alterations and defects in flavour.
 The increase in flowability with salt level coincided with increases in
free oil content and water-binding capacity of the para-casein
network.

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 Overview of factors affecting cheese quality
 pH
 Pre-acidification improves the uniformity of rennet-coagulated milk gels,
which is reflected in the production of cheese of more uniform quality.
 The lower pH favors rennet action and gel formation.
 Since the pH of cheese increases during ripening, the pH of mature
cheese may be a poor index of the pH of the young cheese.
 Rennet
 Specific hydrolysis of κ-casein at or close to Phe105-Met106; if other
bonds in any of the caseins are hydrolyzed, the resulting peptides may
be lost in the whey, causing a reduction in cheese yield.
 The general proteolytic activity during cheese ripening must be low and
similar to chymosin.

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 Overview of factors affecting cheese quality

 Rennet
 The temperature dependence of the coagulation of rennet-altered
micelles is reduced by decreasing the pH and/or increasing the [Ca2+]
or casein concentration.
 The amount of chymosin and pepsin retained in low-cooked cheeses
increases enormously as the pH of the curds-whey is reduced.
 pH does not affect the retention of fungal rennets, a lower proportion
of which is retained in the curd than chymosin.
 Coagulation is promoted by lowering the pH of the curd granules,
lowering the pH in 6.6-6.0.
 Protein is too high → reduced coagulation, and hard gels.

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 Overview of factors affecting cheese quality

 Milk composition
 Protein
 2 - 3% (w/w) → Coagulation time decreases
 > 3% (w/w) → Coagulation time increases
 Significant improvement in milk coagulation properties (shorter
coagulation and cutting time, higher curd firming rate, and curd
firmness) occurs with increasing protein levels in the 2%–4% range.
 Increasing protein content in cheese milk above 5%–8% may cause
tearing of curds on cutting due to extra firmness, and may induce
more protein and fat losses in whey and result in reduced yield and
cheese quality.

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 Overview of factors affecting cheese quality
 Milk composition
 Casein Micelle Sizes (CMS)
 There is general agreement that milk with smaller casein micelles
(diameter of 147–183 nm) coagulates faster and gives a firmer coagulum
than milk having larger casein micelles (200–266 nm).
 Smaller casein micelles have a higher level of k-casein than larger
micelles and can probably form more para-casein bonds during
coagulation, resulting in a firmer coagulum.

Table: Categorization of Casein Micelles

Size in Different Studies.

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 Overview of factors affecting cheese quality
 Milk composition
 Fat content and fat mass size
 Fat 0.1-10% (w/w), protein (3.3%) (w/w) → reduce gelation time,
increase the firmness of curd mass.
 Protein 7.1%, fat content increased → reduces the firmness of the
curd mass.
 Protein (3.3-4%, w/w), fat (3-4%, w/w) → reduce moisture in cheese
 Decreasing the fat at a constant protein level (3.6%) in milk →
increased cheese moisture.
 Milk with smaller casein micelles (153–159 nm) and larger fat globules
(3.88–5.78 µm) → faster coagulation and gave a firmer curd than milk
with larger fat globules and large casein micelles (181–202 nm).
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 Overview of factors affecting cheese quality
 Microorganisms
 Includes beneficial microorganisms, Bacteria Spoilage and Disease.
 Beneficial microorganisms: Starter Lactic acid bacteria (SLAB), Non-
starter Lactic acid bacteria (NSLAB).
 The SLAB reduces cheese curd's redox potential (Eh) to about −450 mV
→ major significance in flavor development.
 In cheese produced from good quality pasteurized milk in a modern
plant, these NSLAB typically grow from a few hundred per gram at the end
of manufacture to 107–108/g within 2–3 months → while the population of
SLAB declines, the numbers of NSLAB increase and dominate the viable
microflora of ripened cheese after 2–3 months.
 NSLAB does not appear to be essential for cheese ripening, although
they affect the ripening pattern and cheese quality.
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 Overview of factors affecting cheese quality

 Microorganisms
Starter Lactic acid bacteria (SLAB)
 Create an environment for milk casein to coagulate;
 Maintain milk coagulation environment;
 The hardness of curd;
 Coagulation → Synthesize the components of cheese;
 The solubility of calcium phosphate affects the texture and solubility
of cheese;
 Inhibits the growth of unwanted bacteria, especially pathogens and
bacteria that cause food poisoning;
 Affects the activity of enzymes which in turn affect the maturity and
quality of the cheese.
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 Overview of factors affecting cheese quality
 Microorganisms
Starter Lactic acid bacteria (SLAB)
 SLAB-mesophilic (Cit+ của Leuconostoc Lactis )
 Depending on the aroma producers present in the culture, mesophilic:
 Mixed-strain starters containing only Cit+ Leuconostoc are called L
cultures (L, the first letter of Leuconostoc).
 Those containing only Cit+ Lactococcus are called D cultures (D, from
Streptococcus diacetilactis, an old name for Cit+ Lactococcus).
 Cultures containing both Cit+ Lactococcus and Leuconostoc are called
DL cultures: they were used in the past for cheese production and,
even though they contain phage, are still used in manufacturing
Gouda and Edam cheeses.
 Those containing no aroma producer (i.e., only Cit− Lactococcus are
present) are called O cultures.
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 Overview of factors affecting cheese quality
 Microorganisms
Table: Starter cultures used in the manufacture of different cheeses

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 Overview of factors affecting cheese quality

 Microorganisms

Non-starter Lactic acid bacteria (NSLAB)

 The NSLAB comprises various strains of mesophilic lactobacilli and
pediococci. The lactobacilli include homofermentative species
(L. plantarum and L.casei), and heterofermentative species
(L. brevis and L. fermenti).
 Formation of propionate, acetate and CO2 products that give the
characteristic flavor and eye formation.
 Lactate is used with probionic bacteria during ripening in warm
rooms.

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 Overview of factors affecting cheese quality
 Microorganisms
Starter Lactic acid bacteria (NSLAB)

Table: Potential Biochemical Activities of Non-Starter Lactic Acid

Bacteria in Cheese
Substrate Products Effects
Lactose Lactic acid , Acetic acid, Fermented flavour
CO2 Slits
Citrate Acetic acid, CO2 Fermented flavour
Slits
L(+)-lactate D/L-lactate Calcium lactate
(white spots)
L(+)-lactate [+ O2] Acetic acid, CO2 Fermented flavour
Slits

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 Process manufacturing

11/21/2022 Fig: Overview of cheese manufacturing operations. 43

 Process manufacturing

Fig: Example of the gross composition of milk and cheese and of

11/21/2022 the transfer of components from milk to cheese. (Scales are in kg.) 44
 Process manufacturing
 Blanc cheese
 Soft cheese, no ripening stage, fresh cheese with live microorganisms.
 Fresh or unripened cheeses are curd-like products that can be
consumed immediately after manufacture.
The products undergo little, if any, ripening, except that lactose is
fermented.
Fresh cheese has a limited shelf life, say, 2 weeks under refrigeration.
 Soft cheeses varieties are usually not included in the group of internal
bacterially ripened cheeses because they have a characteristic secondary
microflora which has a significant effect on the characteristics of these
cheeses.

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 Process manufacturing
 Flow chart of Blanc cheese
Milk

Standardized Separating
milk (18-200C, 8-20h)

Stirring Cream,..
Pasteurize (720C, 15s)
.

Intermediate Packaging
cooling 22-24oC

Lactic acid Inoculate (1-3%) Cold store

bacteria (4-60C, 7-10 days)

Fermentation (20-
22oC, 1-2 h, pH=5.8) Blanc cheese

Rennet Coagulation
11/21/2022 (4-6h, pH=4.5-4.55) 46
 Process manufacturing
 Camembert cheese
 White mold cheese (Semi-soft cheese)
 Use P.camemberti or candidum
 Round cake shape
 Mold-ripened cheeses are subdivided into surface mold-ripened
varieties (e.g., Camembert or Brie) in which ripening is characterized by
the growth of Penicillium camemberti on the surface.
 Mold spores may be added to the cheese milk or sprayed onto the
cheese after manufacture.

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 Process manufacturing
 Camembert cheese
 The ripening of white-mold cheese is characterized by the extensive
catabolism of lactate at the surface of the cheese by the mold, causing an
increase in the pH of the surface zone (and thus creating a pH gradient from
the surface to the core of the cheese) and the migration of lactate from the
core.
 Calcium phosphate precipitates at the elevated pH of the surface and
soluble Ca phosphate migrates through the cheese toward the surface.
These changes, together with proteolysis, cause considerable softening of
the cheese, and mature white-mold varieties may flow under their weight.

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 Process manufacturing
 Flow chart of Camembert Cheese
Milk Separating (pre)
Milk
(30-40%, 14-160D)
serum
Pre-heating
(64-65oC, 15-20s) Moulding-Separating
300D (after 3h, 26-280C),
90-1100D (after 9h)
Standardize (fat: 28g/l,
Mold d=10.5-11.0cm
protein: > 31g/l)
Separation of mould
Lactic acid Pre-fermentation (8-
Curd (DM: 40-42%, pH:
bacteria 14oC,15-20h,pH=6.3-
4.8-4.9, Ca: 0.35-0.4%)
6.35)
Pasteurize
Brining/Salting (10- Molds
(720C, 15-20s)
140C,
Lactic acid Csalty water=23-25%,
Inoculate (1.5-2.0%) -
bacteria, fermentation (33-36oC, NaCl=1,7-1,8% mproduct)
Camembert
yeast 15-90', pH=6.10-6.35 Inoculate Cheese
(14-150C, 24h, W=85%)
Coagulation
Rennet (36-39oC, 30-45’) Ripening (12-130C, 8-9 Packaging
days; W=95%)
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 Process manufacturing
 Bleu Des Causses Cheese
 Blue-veined cheese (Semi-soft cheese)
 Internal mold-ripened cheeses (“Blue” cheeses) in which Penicillium
roqueforti grows throughout the cheese.
 Round cake shape: D=20cm; H=8-10cm, W=2.3-3kg, Dry matter content
= 53%, Fat content= 45% DM
 The milk for these varieties is coagulated by rennet extract; the curds
are acidified using a mesophilic lactic culture and are cooked at a low
temperature before being transferred to molds.

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 Process manufacturing
 Bleu Des Causses Cheese
 Some varieties of blue cheese are salted by repeated surface application of
dry NaCl, while others are brine-salted. The salted cheeses are ripened at a
temperature and relative humidity, which favor mold growth.
 As P. roqueforti requires O2 for growth, the texture of Blue cheese must be
open to allow the fungal spores and hyphae to germinate and grow.
 This open texture is achieved by encouraging mechanical openings during
manufacture (by not pressing the curds after molding) and by piercing the
cheeses with needles (by hand or a particular machine).
 The ripening of Blue cheese is characterized by extensive lipolysis.

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 Process manufacturing
 Flow chart of Bleu Des Causses Cheese
Milk Separating (pre)
Milk
(30%, 30-50’)
serum
Pre-heating
Moulding-Separating
(tcurd =17-210C)
Standardize
Separation of mould -
NaCl
Brining/Salting 10-
Homogenization 200C , Salt (curd) = 4%

Piercing of the cheese

Pasteurize
(720C, 20s)
Lactic Ripening (9-110C, W =
acid Inoculate - 90-95%, 20-25 days)
bacteria, fermentation
molds Packaging
Coagulation Bleu Des
Rennet (30-33oC, 60-90’) Cold store Causses
(0-10C; 4-5 days) Cheese
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 Process manufacturing
 Cheddar Cheese
Cheddar-type cheeses are characterized by mixing salt with the curd
before it is pressed into a coherent loaf.
It is a hard cheese, usually made from pasteurized, standardized cows’
milk coagulated using calf rennet or a rennet substitute.
The cheddaring process allows the acidity to develop in the curds (pH
decreases from c. 6.1 to 5.4) and places the curds under gentle pressure,
assisting in whey drainage.
The curd granules fuse during cheddaring, and the texture of the curd
mass becomes rubbery and pliable. When the pH has reached c. 5.4, the
blocks of curd are milled into small chips and dry-salted.

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 Process manufacturing
 Cheddar Cheese
 Texture of Cheddar Cheese
 Cheddar cheese has a texture that is intermediate between those of
high pH cheese (Gouda cheese), which flows readily when a force is
applied, and the low pH cheeses (Cheshire), which tend to deform, by
shattering, only at their yield point.
 Much of the protein in Cheddar cheese is in the form of smaller
particles than in Gouda.
 As the pH decreases towards that of the isoelectric point of paracasein,
the protein assumes an increasingly more compact conformation and
the cheese becomes shorter in texture and fractures at a small
deformation.

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 Process manufacturing
 Cheddar Cheese
 Flavor of Cheddar Cheese
 Cheddar cheese's flavor is affected by several factors like milk fat,
proteolysis, starter and non-starter bacteria, etc.
 It has been studied that when a series of batches of Cheddar cheese was
made with fat content increasing from 0 to 4.5%, the flavor improved as
the fat content increased, but above a specific limit, there was no increase
in flavor.
 Fat plays an essential role in the flavor development of Cheddar cheese.
 As the breakdown of casein is also involved in the production of Cheddar
cheese flavor, proteolysis plays a significant role in flavor development.
 Other than milk fat and proteolysis, the factors that affect Cheddar cheese
flavor are a starter and non-starter bacteria.
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 Process manufacturing
 Flow chart of Cheddar Cheese
Milk Curd handling and
milling (Cheddaring)
Standardize
Brining/Salting NaCl

Pasteurize
Separation of mould
Lactic Inoculate
acid Pressing blocks
bacteria
Fermentation
Packaging

Rennet Coagulation Ripening 4-80C, Wmax =

, CaCl2 80%; 4-10 months)

Milk Separating W=35.1%

Cheddar
serum Cheese F=33.1%
11/21/2022
Protein: 25.8% 56
 Process manufacturing
Processed Cheese
 Born later than other cheeses (1910)
 Classification based on dry matter content:
 Group 1: high dry matter content ( ≥ 50%)
 Group 2: low dry matter content ( ≥ 44%)

11/21/2022 57
 Process manufacturing
 Processed Cheese
 Processed cheese is manufactured by applying a heat treatment and
adding additives (predominantly melting salts) with a change in taste
and texture.
 Properties:
Prolonged shelf life
Homogeneous product
Easy processing
 Salts
Polyphosphates and citrate
Phosphates bind Ca without coagulation; a homogeneous protein mass
is obtained that remains after melting.
 2 types: a fluid and a solid processed cheese
11/21/2022 58
 Process manufacturing
Processed Cheese
Solid type Fluid type
Grinding of a young cheese Grinding of a mixture of young,
semi- and old cheeses
Addition of 2% polyphosphate + Addition of 2% polyphosphate
3% citrate
Heat until 80-85°C during 4-8 Heat until 85-98°C during 8-15
minutes with addition of 10-25% minutes with addition of 20-
water 45% of water
Slowly cool at room temperature Rapid cooling in the fridge

11/21/2022
59
 Process manufacturing
 Flow chart of Processed Cheese
Source of cheese
ingredients

Handling

Milk and dairy Heat treament and

products Steam
Stirring

Additives Moulding

Cooling

Cutting and
Packaging

Processed
11/21/2022 Cheese 60
 Process manufacturing
 Pasteurization
 Pasteurization of the cheese milk.
 Standard pasteurization (high pasteurization can be applied for fresh
cheeses).
 Destroys micro-organisms and enzymes that are harmful to ripening.
 Removal of pathogens (Listeria; Clostridium, ..).
 62-65°C for 30 min, better: 15-20s at 72°C.

 Standardization
 Standardization on fat and protein content has several reasons:
 To minimize or eliminate seasonal variation in milk composition.
 To facilitate the production of cheese with constant fat in dry matter.
 To impart specific texture characteristics in a curd.
11/21/2022 61
 Process manufacturing
 Homogenization
 Homogenization of cheese milk is mainly used in the manufacture of
unripened cheeses. It is used to:
 Reduce the loss of fat in whey (increase in cheese yield).
 Promote the development of characteristic lipolytic flavours in blue
cheese.
 Improve texture of soft cheeses.
 Produce a "white" cheese from cow's milk, similar in appearance to a
cheese of goat's milk.
 Coaguation
 See chapter 2

11/21/2022 62
 Process manufacturing
 Cutting of the curd
 The finer the curd, the better the whey separates

Fig: Conventional cheese

vat with tools for cheese
manufacture.

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63
 Process manufacturing
 Cutting of the curd

Fig: Horizontal enclosed cheese tank with combined stirring

11/21/2022
and cutting tools and hoisted whey drainage system. 64
 Process manufacturing

Cutting Scalding

11/21/2022 Washing and draining 65

 Process manufacturing

 Scalding (cooking) temperature: This affects the rate of syneresis; the

amount of rennet retained in the curd; the inactivation of rennet; and
the inactivation of mesophilic starter bacteria.
 Curd making: The rate and extent of syneresis depend on the size of
the curd grains and the intensity and duration (0 to 5 h) of the stirring
of the curd–whey mixture. The treatment of the curd is among the
essential process variables that regulate the moisture content of the
cheese.
 Washing of the curd: The addition of water (up to 200%) decreases
the concentration of lactose in the cheese's moisture and, hence, the
ratio between lactic acid and buffering compounds. This ratio
determines the pH of the cheese.
11/21/2022
66
 Process manufacturing

 Final treatment of the curd

 The curd can be treated in various ways after all the free whey has
been removed. It can be:
 Transferred direct to moulds (granular cheeses),
 Pre-pressed into a block and cut into pieces of suitable size for placing
in moulds (round-eyed cheeses)
 Sent to cheddaring, the last phase includes milling into chips which
can be dry-salted and either hooped or, if intended for Pasta Filata
types of cheese, transferred unsalted to a cooking-stretching machine.

11/21/2022 67
 Process manufacturing
 Eye Formation

11/21/2022 Fig: Development of gas in cheese and eye formation. 68

 Process manufacturing
 Eye Formation
 The formation of holes is mainly due to the production of CO2 from
citric acid by citric acid fermenting starter bacteria.
 Most CO2 is formed within a week after manufacture, whereas the
eyes develop from, say, 1 to 4 weeks, depending on the type of starter
applied. L starters, in which leuconostocs are the only CO2 producers,
form less CO2 than DL starters (which also contain Lactococcus lactis
ssp. lactis biovar. diacetylactis) and at a slower rate.
 The presence of cracks or slits in the cheese mass represents a
problem, partly because cutting the cheese into coherent slices is
impossible. Cracks form if the gas pressure in a hole exceeds the
fracture stress of the cheese mass. This is enhanced by:
11/21/2022 69
 Process manufacturing

 Eye Formation
 A high gas pressure:
 This can arise especially when gas is formed at a high rate (by a
strongly gas-forming starter, by gas-forming contaminating bacteria,
or due to a high temperature).
 A low fracture stress:
 The fracture stress will usually be low if the cheese consistency is
short, which means the cheese fractures at a slight deformation.
 This can be expected when the cheese pH is low (say, <5.1), its salt
content is high (because of this, cracks often form in the outermost
part of the cheese), and the protein has been extensively degraded.

11/21/2022 70
 Process manufacturing
 Moulding
Forming the final cheese shape into spheres, flattened spheres, discs,
cylinders, or rectangular blocks is traditional, but for some varieties,
e.g., Camembert, it affects the maturation pathway.
Some cheeses are pressed in moulds (nowadays made of plastic or
stainless steel) under the whey for a short time, whereas others are
compressed at high pressures for several hours.

Fig: Moulding machine for pizza cheese.

11/21/2022 71
 Process manufacturing
 Pressing
 Pressure is mainly applied to form a coherent loaf, which facilitates
handling, and a closed rind, which extends shelf life.

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72
 Process manufacturing
 Pressing
After having been moulded or hooped, the curd is subjected to final
pressing, the purpose of which is fourfold:
To assist final whey expulsion
To provide texture
To shape the cheese
To provide a rind on cheeses with long ripening periods

Fig: Conveyor press.

11/21/2022 73
 Process manufacturing
 Cheddaring (Cheddar Cheese)
 Cheddaring is a mild form of stretching in which the cheese curd is
piled up and held warm so that water flows under the force of
gravity.
 The pH of the curd falls during this process, and whey continues to
exude.
 In large-scale manufacture, this is done in large machines

11/21/2022 74
 Process manufacturing
 Cheddaring (Cheddar Cheese)
 The acid production during cheddaring is of paramount importance.
 When salting starts, the lactose content should not be over 0.6%,
while the pH should preferably be 5.3 to 5.4.
 Water content and pH of the curd at that stage largely determine the
composition of the cheese, i.e., water content, pH, and the amount of
residual rennet and calcium phosphate.
 During cheddaring, solubilises colloidal calcium phosphate and causes
physicochemical changes to the curd which changes from being soft
and friable to being tough and pliable.

11/21/2022 75
 Process manufacturing
 Piercing of the cheese (Blue veined cheese)
 The cheese is pierced after about five days in the ripening store to
facilitate the admission of the oxygen needed for mold growth.
 Piercing is done with a tool with needles about 2 mm in diameter and
roughly equal in length to the height of the cheese.
 The number of needles depends on the diameter of the cylindrical
cheese, which is often pierced alternately through the top and bottom
to avoid the risk of cracking.

11/21/2022 Fig: Pinching machine for piercing blue cheese. 76

 Process manufacturing
 Brining/Salting
 Purpose:
 Create taste
 Increased elasticity (casein swells).
 Increases plasticity (exchanges Na+ and Ca2+).
 Prevent harmful microorganisms
 Changes in salting process: Diffusion and ion exchange
Table: Salt content in different types of cheese.

11/21/2022 Fig: Deep brining system. 77

 Process manufacturing
 Brining/Salting
 Factors affecting the salting process:
 Fat content in the curd: higher → slow diffusion → longer salting
time.
 Salt concentration in brine:
 The higher the salt concentration → the significant the salt content
in the curd. (Concentration is usually 24%).
 The casein swells at low salt concentrations <16 %, and the surface
will be smeary and slimy due to the casein being redissolved.
 Brine temperature: when the temperature is increased→ diffuses
rapidly.
 pH of salt solution:
 pHopt = 5.2 – 5.4
11/21/2022 78
 Process manufacturing
 Brining/Salting
 Factors affecting the salting process:
 pH of salt solution:
 At low pH (< 5.2), too many H+ ions may be included; as the Na+ ions
cannot be exchanged for the H+ ions, the consistency will be hard
and brittle.
 At high pH (6.0 – 5.8), there is more calcium in the casein → more
sodium will be bound to the casein complex, and the cheese will be
softer; it may even lose its shape during ripening.
 The time of salting depends on the following:
 The salt content typical of the type of cheese
 The size of the cheese – the larger it is, the longer it takes
 The salt content and temperature of the brine.
11/21/2022 79
 Process manufacturing
 Brining/Salting
 Method of proceeding:
 Dry salting: Salt crystals are mixed with the curd grains or milled
curd pieces resulting from traditional cheddar.
 Rubbing: Salt or brine is rubbed onto the surface of the cheese.
Currently, this is restricted to the salting of cheeses that develop a
microbial smear on the surface. The rubbing is repeated several
times.
 Brining: The cheese is immersed in a concentrated NaCl (brine)
solution until the desired amount of salt has been absorbed (23-
25%; 10-14oC).
 Salt reaches 1.7-1.8% w/w product

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80
 Process manufacturing
 Maturation/Ripening
 Cheese ripening is the breakdown of proteins, lipids, and
carbohydrates (acids and sugars), which releases flavour compounds
and modifies cheese texture.
 Ripening varies from nil for fresh cheese to 5 years for some hard-
ripened cheese.
 Like a good wine, a good aged cheese should get better and better
with age. Ripening processes are broadly classified as interior and
surface-ripened.
 Cheese that depends mainly on interior ripening (most hard-ripened
cheese such as Cheddar and Italian types) may be ripened with rind
formation or film wrapped before curing.
11/21/2022 81
 Process manufacturing
 Maturation/Ripening
 There are three sources of cheese flavor:
 Flavors present in the original cheese milk, such as natural butter fat
flavor and feed flavor.
 Microbial enzymes, enzymes endogenous to milk, and enzyme
additives release breakdown products of milk proteins, fats, and
sugars.
 Metabolites of starter bacteria, and other microorganisms. These
include products from the catabolism of proteins, fats and sugars.
 The ripening of cheese involves three major biochemical events
 Glycolysis: Lactose is metabolized to lactic acid, which may then be
catabolised (broken down into smaller molecules) to form acetic and
propionic acids, carbon dioxide, esters and alcohol by the enzymes of
the microorganisms in the milk, including the added starter
11/21/2022 82
 Process manufacturing

 Maturation/Ripening
 The ripening of cheese involves three major biochemical events
 Lipolysis: The lipids are broken down to form free fatty acids that may
then be catabolized to form ketones, lactones, and esters by natural
milk enzymes and those that are added to create the flavour in
particular cheese varieties, e.g., Romano, Blue Vein, and Feta cheese.
 Proteolysis: Proteins (caseins) are gradually broken down to form
peptides and amino acids by the enzymes of the coagulant, the
natural milk enzymes, the starter bacteria's enzymes, and other added
microorganisms. e.g., moulds such as Penicillium camemberti used in
the manufacture of Camembert and Penicillium roqueforti used in the
manufacture of blue-veined cheeses such as Roquefort, Camembert,
and Stilton.
11/21/2022 83
 Process manufacturing
 Maturation/Ripening

Fig: General overview of the biochemical pathways which

11/21/2022 84
operate in cheese during ripening.
 Process manufacturing
 Maturation/Ripening
 The enzymes of these mould species typically result in a high level of
proteolysis in these cheese types.
 The rind formation on the cheese depends on the mold being added
during ripening.
 The breakdown of the proteins to peptides (proteolysis) transforms
the rubbery and flavourless cheese curd into cheese with desirable
texture and flavou.
 Further proteolysis produces amino acids and the further biochemical
glycolysis and hydrolysis result in the formation of amines, aldehydes,
alcohols and sulphur compounds that add to the flavour of the
cheese.

11/21/2022 85
 Process manufacturing
 Maturation/Ripening

11/21/2022 86
 Process manufacturing
 Maturation/Ripening
Ripening Agents in Cheese
 Enzymes from the coagulant;
 Indigenous milk enzymes;
 Starter bacteria and their enzymes are released after the cells have died
and are lysed.
 Enzymes from secondary starters (e.g., P. freudenreichii, Gram-positive
bacteria on the surface of smear-ripened cheese, yeasts, and molds, such
as P. roqueforti and P. camemberti), which are of significant importance in
some varieties.
 Nonstarter bacteria organisms that either survives pasteurization of the
cheese milk or gain access to the pasteurized milk or curd during
manufacture; and, in certain circumstances.
 Exogenous enzymes added to accelerate cheese ripening.
11/21/2022 87
 Process manufacturing
 Maturation/Ripening

Fig: Course of the temperature during manufacture and ripening

11/21/2022 of some types of cheese; t = time after renneting 88
 Process manufacturing
 Maturation/Ripening

Fig: Course of the average pH during manufacture and ripening of

11/21/2022 some cheese varieties 89
 Process manufacturing
 Packaging
Any material to be used for packaging natural cheeses must:
 Afford general protection
 Prevent moisture loss
 Improve appearance
 Protect against micro-organisms and
 Prevent oxygen transmission
Cheese is packaged mainly in two forms:
a) Packaging cheese for storage and ripening (bulk packaging)
b) Packaging for consumers (retail packaging)

11/21/2022 90
 Different types of cheese

11/21/2022 91
 Different types of cheese
 Pasta Filata
 Milled curd is heated in hot (70-90°C) water, brine or whey
 The curd is plastified by a process of kneading, mixing, moulding and
stretching
 The cheese can be stored for ripening, it can be consumed fresh →
advantageous under tropical conditions

11/21/2022 92
 Different types of cheese
 Bacterial surface ripened cheeses
 Viscous, red-orange smear
 Soft and semi-hard cheeses (Tilsiter, Gruyere, Beaufort, Appenzeller,
Trappist, Munster, Brick, Blue, Romadour, Lederkranz, Saint-Paulin,
Wijnendaele....).
 Brevibacterium linens
 Orange-brown colour
 Synthesizes highiy active proteolytic enzymes and lipases
 Further breakdown of amino acids through decarboxylation,
deamination, desulplhurylation and demethiolation (CH3SH-rotten
cabbage) into aroma components.

11/21/2022 93
 Different types of cheese
 Manouri cheese
 Manouri is a whey cheese which is manufactured in Thessaly, Western
and Central Macedonia. It is a soft, whey cheese with a maximum
moisture of 60% and a minimum of FDM 70%.
 It is a whey soft cheese, with a cylindrical shape, 10–12 cm in
diameter and 20–30 cm in height.
 Manouri cheese has a compact, closed body and a rich flavour with
creamy, fatty notes.
 Maturation: This takes place in cold rooms (4°C–5°C).
 Curd draining: The curd is transferred with cheesecloths into moulds
and drained for 4–5 hr.

11/21/2022 94
 Different types of cheese
 Parmigiano Reggiano cheese
It is an extra-hard, semi-fat cheese
The content of fat in dry matter (FDM) is at least 32%
On average, a 24-month cheese has a moisture content of 30%, FDM of
40% and protein in dry matter (PDM) 47%
Coagulation: The milk coagulates in around 10 min, and the curd is
then broken down into minuscule granules until the size of a rice grain
is reached, using a traditional tool called ‘spino’
Salting: The wheels are salted in saturated brine for 20–25 days
Maturation: the minimum maturation time is 12 months

11/21/2022 95
 Different types of cheese
 Flaouna Cheese
It is a semi-hard cheese, air-dried in specially designed drying rooms.
It has an average moisture content of 37.5%, a fat content of 29.1%, a
protein content of 28.6%, and a salt of 1.0.
It is a yellowish cheese with a cylindrical shape, 15–20 cm height and
8–10 cm width, and 1.0–1.5 kg weight. It is compact, with no holes,
lightly salted, and has the flavour of the milk type prevailing in the
mixture. It is sliceable and, if left to dry for a more extended period,
becomes harder and more easily grated.
Drying: The cheeses are then placed in specially designed drying
rooms where an air stream of 18°C–20°C is applied, and cheeses are left
to dry for about 4–5 days.

11/21/2022 96
 Defects of cheese
 Defects Related to Moisture Content
 Excessive moisture
 The characteristics of cheese:
 Flavor may be sour or acid or slightly acid when fresh and lacking in
cheese flavor and sour when aged.
 The body may be weak or soft when fresh, sticky, and pasty when aged.
 Texture may be open if the acid development during the making operation
is inadequate.
 Color may be higher.
 One or more of the following may be responsible:
 An unusually high-fat content in milk fat delays firming.
 Lack of acid development during making.
 Insufficient heating or heating too rapidly.
 Incomplete removal or elimination of whey.

11/21/2022 97
 Defects of cheese
 Defects Related to Moisture Content
 Insufficient moisture
 The characteristics of cheese:
 Flavor - mild or lacking. It might be slightly acidic if lack of moisture
was caused by excessive acid during the making. Cheese flavor
develops slowly.
 The body is firm, hard, corky, and sometimes crumbly and mealy.
Loss of curdy characteristics during ripening is prolonged.
 Texture - usually close and solid but may show mechanical openness
where curd particles failed to knit together properly during pressing.
 Color - sometimes deeper in shade and rind formation is frequently
darker in color than the rest of the cheese.
 Finish - may show defective knitting together of curd particles.

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 Defects of cheese
 Defects Related to Moisture Content
 Insufficient moisture
 May be due to one or more of the following:
 Maximum acid development throughout making process.
 The use of excessive amounts of rennet or CaCl2
 Fine cutting or breaking of the curd.
 Heating and holding temperature high.
 Excessive stirring of the curd while the whey is being removed and
immediately after dipping.
 Lack of piling during cheddaring operation.
 Addition of too much salt.
 Holding the cheese in a warm drying room long before paraffining.

11/21/2022
99
 Defects of cheese
 Defects Related to Moisture Content
 Prevention
 At salting:
 Steps may be taken to reduce the acid development, ripening period
and amount of starter, besides adding the rennet sooner.
 The amount of rennet should be reduced, use of calcium chloride
should be avoided, a firm cut should be developed at cutting and
coarser knives may be used for cutting curd.
 At heating
 The temperature may be decreased.
 If the temperature used approximates 36°C, then acid development
may be stimulated.

11/21/2022 100
 Defects of cheese
 Defects Related to Acid Content
 Excessive acidity
 All the physical characteristics of Cheddar cheese may be affected by
excessive acidity.
 Flavor – acid or sour. Bitterness is sometimes associated with too
much acid development during the making. True cheese flavor is
lacking or slows in development.
 Body – firm, dry, crumbly, short, and mealy when the moisture
content is low. It may be soft, pasty, sticky, and short when the
moisture content is high.
 Texture – usually close, although in extreme instances, the curd
particles may be so poorly knitted together that numerous
mechanical openings will be formed.
11/21/2022 101
 Defects of cheese
 Defects Related to Acid Content
 Excessive acidity
 All the physical characteristics of Cheddar cheese may be affected by
excessive acidity.
 Color – bleached or acid cut and sometimes mottled.
 pH – usually less than 5.05 when the cheese is 3 to 4 days old.
 Causes
 Too much moisture in cheese
 High acid initial milk
 Use of too much starter
 Prolonged ripening period
 Too much acid development before adding rennet
 Too much acid development at other steps
11/21/2022 102
 Defects of cheese
 Defects Related to Acid Content
 Lack of acidity
 The common characteristics:
 Flavor - mild when fresh and fermented, fruity or lacking when
aged. True cheese flavor develops slowly, if at all.
 Body - corky, pasty, sticky or weak. The cheese remains curdy for a
long time in curing.
 Texture - open, with large mechanical holes. The cheese with
insufficient acidity may also show the effects of uncontrolled
fermentations of gas-producing yeasts or bacteria.
 pH is usually more than 5.3 when the cheese is four days old.

11/21/2022 103
 Defects of cheese
 Defects Related to Acid Content
 Lack of acidity
 Causes:
 Failure of starter
 Due to inactive starter, improper handling of starter, unfavorable
conditions for starter activity, or bacteriophage.
 Abnormal milk
 Unfavorable manufacturing methods, unnecessary amount of CaCl2.
 At Milling
 Delay milling until the whey draining from the curd shows at least
0.30% acid.
 The hot iron test should be nearly 3/8″ long and the pH of the curd
should be not more than 5.6.
11/21/2022 104
 Defects of cheese
 Defective flavors
 Acid flavor
 This results from the development of too much acid at any stage of
cheese making or curing.
 It may occur from high acid milk as received, ripening too long before
setting, too much starter, improper cutting, cooking too fast or other
factors which may interfere with proper expulsion of whey from the
curd, or otherwise developing acid faster and higher than normal.
 The low salt content of cheese may also be a contributing factor.
 Rancid flavor
 Rancidity is the flavor characteristic of the odor of butyric acid. It is
believed to be present in all normal Cheddar. This flavor may come
from the milk itself.

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 Defects of cheese

 Defective flavors
 Bitter flavor
 This is a common defect. It is associated with inferior milk, poor
starter, excessive moisture and high acidity in cheese, and using too
much rennet and unclean utensils.
 Relatively higher temperature and using Leuconostoc sp. as a starter
has been noted to cause the defect.
 Unclean conditions e.g., rust spots, open seams, and milk stones in
cans and utensils, may cause this defect.
 Conditions associated directly with the manufacturing operations
may also be responsible e.g. excess acid, excess moisture, lack of
salt, and high curing temperature.
11/21/2022 106
 Defects of cheese
 Defective flavors
 Fermented flavor
 These flavors are characteristics of the odor of fermented whey and
possess some of the qualities of the combined odors of alcohol, acetic
acid and propionic acid. They may appear in cheese soon after it is
made, but they usually develop after the cheese is two weeks old.
They are believed to be caused by yeasts or bacteria. These organisms
may get into the milk on the farms by contact with unclean and non-
sterile surfaces of utensils, milking machines, and milk cans.
 This can be prevented by:
 Utmost precaution in plant sanitation,
 Clean and active starter and
 Ripening at 7°C or below
11/21/2022 107
 Defects of cheese
 Defective flavors
 Fruity flavor
 The fruity flavor defect has been described as pineapple, raspberry, or
pear-like flavor in cheese.
 The compounds responsible for the defect are esters, certain
acetaldehydes and ketones, and some alcohols.
 This flavor defect is closely related to the fermented flavor defect.
 Hence, the origin, prevention, and remedies are identical to that of
fermented flavor defect.
 Unclean flavor
 Flavors foreign to milk and cheese that can not be identified or
otherwise described are usually unclean.
 Unclean flavors are often attributed to the development of
undesirable microorganisms in the milk, curd, or cheese.
11/21/2022 108
 Defects of cheese
 Defective flavors
 Moldy flavor
 It is associated with curing conditions.
 It is caused by the growth of mold in or on the cheese.
 Mold will grow in Cheddar cheese only when O2 gains entry through
openings in the rind or through openings or cracks inside the cheese,
which connect with trier holes or other defects in the rind.
 Mold grows slowly on cheese held at low temperatures and under dry
conditions; it grows rapidly at high temperatures and high humidity.
 It grows most luxuriantly on non-paraffined cheese.
 Prevention – Proper paraffining, close texture, sound rind, curing at
7°C and relative humidity below 75% minimize the defect.
11/21/2022 109
 Defects of cheese
 Defects Related to Body

 Corky
 Cheese with a firm, hard, tough and somewhat elastic consistency is
called corky. Such cheese is difficult to crush with the fingers, but
when enough pressure is applied it breaks apart in a woody manner.
 A Corky body may appear very firm and curd when draining; the
characteristics usually appear before salting. Corky characteristics may
persist throughout the life of the cheese.
 Causes – Low-fat content, lack of acid development, overheating
during cooking, lack of moisture, and excessive salt content.

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 Defects of cheese
 Defects Related to Body
 Crumbly
 The defect rarely appears during the making operations, although the
first stage of a crumbly body may be evident when excessively acid curd
fails to mat properly during cheddaring.
 The defect is usually apparent in fresh cheese within a week after
making; it persists throughout the life of the cheese.
 Crumbly body in cheese can be prevented by observing the preventions
and remedies for excessive acidity.
 Crumbly body gradually develops in aged cheese and is not regarded as
a defect if the cheese is sweet in flavor.
 This crumbly body is caused by ripening changes in the foods and by
loss of moisture. This condition is associated only with a fully matured
flavor in the cheese.

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 Defects of cheese
 Defects Related to Body
 Curdy
 This characteristic is natural in fresh cheese and is rightly regarded as a
defect only when it persists beyond about 30 days.
 Curdy cheese, when broken apart, reveals the size and shape of the
original curd particles after salting.
 When pressed between the fingers, it feels elastic, firm, and somewhat
like the curd particles at the salting time.
 It cannot be worked together in the fingers after it has been broken
apart.
 Causes: Low moisture content, which delays curing; lack of proper acid
development; lack of proper cheddaring in the vat before milling. And the
addition of excessive amounts of salt or low-temperature storage.

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 Defects of cheese
 Defects Related to Body
 Mealy
 This characteristic appears when cheese is crushed and rubbed
between the thumb and fingers. The structure of the curd looks and
feels rough; the characteristic is the opposite of the waxy smoothness
desired in standard cheese.
 A mealy body can be most readily detected after the curdy
characteristics of the cheese have entirely disappeared; it is apparent
during the first week of curing but is not so easily discovered. It persists
throughout the life of cheese.
 Cause: excessive acidity, it may be regarded as a stage of disintegration
of crumbly cheese.
 Mealy body in cheese can be eliminated in future lots by observing the
preventions and remedies for excessive acidity.
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 Defects of cheese
 Defects Related to Body

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 Defects of cheese
 Defects Related to texture

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 Defects of cheese
 Defects Related to texture

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 Defects of cheese
 Other Defects
 Loss of water: Not enough rennet, curd was too soft, coagulation
temperature too low,.. .
 Taste of yeast: High contamination of yeasts, insufficient removal of
micro-organisms, lack of GMP, infected brine,...
 Open texture: Contamination of cheese with gas producing bacteria
and yeasts, lack of acidity, moisture content, free whey trapped in
curd, and lack of sufficient pressure during pressing of cheese.
 Gas production
 Early blow: Formation of gas by coliforms and yeasts
 Late blow: Formation of gas by Clostridia
 Can be avoided by: use of good raw material and GMP, bactofugation
adequate heat treatment, addition of nitrate
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 Defects of cheese
 Other Defects
 Irregular holes: Insufficient treatment of the curd,..
 Soft exterior: Insufficient ripening of the cheese, Whey content too
high, insufficient salting,..
 Acid taste: Whey content too high, heat treatment too high
 Bitter taste: Bad quality of the fodder, Whey content too high, rennet
content too high, too much trypsin, presence of coliforms.

11/21/2022 Fig: Early blowing Fig: Late blowing

118
 Defects of cheese

Table: Process modifications to soften the texture of an overfirm cheese.

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 Defects of cheese
Table: Process modifications to soften the texture of an overfirm cheese.

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 Defects of cheese

 Dificulties for cheese manufacture in tropical conditions

 The bacterial quality of the milk may be low.
 The quantities of milk available are often small, and liquid consumption
has priority.
 The conditions of high relative humidity and low temperature required
for proper ripening are difficult to realize.
 During distribution, the product may be exposed to high temperatures,
which promotes a rapid deterioration of the product .
→ For these reasons, cheese production under tropical conditions is ofien
limited to fresh types of cheese.

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 By-products of cheese

Fig: By-products of butter and cheese processing,

11/21/2022 showing the approximate yield from 100 kg of milk. 122
 By-products of cheese

 Whey and lactose are the major byproducts from cheese processing.
 The whey produced from the manufacture of the processing of rennet-
and acidcoagulated cheeses was once considered a waste product of
cheese processing and either used as animal feed or disposed of as
waste.
 The identification of important nutritional and functional components
within the whey has led to utilization of whey products and components
widely throughout the food industry.
 Sweet whey is the byproduct of rennet coagulation, while acid whey is
the byproduct of acid coagulation.

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 By-products of cheese
 Sweet whey has a higher pH and lower calcium and lactic acid content in
comparison to acid whey.
 The use of acid whey is more limited than that of sweet whey due to the
acidic flavor, lower protein content, and higher salt content
Table: Characteristics of sweet and acid wheys.

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 Review question
Question 1: Curd is the _______________during the cheese making process.
a) A region which supplies substantial components required
b) Material found in the stomach of young calves necessary
c) Liquid portion at the bottom on the container that is hard to dispose of
d) From Custard-like substance formed at the top of the container
Question 2: Rennet is used in many milk products to produce a thicker bodied
product. Natural rennet comes from?
a) Mines in Eastern China
b) Microscopic plants growing the ocean
c) Inside the stomach of young claves
d) Composted cow manure treated with UV rays
Question 3: Which of the following is a soft cheese?
a) Cottage cheese b) Cheddar cheese
c) Parmesan cheese d) Swiss cheese

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 Review question
Question 4: Which of the following equipment is not required in the
production of cheese?
a) Thermometer b) Cheese Vat
c) Cheese press d) Transilluminator
Question 5: The fermentation of milk to form cheese is done by
______________ bacterium species.
a) Saccharomyces spp.
b) Lactobacillus spp.
c) Aspergillus spp.
d) Penicillium spp.
Question 6: The optimum temperature for heating the curds is _________
a) 18°C b) 28°C
c) 38°C d) 48°C
Question 7: Cheddar cheese is a semi-solid cheese.
a) True
b) False
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 Review question
Question 8: Which of the following leads to the formation of soft cheese?
A. Removal of a small proportion of whey
B. Using more amount of milk
C. Removal of the larger proportion of whey
D. Using less amount of milk
Question 9: The large holes in the cheese are due to
A. Oxygen production
B. Carbon dioxide production
C. Sulfur dioxide release
D. Lead dioxide release
----------The
end--------

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