Behaviour Modification Textbook Notes

Miltenberger, R.G. (2024). Behaviour modification: Principles and procedures (7th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Chapter 1
Introduction to Behaviour Modification 1

Learning objectives:
1.1 Define human behaviour
1.2 Describe the defining features of behaviour modification
1.3 Describe the historical roots of behaviour modification
1.4 Describe the ways behaviour modification has improved people’s lives

Behaviour
- Involves a person’s actions (what people do and say)
- Have dimensions that can be measured (frequency, duration, intensity/force, latency/speed)
- Can be observed, described, and recorded by others or by the person engaging in the behaviour
- Have an impact on the environment (physical and social)
- Behaviour is lawful, its occurrence is systematically influenced by environmental events (has a
functional relationship)

Overt Behaviour:
- Action that can be observed and recorded by a person other than the one engaging in the behaviour

Covert behaviour (private events):

- Not observable by others
- E.g., thinking

Lamont’s paper for his behavior modification class is a week late. Lamont gives the paper to his professor
and lies, saying he missed the deadline because had to go home to visit his sick grand-mother. The
professor accepts the paper without any penalty. Lamont also missed a history test. He tells his history
professor he missed the test because of his sick grandmother. The professor lets him take the test a week
late.

1. Involves action: lying

2. Frequency: occurred twice
 3. Observable: observed by her professors
4. Effect on the environment: let him hand in a paper and take a test late without a penalty
5. Lawful: there is a functional relationship between the behaviour (lying) and the outcome (getting
away with a late paper and test)

Behavioural Modification
- Applied science and professional practice concerned with analysing and modifying human
behaviour.
- Analysing: identifying the functional relationship between environmental events and a particular
behaviour to understand the reasons for the behaviour or to determine why a person behaved as they
did.
- Modifying: developing and implementing procedures to help people change their behaviour. It
involves altering environmental events to influence behaviour. Behavior modification procedures are
developed by professionals (e.g., board-certified behavior analysts) and used to change socially
significant behaviors, to improve some aspect of a person’s life.
-
Characteristics of behaviour modification:
● Focus on behaviour (de-emphasizes labelling)
- Target behaviour: Behaviour to be modified
- Behavioural excess: an undesirable target behaviour the person wants to decrease in
frequency, duration, or intensity (e.g., smoking)
- Behavioural deficit: desirable target behaviour the person wants to increase in frequency,
duration, or intensity (e.g., exercise, studying)
● Guided by the theory and philosophy of behaviourism
- Behaviourism
- Core tenet: behaviour is lawful and controlled by environmental events occurring in close
temporal relation to the behaviour.
● Procedures based on behavioural principles
- Experimental analysis of behaviour (behavioural analysis): Scientific study of behaviour
- Applied behaviour analysis: Scientific study of human behaviour to help people change
behaviour in meaningful ways
● Emphasis on current environmental events
- Assessing and modifying the current environmental events that are functionally related to the
behaviour (goal of behaviour modification) - Controlling variables
- Alter the functional relationship between the behaviour and the controlling variables in the
environment to produce a desired change in the behaviour.
● Precise description of behaviour modification procedures
 - Specific changes in environmental events must occur each time
- By describing precisely, more likely that the procedures will be used correctly each time.
● Treatment implemented by people in everyday life
- The treatment is developed by professionals but implemented by people such as teachers,
parents, job supervisors etc.
● Measurement of behaviour change
- Measuring the behaviour before and after intervention
- Ongoing assessment of the behaviour is done to determine whether the behaviour change s
maintained in the long run.
● De-emphasis on past events as causes of behaviour
- Knowledge of the past is useful for analyzing current behaviour and choosing behaviour
modification procedures
- Knowledge of current controlling variables is most relevant to developing effective behaviour
modification interventions
● Rejection of hypothetical underlying causes of behaviour

Historical Roots of Behaviour Modification

Major Figures
Ivan P. Pavlov
- Respondent conditioning
- Saliva, bell, dog, metronome (conditioned reflex)

Edward L.Thorndike
- Law of effect
- A behaviour that produces a favourable effect on the environment is more likely to be repeated in the
future
- Put a cat in the cage to hit a lever to open the cage and reach the food

John B.Watson
- Observable behaviour was the proper subject matter of psychology and all behaviour was controlled
by environmental events
- Stimulus-response psychology - environmental events (stimuli) elicited responses
- Started a movement in psychology called behaviourism

B. F. Skinner
- Explained the distinction between respondent conditioning and operant conditioning (the
consequence of behaviour controls the future occurrence of the behaviour)
 - Elaborated on the basic principles of operant behaviour
- Lay the foundation of behaviour modification

Areas of Application
1. Developmental Disabilities and Autism Spectrum Disorder
2. Mental Illness
3. Education and Special Education
4. Rehabilitation (process of helping people regain normal function after an injury or trauma)
5. Community Psychology
6. Clinical Psychology
7. Business, Industry, and Human Services
8. Self-management
9. Child Behaviour Management
10. Prevention
11. Sports Performance
12. Health-Related Behaviours
13. Gerontology 老化现象研究

Extra resources
- MABA
- The incredible years
- Triple P
Chapter 2
Observing and Recording Behaviour

Learning Objectives
2-1 Describe how you define a target behaviour in a behaviour modification program
2-2 Describe different methods you can use to record a target behaviour
2-3 Describe how continuous recording differs from interval and time sample recording
2-4 Describe reactivity of behaviour recording and how can you minimise it
2-5 Describe interobserver agreement and why it is important

Behavioural assessment: Measurement of the target behaviour(s)

● Important because
○ Measuring before treatment: help to determine whether treatment is necessary
○ Helps to choose the best treatment
○ Measuring before and after treatment: to determine whether the behaviour changed after the
treatment was implemented.

Direct and Indirect Assessment

- Indirect Assessment: involves using interviews, questionnaires, and rating scales to obtain
information on the target behaviour from the person exhibiting the behaviour or from others (e.g.,
parents, teachers, or staff )
- does not occur when the target behaviour occurs but relies on an individual’s recall of the
target behaviour
- Direct Assessment: a person observes and records the target behaviour as it occurs
- The observer must be in close proximity to the person exhibiting the behaviour so that the
target behaviour can be seen (or heard)
- Must have precise definition of the target behaviour (to distinguished from occurrences of
other behaviours)
- Must register the occurrence of the behaviour when it is observed
*Direct assessment is preferred
- More accurate

Direct Assessment Indirect Assessment

The observer is trained specifically to observe information on the target behaviour depends on
the target behaviour and record its occurrence people’s memories
immediately
the people providing information may not have
 been trained to observe the target behaviour and
may not have noticed all the occurrences of the
behaviour.

biassed in presenting information (e.g., trying to

present the problem as worse than it actually is
or to make the problem appear less severe).

may be based on incomplete or inaccurate

information about the target behaviour.

Steps in the direct assessment

1. Defining the target behaviour
2. Determining the logistics of recording
3. Choosing a recording method
4. Choosing a recording instrument

Defining the target behaviour

- Identify exactly what the person says or does that constitutes the behavioural excess or deficit
targeted for change
- Behavioural definition includes active verbs describing specific behaviour that a person exhibits
- Objective and unambiguous
- E.g., poor sporting behaviour: yelling obscenities, throwing the bat or batting helmet, and
kicking the dirt while walking back to the bench after striking out
- Does not make inferences about a person’s intentions (cannot be observed, and often
incorrect)
- A label (“a bad sport”) is not used to define the behaviour because labels do not identify the
person’s actions. (ambiguous and different to people)
- Labels can be used incorrectly as explanations of a behaviour.
- Good behavioural definition - Different people can observe the same behaviour and agree that
the behaviour is occurring.
- Interobserver agreement (IOA)/Interobserver reliability/Interrater reliability: when two
people independently observe the same behaviour and both record that the behaviour
occurred.
- The behavioural definition should fit the target behaviour of the person you are observing.
Social Validity: assessing the social significance of the target behaviours (behaviours that the client or other
important individuals agree are important targets for change)

The Logistics of Recording

The Observer
- The target behaviour typically is observed and recorded by a person other than the one exhibiting the
target behaviour (professional, behaviour analyst or psychologist; a person routinely associated with
the client in the client’s natural environment, teacher, parent, staff member, or supervisor)
- The observer must:
- Have proximity to the client too observe the target behaviour when it occurs
- Be trained to identify the occurrence of the target behaviour and to record the behaviour
immediately
- Have the time to observe and record the behaviour
- Be willing to function as an observer.
- Self-monitoring: when the client observes and records their own target behaviour
- Valuable when it is not possible for another observer to record the target behaviour
- Target behaviour occurs infrequently
- It occurs only when no one else is present
- Self-monitoring may be combined with direct observation by another observer
- The client must be trained to record their own behaviour in the same way that an observer would be
trained.

When and Where to Record

- Observation period: the observer records the target behaviour in a specific period (time when the
target behaviour is likely to occur)
- Indirect assessment information from the client or others may indicate the best times.
- Determined by the availability of the observer(s) AND the constraints imposed by the client’s
activities or preferences
- Client or the client’s parent or guardian must give consent before you can observe and record their
behaviour.
- The client must provide consent for observations to occur, with the understanding that some
observations may occur at times unknown to them.
- Natural setting: consists of the places in which the target behaviour typically occurs (classroom)
- Analogue setting: Observing a target behaviour in a physician’s waiting room (not part of the
client’s normal daily routine)
- Natural setting is more representative sample of the target behaviour
 - Analogue setting is more controlled than a natural setting, the variables that influence the behaviour
are easier to manipulate.
- Simulate events that are likely to occur in natural settings
- Structured observation: the observer arranges for specific events or activities to occur during the
observation period (ask the parent to make specific request of the child)
- Unstructured observation: no specific events or activities are arranged and no instructions are
given during the observation period.
- Observation period used in Bmod research often are brief (15-30 minutes)

Choosing a Recording Method

- Continuous Recording/Event Recording: the observer observes the client continuously throughout
the observation period and records each occurrence of the behaviour.
- Must be able to identify the onset and the offset of each instance of the behaviour
- Record various dimensions of the target behaviour (frequency, duration, intensity and
latency)
- Frequency: the number of times the behaviour occurs in an observation period.
- One occurrence = one onset and offset of the behaviour
- Counting each time that it occurs
- E.g., Onset: lighting the cigarette; Offset: putting it out
- E.g., the number of times the individual inhaled smoke when smoking the cigarette
- Use frequency if it is the most important information about the behaviour
- Reported as rate: frequency divided by the time of the observation period (responses per
minute)
- Duration: total amount of time occupied by the behaviour from start to finish
- Reported as percentage of time: duration divided by the time of the observation period
- Real-time recording: the exact time of each onset and offset of the target behaviour is recorded
- have a record of the frequency and duration of the target behaviour, as well as the exact
timing of each occurrence of the behaviour
- Video recording
- Intensity: the amount of force, energy or exertion involved in the behaviour
- More difficult to measure
- Often is recorded with a measurement instrument or by using a rating scale.
- E.g., decibel meter to measure the loudness of someone’s speech
- Define the behaviour associated with each point on the rating scale so that their ratings were
reliable.
- Reliable if both observed a tantrum and recorded the same number on the rating scale.
- Latency: the time from some stimulus or event to the onset of the behaviour.
 - Measure: record how long it takes the person to initiate the behaviour after a
particular event occurs
- E.g., how long it takes a child to start putting toys away after being asked to do so
- The shorter the latency, the sooner the child initiates the behaviour after the request
-

Latency Duration

How long it takes to start the behaviour How long the behaviour lasts
- When using continuous recording, you can choose one or more dimensions to measure
- Choose dimension, depending on which aspect of the behaviour is more important AND most
sensitive to change in the behaviour after treatment.
- Baseline: the period during which the target behaviour is recorded before treatment is implemented.
- Simply measuring the behaviour before, during and after treatment does not demonstrate the
treatment caused the behaviour change.
- Need to use established research methods and an experimental design.
- Percentage of opportunities: percentage of trials or percentage correct.
- Observer records the occurrence of a behaviour in relation to some other event
- The percentage of opportunities in which the behaviour occurred.
- E.g., Teacher made 12 requests, student complied with the teacher’s request 11 times (92%)
- E.g., Teacher made 25 requests, and the student complied with the teacher’s request 11 times
(44%) → a much less acceptable level of the behaviour.
- (Permanent) Product Recording: indirect assessment method that can be used when a behaviour
results in a certain tangible outcome that you are interested in.
- Indirect because you are not observing and recording the behaviour as it occurs.
- E.g., the number of units assembled in a factory as a product measure of a worker’s job
performance
- Benefit: the observer does not have to be present when the behaviour occurs.
- Drawback: cannot always determine who engaged in the behaviour that led to the product
recorded.

Sampling method/Discontinuous Recording Method: recording the behaviour’s occurrence or

nonoccurrence in consecutive intervals of time within the observation period.
- Internal Recording: record whether the behaviour occurred during consecutive time periods or
intervals.
- (i) Divide the observation period into a number of smaller time periods or intervals
- (ii) Observe the client throughout each consecutive interval
- (iii) Records whether the behaviour occurred in that interval
- (iv) Reports the percentage of intervals in which the behaviour was observed
 - The number of intervals in which behaviour occurred/the number of intervals in the
observation period.
- Two ways to conduct interval recording

Partial-interval The observer scores the interval as an occurrence if the

recording behaviour occurred during any part of the interval
- Not interested in the frequency or duration
- Do not have to identify the onset and offset of the
behaviour
- Does not matter if the behaviour occurred once or
many times in the interval
- Benefit: takes less time and effort

Whole-interval The occurrence of the behaviour is marked in an interval only

recording when the behaviour occurs throughout the entire interval
- If the behaviour occurs in only part of the interval, the
behaviour is not scored as occurring in that interval
- Used for behaviours that are expected to have a long
duration of occurrence

- Frequency-within-interval recording: records the frequency of the target behaviour within

consecutive intervals of time in the observation period.
- Continuous recording method
- Time Sample Recording: divide the observation period into intervals of time but observe and record
the behaviour during only part of each interval
- Momentary time sample recording (MTS): the behaviour is recorded only if it
occurs at the exact instant the interval ends
- Observer does not have to observe the behaviour for the entire interval.
- The observer records the behaviour that occurs during only a portion of the interval or
at a specific time in the interval.
- Level of behaviour = percentage of intervals in which the behaviour occurred (the number of
scored intervals/the total number of intervals during the observation period)
Choosing Continuous Recording or Discontinuous Recording
- Use sampling method when continuous recording is too time consuming or impractical
- Sampling method is preferred for high-rate behaviour that may be hard to count accurately or when it
is difficult to identify the onset and offset of the behaviour
- Partial interval recording (PIR) and momentary time sample recording (MTS) can produce strong
correspondence with continuous recording procedures in specific circumstances:
- when PIR using short intervals such as 10 seconds is conducted in brief observation periods
such as 10 minutes
- MTS recording with short intervals (e.g., 10 seconds) and duration recording conducted in
short observation sessions
 - MTS recording with longer intervals, such as 1 minute, correspond with duration and
frequency recording when observation sessions are 30 minutes or longer
- Practitioners preferred MTS recording with longer intervals (e.g., 1 minute) because it is
easier to use.

Choosing a Recording Instrument

- Recording instrument is what the observer uses to register or make a permanent product of the
occurrence of the behaviour.
- Observer uses a data sheet prepared in advance, helps organise the recording process by making it
clear what the observer is to write down when the behaviour occurs.
- E.g., Paper & Pen, golf stroke counter, stopwatch, smartphone, barcode technology

Reactivity
- Reactivity: the process of recording a behaviour that causes the behaviour to change (Hawthorne
effect?)
- Undesirable
- Not representative of the level of the behaviour occurring in the absence of the
observer/self-monitoring
- The change is usually temporary
- Ways of reducing reactivity:
- Wait for the people to become accustomed to the observer
- Observe without the people knowing
- Video recording
- Reactivity may be desirable:
- Behaviour change in the desired direction as a result of the self-monitoring
- Self-monitoring used as a treatment to change a target behaviour

Interobserver Agreement (IOA)

- Assess interobserver agreement to determine whether the target behaviour is being recorded
consistently
- Percentage high = consistency shown = clear definition of the target behaviour = using the recording
system correctly
- IOA should be checked occasionally
- Acceptable IOA = 80% - 90%
- Calculation for different recording method
Frequency Smaller frequency/larger frequency

Duration Smaller duration/larger duration

Interval recording Number of intervals with agreement/total number of intervals

*agreement: two observers both recorded the target behaviour as occurring

or recorded the target behaviour as not occurring in a particular interval

Occurrence-only IOA
- Both scored behaviours are counted as agreement
- Provide a more conservative measure of IOA for low-date behaviour
- Easy to agree on the non occurrence of the behaviour by chance

Nonoccurence-only IOA
- Both observer agreed did not occur are counted as agreements
- More conservative measure for high-rate behaviours
- Easy to agree on the occurrence of the behaviour by chance

Frequency-within- 1. Percentage of agreement on the frequency between observers for

interval recording each interval
2. Sum the percentages for all intervals
3. Divide by the number of intervals in the observation period

Figure for reference: Textbook pg 25