Compiled by:

Mr. DEBASIS PATRA

LECTURER IN ELECTRICAL ENGG.

GOVT. POLYTECHNIC MAYURBHANJ

TIKARPADA
1
 UNIT-1

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Accuracy:

The error between the real and measured value.

Precision:

The random spread of measured values around the average measured values.

Resolution:

The smallest to be distinguished magnitude from the measured value.

Sensitivity:

The ability of the measuring instrument to respond to changes in the measured

quantity. It is expressed as the ratio of the change of output signal or response of the

Instrument to a change of input or measured variable.

Error:

Deviation from the true value of the measured variable.

Classification of measuring instruments

Definition of instruments

An instrument is a device in which we can determine the magnitude or value of the

quantity to be measured. The measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power and energy etc.

Generally instruments are classified in to two categories.

• Absolute Instrument
• Secondary Instrument

Absolute instrument

An absolute instrument determines the magnitude of the quantity to be measured in terms of the
instrument parameter. This instrument is really used, because each time the value of the

measuring quantities varies. So we have to calculate the magnitude of the measuring quantity,
analytically which is time consuming. These types of instruments are suitable for laboratory use.

Example: Tangent galvanometer.

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Secondary instrument

This instrument determines the value of the quantity to be measured directly. Generally these

instruments are calibrated by comparing with another standard secondary instrument.

Examples of such instruments are voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter etc. Practically

secondary instruments are suitable for measurement.

Secondary instruments

• Indicating instruments
• Recording
• Integrating
• Electromechanically Indicating instruments

Indicating instrument

This instrument uses a dial and pointer to determine the value of measuring quantity. The pointer
indication gives the magnitude of measuring quantity.

Recording instrument

This type of instruments records the magnitude of the quantity to be measured continuously over a
specified period of time.

Integrating instrument

This type of instrument gives the total amount of the quantity to be measured over a specified

period of time.

Electromechanical indicating instrument

For satisfactory operation electromechanical indicating instrument, three forces are necessary. They
are

(a) Deflecting force

(b) Controlling force

(c)Damping force

Deflecting force

When there is no input signal to the instrument, the pointer will be at its zero position. To deflect
the pointer from its zero position, a force is necessary which is known as deflecting force. A system

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which produces the deflecting force is known as a deflecting system. Generally a deflecting system
converts an electrical signal to a mechanical force.

Controlling force

To make the measurement indicated by the pointer definite (constant) a force is necessary which
will be acting in the opposite direction to the deflecting force. This force is known as controlling
force. A system which produces this force is known as a controlled system. When the external
signal to be measured by the instrument is removed, the pointer should return back to the zero
position. This is possibly due to the controlling force and the pointer will be indicating a steady
value when the deflecting torque is equal to controlling torque.

Td=Tc

Spring control

Two springs are attached on either end of spindle (Fig. 1.5).The spindle is placed in jewelled

bearing, so that the frictional force between the pivot and spindle will be minimum. Two springs
are provided in opposite direction to compensate the temperature error. The spring is made of
phosphorous bronze. When a current is supply, the pointer deflects due to rotation of the spindle.
While spindle is rotate, the spring attached with the spindle will oppose the movements of the
pointer. The torque produced by the spring is directly proportional to the pointer deflection.

Tc proportional Ɵ

The deflecting torque produced Td proportional to ‘I’. WhenTC = Td , the pointer will come to a
steady position. Therefore

Ɵ proportional I

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Damping force

The deflection torque and controlling torque produced by systems are electro mechanical. Due to
inertia produced by this system, the pointer oscillates about it final steady position before coming
to rest. The time required to take the measurement is more. To damp out the oscillation is quickly,
a damping force is necessary. This force is produced by different systems.

(a) Air friction damping

(b) Fluid friction damping

(c) Eddy current damping

Air friction damping

The piston is mechanically connected to a spindle through the connecting rod. The pointer is fixed
to the spindle moves over a calibrated dial. When the pointer oscillates in clockwise direction, the
piston goes inside and the cylinder gets compressed. The air pushes the piston upwards and the
pointer tends to move in anticlockwise direction.

If the pointer oscillates in anticlockwise direction the piston moves away and the pressure of the air
inside cylinder gets reduced. The external pressure is more than that of the internal pressure.
Therefore the piston moves down wards. The pointer tends to move in clock wise direction.

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Eddy current damping

An aluminum circular disc is fixed to the spindle. This disc is made to move in the magnetic field
produced by a permanent magnet. When the disc oscillates it cuts the magnetic flux produced by
damping magnet. An emf is induced in the circular disc by faradays law. Eddy currents are
established in the disc since it has several closed paths. By Lenz’s law, the current carrying disc
produced a force in a direction opposite to oscillating force. The damping force can be varied by
varying the projection of the magnet over the circular disc.

Fluid friction damping

This form is damping is similar to air friction damping. The action is the same as in the air friction
damping. Mineral oil is used in place of air and as the viscosity of oil is greater, the damping force
is also much greater. The vane attached to the spindle is arranged to move in the damping oil.

In Fig. (a) a disc attached to the moving system is immersed in the fluid (damping oil).When the
moving system moves the disc moves in oil and a frictional drag is produced. For
minimizing the surface tension affect, the suspension stem of the disc should be cylindrical and of
small diameter.

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 In the arrangement of Fig. (b) a number of vanes are attached to the spindle. These vanes are
submerged in oil and moves in a vertical plane. This arrangement provides greater damping
torque.

Calibration of instruments

Calibration of the measuring instrument is the process in which the readings obtained from the
instrument are compared with the sub-standards in the laboratory at several points along the scale
of the instrument.

All the new instruments have to be calibrated against some standard in the very beginning. For the
new instrument the scale is marked as per the sub-standards available in the laboratories, which are
meant especially for this purpose. After continuous use of the instrument for long periods of time,
sometimes it loses its calibration or the scale gets distorted, in such cases the instrument can be
calibrated again if it is in good reusable condition.

Even if the instruments in the factory are working in the good condition, it is always advisable to
calibrate them from time-to-time to avoid wrong readings of highly critical parameters.

How Calibration of the Instruments is done?

There are different methods or techniques of calibration, which are applied depending on whether it
is routine calibration or if it is for special purpose where highly accurate calibration of the
instruments is desired. In many cases different methods of calibration are applied for all the
individual instruments.

The calibration of the instrument is done in the laboratory against the sub-standard instruments,
which are used very rarely for this sole purpose. These sub-standards are kept in highly controlled
air-conditioned atmosphere so that there their scale does not change with the external atmospheric
changes.

To maintain the accuracy of the sub-standards, they are checked periodically against some standard
which is kept in the metrological laboratories under highly secured, safe, clean and air conditioned
atmosphere.

………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 UNIT-2

ANALOG AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS

Moving iron type instruments:

Definition: The instrument in which the moving iron is used for measuring the flow of current or
voltage is known as the moving iron instrument.

Classification of the Moving Iron Instruments:

1. Attraction Type
2. Repulsion Type

Attraction Type Instrument – The stationary coil of the attraction type instrument is flat and has
a narrow opening. The moving element is the flat disc of the iron core. The current flow through
the stationary coil produced the magnetic field which attracts the iron coil.

The iron vane deflects from the low magnetic field to the high magnetic field, and the strength of
the deflection is directly proportional to the magnitude of the current flow through it. In short, we
can say that the iron coil attracts towards in.

The attraction type instruments use spring, which provided the controlling torque. The deflection of
the coil is reduced by the aluminium piston which is attached to the moving coil.

Repulsion Type Instruments – The repulsion type instrument has two vanes or iron plates. One is
fixed, and the other one is movable. The vanes become magnetized when the current passes
through the stationary coil and the force of repulsion occur between them. Because of a repulsive
force, the moving coil starts moving away from the fixed vane.

The spring provides the controlling torque. The air friction induces the damping torque, which
opposes the movement of the coil. The repulsion type instrument is a non-polarized instrument, i.e.,
free from the direction of current passes through it. Thus, it is used for both AC and DC.

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Advantages of the MI Instruments:

Universal use – The MI instrument is independent of the direction of current and hence used for
both AC and DC.

Less Friction Error – The friction error is very less in the moving iron instrument because their
torque weight ratio is high. The torque weight ratio is high because their current carrying part is
stationary and the moving parts are lighter in weight.

Cheapness – The MI instruments require less number of turns as compared to PMMC instrument.
Thus, it is cheaper.

Robustness – The instrument is robust because of their simple construction. And also because their
current carrying part is stationary.

Disadvantages of Moving Iron Instruments:

Accuracy – The scale of the moving iron instruments is not uniform, and hence the accurate result
is not possible.

Errors – Some serious error occurs in the instruments because of the hysteresis, frequency and
stray magnetic field.

Waveform Error – In MI instrument the deflection torque is not directly proportional to the
square of the current. Because of which the waveforms error occurs in the instrument.

Difference between AC and DC calibration – The calibration of the AC and DC are differed
because of the effect of the inductance of meter and the eddy current which is used on AC. The AC
is calibrated on the frequency at which they use.

Errors in Moving Iron Instruments:

There are two types of errors which occur in moving iron instruments:

➢ Errors with both AC and DC.

➢ Errors with AC only.
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Errors with both AC and DC

The following are the main errors in moving moving iron instruments, when these are used either
on DC or AC.

Error due to hysteresis: Because of hysteresis in the iron parts of the operating system, the
readings are higher for descending values but lower for ascending values. The hysteresis error is
considerably reduced by using mumetal or permalloy which have negligible hysteresis loss.

Error due to stray magnetic fields: Since the operating magnetic field of the moving iron
instruments in comparatively weak, therefore, stray fields (fields other than the operating magnetic
field) affect these instruments considerably. Thus the stray fields cause serious errors. These errors
can be minimized by using an iron case or a thin iron shield over the working parts.

Error due to temperature: The effect of temperature change on moving iron instrument arises
mainly from the temperature coefficient of spring. With the change in temperature stiffness of the
spring varies which causes errors. However, for voltmeters, both the temperature coefficient of
spring and temperature coefficient of resistance of voltmeter circuit may balance each other.

Errors with AC only

Error in moving iron instruments due to change in frequency: The change in frequency
produces a change in impedance of the coil and change in magnitude of eddy currents. The increase
in impedance of the coil with the increase in frequency causes serious errors in case of voltmeters
only.

However, this error can be eliminated by connecting a condenser of suitable value in parallel with
the swamp resistance `r’ of the instrument.

Permanent Magnet Moving coil type instruments;

Construction of PMMC Instruments

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil or PMMC Instruments consists of following components:

➢ Moving Coil
➢ Magnet System
➢ Control Spring
➢ Damping
➢ Pointer and Scale

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Moving Coil:

The moving coil made up of copper is wound with many turns on the rectangular Aluminum
former. This Aluminum former is pivoted on the jewelled bearing. The coil can move freely in the
magnetic field produced by the Permanent Magnet System.

Magnet System:

Simple U shaped permanent magnet made of Alcomax or Alnico is widely use in PMMC
instruments. Theses magnets have high coercive force and can produce field of the order of 0.1 to 1
Wb/m2. A soft iron end cylinder is bored in between the poles to make the field radial and uniform.

Control Spring:

The controlling torque in PMMC Instruments is provided by two control spring mounted on the
jewel bearing. Theses control springs are phosphor bronze hair spring either helical or spiral, coiled
in opposite direction. Control Spring also serves to lead current in and out of the moving coil.

Pointer and Scale:

The pointer is carried by the spindle and moves over a graduated scale. The pointer is of light
weight construction and has a section over the scale twisted to form a fine blade. This helps in
reducing the Parallax Error in reading the scale.

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Torque Equation for PMMC Instruments:

The deflecting torque equation for Permanent Magnet Moving Coil or PMMC Instruments is given
as

Deflecting Torque Ƭd = NBLdI = GI

Where G = a constant = NBLd

Where N = Number of turns in the moving coil

B = magnetic flux density between the magnetic poles

L = Length of moving coil

d = Breadth of moving coil

As the controlling torque is provided by the spring, therefore

Ƭc = KƟ

Where K = Spring constant

Ɵ = Angular movement of coil

At steady state condition, deflecting and controlling torque shall be equal,

Ƭd = Ƭc

⇒ GI = KƟ

⇒ Ɵ = (G / K) I …………………… (1)

Thus from the above equation (1), we observe that deflection in Permanent Magnet Moving Coil or
PMMC Instruments is directly proportional to the current flowing in the moving coil. Because of
this the meter scale of such instrument for the measurement of current / voltage is linear.

ADVANTAGES OF PMMC INSTRUMENT

1. They have low power consumption.

2. Such instruments have uniform calibrated scale.

3. They have high torque/weight ratio.

4. They have no hysteresis loss.

5. They have very effective and efficient Eddy current damping.

6. They are not much affected by stray magnetic field.

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DISADVANTAGES OF PMMC INSTRUMENT

1. Due to delicate construction, necessary accurate machining and assembly of various parts , such
instruments are somewhat costlier as compared to moving iron instruments.

2. Some errors are set in due to the aging of control springs and permanent magnets.

Error in PMMC Equipment-

1. Error due to magnetism

Permanent magnet loose their magnetism with time; this is called magnet aging. With plenty of
heat and vibration on ship. There is reduction of magnetism due to accelerated aging. This decrease
in magnetic strength reduce the coil deflection affecting the readings.

2. Error due to Temperature Difference

Moving Coil of PMMC instrument is made up of copper wires; the temperature coefficients of
copper wire is known to be 0.004 per degree Celsius. So with increase in temperature, there will be
high increase in its resistance altering the actual reading.

3. Error Due to Spring

Aging leads to weakening of spring tension; this results in decreased deflection of the moving coil.
This error is opposite to that of the error due to magnetic aging and sometimes cancel each other to
reduce much difference in the final readings.

Dynamometer type instruments:

CONSTRUCTION-

The coils of dynamometer are usually air-cored which avoids hysteresis, eddy currents and other
errors when the instrument is used on AC. The fixed coil is divided into two halves connected in
series with the moving coil. And placed together and parallel to each so as to provides a fairly
uniform field within the range of the movement of the coil. However, the space between the two
halves of the fixed coil must be sufficient enough to allow the movement of the moving coil shaft.

Two hair strings are used to create controlling torque in the instrument which also serves the
purpose of lead to the moving coil a section damping is usually provided in such a instrument.

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Dynamometer develops deflecting torque by the interaction of magnetic fields. One field is due to
the current in a moving coil. And the other field is due to the current in the fixed coil. The field due
to the coil is not constant but varies with the magnitude of the current flowing through the fixed
coil. Hence the deflecting torque of this instrument is determined not only This instrument with its
fixed and moving coil connected in series is adapted for voltage measurement as shown in figure.
by moving coil current but also by fixed coil current.

Dynamometer is rarely used as an ammeter by following reasons:

➢ The lead-in spiral to the moving coil can carry limited current.
➢ Frequency variation influence the inductance of the coil and introduce error.
➢ The resistance of the moving and fixed coil in series may cause undesirable high voltage
drop across the stunt.
Since the deflecting torque is determined by variations in either the field or the moving coil
currents. So the dynamometer instrument is a versatile measuring device for several other
applications such as for measurement of power reactive volt-ampere. And with some modification
for measuring power factor and frequency in AC circuits.

Though these instruments can be used both, for dc and ac measurements. But mostly it is used in
Ac practically. Because of the following reasons;

➢ These instruments have highest cost.

➢ Higher power consumption.
➢ Lower torque-weight ratio.
➢ Non uniform scale.

Advantages of Dynamometer

➢ As the instrument has Square Law response so can be used on both the dc as well as on AC.
➢ These instruments are free from hysteresis and Eddy current errors. It is because of absence
of iron in the operating part of the instrument.
➢ Ammeter up to 10A and voltmeter up to 600V can be constructed with precision grade
accuracy.
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➢ Dynamo type voltmeters are useful for accurate measurement of rms value of voltage
irrespective of waveform.
➢ Because of Precision grade accuracy and same calibration for DC and AC measurement
instruments are used as transfer and calibration instruments.

Disadvantage of Dynamometer

➢ The scale is not uniform as the instrument uses Square Law response. These instruments
have small torque-weight ratio so the friction error is considerable.
➢ Owing to heavy moving system friction losses in these instruments are somewhat more than
those in other instruments.
➢ As a result of measures taken to reduce the frictional errors, their cost is more in comparison
to moving iron and PMMC instruments. They are more sensitive to overload and mechanical
impact and are to be handled with care.
➢ Adequate screening of the movements against the stray magnetic field is essential.
➢ The power consumption of this instrument is comparatively high because of their
construction.

Errors in dynamometer type instruments

Frictional Error: Since the coils are air-cored, therefore the magnetic field produced is of small
strength. So they require a large number of ampere-turns to create necessary deflecting torque. This
result in the heavy moving system. Therefore small torque-weight ratio. Thus the frictional losses
in dynamo type instruments are somewhat larger as compared to other instruments.

Temperature errors: Since the operation of dynamo type instrument required considerable power,
self-heating in these instrument is appreciable. The error due to self-heating may be much as 1% of
full scale deflection.

Error Due to Stray Magnetic field: Since the operating magnetic field produced by the fixed coil.
In these instruments is somewhat weaker in comparison to that in the instrument of other type. The
operation of these instruments is more sensitive to the stray magnetic field.

Frequency error: The change in frequency causes error due to change in reactance of operating
coil. Due to change in magnitude of Eddy current setup in the metal part of the instrument near to
operating portion.

Rectifier type instruments:-

Definition: The instrument which uses the rectifying element for measuring the voltage and current
is known as the rectifying instruments. The rectifying element converts the alternating current to
the direct current which indicates by the DC responsive meter.

15
Half Wave Rectifier Circuit:

The figure below shows the half-wave rectifying circuit. The rectifying element connects in series
with the voltage source, resistance multiplier and the permanent moving coil instrument. The
forward resistance of the diode is neglected.

When the DC voltage source applies to the circuit, the Im current flows through it. The magnitude
of the current is equal to the V/(Rm+RS). The current shows the full-scale deflection to the
instrument.

The AC voltage applies to the same circuit. The rectifying element converts the AC voltage into
unidirectional DC voltage. Thus, the rectified output voltage obtains through the rectify instrument.
The PMMC instrument deflects through the average value of current which depends on the average
voltage of the apparatus.

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Average Value of Voltage

The above calculation shows that the sensitivity of the instrument through AC is 0.45 times the
current through the sensitivity of DC.

Full Wave Rectifier Instrument:

The circuit of full wave rectifier shown in the figure below.

The DC voltage applied to the circuit causes the full-scale deflection of the PMMC
meter. The sinusoidal voltage applies to the meter express as

The average calculation of AC is 0.9 times with that of the DC for the same value of voltage. Or we
can say that the sensitivity of the instrument along with AC is 90% with that of the DC.

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The sensitivity of the full wave rectifier is double to that of the half wave rectifier instrument.

Advantages of Rectifying Instrument

➢ The frequency range of the instruments increases from 20HZ to high-frequency range.
➢ The current operating range for such type of instrument is much lower for voltmeter as
compared to the other AC instrument.
➢ The instrument has uniform scales for the large range.
➢ The accuracy of the instrument is ±5 percent when it is in normal operating condition.
➢ Applications of Rectifying Instrument

The following are the applications of the rectifying instrument.

➢ The instrument uses for measuring the voltage whose range lies between 50 – 250 V.
➢ It use as a milliammeter or micro-ammeter.
➢ The rectifying instrument use in the communication circuit for measurement.

Error:

➢ Effects of Waveform – The calibration of the rectifier instrument can be done regarding the
RMS value of voltage and current. The form factor of the half wave and the full wave rectifier type
instrument fixes on the calibrated scale. And if the waveform of the other form factors applies to
the device, the waveform error occurs in the reading.
➢ Effect of Temperature Change – The resistance of the rectifying element varies with the
change in temperature. And this property of the rectifying component causes the error in the
instruments.
➢ Effect of Rectifying Instrument – The rectifier instrument has the property of the imperfect
capacitance. It allows the high-frequency current to pass through it.
➢ Decreases in Sensitivity – The sensitivity of the rectifier type instrument for AC operation is
lower than that of the DC operation.

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Induction type instruments

SPLIT PHASE TYPE:

PRINCIPLE:

When a disc or drum of a non-magnetic conducting material is placed in a rotating magnetic

field, eddy currents are induced in disc or drum. The torque produces with the reaction of rotating
magnetic field and eddy current. The relation between torque, eddy current, rotating flux is given
below:

T α φ α i2

CONSTRUCTION:

This instrument convert single phase to two phases. This is also called ferraris type
instrument

*It consists of pole which are laminated and placed right angles to each other opposite pole
connected in series the two pairs of poles connected in parallel.

*One set of coil is connected to inductance and another with a high resistance to create a phase
difference 90. The purpose of both the coils is to measure the current.

*In the centre of yoke, the coil is an aluminium drum, inside drum, to strengthen the magnetic field
there is a cylindrical laminated iron core.

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WORKING:

When this instrument is fed with supply due to electromagnets action a rotating magnetic action
a rotating magnetic flux produced. This flux induced eddy current in the disc or drum. The reaction
between flux and eddy current results in production of torque. This torque deflects the pointer
attached to the drum. The controlling torque is provided by spring action.

PRINCIPLE:

When a disc or drum of a non-magnetic conducting material is placed in a rotating magnetic

field, eddy currents are induced in disc or drum. The torque produces with the reaction of rotating
magnetic field and eddy current. The relation between torque, eddy current, rotating flux is given
below:

T α φ α i2

CONSTRUCTION:

This instrument consists of magnetic core (shaped same as transformer). One end is placed with
band of copper (shaded portion), this makes the two fluxes of shaded and unshaded portion of
differ in phase by 90.

*A metallic disc rotates between pole faces. The damping is provided by the another magnet.
Observe below figure.

WORKING:

When the instrument is fed with the supply the coil sets up flux, eddy currents are induced in
copper bands. Now there are two different fluxes one at coil and other at magnetic core. These two
fluxes differ by a phase of 90. Flux of eddy current opposes the flux of magnetic core the remaining
working is same as split phase.

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ADVANTAGES –

➢ A full scale deflection of over 300 degrees can be obtained.

➢ Good damping.
➢ Less effect of stray magnetic fields as the operating fields are large.

DISADVANTAGES –

➢ Errors are caused due to changes in frequency and temperature.

➢ Non-uniform scale.
➢ Large power consumption and high cost.
➢ Can be used for AC only.

Extend the range of instruments by use of shunts and Multipliers:

Calculation of Voltmeter Multiplier:

The value of multiplier required to extend the voltage range is calculated as below.

Let,

Im = Ifs = Full scale deflection current of meter

Rm = Internal resistance of meter

Rs = Multiplier resistance

Vm = Voltage across the moving coil

V = Full range voltage of meter

From the simplified voltmeter circuit given below,

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Vm = ImRm ……………….(1)

and V = Im(Rm + Rs) ………….(2)

Dividing equation (2) by (1) we get,

V/Vm = 1 + Rs/Rm

Thus,

m = Multiplying Factor = 1 + Rs/Rm

Calculation of Ammeter Multiplier:

As the shunt connects in parallel with the ammeter, thus the same voltage drop occurs between
them.

The shunt current is

Therefore the equation of shunt resistance is given as,

22
The ratio of the total current to the current requires the movement of the ammeter coil is
called the multiplying power of the shunt.

The multiplying power is given as,

The resistance of shunt becomes,

……………………………………………………………………………………………

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 UNIT-3

WATTMETERS AND MEASUREMENT OF POWER

Wattmeter

An instrument for measuring the power of an electrical current in watts. The most common
wattmeters are the dynamometer type, in which the mechanism consists of an immovable coil
connected in series to a load and then to a movable coil, which is connected through a large
auxiliary resistor parallel to the load.

Construction, principle of working of Dynamometer type wattmeter

Construction:

A dynamometer type wattmeter primarily consists of two coils called fixed coil and moving coil.
The fixed coil is splitted into two equal parts, which are placed parallel to each other. The two fixed
coils are air-cored to avoid hysteresis effects when used on AC.

The fixed coil is connected in series with the load and carries the circuit current. It is, therefore,
called the current coil. The moving coil is pivoted between the two parts of the fixed coil and is
mounted on a spindle.

A pointer is attached to the spindle, which gives deflection. The moving coil is connected in
parallel with the load and carries the current proportional to the voltage. It is, therefore, called the
potential coil.

Generally, a high resistance is connected in series with the moving coil to limit the current through
it. By limiting the current, the moving coil is made lightweight, which in turn increases the
sensitivity of the instrument.

24
The springs provide the controlling torque. They also serve the additional purpose of leading the
current into and out of the moving coil. Air friction damping is employed in such instruments.

Working

We use the wattmeter for power measurements. Its current coil is connected in series with the load,
carries the load current, and the potential coil, connected in parallel with the load, carries the
current proportional to the voltage across the load.

The fixed coil produces a field Fm, and moving coil creates a field Fr. The field Fr tries to come in
line with the main field Fm, which provides a deflecting torque on the moving coil.
Thus, the pointer attached to the spindle of the moving coil deflects. This deflection is controlled
by the controlling torque produced by the springs.

Advantages:

• It can be used both on AC and DC circuits.

• It has a uniform scale.
• We can obtain a high degree of accuracy through careful design.

Disadvantages:

• At low power factors, the inductance of the potential coil causes serious errors.
• The reading of the instrument may be affected by stray fields acting on the moving coil. To
prevent it, magnetic shielding is provided by enclosing the instrument in an iron case.

Errors in Dynamometer type wattmeter and methods of their correction

1. Error due to potential coil inductance: The inductance of the potential coil is liable to cause an
error in the reading of the wattmeter. Because of this error, the wattmeter gives a high reading on
lagging power factor and low reading on leading power factor.

The high non-inductive resistance connected in series with the coil swamps the phasing effect of
the potential coil inductance.

2. Error due to power loss in the potential coil or current coil: Another possible error in the
indicated power may be due to some voltage drop in the current coil or the current taken by the
potential coil.

We can overcome this defect by using an additional compensating winding. This winding is
connected in series with the potential coil and so placed that it produces a field in the opposite
direction to that of the current coils.

25
3. Error due to eddy currents: The alternating field of fixed or current coil induces eddy currents
in the solid metal parts which set up their own magnetic field. This alters the magnitude and phase
of the magnetic field, causing deflection.

Thus an error is introduced in the instrument reading. To reduce this error, the solid metal parts are
placed far away from the current coil as possible.

4. Error due to the stray magnetic field: The dynamometer type wattmeter has a relatively weak
operating field; therefore, stray fields affect the reading of this instrument considerably and cause
serious errors.

Hence, this type of instrument must be shielded against stray magnetic fields try using iron cases or
providing thin iron shields over the working parts.

Induction type wattmeter:

Construction

The principle parts of an induction wattmeter is as shown in the fig below. It consists of two
laminated electromagnets. One electromagnet, called shunt magnet is connected across supply and
carries current proportional to the applied voltage. The coil of this magnet is made highly inductive
so that the current in it lags behind the supply voltage by 90 degrees. The other electromagnet,
called series magnet is connected in series with supply and carries the load current.

A thin aluminum disc mounted on the spindle is placed in between the two magnets so that it cuts
the fluxes of both the magnets. The controlling torque is provided by spiral springs. The damping is
electromagnet and is usually provided by a permanent magnet embracing the aluminum disc. Two
or more closed copper rings, called shading rings are provide on the central limb of the shunt
magnet. By adjusting the position of these rings, the shunt magnet flux can be made to lag behind
supply voltage by exactly 90degrees.

26
Working

When the wattmeter is connected in the circuit to measure a.c power, the shunt magnet carries
current proportional to the supply voltage and the series magnet carries the load current. The two
fluxes produced by the magnets induce eddy currents in the aluminum disc. The interaction
between the fluxes and eddy currents produce the deflecting torque on the disc, causing the pointer
connected to the moving system to move over the scale.

Deflecting torque of Induction type wattmeter:

Let V = Applied voltage

Ic = Load current carried by the series magnet

Iv = Current carries by the shunt magnet

cos a = Lagging power factor of the load

Mean deflecting torque, Td proportional ac sin (90 - a )

Td proportional V I cos a

Td proportional a.c power

Since control is by springs, therefore

Tc proportional deflection

For steady deflected position, Td = Tc

Deflection proportional power

Hence, such instruments have uniform scale

………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

27
 UNIT-4

ENERGYMETERS AND MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY

Definition: The meter which is used for measuring the energy utilizes by the electric load is known
as the energy meter. The energy is the total power consumed and utilized by the load at a particular
interval of time. It is used in domestic and industrial AC circuit for measuring the power
consumption. The meter is less expensive and accurate.

Single Phase Induction type Energy meters

To understand the structure of watt-hour meter, we must understand the four essential components
of the meter. These components are as follows:

1. Driving system

2. Moving system

3. Braking system

4. Registering system

Driving System

The components of this system are two silicon steel laminated electromagnets. The upper
electromagnet is called shunt magnet and it carries a voltage coil consisting of many turns of thin
wire. The lower electromagnet is called series magnet and it carries the two current coils consisting
of a few turns of thick wire. Current coils are connected in series with the circuit and load current
passes through it.

Moving System

As you can see in the figure, there is a thin aluminum disk placed in the gap between the two
electromagnets and mounted on a vertical shaft. The eddy currents are induced in the aluminum
disk when it cuts the flux produced by both the magnets. As a result of interference of eddy
currents and two magnetic fields constitute a deflecting torque in the disk.

Braking System

The main part of this system is a permanent magnet called brake magnet. It is located near the disk
so that eddy currents are induced in it due to movement of rotating disk through the magnetic field.
This eddy current reacts with the flux and exerts a braking torque which opposes the motion of the
disk. The speed of the disk can be controlled by changing flux.

28
Registering System

As its name suggest, it registers the number of rotation of the disk which is proportional to the
energy consumed directly in kilowatt-hour. There is a disk spindle which is driven by a gear on the
disk shaft and indicates the number of times the disk has turned.

Working Principle of Energy Meter

The working of single phase induction type energy meters are based on two main fundamentals:

1. Rotation of aluminum disk.

2. Arrangement of counting and displaying the amount of energy consumed.

Rotation of an Aluminum Disk

The rotation of metallic disk is operated by two coils. Both the coils are arranged in such way that
one coil produces a magnetic field in proportion to voltage and the other coil creates a magnetic
field proportion to current. The field produced by voltage coil is delayed by 90o so that eddy
current is induced in the disk. The force exerted on the disk by the two fields is proportional to the
product of the immediate current and voltage in the coils.

As a result of it, a lite weight aluminum disk rotates in an air gap. But there is a need to stop a disk
when there is no power supply. A permanent magnet works as a brake which opposes the rotation
of the disk and balances the speed of rotation with respect to power consumption.

29
Arrangement of Counting and Displaying the Energy Consumed

In this system, the rotation of the floating disk has been counted and then displayed on the meter
window. The aluminum disk is connected to a spindle which has a gear. This gear drives the
register and the revolution of the disk has been counted and displayed on the register which has
series of dials and each dial represent a single digit.

Tests for Energy Meters

1. Mechanical component tests.

2. Climatic conditions test include those limits which influence the performance of the meter
externally.

Electrical requirements covered many tests before giving accuracy certificate. Under this segment,
energy meter is tested for:

1. Heating effect

2. Proper insulation

3. Supply of voltage

4. Protection to earth fault

5. Electromagnetic compatibility

…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

30
 UNIT-5

MEASUREMENT OF SPEED, FREQUENCY AND POWER FACTOR

Tachometers types and working principles:-

Definition: The tachometer use for measuring the rotational speed or angular velocity of the
machine which is coupled to it. It works on the principle of relative motion between the magnetic
field and shaft of the coupled device. The relative motion induces the EMF in the coil which is
placed between the constant magnetic field of the permanent magnet. The develops EMF is directly
proportional to the speed of the shaft.

Mechanical and electrical are the two types of the tachometer. The mechanical tachometer
measures the speed of shaft regarding revolution per minutes.

The electrical tachometer converts the angular velocity into an electrical voltage. The electrical
tachometer has more advantages over the mechanical tachometer. Thus it is mostly used for
measuring the rotational speed of the shaft. Depends on the natures of the induced voltage the
electrical tachometer is categorized into two types.

1. AC Tachometer Generator
2. DC Tachometer Generator

DC Tachometer Generator
Permanent magnet, armature, commutator, brushes, variable resistor, and the moving coil voltmeter
are the main parts of the DC tachometer generator. The machine whose speed is to be measured is
coupled with the shaft of the DC tachometer generator.

The DC tachometer works on the principle that when the closed conductor moves in the magnetic
field, EMF induces in the conductor. The magnitude of the induces emf depends on the flux link
with the conductor and the speed of the shaft.

The armature of the DC generator revolves between the constant field of the permanent magnet.
The rotation induces the emf in the coil. The magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to the
shaft speed.

The commutator converts the alternating current of the armature coil to the direct current with the
help of the brushes. The moving coil voltmeter measures the induced emf. The polarity of the
induces voltage determines the direction of motion of the shaft. The resistance is connected in
series with the voltmeter for controlling the heavy current of the armature.

31
The emf induces in the dc tachometer generator is given as

Where,

E – Generated voltage
Φ – flux per poles in Weber
P- number of poles
N – speed in revolution per minutes
Z – the number of the conductor in armature windings.
a – number of the parallel path in the armature windings.

32
The following are the Advantages of the DC Tachometer.

• The polarity of the induces voltages indicates the direction of rotation of the shaft.
• The conventional DC type voltmeter is used for measuring the induces voltage.

Disadvantages of DC Generator

• The commutator and brushes require the periodic maintenance.

• The output resistance of the DC tachometer is kept high as compared to the input
resistance. If the large current is induced in the armature conductor, the constant field of the
permanent magnet will be distorted.

AC Tachometer Generator
The DC tachometer generator uses the commentator and brushes which have many disadvantages.
The AC tachometer generator designs for reducing the problems. The AC tachometer has stationary
armature and rotating magnetic field. Thus, the commentator and brushes are absent in AC
tachometer generator.

The rotating magnetic field induces the EMF in the stationary coil of the stator. The amplitude and
frequency of the induced emf are equivalent to the speed of the shaft. Thus, either amplitude or
frequency is used for measuring the angular velocity.

The below mention circuit is used for measuring the speed of the rotor by considering the
amplitude of the induced voltage. The induces voltages are rectified and then passes to the
capacitor filter for smoothening the ripples of rectified voltages.

33
Drag Cup Rotor AC Generator
The drag cup type A.C tachometer is shown in the figure below.

The stator of the generator consists two windings, i.e., the reference and quadrature winding. Both
the windings are mounted 90° apart from each other. The rotor of the tachometer is made with thin
aluminums cup, and it is placed between the field structure.

The rotor is made of the highly inductive material which has low inertia. The input is provided to
the reference winding, and the output is obtained from the quadrature winding. The rotation of rotor
between the magnetic field induces the voltage in the sensing winding. The induces voltage is
proportional to the speed of the rotation.

Advantages

✓ The drag cup Tachogenerator generates the ripple free output voltage.
✓ The cost of the generator is also very less.

Disadvantage
The nonlinear relationship obtains between the output voltage and input speed when the rotor
rotates at high speed.

34
Mechanical Resonance Type Frequency Meter

The vibrating reed type frequency meters or mechanical resonance type frequency meter indicate
the supply frequency of the circuit directly and are very much convenient for most practical
purposes.

The vibrating reed frequency meter is a very simple instrument and has got an advantage of giving
reading free from errors due to change in temperature, waveform and magnitude of applied voltage.

Construction

A vibrating reed frequency meter consists of a number of thin steel strips called reeds. These reeds
are placed in a row alongside and close to an electromagnet. The electromagnet consists of thin
laminations and a coil is wound around it as shown in fig. The coil is connected in series with a
resistance across the supply whose frequency is to be measured.

Vibrating reed mechanical resonance type frequency meter working and construction. The
approximate dimensions of the vibrating reeds are about 4 mm wide and ½ mm thick. The reeds are
not similar to each other but differ either in their dimensions or weight or carry different flags at
their tops. This is done to vary the natural frequency of vibration of each reed.

The reeds are arranged in ascending order of natural frequency the difference in frequency is
usually 1Hz. Thus the natural frequency of first reed may be 45 Hz, of the second 46 Hz, of the
next 47 Hz and so on of the last may be 55 Hz.

The reeds are fixed at the bottom end and are free at the top end. The flags at the top of reeds are -
painted white, and the frequency is read directly from the instrument by observing the scale mark
opposite to the reed which is vibrating most.

35
Working Principle

When the vibrating reed frequency meter or mechanical resonance type frequency meter is
connected across the supply whose frequency is to be measured an alternating current I flow
through the coil of an electromagnet which produces a force of attraction on the reeds. The force of
attraction is proportional to the square of the current therefore it varies at twice the supply
frequency. Hence a force of exerted on the reeds at every half cycle.

All the reeds thus tend to vibrate, but only the one whose natural frequency is double that of
supply will vibrate appreciably. Mechanical resonance is obtained in the case of this reed. The
frequency is determined, therefore by noting the scale reading opposite the reed that vibrates with
maximum amplitude.

The tuning in these meters is so sharp that as the excitation frequency changes from resonant
frequency the amplitude of vibration decreases rapidly becoming negligible for a frequency which
is slightly away from resonant one.

Advantages of Vibrating Reed Type Frequency Meter

The indication of the frequency of an electrical signal does not depend on the pattern of the
waveform of the signal.

The indication also does not depend on the magnitude of the signal waveform. Only it requires
sufficiently large amplitude for visible reed vibration.

Disadvantage of Mechanical Resonance Frequency Meter

The instrument cannot indicate properly a frequency which is in between 0.5 precision.

Electrical Resonance Frequency Meter

Electrical resonance frequency meter is very simple instrument of indicating type. This instrument
operates on the principle of electrical resonance, i.e. when inductive reactance (XL) and capacitive
reactance (Xc) become equal, electrical resonance is said to have occurred.

Construction

It consists of a fixed coil which is connected across the supply whose frequency is to be measured.
Fixed coil is also called magnetizing coil. The magnetizing coil mounted on a laminated iron core.
The iron core has a cross-section which varies gradually over the length, being maximum near the
end where the magnetizing coil is mounted and minimum at the other end. The moving coil is
pivoted over this iron core. The pointer is attached to the moving coil. The capacitor is connected
with moving coil.

36
Working

When the magnetizing coil is connected across supply, the current I flows through the magnetizing
coil and sets up flux Φ. If we neglect the resistance of the coil and iron losses in the core, flux Φ is
phase with current I. Since flux Φ is an alternating flux, it will induce e.m.f. ‘e’ in the moving coil
and current start flows.

The phase of this current depends upon the inductance L of the moving coil and the capacitance C.

The operation can be well explained with the help of phasor diagram;

In first case, the circuit of the moving coil assumed to be inductive and therefore current I lags
behind the e.m.f. ‘e’ by an angle α. The deflecting torque acting on the moving coil is thus:

Td = icos (900+ α)

In second case, the moving coil is assumed to be largely capacitive therefore current ‘i’ lead the
e.m.f. ‘e’ by an angle β and therefore the deflecting torque is thus:
37
Td = icos(900– β)

In third case, the inductive reactance supposed to be equal to the capacitive reactance so that i is in
phase with e and the torque upon the pivoted coil is proportional to Td = icos900 which is Zero.

Coming to actual operation of the instrument for a fixed frequency is constant but the inductive
reactance of the moving coil is not constant. The inductive reactance depends upon the position of
the pivoted coil on the core. This inductance, hence inductive reactance is maximum when the
moving coil occupies a position close to the magnetizing coil and minimum when it is at other end.

The value of capacitor ‘C’ is so selected that the moving occupies a convenient position in the
Centre when the frequency is at its normal value. Under these conditions the inductive reactance
becomes larger than the capacitive reactance. This because the inductive reactance is directly
proportional to the supply frequency and capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the
frequency. Thus the circuit becomes largely inductive and, therefore, there is a torque produced.

38
If the frequency decreases below the normal, value of the capacitive reactance becomes more than
the inductive reactance and hence there is a torque produced.

power factor meters

Definition: The power factor meter measures the power factor of a transmission system. The power
factor is the cosine of the angle between the voltage and current. The power factor meter
determines the types of load using on the line, and it also calculates the losses occur on it.

Types of Power Factor Meter

The power factor meter is of two types.

They are

1. Electrodynamometer

✓ Single Phase Electrodynamometer

✓ Three Phases Electrodynamometer

2. Moving Iron Type Meter

✓ Rotating Iron Magnetic Field

✓ Number of Alternating Field

Single Phase Electrodynamometer

The construction of the single phase electrodynamometer is shown in the figure below. The meter
has fixed coil which acts as a current coil. This coil is split into two parts and carries the current
under test. The magnetic field of the coil is directly proportional to the current flow through the
coil.

The meter has two identical pressure coils A and B. Both the coils are pivoted on the spindle. The
pressure coil A has no inductive resistance connected in series with the circuit, and the coil B has
highly inductive coil connected in series with the circuit.

39
The current in the coil A is in phase with the circuit while the current in the coil B lag by the
voltage nearly equal to 90º. The connection of the moving coil is made through silver or gold
ligaments which minimize the controlling torque of the moving system.

The meter has two deflecting torque one acting on the coil A, and the other is on coil B. The
windings are so arranged that they are opposite in directions. The pointer is in equilibrium when
the torques are equal.

Deflecting torque acting on the coil A is given

θ – Angular deflection from the plane of reference.

Mmax – maximum value of mutual inductance between the coils.

The deflecting torque acting on coil B is expressed as

The deflecting torque is acting on the clockwise direction.

The value of maximum mutual inductance is same between both the deflecting equations.

This torque acts on anti-clockwise direction. The above equation shows that the deflecting torque is
equal to the phase angle of the circuit.

Three Phase Electrodynometer Power Factor Meter

The construction of the three phase meter is shown in the figure below. The electrodynamometer is
only useful for the balanced load. The moving coil is placed at an angle of 120º. They are
connected across different phases of the supply circuit. Both the coil has a series resistance.

40
The voltage across the coil A is V12 and the current across it IA1. The circuit of the coil is resistive,
and hence the current and voltage are in phase with each other. Similarly, the voltage V13 and the
current IB1 is in phase with each other. The phasor diagram of the three phase electrodynamic meter
is shown in the figure below.

41
Let Φ – phase angle of the circuit.

θ – angular deflection from the plane of reference.

Torque acting on coil A is

Torque acting on coil B is

The torque TA and TB are acting on the opposite directions.

Thus the angular deflection of the coil is directly proportional to the phase angle of
the circuit.

Advantages of Electrodynamic Type Power Factor Meters

✓ Losses are less because of minimum use of iron parts and also give less error over a
small range of frequency as compared to moving iron type instruments.
✓ They high torque is to weight ratio.

Disadvantages of Electrodynamic Type Power Factor Meters

✓ Working forces are small as compared to moving iron type instruments.

✓ The scale is not extended over 360o.
✓ Calibration of electrodynamometer type instruments are highly affected by the
changing the supply voltage frequency.
✓ They are quite costly as compared to other instruments.

…………………………………………………………………………………..

42
 UNIT-6
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE& CAPACITANCE

Classification of resistance:-
We categories the resistance into three classes-

1. Measurement of Low Resistance (<1Ω)

2. Measurement of Medium Resistance (1Ω – 100kΩ)

3. Measurement of High Resistance (>100kΩ)

Measurement of low resistance by potentiometer method:-

The DC potentiometer method of measurement of resistance is used for measuring the unknown
resistance of low value. This can be done by comparing the unknown resistance with the standard
resistance. The voltage drop across the known and unknown resistance is measured and by
comparison the value of known resistance is determined.

Let understand this with the help of the circuit diagram. The R is the unknown resistance whose
value is needed to be measured. The S is the standard resistance from which the value of unknown
resistance is compared. The rheostat is used for controlling the magnitude of current into the
circuit.

43
The double pole double throw switch is used in the circuit. The switch, when moves to position 1,
1 the unknown resistance connect to the circuit, and when it moves to position 2, 2 the standard
resistance connects to the circuit.

Consider that when the switch is in position 1,1 the voltage drop across the unknown resistance is
VR

And when it is in 2, 2 the voltage drop across the resistance is Vs.

On equating the equation (1) and (2), we get

The accuracy of unknown resistance depends on the value of standard resistance.

The accuracy of the unknown resistance also depends on the magnitude of the current at the time of
the readings. If the magnitude of current remains same, the circuit gives the accurate result.
The ammeter is used in the circuit for determining the magnitude of current passing through
resistor during the reading.

The magnitude of the current is adjusted in such a way that the voltage drop across the resistance is
equal to 1 volt.

Measurement of medium resistance by wheat Stone bridge method:-

Wheatstone bridge is a very important device used in the measurement of medium resistances.

44
The figure below shows the basic circuit of a Wheatstone bridge. It has four resistive arms,
consisting of resistances P, Q R and S together with a source of emf (a battery) and a null detector,
usually a galvanometer G or other sensitive current meter. The current through the galvanometer
depends on the potential difference between point’s c and d.

The bridge is said to be balanced when there is no current through the galvanometer or when the
potential difference across galvanometer is zero. This occurs when the voltage from point b to point
a equals the voltage from point d to point b or by referring to the other battery terminal when the
voltage from point d to point c equals the voltage from point b to point c.

For a balanced condition, we can write,

I1 P = I2 R

The figure below shows the circuit for the Wheatstone bridge for the measurement of medium
resistance.

For the galvanometer current to be zero, the following conditions also exist:

Where E = emf of the battery

Combining the above three equations we get,

45
From which
Q.R = P.S --- (4)
Equation-4 is the well-known expression for the balance of the Wheatstone bridge. If three of
the resistances are known, the fourth may be determined from equation-4 and we obtain
R = S*(P/Q)
Where R is the unknown resistance, S is called the ‘standard arm' of the bridge and P and Q are
called the 'ratio arms'.

Measurement of high resistance by loss of charge method:-

In this method we utilize the equation of voltage across a discharging capacitor to find the value of
unknown resistance r. Figure below shows the circuit diagram and the equations involved are-

However the above case assumes no leakage resistance of the capacitor. Hence to account for it we
use the circuit shown in the figure below. R1 is the leakage resistance of C and R is the unknown
resistance. We follow the same procedure but first with switch S1 closed and next with switch S1
open. For the first case we get

For second case with switch open we get

46
Using R1 from above equation in equation for R’ we can find R.

Construction, principle of operations of Megger:-

Definition: The Megger is the instrument uses for measuring the resistance of the insulation. It
works on the principle of comparison, i.e., the resistance of the insulation is compared with
the known value of resistance. If the resistance of the insulation is high, the pointer of the moving
coil deflects towards the infinity, and if it is low, then the pointer indicates zero resistance.
The accuracy of the Megger is high as compared to other instruments.

Construction of Megger
The construction of the Megger is shown in the figure below. The Megger has one current coil and
the two voltage coils V1 and V2. The voltage coil V1 is passed over the magnet connected to the
generator. When the pointer of the PMMC instrument deflects towards infinity, it means that the
voltage coil remains in the weak magnetic field and thus experienced the very little torque.

Working of Megger

✓ The testing voltage is usually 500, 1000 or 2500 V which is generated by the hand driven
generator. The generator has centrifugal clutch due to which the generator supplied the
constant for the insulation test. The constant voltage is used for testing the insulation having
low resistance.

47
 ✓ The Megger has three coils two pressure coils and one current coil. The pressure coil rotates
the moving coil in the anticlockwise direction, whereas the current coil rotates it in the
clockwise direction.

✓ When the unknown resistance is connected in the circuit, the pointer of the moving coil
becomes stable. The pressure coil and the current coil balance the pointer and set it in the
middle of the scale.

✓ The deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the voltage applied to the external
circuit. When the testing circuit is applied across the Megger, and if there is no shorting
throughout the insulation then the pointer deflects towards the infinity. Which shows that
the resistance has high insulation. For low resistance, the pointer moves towards zero.

Earth Tester:-

Definition: The instrument used for measuring the resistance of the earth is known as earth
tester. All the equipment of the power system is connected to the earth through the earth electrode.
The earth protects the equipment and personnel from the fault current. The resistance of the earth is
very low. The fault current through the earth electrode passes to the earth. Thus, protects the system
from damage.

Construction and working of Earth Tester

✓ The earth tester uses the hand driven generator. The rotational current reverser and the
rectifier are the two main parts of the earth tester. The current reverser and the rectifier are
mounted on the shaft of the DC generator. The earth tester works only on the DC because of
the rectifier.

✓
✓ The tester has two commutators place along with the current reverser and rectifier. The each
commutator consist four fixed brushes. The commutator is a device used for converting the
direction of flows of current. It is connected in series with the armature of the generator.
48
 And the brushes are used for transferring the power from the stationary parts to the moving
parts of the devices.
✓ The earth tester consists two pressures and the current coils. The each coil has two
terminals. The pair of the pressure coil and the current coil are placed across the permanent
magnet. The one pair of current and pressure coil is short-circuited, and it is connected to
the auxiliary electrodes.

✓ The one end terminal of the pressure coil is connected to the rectifier, and their other end is
connected to the earth electrode. Similarly, the current coil is connected to the rectifier and
earth electrode.

✓ The potential coil is placed between the permanent magnet. The coil is connected to the
pointer, and the pointer is fixed on the calibrated scale. The pointer indicates the magnitude
of the earth resistance. The deflection of the pointer depends on the ratio of the voltage
of pressure coil to the current of the current coil.

✓ The short-circuit current passes through the equipment to the earth is alternating in nature.
Thus, we can say that the alternating current flows in the soil.

Multimeter

A multimeter is the most commonly used instrument by technicians and engineers in the
laboratory, as well as other repair works. As it is clear from the name of this instrument, it can
make many (multi) measurements with reasonable accuracies such as AC and DC voltages,
currents, and resistances. In this article, I am discussing the multimeter working principle.

Analog Multimeter Working Principle and Construction

A multimeter is a permanent magnet moving coil galvanometer. There is an iron cored coil pivoted
on two jeweled bearings. The coil is wound on an aluminum former or bobbin. And this coil is free
to rotate in the field of a permanent magnet. An aluminum pointer is attached to the coil and bobbin
assembly and moves on a graduated scale.

There are two spiral springs attached to the coil assembly at the top and bottom, which provide a
path for the flow of current and controlling torque.
A multimeter can measure voltage, current, and resistance for which its galvanometer is converted
to a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter with the help of suitable circuits incorporated in it. The
galvanometer used in a multimeter has always its pointer resting at zero position on the extreme left
end various measurements are made on a multimeter as explained below:

Voltage Measurement by Multimeter

Generally, a galvanometer has a current sensitivity of the order of 0.1 mA and a small internal
resistance of about 500 ohms. As such, it cannot measure high voltages. To measure high voltages,

49
its range is extended by connecting a high resistance in series with the galvanometer as shown in
the figure.

If the galvanometer resistance is denoted by G and Ig is the full-scale deflection current and the
voltage to be measured is V volts, then the value of series resistance RS is determined as under,
V = IgRs + IgG
Or Rs = (V – IgG)/Ig
This series resistance is also called the multiplier. The voltage range can be increased by increasing
the number or value of multipliers. Either a selector switch is provided to select different ranges or
some sockets indicating the voltage range are provided in a multimeter.
While making, measurement one lead is inserted in the common socket and the other lead in the
required voltage range socket.

The multimeter can also measure AC. For this purpose, a full-wave rectifier is incorporated in the
multimeter. The rectifier converts AC into DC for application to the galvanometer.

The desired AC voltage range is selected by the selector switch or sockets. When AC voltage is to
be measured.

Current Measurement by Multimeter

The same galvanometer can be used for measuring current when it is converted into an ammeter by
connecting a small resistance Rsh in parallel with the meter, as shown in the figure.

50
If G is the internal resistance of meter, Ig its full-scale deflection current and I is the total current to
be measured, then the value of shunt resistance Rsh required can be found as under:

(I – Ig)Rsh = IgG
Or Rsh = IgG/(I – Ig)

The range of ammeter can be extended to any value within limits by reducing the value of shunt
resistance. Some low resistances are connected in parallel with the meter through a selector switch,
as shown in the figure. The desired range can be selected by moving the selector switch to a
particular position.

If the total current to be measured, I is very high, the value of shunt resistance required
Rsh becomes very low, which is sometimes practically not possible. In this case, connections are so
arranged that as we move from low range to higher range, the meter resistance is also increased
with the decrease in the value of shunt resistance.

Resistance Measurement by a Multimeter

✓ The same basic instrument can be used as an ohmmeter to measure resistances. In this
circuit, an internal battery is connected in series with the meter through an adjustable
resistance r and the fixed resistances.
✓ The fixed resistances limit the current within the desired range, and the variable resistance r
is used for zero adjustments. The resistance to be measured (test resistance) is connected
between test leads.
✓ The current flowing through the circuit depends upon the resistance of the test piece. The
deflection of the needle indicates current, but the scale is calibrated in ohms to give the
value of resistance directly.

51
 ✓ To measure resistance by the multimeter, a suitable range is selected. Then the meter leads
are shorted, and variable resistance r is adjusted to give full-scale deflection.
✓ Under this condition, the resistance between test leads is zero; therefore, the scale of
ohmmeter indicates zero on the extreme right end. Then the resistance under measurement
is connected between terminals test leads.

Digital Multimeter

A digital multimeter or DMM is test equipment used for resistance, voltage, current measurement
and other electrical parameters as per requirement and displaying the results in the mathematical
digits form on an LCD or LED readout. It is a type of multimeter which functions digitally.

(DIGITAL MULTIMETER)

52
Block diagram of Digital multimeter

In digital multimeter, we can incorporate many types of meters like ohmmeter, ammeter, a
voltmeter for the measurement of electrical parameters. Its block diagram is shown below in the
figure. Let us have a look at its working and specification one by one.

(i) Digital voltmeter (DVM):

Digital voltmeter is the basic instrument used for measurement of voltage through the use of
Analog to Digital converter. The basic principle behind digital multimeters is the Analog to digital
converter because without this we are not able to convert the analog output into digital form.

(ii) Digital Ammeter (DAM):

Digital ammeter uses a shunt resistor to produce a calibrated voltage proportional to the current
flowing. As shown in the diagram, to read the current we must first convert the current to be
measured into a voltage by using a known resistance RK. The voltage so developed is calibrated to
read the input current.

(iii) Digital ohm meter (DOM):

A digital ohmmeter is used to measure electrical resistance which obstructs the path to the flow of
current.

53
As shown in the diagram, a resistance network comprising of a known resistance RK and unknown
resistance Ru used to develop a voltage across the unknown resistance. The voltage is given by:

V = VB Ru / RK + Ru

Where VB = Voltage of the battery

Working Principle of Digital Multimeter

As shown in the block diagram, in a typical Digital multimeter the input signal i.e. ac or dc voltage,
current, resistance, temperature or any other parameter is converted to dc voltage within the range
of the ADC. The analog to digital converter then converts the pre-scaled dc voltage into its
equivalent digital numbers which will be displayed on the display unit.

54
(i) Display:

The LCD screen present on the upper portion of the multimeter basically displays four or more
digits and also shows negative value if necessary. A few or today’s multimeters have illuminated
the display for better viewing in low light situations.

(ii) Selection Dial:

It allows the user to set the multimeter to read different electrical parameters such as milliamps
(mA) of current, voltage, resistance, capacitance etc. You can easily turn the dial anywhere for
specific parameter measurement.

(iii) Ports:

Two ports are available on the front of every multimeter except in some four ports are available for
measuring current in mA or A. We plugged two probes into these ports which are of different
colors i.e. one is of red color and other is of black color. Different Ports in multimeter are:

(a) COM:

It stands for common and is almost connected to ground or considered as a -ve connection of a
circuit. We generally insert the black color probe into COM port.

(b) mAVΩ:

This port allows the measurement of current (up to 200 mA), voltage and resistance or considered
as a +ve connection of a circuit. We generally insert the red color probe into mAVΩ port.

leads:

(i) Red lead

• Connected to voltage, resistance or ampere port.

• Considered as a +ve connection of a circuit
55
(ii) Black lead

• Connected to the common or ground port

• Considered as a -ve connection of a circuit

(iii) Probes: These are the handles used to hold the tip on the tested connection

(iv) Tip: These are present at the end of the probes and basically, provide a connection point

Measurement of inductance by Maxwell’s Bridge method:-

The connection diagram and the pharos drawing of Maxwell Inductance Bridge is shown in figure
below.

In the above circuit,

L1 = Unknown inductance having resistance R1

L2 = Variable standard inductance with fixed resistance r2

R2 = Variable resistance

R3 and R4 = Known resistance

As we know that, for a balanced bridge the multiplication of impedances of opposite arms must be
equal.

Impedance of arm ab, Z1 = (R1+jwL1)

Impedance of arm cd, Z2 = R4

56
Impedance of arm ad, Z3 = (R2+r2+jwL2)

Impedance of arm bc, Z4 = R3

Hence for balanced bridge,

Z1Z2 =Z3Z4

(R1+jwL1) xR4 = (R2+r2+jwL2) xR3

R1R4-R2R3-r2R3+jw (L1R4-L2R3) = 0

Equating real and imaginary part we get,

R1R4-R2R3-r2R3 = 0 …………… (1)

And (L1R4-L2R3) = 0 …………… (2)

From (1),

R1R4 = R2R3+r2R3

= R3 (R2+r2)

Hence, R1 = (R3/R4) (R2+r2)

Now from (2),

L1R4 = L2R3

Hence, L1 = L2R3 / R4

Thus unknown inductance L1 and its resistance R1 may be calculated.

Measurement of capacitance by Schering Bridge method:-

This bridge is used to measure to the capacitance of the capacitor, dissipation factor and
measurement of relative permittivity. Let us consider the circuit of Schering Bridge as shown
below:

57
Let

C1= capacitor whose capacitance is to be determined,

r1 = a series resistance representing the loss in the capacitor C1

C2 = a standard capacitor

R3 = a non – inductive resistance

C4 = a variable capacitor

R4 = a variable non-inductive resistance in parallel with variable capacitor C4

Now when the Schering Bridge is balanced, then

By equating real and imaginary part of the equation we get,

58
Two independent balance equations are obtained if C4 and R4 are chosen as the variable elements.

The dissipation factor is given by:

Therefore values of capacitance C1 and its dissipation factor are obtained from the values of bridge
elements at balance.
In the above equation value of R4 and C2 are fixed therefore the dial resistor R3 may be calibrated
to read the capacitance directly.

…………………………………………………………………………………………

59
 UNIT-8

Sensors and transducers

Transducer- It is defined as an element when subjected to some physical change experiences a
related change or an element which converts a specified measure and into a usable output by using
a transduction principle. It can also be defined as a device that converts a signal from one form of
energy to another form.

Sensor- It is defined as an element which produces signal relating to the quantity being measured.

Sensor/transducers specifications-:

Transducers or measurement systems are not perfect systems. Mechatronics design engineer must
know the capability and shortcoming of a transducer or measurement system to properly assess its
performance. There are a number of performance related parameters of a transducer or
measurement system. These parameters are called as sensor specifications. Sensor specifications
inform the user to the about deviations from the ideal behavior of the sensors. Following are the
various specifications of a sensor/transducer system.

1. Range- The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary. For
example, a thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might have a range of 25-225 °C.

2. Span- The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input. Thus, the
above-mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 200 °C.

3. Error- Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the
quantity being measured. A sensor might give a displacement reading of 29.8 mm, when the actual
displacement had been 30 mm, then the error is –0.2 mm.

4. Accuracy- The accuracy defines the closeness of the agreement between the actual measurement
result and a true value of the measured. It is often expressed as a percentage of the full range output
or full–scale deflection. If it is specified with the accuracy of about ±1% full scale, then the reading
given can be expected to be within ± 0.7 MPa.

5. Sensitivity- Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value of a sensor to
the per unit change in input value that causes the output change.

6. Nonlinearity-The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual measured curve of
a sensor from the ideal curve.

Nonlinearity (%) = Maximum deviation in input ⁄ Maximum full scale input

60
7. Hysteresis- The hysteresis is an error of a sensor, which is defined as the maximum difference in
output at any measurement value within the sensor’s specified range when approaching the point
first with increasing and then with decreasing the input parameter.

8. Resolution- Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can
be detected in the output signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion of the full-scale
reading or in absolute terms. For example, if a LVDT sensor measures a displacement up to 20 mm
and it provides an output as a number between 1 and 100 then the resolution of the sensor device is
0.2 mm.

9. Stability- Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output when used to measure a
constant input over a period of time. The term ‘drift’ is used to indicate the change in output that
occurs over a period of time. It is expressed as the percentage of full range output.

10.Dead band/time- The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for
which there is no output. The dead time of a sensor device is the time duration from the application
of an input until the output begins to respond or change.

11.Repeatability- It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated applications
of same input value. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the full range output: Repeatability =
(maximum – minimum values given) X 100 ⁄ full range .

12.Response- Time Response time describes the speed of change in the output on a step-wise
change of the measurand. It is always specified with an indication of input step and the output
range for which the response time is defined.

Classification of sensors-:

Sensors can be classified into various groups according to the factors such as measurand,
application fields, conversion principle, energy domain of the measurand and thermodynamic
considerations. These general classifications of sensors are well described

Detail classification of sensors in view of their applications in manufacturing is as follows.

A. Displacement, position and proximity sensors

• Potentiometer
• Strain-gauged element
• Capacitive element
• Differential transformers
• Eddy current proximity sensors
• Inductive proximity switch
• Optical encoders
• Pneumatic sensors
• Proximity switches (magnetic)
• Hall effect sensors
61
B. Velocity and motion

C. Incremental encoder
• Tachogenerator
• Pyroelectric sensors

D. Force
• Strain gauge load cell

E. Fluid pressure
• Diaphragm pressure gauge
• Capsules, bellows, pressure tubes
• Piezoelectric sensors
• Tactile sensor

F. Liquid flow
• Orifice plate
• Turbine meter

G. Liquid level
• Floats
• Differential pressure

H. diodes and transistors

• Thermocouples
• Light sensors
• Photo diodes
• Photo resistors
• Photo transistor

62
Potentiometer:-

Shows the construction of a rotary type potentiometer sensor employed to measure the linear
displacement.

The potentiometer can be of linear or angular type. It works on the principle of conversion of
mechanical displacement into an electrical signal.

The sensor has a resistive element and a sliding contact (wiper). The slider moves along this
conductive body, acting as a movable electric contact.

The object of whose displacement is to be measured is connected to the slider by using

✓ a rotating shaft (for angular displacement)

✓ a moving rod (for linear displacement)
✓ a cable that is kept stretched during operation

The resistive element is a wire wound track or conductive plastic. The track comprises of large
number of closely packed turns of a resistive wire.

Conductive plastic is made up of plastic resin embedded with the carbon powder. Wire wound
track has a resolution of the order of ± 0.01 % while the conductive plastic may have the resolution
of about 0.1 μm.

During the sensing operation, a voltage Vs is applied across the resistive element. A voltage divider
circuit is formed when slider comes into contact with the wire.

The output voltage (VA) is measured as shown in the. The output voltage is proportional to the
displacement of the slider over the wire. Then the output parameter displacement is calibrated
against the output voltage VA.
63
VA = I RA………………………………………………………. (1)

But I = VS / (RA + RB)…………………………………….. (2)

Therefore VA = VS RA / (RA +RB)……………………. (3)

As we know that R = ρ L / A, where ρ is electrical resistivity, L is length of resistor and A is area of

cross section

VA = VS LA / (LA + LB)……………………………………… (4)

Applications of potentiometer

✓ These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop to ensure that
the moving member or component reaches its commanded position.
✓ These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift
trucks, automobile throttle controls. In manufacturing, these are used in control of injection
molding machines, woodworking machinery, printing, spraying, robotics, etc. These are
also used in computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment.

64
Strain Gauges:-

The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the direction of applied load to the original
length of an element. The strain changes the resistance R of the element. Therefore, we can say,
ΔR/R α ε;
ΔR/R = G ε ………………………….(1)
Where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as gauge factor. In general, the value of G
is considered in between 2 to 4 and the resistances are taken of the order of 100 Ω.

✓ Resistance strain gauge follows the principle of change in resistance as per the equation 1. It
comprises of a pattern of resistive foil arranged as shown in Figure.
✓ These foils are made of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy) and are bonded to a
backing material plastic (polyimide), epoxy or glass fiber reinforced epoxy.
✓ As the work piece undergoes change in its shape due to external loading, the resistance of
strain gauge element changes.
✓ This change in resistance can be detected by a using a Wheatstone’s resistance bridge as
shown in Figure In the balanced bridge we can have a relation,

✓ R2/ R1 = Rx / R3……………………………………………. (2)

✓ Where Rx is resistance of strain gauge element, R2 is balancing/adjustable resistor, R1 and

R3 are known constant value resistors.
✓ The measured deformation or displacement by the stain gauge is calibrated against change
in resistance of adjustable resistor R2 which makes the voltage across nodes A and B equal
to zero.

65
Applications of strain gauges

✓ Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis on
machines and failure analysis. They are basically used for multi-axial stress fatigue testing,
proof testing, residual stress and vibration measurement, torque measurement, bending and
deflection measurement, compression and tension measurement and strain measurement.
✓ Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and safety in automotive. In
particular, they are employed for force measurement in machine tools, hydraulic or
pneumatic press and as impact sensors in aerospace vehicles.

Thermistors:-

✓ Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with increasing temperature.

✓ The material used in thermistor is generally a semiconductor material such as a sintered
metal oxide (mixtures of metal oxides, chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel) or
doped polycrystalline ceramic containing barium Titanate (BaTiO3) and other compounds.
✓ As the temperature of semiconductor material increases the number of electrons able to
move about increases which results in more current in the material and reduced resistance.
✓ Thermistors are rugged and small in dimensions. They exhibit nonlinear response
characteristics.

✓ Thermistors are available in the form of a bead (pressed disc), probe or chip. Figure shows
the construction of a bead type thermistor.
✓ It has a small bead of dimension from 0.5 mm to 5 mm coated with ceramic or glass
material. The bead is connected to an electric circuit through two leads.
✓ To protect from the environment, the leads are Contained in a stainless steel tube.

Applications of Thermistors:-
• To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine
• To monitor the temperature of an incubator
• Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats
• To monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging
• To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
• To maintain correct temperature in the food handling and processing industry equipment
• To control the operations of consumer appliances such as toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators,
freezers, hair dryers, etc.
66
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs):-

RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to change in its
temperature. On heating up metals, their resistance increases and follows a linear relationship as
shown in Figure. The correlation is

Rt = R0 (1 + αT)

Where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (⁰C) and R0 is the temperature at 0⁰C and α is the
constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient of resistance. The sensor is usually made
to have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0 °C.

Figure shows the construction of a RTD. It has a resistor element connected to a Wheatstone
bridge. The element and the connection leads are insulated and protected by a sheath. A small
amount of current is continuously passing though the coil. As the temperature changes the
resistance of the coil changes which is detected at the Wheatstone bridge.

RTDs are used in the form of thin films, wire wound or coil. They are generally made of metals
such as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys. Platinum wire held by a high-temperature glass
adhesive in a ceramic tube is used to measure the temperature in a metal furnace.

Applications of RTD:-

•Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing

• Food Processing
• Stoves and grills
• Textile production
• Plastics processing
• Petrochemical processing
• Micro electronics
• Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks
• Exhaust gas temperature measurement.

Linear Variable Displacement Transducer (LVDT):-

67
 A very basic transducer which is always useful in the field of instrumentation, I have studied about
this in my college days. Now let me explain about the LVDT with its Principle of Operation and I
will explain how it is constructed for its well known operation and you can understand the working
of LVDT.

Principle of LVDT:-

LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and the displacement which is a non-
electrical energy is converted into an electrical energy. And the way how the energy is getting
converted is described in working of LVDT in a detailed manner.

Construction of LVDT:-

LVDT consists of a cylindrical former where it is surrounded by one primary winding in the center
of the former and the two secondary windings at the sides. The number of turns in both the
secondary windings are equal, but they are opposite to each other, i.e., if the left secondary
windings is in the clockwise direction, the right secondary windings will be in the anti-clockwise
direction, hence the net output voltages will be the difference in voltages between the two
secondary coil. The two secondary coil is represented as S1 and S2. Esteem iron core is placed in
the center of the cylindrical former which can move in to and fro motion as shown in the figure.
The AC excitation voltage is 5 to 12V and the operating frequency is given by 50 to 400 HZ.

68
Working of LVDT:-

Let's study the working of LVDT by splitting the cases into 3 based on the iron core position
inside the insulated former.

Case 1: On applying an external force which is the displacement, if the core reminds in the null
position itself without providing any movement then the voltage induced in both the secondary
windings are equal which results in net output is equal to zero i.e., Esec1-Esec2=0

Case 2: When an external force is applied and if the steel iron core tends to move in the left hand
side direction then the emf voltage induced in the secondary coil is greater when compared to the
emf induced in the secondary coil 2. Therefore the net output will be Esec1-Esec2

Case 3: When an external force is applied and if the steel iron core moves in the right hand side
direction then the emf induced in the secondary coil 2 is greater when compared to the emf voltage
induced in the secondary coil 1. Therefore the net output voltage will be Esec2-Esec1.

Applications of LVDT:
LVDT is used to measure displacement ranging from fraction millimeter to centimeter. Acting as a
secondary transducer, LVDT can be used as a device to measure force, weight and pressure, etc.

Capacitive Transducer:-
Definition: The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the displacement, pressure and other
physical quantities. It is a passive transducer that means it requires external power for operation.
The capacitive transducer works on the principle of variable capacitances. The capacitance of the
capacitive transducer changes because of many reasons like overlapping of plates, change in
distance between the plates and dielectric constant.

The capacitive transducer contains two parallel metal plates. These plates are separated by the
dielectric medium which is either air, material, gas or liquid. In the normal capacitor the distance
between the plates are fixed, but in capacitive transducer the distance between them are varied.

The capacitive transducer uses the electrical quantity of capacitance for converting the mechanical
movement into an electrical signal. The input quantity causes the change of the capacitance which
is directly measured by the capacitive transducer.

The capacitors measure both the static and dynamic changes. The displacement is also measured
directly by connecting the measurable devices to the movable plate of the capacitor. It works on
with both the contacting and non-contacting modes.

69
Principle of Operation:-

The equations below express the capacitance between the plates of a capacity

Where

A – Overlapping area of plates in m2

d – the distance between two plates in meter
ε – permittivity of the medium in F/m
εr – relative permittivity
ε0 – the permittivity of free space.

The schematic diagram of a parallel plate capacitive transducer is shown in the figure below.

The change in capacitance occurs because of the physicals variables like displacement, force,
pressure, etc. The capacitance of the transducer also changes by the variation in their dielectric
constant which is usually because of the measurement of liquid or gas level.

The capacitance of the transducer is measured with the bridge circuit. The output impedance of
transducer is given as

70
Where,

C – Capacitance
f – frequency of excitation in Hz.

The capacitive transducer is mainly used for measurement of linear displacement. The capacitive
transducer uses the following three effects.

1. Variation in capacitance of transducer is because of the overlapping of capacitor

plates.
2. The change in capacitance is because of the change in distances between the plates.
3. The capacitance changes because of dielectric constant.

The following methods are used for the measuring displacement.

1. A transducer using the change in the Area of Plates –

The equation below shows that the capacitance is directly proportional to the area of the plates.
The capacitance changes correspondingly with the change in the position of the plates.

The capacitive transducers are used for measuring the large displacement approximately from 1mm
to several cms. The area of the capacitive transducer changes linearly with the capacitance and the
displacement. Initially, the nonlinearity occurs in the system because of the edges. Otherwise, it
gives the linear response. The capacitance of the parallel plates is given as

71
Where

x–the length of overlapping part of plate’s

ω – the width of overlapping part of plates.

The sensitivity of the displacement is constant, and therefore it gives the linear relation between the
capacitance and displacement.

2. The transducer using the change in distance between the plates –

The capacitance of the transducer is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. The
one plate of the transducer is fixed, and the other is movable. The displacement which is to be
measured links to the movable plates.

The capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance because of which the capacitor shows the
nonlinear response. Such type of transducer is used for measuring the small displacement. The
phasor diagram of the capacitor is shown in the figure below.

72
The sensitivity of the transducer is not constant and vary from places to places.

Uses of Capacitive Transducer:-

1. The capacitive transducer uses for measurement of both the linear and angular
displacement. It is extremely sensitive and used for the measurement of very small
distance.
2. It is used for the measurement of the force and pressures. The force or pressure,
which is to be measured is first converted into a displacement, and then the
displacement changes the capacitances of the transducer.
3. It is used as a pressure transducer in some cases, where the dielectric constant of the
transducer changes with the pressure.
4. The humidity in gases is measured through the capacitive transducer.
5. The transducer uses the mechanical modifier for measuring the volume, density,
weight etc.

Piezoelectric Transducer:-

Piezoelectric sensor is used for the measurement of pressure, acceleration and dynamic-forces such
as oscillation, impact, or high speed compression or tension. It contains piezoelectric ionic crystal
materials such as Quartz. On application of force or pressure these materials get stretched or
compressed. During this process, the charge over the material changes and redistributes. One face
of the material becomes positively charged and the other negatively charged. The net charge q on
the surface is proportional to the amount x by which the charges have been displaced. The
displacement is proportion to force. Therefore we can write,
q = kx = SF………………………………………. (1)
Where k is constant and S is a constant termed the charge sensitivity.

73
Application of Piezoelectric Materials:-

1. In microphones, the sound pressure is converted into an electric signal and this signal
is ultimately amplified to produce a louder sound.
2. Automobile seat belts lock in response to a rapid deceleration is also done using a
piezoelectric material.
3. It is also used in medical diagnostics.
4. It is used in electric lighter used in kitchens.
5. Used infertility treatment.
6. Used in Inkjet printers.

Hall Effect Transducer:-

Definition: The Hall Effect element is a type of transducer used for measuring the magnetic field by converting it
into an emf. The direct measurement of the magnetic field is not possible. Thus the Hall Effect Transducer is used.
The transducer converts the magnetic field into an electric quantity which is easily measured by the analogue and
digital meters.

Principle of Hall Effect Transducer:-

The principle of Hall Effect transducer is that if the current carrying strip of the conductor is placed in a transverse
magnetic field, then the EMF develops on the edge of the conductor. The magnitude of the develop voltage depends
on the density of flux, and this property of a conductor is called the Hall Effect. The Hall Effect element is mainly
used for magnetic measurement and for sensing the current.

The metal and the semiconductor has the property of hall effect which depends on the densities and the mobility of
the electrons.

Consider the Hall Effect element shown in the figure below. The current supply through the lead 1 and 2 and the
output is obtained from the strip 3 and 4. The lead 3 and 4 are at same potential when no field is applied across the
strip.
74
When the magnetic field is applied to the strip, the output voltage develops across the output leads
3 and 4. The develops voltage is directly proportional to the strength of the material.

The output voltage is,

Where,

The I is the current in ampere and the B is the flux densities in Wb/m2

The current and magnetic field strength both can be measured with the help of the output voltages.
The Hall Effect EMF is very small in conductors because of which it is difficult to measure. But a
semiconductor like germanium produces large EMF which is easily measured by the moving coil
instrument.

Applications of Hall Effect Transducer:-

1. Magnetic to Electric Transducer.

2. Measurement of Displacement.
3. Measurement of Current.
4. Measurement of Power.

………………………………………………………………………………….
75
 UNIT-8

OSCILLOSCOPE

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

Definition: The CRT is a display screen which produces images in the form of the video signal. It
is a type of vacuum tube which displays images when the electron beam through electron guns are
strikes on the phosphorescent surface.

Working of CRT:-

The working of CRT depends on the movement of electrons beams. The electron guns generate
sharply focused electrons which are accelerated at high voltage. This high-velocity electron beam
when strikes on the fluorescent screen creates luminous spot.

After exiting from the electron gun, the beam passes through the pairs of electrostatic deflection
plate. These plates deflected the beams when the voltage applied across it. The one pair of plate
moves the beam upward and the second pair of plate moves the beam from one side to another. The
horizontal and vertical movement of the electron are independent of each other, and hence the
electron beam positioned anywhere on the screen.

The working parts of a CRT are enclosed in a vacuum glass envelope so that the emitted electron
can easily move freely from one end of the tube to the other.

76
Construction of CRT

The Electrons Gun Assembly, Deflection Plate Assembly, Fluorescent Screen, Glass Envelope,
Base are the important parts of the CRT. The electron gun emits the electron beam, and through
deflecting plates, it is strikes on the phosphorous screen. The detail explanation of their parts is
explained below.

Electrons Gun Assembly

The electron gun is the source of the electron beams. The electron gun has a heater, cathode, grid,
pre-accelerating anode, focusing anode and accelerating anode. The electrons are emitted from the
highly emitted cathode. The cathode is cylindrical in shape, and at the end of it, the layer of
strontium and barium oxide is deposited which emit the high emission of electrons at the end of the
tube.

Electrostatic Deflection Plates

The deflection plate produces the uniform electrostatic field only in the one direction. The electron
beam entering into the deflection plates will accelerate only in the one direction, and hence
electrons will not move in the other directions.

Screen for CRT

The front of the CRT is called the face plate. The face plate of the CRT is made up of entirely fiber
optics which has special characteristics. The internal surface of the faceplate is coated with the
phosphor. The phosphorous converts the electrical energy into light energy. The energy level of the
phosphorous crystal raises when the electron beams strike on it. This phenomenon is called
cathodoluminescence.

The light which is emitted through phosphorous excitation is called fluorescence. When the
electron beam stop, the phosphorous crystal regain their original position and release a quantum of
light energy which is called phosphorescence or persistence.

Aquadag

The Aquadag is the aqueous solution of graphite which is connected to the secondary of the anode.
The Aquadag collects the secondary emitted electrons which are necessary for keeping the CRT
screen in the state of electrical equilibrium.

Principle of operation of Oscilloscope with block diagram:-

Oscilloscope is an electronic equipment, which displays a voltage waveform. Among the

oscilloscopes, Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is the basic one and it displays a time varying
signal or waveform.

77
Block Diagram of CRO

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) consists a set of blocks. Those are vertical amplifier, delay line,
trigger circuit, time base generator, horizontal amplifier, Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) & power
supply. The block diagram of CRO is shown in below figure.

The function of each block of CRO is mentioned below.

•Vertical Amplifier − It amplifies the input signal, which is to be displayed on the screen of CRT.

•Delay Line − It provides some amount of delay to the signal, which is obtained at the output of
vertical amplifier. This delayed signal is then applied to vertical deflection plates of CRT.

•Trigger Circuit − It produces a triggering signal in order to synchronize both horizontal and
vertical deflections of electron beam.

•Time base Generator − It produces a saw tooth signal, which is useful for horizontal deflection
of electron beam.

•Horizontal Amplifier − It amplifies the saw tooth signal and then connects it to the horizontal
deflection plates of CRT.

•Power supply − It produces both high and low voltages. The negative high voltage and positive
low voltage are applied to CRT and other circuits respectively.

78
•Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) − It is the major important block of CRO and mainly consists of four
parts. Those are electron gun, vertical deflection plates, horizontal deflection plates and fluorescent
screen.

The electron beam, which is produced by an electron gun gets deflected in both vertical and
horizontal directions by a pair of vertical deflection plates and a pair of horizontal deflection plates
respectively. Finally, the deflected beam will appear as a spot on the fluorescent screen.

In this way, CRO will display the applied input signal on the screen of CRT. So, we can analyze
the signals in time domain by using CRO.

We can do the following measurements by using CRO.-

✓ Measurement of Amplitude
✓ Measurement of Time Period
✓ Measurement of Frequency

Measurement of Voltage Current and Frequency (AC)

Normally, an oscilloscope is an important tool in an electrical field which is used to display the
graph of an electrical signal as it varies with respect to time. But some of the scopes have additional
features apart from their fundamental use. Many oscilloscopes have the measurement tool that help
us to measure waveform characteristics like frequency, voltage, amplitude, and many more features
with accuracy. Generally, a scope can measure time-based as well as voltage-based characteristics.

Voltage Measurement

The oscilloscope is mainly voltage oriented device or we can say that it is a voltage measuring
device. Voltage, current and resistance all are internally related to each other.

Just measure the voltage, rest of the values is obtained by calculation. Voltage is the amount of
electric potential between two points in a circuit. It is measured from peak-to-peak amplitude which
measures the absolute difference between the maximum point of signal and its minimum point of
the signal. The scope displays exactly the maximum and minimum voltage of the signal received.
After measuring all high and low voltage points, scope calculates the average of the minimum and
maximum voltage. But you must be careful to mention which voltage you mean. Normally,
oscilloscope has fixed input range, but this can be easily increased with the use of simple potential
divider circuit.

Method to Measure Voltage

1. The simplest way to measure signal is to set the trigger button to auto that means oscilloscope
start to measure the voltage signal by identifying the zero voltage point or peak voltage by itself.
As any of these two points identified the oscilloscope triggers and measure the range of the voltage
signal.

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2. Vertical and horizontal controls are adjusted so that the displayed image of the sine wave is clear
and stable. Now take measurements along the center vertical line which has the smallest divisions.
Reading of the voltage signal will be given by vertical control.

Current Measurement

Electrical current cannot be measured directly by an oscilloscope. However, it could be measured

indirectly within scope by attaching probes or resistors. Resistor measures the voltage across the
points and then substituting the value of voltage and resistance in Ohm’s law and calculates the
value of electrical current. Another easy way to measure current is to use a clamp-on current probe
with an oscilloscope.

Method to Measure Current

1. Attach a probe with the resistor to an electrical circuit. Make sure that resistor’s power rating
should be equal or greater than the power output of the system.

2. Now take the value of resistance and plug into Ohm’s Law to calculate the current.

According to Ohm’s Law,

I=V/R

Frequency Measurement

Frequency can be measured on an oscilloscope by investigating the frequency spectrum of a signal

on the screen and making a small calculation. Frequency is defined as the several times a cycle of
an observed wave takes up in a second. The maximum frequency of a scope can measure may vary
but it always in the 100’s of MHz range. To check the performance of response of signals in a
circuit, scope measures the rise and fall time of the wave.

Method to Measure Frequency

1. Increase the vertical sensitivity to get the clear picture of the wave on the screen without
chopping any of its amplitude off.

2. Now adjust the sweep rate in such a way that screen displays a more than one but less than two
complete cycles of the wave.

3. Now count the number of divisions of one complete cycle on the gratitude from start to end.

4. Now take horizontal sweep rate and multiply it with the number of units that you counted for a
cycle. It will give you the period of the wave. The period is the number of seconds each repeating
waveform takes. With the help of period, you can simply calculate the frequency in cycles per
second (Hertz).

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