Bauld, Jr.N. R.

“Axial Loads and Torsion”

The Engineering Handbook.
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000

© 1998 by CRC PRESS LLC

 10
Axial Loads and Torsion
10.1 Axially Loaded Bars
Axial Strain • Axial Stress • Axial Stress-Strain Relation • Relative Displacement of Cross Sections
• Uniform Bar • Nonuniform Bars • Statically Indeterminate Bars
10.2 Torsion
Power Transmission • Kinematics of Circular Shafts • Equilibrium • Elastic Twisting of Circular
Shafts • Uniform Shaft • Nonuniform Shaft • Statically Indeterminate Circular Shafts

Nelson R. Bauld, Jr.

Clemson University

10.1 Axially Loaded Bars

A bar is said to be axially loaded if the action lines of all the applied forces coincide with the
axis of the bar. The bar axis is defined as the locus of the centroids of the cross-sectional
areas along the length of the bar. This locus of centroids must form a straight line, and the
action lines of the applied forces must coincide with it in order for the theory of this section
to apply.

Axial Strain
The axial strain in an axially loaded bar is based on the geometric assumptions that plane
cross sections in the unloaded bar, such as sections mn and pq in Fig. 10.1(a), remain plane
in the loaded bar as shown in Fig. 10.1(b), and that they displace only axially.

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 Figure 10.1 Axial displacements of an axially loaded bar.

The axial strain of a line element such as rs in Fig. 10.1(a) is defined as the limit of the
ratio of its change in length to its original length as its original length approaches zero. Thus,
the axial strain " at an arbitrary cross section x is

"(x) = lim (¢x ¤ ¡¢x)=¢x = lim [u(x + ¢x) ¡ u(x)]=¢x = du=dx (10:1)
¢x!0 ¢x!0

where u(x) and u(x + ¢x) are axial displacements of the cross sections at x and x + ¢x.
Common units for axial strain are in./in. or mm/mm. Because axial strain is the ratio of two
lengths, units for axial strain are frequently not recorded.

Axial Stress
The axial stress ¾ at cross section x of an axially loaded bar is

¾(x) = N (x)=A(x) (10:2)

where N (x) is the internal force and A(x) is the cross-sectional area, each at section x.

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Common units for axial stress are pounds per square inch (psi) or megapascals (MPa).
Equation (10.2) is valid at cross sections that satisfy the geometric assumptions stated
previously. It ceases to be valid at abrupt changes in cross section and at points of load
application. Cross sections at such locations distort and therefore violate the plane
cross-section assumption. Also, Eq. (10.2) requires that the material at cross section x be
homogeneous; that is, the cross section cannot be made of two or more different materials.

Axial Stress-Strain Relation

The allowable stress for axially loaded bars used in most engineering structures falls within
the proportional limit of the material from which they are made. Consequently, material
behavior considered in this section is confined to the linearly elastic range and is given by

¾(x) = E(x)"(x) (10:3)

where E(x) is the modulus of elasticity for the material at section x. Common units for the
modulus of elasticity are pounds per square inch (psi) or gigapascals (GPa).

Relative Displacement of Cross Sections

The relative displacement eB=A of a cross section at xB with respect to a cross section at xA
is obtained by combining Eqs. (10.1−10.3) and integrating from section xA to xB . Using Fig.
10.2,
Z xB
eB=A = u(xB ) ¡ u(xA ) = N (x)=[A(x)E(x)]dx (10:4)
xA

where eB=A denotes the change in length between the cross sections at xA and xB .

Figure 10.2

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 Equation (10.4) must be interpreted as the sum of several integrals for a bar for which the
integrand exhibits discontinuities. Discontinuities occur for cross sections where either N, A,
E, or combinations thereof change abruptly and can usually be detected by inspection.

Uniform Bar
A bar for which the internal force N (x), the cross-sectional area A(x), and the modulus of
elasticity E(x) do not change over its length is referred to as a uniform bar. If P denotes
equilibrating forces applied to the ends of the bar and L its length, as shown in Fig. 10.3, then
Eq. (10.4) gives the change in length of the bar as

e = P L=AE (10:5)

Figure 10.3 Uniform bar.

Nonuniform Bars
A nonuniform bar is one for which either A, E, N, or combinations thereof change abruptly
along the length of the bar. Three important methods are available to analyze axially loaded
bars for which the integrand in Eq. (10.4) contains discontinuities. They are as follows.

Direct Integration
Equation (10.4) is integrated directly. The internal force N (x) is obtained in terms of the
applied forces via the axial equilibrium equation, A(x) from geometric considerations, and
E(x) by observing the type of material at a given section.

Discrete Elements
The bar is divided into a finite number of segments, for each of which N=AE is constant.
Each segment is a uniform bar for which its change in length is given by Eq. (10.5). The
change in length of the nonuniform bar is the sum of the changes in length of the various
segments. Accordingly, if ei denotes the change in length of the ith segment, then the change
in length e of the nonuniform bar is
X
e= ei (10:6)

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Superposition
The superposition principle applied to axially loaded bars asserts that the change in length
between two cross sections caused by several applied forces acting simultaneously is equal to
the algebraic sum of the changes in length between the same two cross sections caused by
each applied force acting separately. Thus, letting eB=A represent the change in length caused
by several applied forces acting simultaneously, and e0B=A , e00B=A , : : : represent the changes in
length caused by each applied force acting separately,

eB=A = e0B=A + e00B=A + ¢ ¢ ¢ (10:7)

Superposition of displacements requires that the axial forces be linearly related to the
displacements they cause, and this implies that the stress at every cross section cannot exceed
the proportional limit stress of the material of the bar. This requirement must be satisfied for
each separate loading as well as for the combined loading.

Statically Indeterminate Bars

The internal force N (x) in statically determinate axially loaded bars is determined via axial
equilibrium alone. Subsequently, axial stress, axial strain, and axial displacements can be
determined via the foregoing equations.
The internal force N (x) in statically indeterminate axially loaded bars cannot be
determined via axial equilibrium alone. Thus, it is necessary to augment the axial equilibrium
equation with an equation (geometric compatibility equation) that accounts for any geometric
constraints imposed on the barthat is, that takes into account how the supports affect the
deformation of the bar.
Three basic mechanics concepts are required to analyze statically indeterminate axially
loaded bars: axial equilibrium, geometric compatibility of axial deformations, and material
behavior (stress-strain relation).

Example 10.1. Determine the stresses in the aluminum and steel segments of the composite
bar of Fig. 10.4(a) when P = 7000 lb. The cross-sectional areas of the steel and aluminum
segments are 2 in:2 and 4 in:2 , respectively, and the moduli of elasticity are 30 ¢ 106 psi and
10 ¢ 106 psi, respectively.
Solution. The bar is statically indeterminate; therefore, the solution requires the use of the
three mechanics concepts discussed in the previous paragraph.
Equilibrium. The axial equilibrium equation is obtained from the free-body diagram of Fig.
10.4(b) as

¡PST + PAL ¡ 7000 = 0 (10:8)

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 Figure 10.4 Statically indeterminate composite step-bar.

Geometric compatibility. The compatibility equation is obtained by noting that the total
elongation of the bar is zero. Accordingly,

e = eST + eAL = 0 (10:9)

Material behavior. The steel and aluminum segments are assumed to behave in a linearly
elastic manner, so their elongations are given by

eST = PST LST =(AST EST ) and eAL = PAL LAL =(AAL EAL ) (10:10)

Combining Eqs. (10.9) and (10.10) yields

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 PST = ¡(LAL =LST )(EST =EAL )(AST =AAL )PAL

= ¡(10=20)(30=10)(2=4)PAL = ¡3=4PAL (10:11)

Solving Eqs. (10.8) and (10.11) simultaneously yields

PST = ¡3000 lb and PAL = 4000 lb (10:12)

from which the stresses in the steel and aluminum are found as follows:

¾ST = ¡3000=2 = ¡1500 psi = 1500 psi (compression)

¾AL = 4000=4 = 1000 psi (tension)

Example 10.2. Assuming that P = 0 in Fig. 10.4(a), determine the stress in the steel and
aluminum segments of the bar due to a temperature increase of 10± F. The thermal expansion
coefficients for steel and aluminum are ®ST = 6:5 ¢ 10¡6 inches per inch per degree
Fahrenheit (in./in./± F) and ®AL = 13 ¢ 10¡6 in./in./± F.
Solution. Because free thermal expansion of the bar is prevented by the supports, internal
stresses are induced in the two segments.
Equilibrium. The axial equilibrium equation is obtained from the free-body diagram of Fig.
10.4(b). Thus,

¡PST + PAL = 0 (10:13)

Compatibility. The compatibility equation is obtained by noting that if the bar could
expand freely, its total elongation ¢ would be

¢ = ¢ST + ¢AL (10:14)

where ¢ST and ¢AL denote the free thermal expansions of the separate segments. Because
the net change in length of the bar is zero, internal strains are induced in the steel and
aluminum such that the sum of the changes in lengths of the steel and aluminum segments
must be equal to ¢. Therefore, the compatibility equation becomes

eST + eAL ¡ ¢ = 0 (10:15)

Material behavior. Assuming linear elastic behavior for both materials

eST = PST LST =(AST EST ) and eAL = PAL LAL =(AAL EAL ) (10:16)

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Also, because

¢ST = ®ST LST ¢T and ¢AL = ®AL LAL ¢T (10:17)

it follows that

¢ = (6:5 ¢ 10¡6 )(20)(10) + (13 ¢ 10¡6 )(10)(10) = 0:0026 in. (10:18)

Equations (10.13), (10.15), (10.16), and (10.18) yield

PST f1 + (EST =EAL )(AST =AAL )(LAL =LST )g = (EST AST =LST )¢

or

PST f1 + (30=10)(2=4)(10=20)g = f[30 ¢ 106 (2)]=20g(0:0026)

Thus

PST = PAL = 4457 lb (10:19)

The corresponding stresses in the steel and aluminum are compression and equal to

¾ST = 4457=2 = 2228 psi and ¾AL = 4457=4 = 1114 psi

10.2 Torsion
Torsionally loaded bars occur frequently in industrial applications such as shafts connecting
motor-pump and motor-generator sets; propeller shafts in airplanes, helicopters, and ships;
and torsion bars in automobile suspension systems. Many tools or tool components possess a
dominant torsional component such as screwdrivers and drill and router bits. (These tools
also rely on an axial force component for their effectiveness.)

Power Transmission
The specifications for a motor customarily list the power it transmits in horsepower (hp), and
its angular speed in either revolutions per minute (rpm) or in cycles per second (Hz). To
design or analyze a shaft, the torque that it is to transmit is required. Therefore, a
relationship between horsepower, angular speed, and torque is required. In U.S. customary
units and in the International System of Units (SI units) these relationships are

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 (
2¼nT =[550(12)60] = nT =63 000 (U.S. customary units)
hp = (10:20)
2¼f T =745:7 = f T =119 (SI units)

where f and n denote the angular speed in cycles per second and revolutions per minute,
respectively, and T denotes the torque transmitted in Newton-meters (N ¢ m) or inch-pounds
(in.-lb), depending on the system of units used.

Kinematics of Circular Shafts

The theory of circular shafts is based on the geometric assumption that a plane cross section
simply rotates about the axis of the shaft and can be visualized as being composed of a series
of thin rigid disks that rotate about the axis of the shaft.
To obtain a formula that expresses the rotation of one cross section relative to another
infinitesimally close to it, consider a shaft of radius c and examine the angular deformations
of an interior segment of radius r and length ¢x. This portion of the bar is indicated in Fig.
10.5(a). Before twisting, line element AB is parallel to the shaft axis, and line element AC
lies along a cross-sectional circle of radius r. The angle between these elements is 90
degrees. Due to twisting, AC merely moves to a new location on the circumference, but AB
becomes A ¤ B ¤, which is no longer parallel to the shaft axis, as is indicated in Fig. 10.5(b).
The shearing deformation er at radius r is

er = r¢Á = °r ¢x (10:21)

where °r denotes the shearing strain between line elements A ¤ B¤ and A ¤ C¤, and ¢Á
represents the angular rotation of the cross section at B relative to the cross section at A. In
the limit, as ¢x becomes infinitesimal, Eq. (10.21) becomes

°r = rdÁ=dx (10:22)

Because a cross section is considered rigid, Eq. (10.22) indicates that the shearing strain
varies linearly with distance from the center of the shaft. Consequently, because c denotes the
outside radius of the shaft, the shearing strain at radius r is

°r = (r=c)°c (10:23)

Equilibrium
The shearing stress ¿r that acts on a differential element of cross-sectional area da is shown
in Fig. 10.6. A concentrated torque T that is equivalent to the torque produced by the
distributed shearing stress ¿r is
Z
T = (¿r da)r (10:24)
area

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 Figure 10.5

Figure 10.6

Elastic Twisting of Circular Shafts

Explicit formulas for the angle of twist per unit length and for the shearing stress at any point
r in a cross section of a circular shaft made from a linearly elastic material are obtained from
Eqs. (10.22) and (10.24) and the stress-strain relation

¿r = G°r (10:25)

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in which G is the shearing modulus of elasticity. Common units for G are pounds per square
inch (psi) or gigapascals (GPa). Accordingly,
Z Z
T = (G°r =r)r 2 da = G dÁ=dx r2 da
area area

or

dÁ=dx = T =J G (10:26)

in which J is the polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area of the bar. Common units
for J are inches to the fourth power (in:4 ) or meters to the fourth power (m4 ), depending on
the system of units used.
The shearing stress at radius r is obtained by combining Eqs. (10.22), (10.25), and (10.26).
Thus,

¿r = T r=J (10:27)

Equations (10.26) and (10.27) provide the means needed to analyze the strength and stiffness
of linearly elastic shafts with circular cross sections. These formulas remain valid for annular
shafts for which the hollow and solid portions are concentric. Formulas for the polar
moments of inertia J are
(
¼=32d4 (solid cross section)
J= (10:28)
4 4
¼=32(do ¡ di ) (annular cross section)

where do and di denote external and internal diameters.

Uniform Shaft
A uniform shaft is one for which the cross-sectional area, the shearing modulus of elasticity,
and the applied torque do not change along its length. Because J; G; and T are constants over
the length L; Eq. (10.26) integrates to give the angle of twist of one end relative to the other
end as

Á = T L=JG (10:29)

The shearing stress on any cross section at radial distance r is

¿r = T r=J (10:30)

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Nonuniform Shaft
A nonuniform shaft is one for which either J; G; T; or a combination thereof changes
abruptly along the length of the shaft. Three procedures are available to determine the angle
of twist for circular shafts made from linearly elastic materials.

Direct Integration
Equation (10.26) is integrated directly. Because the integrand T =JG can possess
discontinuities at cross sections for which J; G; or T changes abruptly, the integration must
be interpreted as a sum of several integrations. Discontinuities in J; G; and T can usually be
detected by inspection. The polar moment of inertia J is discontinuous at abrupt changes in
cross-sectional area, G is discontinuous at cross sections where the material changes
abruptly, and the internal torque T is discontinuous at points where concentrated torques are
applied.

Discrete Elements
The shaft is divided into a finite number of segments for each of which T =JG is constant.
Consequently, the shaft is perceived to be a series of connected uniform shafts for each of
which Eq. (10.29) applies. Thus, if Ái denotes the angle of twist of the ith segment, then the
angle of twist for the shaft is
X
Á= Ái (10:31)

Superposition
The superposition principle applied to the twisting of circular shafts stipulates that the
relative rotation of one cross section with respect to another cross section due to several
torques applied simultaneously is equal to the algebraic sum of the relative rotations of the
same cross sections due to each torque applied separately. If Á0B=A ; Á00B=A ; : : : denote relative
angles of twist for each torque applied separately, then

ÁB=A = Á0B=A + Á00B=A + ¢ ¢ ¢ (10:32)

Superposition of angles of twist requires that the torques be linearly related to the angles of
twist that they produce, which in turn implies that the shearing stress must not exceed the
proportional limit stress for the material involved. This requirement must be satisfied for
each separate loading, as well as for the combined loading.

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Statically Indeterminate Circular Shafts
A shaft is statically indeterminate if the internal torque at a cross section cannot be
determined from moment equilibrium about the axis of the shaft. In such cases an additional
equation is obtained by requiring that angles of twist be compatible with the geometric
constraints imposed on the shaft. As with axially loaded bars, three basic concepts of
mechanics are involved in the solution of statically indeterminate shafts: equilibrium,
geometric compatibility, and material behavior.

Example 10.3. The diameters of the aluminum and steel segments of the statically
indeterminate step-shaft of Fig. 10.7(a) are 50 mm and 25 mm, respectively. Knowing that
GAL = 28 GPa, GST = 84 GPa, and T0 = 200¼ N ¢ m, determine the maximum
shearing stresses in the aluminum and in the steel.
Solution. Equilibrium. From Fig. 10.7(b), moment equilibrium about the axis of the shaft
gives

TA + TB ¡ T0 = 0 (10:33)

Figure 10.7

Compatibility. The supports at the ends of the shaft prevent the cross sections at A and B
from rotating; hence, the required compatibility equation is

ÁB=A = 0 (10:34)

and, with the aid of the superposition principle, it can be written as

ÁB=A = Á0B=A + Á00B=A = 0 (10:35)

Here Á0B=A and Á00B=A denote the relative angular rotations of the cross section at B with
respect to the cross section at A due to the torques TB and T0 acting separately.

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 To convert Eq. (10.35) into an algebraic equation involving the torques TB and T0 , the
discrete element procedure is used. First calculate the polar moments of inertia for the two
segments:
JAL = ¼=32(0:050)4 = 0:613 ¢ 10¡6 m4
JST = ¼=32(0:025)4 = 0:038 ¢ 10¡6 m4 (10:36)

Using Eq. (10.29) for a uniform shaft, determine that

Á0B=A = 0:3TB =fJAL 28 ¢ 109 g + 0:3TB =fJST 84 ¢ 109 g = 111:47 ¢ 10¡6 TB m4

Á00B=A = 0:2T0 =fJAL 28 ¢ 109 g = 11:65 ¢ 10¡6 T0 m4 (10:37)

Consequently,

ÁB=A = f111:47TB ¡ 11:65T0 g ¢ 10¡6 = 0 (10:38)

Equation (10.38) gives TB and Eq. (10.33) gives TA : Thus,

TA = 179¼ N ¢ m and TB = 21¼ N ¢ m (10:39)

The maximum shearing stress in each material occurs at the most remote point on a cross
section. Thus,

(¿AL )max = TAL c=JAL = 179¼(0:025)=0:613 ¢ 10¡6 = 22:9 MPa

(¿ST )max = TST c=JST = 21¼(0:0125)=0:038 ¢ 10¡6 = 21:7 MPa (10:40)

Defining Terms
Bar axis: Straight line locus of centroids of cross sections along the length of a bar.
Line element: Imaginary fiber of material along a specific direction.
Nonuniform bar: A bar for which the cross-sectional area or the material composition
changes abruptly along its length, or external forces are applied intermediate to its ends.
Nonuniform shaft: A bar of circular cross section for which the diameter or material
composition changes abruptly along its length, or external twisting moments are applied
intermediate to its ends.
Thin rigid disk: Imaginary circular cross section of infinitesimal thickness that is assumed
to undergo no deformations in its plane.
Torque: Twisting moment.
Uniform bar: A bar of uniform cross-sectional area that is made of one material and is
subjected to axial forces only at its ends.

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Uniform shaft: A bar of uniform, circular cross-sectional area that is made of one material
and is subjected to twisting moments only at its ends.

References
Bauld, N. R., Jr. 1986. Axially loaded members and torsion. In Mechanics of Materials, 2nd
ed.
Beer, F. P. and Johnston, E. R., Jr. 1981. Stress and strainaxial loading and torsion. In
Mechanics of Materials.
Gere, J. M. and Timoshenko, S. P. 1990. Axially loaded members and torsion. In Mechanics
of Materials, 2nd ed.

Further Information
Formulas for the twisting of shafts with the following cross-sectional shapes can be found in
Bauld [1986]: thin-wall, open sections of various shapes; solid elliptical, rectangular, and
equilateral triangular sections; open sections composed of thin rectangles; and circular
sections composed of two different concentric materials. Also available in the same reference
are formulas for the twisting of circular shafts in the inelastic range.

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