INTRODUCTION 2

Name of teacher dr. Paiman Jamal

Course name and course code Anatomy 208

Semester number 2,3,4,5

Week number 3
Date 14/10/2023
Outline
◦ Basic organization of the body
◦ Body Regions
◦ Body Cavities
◦ Body Quadrants
◦ The basic body systems and sciences that deal with them
◦ The Integument/ The skin
◦ Fasciae
◦ Bones
◦ Cartilage
◦ Ligaments
◦ Joints\
◦ Muscles
 Objectives

◦at the end of the lecture the student should be able to

◦1. understand the body organization, systems , body
cavities
◦2. Distinguish type of bones, cartilages, joints and
muscles
 Basic organization of the body
A collection of cells of similar morphology performing a specific
function is termed tissue.
There are four basic tissues:
i) Epithelium
ii) Connective tissue
iii) Muscle tissue
iv) Nervous tissue
 Organs and systems
An association of different tissues which perform certain function is
called Organ e.g., bone, muscle, heart, stomach and urinary bladder.

A group of organs working harmoniously to discharge a specific

function forms a system.
The following systems are formed in the human body.
 Body Systems
 Integumentary
 Skeletal
 Circulatory
 Digestive
 Respiratory
 Urinary
 Reproductive
 Nervous
 Muscular
 Endocrine
 Lymphatic
 Body Regions

The human body is partitioned into two main regions, called

the axial and appendicular regions.
the axial region includes the head, neck, and trunk which
comprise the main vertical axis of our body
our limbs, or appendages, attach to the body’s axis and
make up the appendicular region
 Body Cavities

Body cavities are internal chambers holding vital organs

Cavities protect vital organs
Cavities allow organs to change in shape and size
Two body cavities
Dorsal body cavity includes the cranial cavity and the spinal cavity
Ventral body cavity includes the thoracic cavity and the
abdominopelvic cavity
 Body Cavities

Dorsal body cavity

Cranial & vertebral/spinal cavity
Ventral body cavity
Thoracic & abdominopelvic cavity
 Dorsal Body Cavity

• Near dorsal surface of body

• 2 subdivisions
– cranial cavity
• holds the brain
• formed by skull
– vertebral or spinal canal
• contains the spinal cord
• formed by vertebral column
• Meninges line dorsal body cavity
 Ventral Body Cavity

• Near ventral surface of body

• 2 subdivisions
• thoracic cavity above diaphragm
• abdominopelvic cavity below diaphragm
• Diaphragm = large, dome-shaped muscle
• Organs called viscera
• Organs covered with serous membrane
 Thoracic Cavity

• Encircled by ribs, sternum,

vertebral column and muscle
• Divided into 2 pleural cavities
by mediastinum
• Mediastinum contains all
thoracic organs except lungs
 Pleural& Pericardial Cavities

• Viiscerrall plleurra clliings to

surrfface of llungs --- Parriiettall
plleurra lines chest wall
• Visceral pericardium covers
heart --- Parietal pericardium
lines pericardial sac
 Mediastinum

• Midline wall of tissue that

contains heart and great vessels,
esophagus, trachea and thymus.
 Serous Cavities

• Thorax & Abdomen

• Closed to outside
• Double walled sac (serous membrane)
• Pleural cavity
• pericardium
• peritoneum
• Parietal serosa
• Visceral serosa
• Serous fluid/cavity
 Serous Cavities

• Double walled sac:

• Pleural cavity
• pericardium
• peritoneum
• Parietal serosa
• Visceral serosa
• Serous fluid
 Serous Membranes

• Thin slippery membrane lines body

cavities not open to the outside
• parietal layer lines walls of cavities
• visceral layer covers viscera within
the cavities
• Serous fluid reduces friction
 Pleural& Pericardial Cavities

• Visceral pleura clings to surface of llungs -

-- Parietal pleura lines chest wall
• Visceral pericardium covers heart ---
Parietal pericardium lines pericardial sac
 Peritoneum

• Visceral peritoneum --- serous membrane

that covers the abdominal viscera
• Parietal peritoneum --- serous membrane
that lines the abdominal wall
 Mucous Membranes

• Lines body cavities open to the outside

• Respiratory system
• Digestive system
• Urinary system
• Reproductive system
Abdominal regions
Parts of the body :
 Head
 Neck
 Trunk …………thorax (chest)
 abdomen
 pelvis
 Limbs………….upper limb
 lower limb
The basic body systems and sciences
that deal with them
 Integumentary system (dermatology)
 Skeletal system.(osteology)
 Articular system.(arthrology)
 Muscular system (myology)
 Nervous system (neurology)
 Circulatory system (Angiology) (cardiovascular system and
lymphatic system)
 Digestive or alimentary system (gastroenterology)
The basic body systems and sciences
that deal with them
 Respiratory system (pulmonology)
 Urinary system (urology)
 Reproductive or genital system (gynecology for females and
andrology for males)
 Endocrine system. (endocrinology)
 Introduction of Skin and fascia
◦Introduction of structures met in dissection
◦ Skin
◦ Superficial fascia
◦ Artery, Vein ,Nerve
◦ Deep fascia
◦ Muscles
◦ Bones
◦ joints
◦
◦
The skin that covers your body.
Skin is also known as the
cutaneous membrane.
Integumentary system consists of
the skin and its derivatives—
nails, hair, sweat glands, and
sebaceous glands.
 Structure of the skin

Epidermis Dermis

❑ Keratinized stratified  Connective tissue containing (bl. v. lymph v.,

squamous epithelium sensory nerve endings, smooth m, hair
devoid of blood vessels follicles, sweat and sebaceous glands)
 In its deep part the collagen bundles are
arranged in parallel rows
 Structure of the skin

Layers of skin
Epidermis
Five type of layers
Dermis
Two type of layers

Junction
Dermal papilla
Epidermal peg (rete pegs)
 Structure of the skin
• Thick skin  The skin thickness varies in different
-No hairs parts of the body and is thinner in
• Thin skin women than in men.
• Devoid of Stratum  The epidermis is thicker in the palms
lucidum and sole of the feet.
 The dermis is thicker on the posterior
aspect of the body than anteriorly.
 The appendages of the skin

• Nails
• Hairs
• Sebaceous glands
• Sweat glands
 Langer’s lines

 The direction of the rows of the collagen is

known as lines of cleavage ( Langer’s lines)
and they tend to run longitudinally in the
limbs and circumferentially in the neck and
trunk.
 Incisions parallel to these lines tend to heal
with lesser scar formation
 Superficial fascia
Superficial fascia:
•Loose, mixture of adipose and loose areolar tissues.
•It unites the skin to the underlying structures.

•It is dense in some places as scalp, palm of hand and sole of

foot and contains collagen bundles
•It is thin in the eyelids, auricle, scrotum, penis and clitoris
(devoid of adipose tissue).

Functions:
•Facilitates movement of skin over underlying structures.
•Passage for cutaneous vessels, nerves…

Protects the body against heat loss.

Superficial fascia

Site with Very less fat

-Eyelids
-Pinna
-Penis
Site with more fat
- Breast
- Abdomen
-Gluteal region
 Deep fascia
It is more dense than superficial fascia

Collagenous bundles are more compact and more

regularly arranged

It is usually present in the form of membranes

 Examples of deep fascia
It is more dense than superficial fascia

Collagenous bundles are more compact and more

regularly arranged

It is usually present in the form of membranes

 Examples of deep fascia
 Investing fascia
 Intermuscular septa
 Retinacula
 Bursae
 Aponeurosis
 Tendon
 Tendon(synovial) sheath
 Synovial membrane
 Capsule
 A. Investing fascia

• Covers the surfaces of muscles

• In the neck: it forms well-defined layers, bounds fascial spaces so limits spread
of infection or determine the path of infection
• In the abdomen: it is thin
• In the limbs: forms a definite sheath around the muscles
Inter muscular septa

lie between muscles dividing

the limb into
compartments

Retinacula
hold the tendons in place,
prevent bowstringing joints,
• Fibrous sheath
• - eg. Carotid sheath Axillary sheath
• Fibrous capsule
• -eg Parotid capsule
• Ligaments
 Absence of deep fascia
• Face
• Breast
• Penis
• Anterior abdominal wall
Bones
 A living tissue, is a highly specialized hard form of connective tissue that
makes most of skeleton.
 Functions of bones:
 1. support for the body
 2. protection of vital structures
 3. the mechanical basis for movement.
 4. storage of salts (ex. Calcium)
 5. formation of new blood cells by bone marrow.
Bones
 Periosteum is a connective tissue layer investing the outer surface of
bones, functions of periosteum:
 1. nourish the external surface of bones.
 2. laying down more bone (specially during a fracture healing)
 3. provide an interface for attachment of tendons and ligaments.
.
Histological types of bone
 Compact bone
 Spongy ( trabecular or cancellous)
bone
.
Classification of Bone by Organization
 Axial:
 Skull
 Vertebral column
 Thorax:
 Sternum
 ribs

 Appendicular:
 Pectoral Girdle
 Pelvic Girdle
 Classification of Bone by Shape
 Long
 Short
 Flat
 Irregular
 Long bones
 are found in the limbs (e.g., the humerus, femur, metacarpals, metatarsals, and
phalanges).
 Their length is greater than their breadth. They have a tubular shaft

 Short Bones
 are found in the hand and foot (e.g., the scaphoid, lunate, talus, and calcaneum).
Classification of Bone by Shape
 Flat Bones
 are found in the vault of the skull (e.g., the
frontal and parietal bones).

 The scapulae, although irregular, are

included in this group

 Irregular Bones
 include those not assigned to the previous
groups (e.g. the vertebrae, and the pelvic
bones).
Classification of Bone by Shape
 Sesamoid Bones
 are small nodules of bone that are found in
certain tendons where they rub over bony
surfaces.
 The largest sesamoid bone is the patella, which
is located in the tendon of the quadriceps
femoris.
 Other examples are found in the tendons of the
flexor pollicis brevis and flexor hallucis brevis.
 The function of a sesamoid bone is to reduce
friction on the tendon; it can also alter the
direction of pull of a tendon.
Bone markings
 Linear elevation…………line, ridge, crest
 Rounded elevation……..tubercle,
protuberance,
tuberosity, malleolus
 Sharp elevation………….spine, styloid process
 Small flat area for articulation……facet
 Depressions………….notch, groove, sulcus
cartilage
 Is a form of connective tissue in which the
cells and fibers are embedded in a gel like
matrix.
 It is firm and resilient, except on exposed
surfaces in joints a fibrous membrane called
perichondrium covers the cartilage.
Types of cartilage:
 1. hyaline cartilage:
 2. fibrocartilage
 3. elastic cartilage
 tracheobronchial, articular cartilage of
typical synovial joints and epiphyseal
growth plates of bones are hyaline
cartilage.
Types of cartilage:
 Fibrocartilage
 It is found in intervertebral discs, the
labrum of the shoulder and hip joints, the
menisci of the knee joints and at the
articular surface of bones
 (squamous temporal, mandible and
clavicle). Both hyaline cartilage and
fibrocartilage tend
 to calcify and they may even ossify in old
age.
Types of cartilage:
 Elastic cartilage
 has a matrix that contains a large number of
yellow elastic fibres.
 It occurs in the external ear, auditory
(Eustachian) tube and epiglottis.
 Elastic cartilage never calcifies

 Fibrocartilage has a sparse blood supply, but

hyaline and elastic cartilage have no capillaries,
their cells being nourished by diffusion through
the ground substance.
Ligaments
 Are cords of connective tissue uniting two structures. Commonly found
in association with joints.
 Fibrous ligaments prevent excessive movement in a joint
 Classification of joints
Joints are classified according to structure and function-

(A) Functional classification

Functional (based on degree of mobility):
1.Synarthroses: immovable joints (cranial sutures in
adults, primary cartilaginous joints in
growing children).
2.Amphiarthroses: slightly movable joints (joints
between adjacent laminae of vertebrae).
3.Diarthroses: freely movable joints (synovial joints).
(B) Structural classification
Joints
 A site where two or more bones come together. Is of three types Joints
are classified according to the tissues that lie between the bones: :
 1. fibrous joints.
 2. cartilaginous a. primary
 b. secondary
 3. synovial joints
Joints
 Fibrous Joints
 The articulating surfaces of the bones are joined
by fibrous tissue
 very little movement is possible.
 The sutures of the vault of the skull and the
inferior tibiofibular joints are examples of fibrous
joints.
Joints

 Cartilaginous Joints
 can be divided into two types: primary and secondary.
 A primary cartilaginous joint is one in which the bones are united
by a plate or bar of hyaline cartilage.
 A secondary cartilaginous joint is one in which the bones are
united by a plate of fibrocartilage and the articular surfaces of the
bones are covered by a thin layer of hyaline cartilage
Synovial joints
 Most evolved and freely movable joints
 Have a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid
 Often termed as diarthrodial joints
 Components:
 1. Fibrous capsule
 2. Synovial membrane
 3. Ligaments
 4. Articular cartilage
 5. Articular disc or meniscus
 6. Bursae
 7. Fat pads (Haversian glands)
 Types of synovial joints
According to shape of articular surfaces:
 1. plane joints sternoclavicular and acromioclavicular joints
 2. hinge joints elbow, knee, and ankle joints
 3. pivot joints The atlantoaxial and superior radioulnar joints are
good examples.
 4. condyloid joints The metacarpophalangeal joints or knuckle
joints are good examples
 5. ellipsoid joints wrist joint
 6. saddle joints carpometacarpal joint of the thumb
 7. ball and socket joints The shoulder and hip joints
Types of synovial joints
Muscles
 There are 3 types, skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles
 they are contractile.
Skeletal muscles
 They produce the movements of the skeleton, they are volantary
and striated. The structural unit is the muscle fibers or cells….the
functions:
 1. produce movement
 2. maintains posture
 3. stabilizes joints
 4. generates heat
Skeletal muscles
 Skeletal muscles have two or more attachments
 The attachment that moves the least is called origin
 The attachment that moves the most is called the insertion.
 The fleshy part is called muscle belly
 The ends of the muscle which is attached to the skeleton are called
tendons.
 Occasionally flattened muscles are attached by a thin sheet of
fibrous tissue called aponeurosis.
Internal structure of skeletal muscles
 The structural unit is muscle fiber.
 Each muscle fiber is surrounded by connective tissue layer
called endomysium.
 Groups of of muscle fibers ( fasciculi) have a connective
tissue sheath called perimysium.
 The outer surface of a skeletal muscle have a connective
tissue sheath called epimysium.
Naming of skeletal muscles:
 According to shape:
 Deltoid , delta shaped
 Trapezius, trapezium in shape, rhomboid, rhombic
 2. size, major, minor
 3. Number of heads, triceps..biceps
 4. action: extensor, flexor
 5. attachment: sternocledomastoid
 6. depth: superficialis,,profundus
 7. length: longus …brevis
Naming of skeletal muscles:
Nerve supply of skeletal muscles
 Nerves supplying the skeletal muscles are mixed nerves.
 Motor fibers supply the muscle fibers and stimulate them to contract.
 The site where a nerve fiber meets a muscle fiber to supply it is called motor
end plate.
 The Sensory fibers arise from specialized sensory endings lying within
the muscle or tendons called muscle spindles and tendon spindles
respectively.
 The nerve supplying the muscle also contains Sympathetic fibers for the
wall of its blood vessels for regulation of blood flow to the muscle.
Muscle tone
 While resting every skeletal muscle is in a partial state of contraction, this
condition is referred to as muscle tone.
Smooth muscle
 They are involuntary muscles.
 They are non-striated when examined by microscope.
 In the tubes of the body it provides the motive power for propelling the
contents.
 In the wall of blood vessels control the caliber of these vessels.
 They are made to contract by nerve impulses from the autonomic nervous
system or by hormonal stimulation, or by local stretching of the fibers.
Cardiac muscle
 They are involuntary.
 They are striated.
 Present in the myocardium of the heart.
 They have the property of spontaneous and rhythmic contraction.