Student leadership:

necessary research Neil Dempster

Alf Lizzio
Griffith University

I
nterest in student leadership or leadership by young people has always existed
in school and community settings and while there are many programs devoted
to leadership development and training, we believe that there is a need for
focused research into what young people conceive leadership to be and in what cir-
cumstances they would see it being important. This article is speculative in nature.
We ask and discuss questions about why there seems to be an upsurge in interest
in student leadership and what some of the available literature is saying about
student leadership before putting forward suggestions for the kind of research we
feel is necessary if our understanding of student leadership, particularly in secondary
schools, is to be enhanced.

A renewed interest in student leadership

Why are we seeing renewed interest in student leadership? Is it because interest in
aspects of schooling waxes and wanes? This could be so. After all, there was a
period not so long ago when the topic of ‘student voice’ was prominent in
scholarly writing about education; and when student activism was an everyday
occurrence.We refer to the 1960s and 70s when at secondary and tertiary levels of
education, student voices were raised strongly in forums of various kinds, when ‘sit
ins’ in university chancelleries were common, and when adolescent protesters
marched for one cause after another. We also refer to research such as that led by
Jean Rudduck and others in the 70s into the involvement of students in decision
making about their schools, the curriculum, their learning, its assessment and their
communities.
Is interest in student leadership being heightened by a perceived shortage of
people willing to take on leadership roles in their adult lives? Is it because the
leadership literature is replete with studies of adults in leadership roles and student
leadership offers a new point of entry for researchers interested in new insights?
There is some evidence to suggest that the answer to these questions is in the affir-
mative.There seems to be a growing shortage of people willing to take on leader-
ship roles in their careers. In fact, so short is the pool of leaders in the corporate
world that a report by McKinsey and Company (as cited in Michaels, Kartford-
Jones, & Axelrod, 2001) has suggested that there is a ‘war’ being waged for leader-
ship talent. In the education sector, the pool of potential leaders is known to have
declined from that available even a few years ago (Gronn, 2007; MacBeath, 2006).

276 Australian Journal of Education, Vol. 51, No. 3, 2007, 276–285

 There also seems to be a decline in general civic participation that may con-
tribute to a declining interest in community leadership. If the picture painted at the
turn of this century in the United States of America is anything to go by, there is
a problem for democracies such as ours, which rely on voluntary activity across a
whole range of social institutions. The work of Gannon (2001, pp. 112-113) for
example has shown the following:
• between the early 1960s and 1990, voter turnout had declined by nearly a
quarter;
• the number of Americans who reported that ‘in the past year’ they had
‘attended a public meeting on town or school affairs’ had fallen by more than a
third—from 22% in 1973 to 13% in 1993;
• every year during the decade of the 1990s ‘millions more have withdrawn from
the affairs of their communities’;
• the proportion of Americans who reply that they ‘trust the government in
Washington’ only ‘some of the time’ or ‘almost never’ has risen steadily from 30%
in 1966 to 75% in 1992; and
• ‘participation in parent-teacher organisations has dropped drastically over the last
generation, from more than 12 million in 1964 to barely five million in 1982
before recovering to approximately seven million now’.
Gannon (2001, pp. 116-117) has summarised his concerns thus:
More Americans than ever before are in social circumstances that foster associ-
ational involvement (higher education, middle age and so on), but nevertheless
aggregate associational membership appears to be stagnant or declining . . .
American social capital in the form of civic associations has significantly eroded
over the last generation.

There is some evidence to suggest that the general decline in civic engage-
ment seen in the US may be apparent in Australia. In the education profession, for
example, studies of teachers and their association memberships (Dempster, Sim,
Beere, & Logan, 2001), show similar trends to those experienced in the US. Over
three survey periods (1979, 1989, 1999), in research initiated by the Australian
College of Educators, active memberships by teachers declined in church, cultural
and social groups, as well as in parents’ and citizens’ associations and political
parties. The proportions of teachers actively engaged in sporting clubs and chari-
table groups remained static across this period. It will be interesting to examine the
2006 census data to see whether the trend seen amongst teachers in 2001 is con-
tinuing, and whether there is deterioration in general community civic engage-
ment across the country. It is our belief that this is likely. Based on that assumption,
our interest in leadership amongst the young has been aroused. The need for a
renewed commitment to student leadership has been reinforced for us in a report
released recently by the Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER),
lamenting the poor performance of young Australians on tests of citizenship
knowledge (Mellor, 2007). We believe that the report, while highlighting a very
important issue, does little to point the way to how citizenship knowledge might
be gained in action rather than in preparation for tests.

Student leadership: Necessary research 277

 It would be misleading to couch the argument primarily in terms of the
implications of young peoples’ individualism and self interest for contemporary
society (Putnam, 2000). While civic participation among the young may have
declined in conventional spheres (e.g., loyalty to institutions, joining political
parties, etc) there is some evidence to suggest that this change in ‘community
mindedness’ may be more a matter of form than substance. Alternative forms of
community building, social engagement and identity building are emerging among
young people, such as different patterns of political involvement, volunteering and
the use of the internet (Rainie & Horrigan, 2005), and disaffection with political
engagement is balanced by record levels of volunteering and community service by
the young (Delli-Carpini & Keeter, 1997).
Shifts in patterns of both participation and leadership among young people
need to be understood in terms of pervasive generational influences such as greater
speed of change and corresponding expectations of rapid adaptation, stronger com-
mitment to a balanced life and a weaker psychological contract with work and
social institutions (Bennis & Thomas, 2002). The unifying meta-theme for young
people appears to be that ‘relationships matter more than institutions’. Such gener-
ational factors shape young peoples’ perceptions of appropriate leadership and
strategies for political and community change. As has been noted, the key social
challenge may not be so much that youth idealism is in decline but that local and
relational forms of contribution favoured by young people do not translate into
more profoundly structural forms of political or civic action (Sax, 1999).
Abundant evidence of an extensive literature on general adult leadership
exists. If scholarly writing in education is anything to go by, there is a litany of
leadership theories abroad. There have been studies producing explanations
of heroic, autocratic and charismatic leadership; transactional, transformational
and moral leadership; situational, contingent and parallel leadership; educational,
managerial and participative leadership and the list goes on (MacBeath, 2004, cites
25 models of leadership in recent education literature). In business, we have even
seen the extremes of ‘godlike’ leadership (Fox, 2007) and leadership as ‘art and
aesthetics’ (Parry, 2005).
These comments are not intended to disparage the great number of leader-
ship research studies that have added substantially to our store of knowledge.
Rather they are offered as a reminder that if there is a growing academic interest
in leadership amongst the young, then any new research should focus on what they
think about it, where they think it is needed and who should be involved. New
findings may well add interesting nuances to the extensive theory already extant. It
would be too easy to assume that using adult leadership theories and adult concepts
offers the best routes to an enhanced understanding of student leadership (but more
of this later).
While a focus on leadership amongst the young may be a logical response to
a perceived oversupply of ideas in adult leadership, we believe that there has been
ongoing interest in student leadership amongst young people themselves, even
though it has not been the subject of extensive research. From a study of the expec-
tations of school leaders almost a decade ago, we were struck by the common

278 Australian Journal of Education

theme among responses to a number of items on a survey asking what secondary
school students expected of their principals. It will come as no surprise to students
that they wanted their principals to provide far greater access to leadership oppor-
tunities than was available at the time. We quote directly from that work
(MacBeath, 1998, pp. 84-85):
Sharing school leadership was by far the most dominant theme in the student
data. Students perceived a lack of leadership opportunities for members of
the school community other than the principal. Students thought that the
responsibilities of leadership should be extended to include staff, parents and,
more often, students. Indeed, most student responses advocated the participa-
tion of students in school leadership irrespective of age. Their tone ranges from
rational suggestion to direct demand.

Examples of student comments illustrate this point.

Quite often the leadership in schools is determined by teachers, with minimum
input from students. This needs to be changed so that the students have a lot
more say.
I think that a strong leadership team consists of student leaders, teachers, deputy
principals and parents.
Generally, I think that leadership in schools is concentrated too highly in the
people high in the hierarchy of schools. I think that leadership opportunities
should exist in the staff and with students at all year levels.

Some 10 years later and with research interest in student leadership increas-
ing, we believe that the students’ cry for leadership opportunities should be inves-
tigated to better understand it through their eyes, and to explore how greater
leadership depth may be developed. Before sketching the kind of research we
believe is necessary, we provide a brief commentary on literature related to student
leadership to show where the emphasis seems to have been placed in recent years.

Some recent studies of student leadership

Our analysis of literature related to student leadership in schools shows that there
is an identifiable gap in our knowledge of students’ understanding of leadership and
how they see, experience and interpret it in different situations. Indeed, much of
the research writing deals with adults saying why student leadership is important
and what those adult views define as leadership development or training
(Holdsworth, 2005; Mitra, 2005, Ricketts, & Dudd, 2002;Thomson & Holdsworth,
2003).
One example of how adults define approaches to student and youth leader-
ship is found in the work of McMahon and Bramhall (2004). They use enter-
tainment media to inform leadership teaching and practice in higher education.
They claim that using entertainment media to teach leadership concepts can be
especially powerful. Entertainment media, they say, have the ability to make
complex concepts visible, a necessary but rare ingredient, they argue, in successful
leadership development efforts.Their work results in a pedagogical framework for
using selected movies, television, literature, and music to teach leadership. Another

Student leadership: Necessary research 279

example is found in Mitra’s (2005) work, which draws on qualitative data to
broaden the concept of distributed leadership to include ‘student voice’ in school
decision making. Specifically, this research focuses on how adults foster youth par-
ticipation and leadership in school reform efforts. Further interesting developments
in this regard are contained in the concept of ‘parallel leadership’ which Crowther,
Hann and McMaster (2001) argue is fundamental to sustained school success.This
concept has focused to date on teacher leaders and principals, but has been shown
to be heavily dependent for success on student engagement in the processes of
school culture building, pedagogical development and professional learn-
ing (Andrews & Crowther, 2006). Indeed the concept of student leadership has
recently been described as intrinsic to student engagement (Andrews, 2007;
Andrews & Crowther 2006; Chesterton & Duignan, 2004).
What the work cited above does not do, and where the literature in general
is short on explanation, is in the production of credible accounts of leadership from
the inside, that is, from the student’s point of view. In fact Dial’s review of the liter-
ature on student leadership found that ‘much of the available literature is quantita-
tive in nature in that it investigates the relationship between one or more variables
as they relate to leadership development programs.’ Dial regrets the fact that ‘few
scholars have chosen to address the development of leadership ability or leadership
identity’ (2006, p. 8).
That said, Komives, Mainella and Longerbeam (2006), working from the US,
have begun to pick up Dial’s challenge by arguing that potentially there is a fruit-
ful way into understanding student leadership through grounded theoretical work
on leadership identity. They have created a leadership identity development model
(based on interviews with a very small number of young people [N=13]) to explain
how educators might facilitate student leadership development and how they
might understand ‘the processes a person experiences in creating a leadership ident-
ity’. Again, this work is largely driven by an ‘outside-in’ view of leadership with
only some reference to student voice. There also seems to be an assumption that
leadership identity development is driven by adults. Indeed, an adult-centric view
of leadership as ‘position’ seems to be the starting point for their leadership ident-
ity development model. This assumes that young people, at least at one point in
time, agree with a singular and assigned, rather than possibly an inclusive and non-
assigned perspective on leadership. We argue that this ‘outside-in’ view of what
student leadership identity is leaves the research terrain from the students’
perspective largely untravelled.
The dominance of ‘outside-in’ approaches to describing student leadership is
exemplified in Posner’s (2004) survey instrument which used content analysis of
sentences and phrases about leadership categorized into five themes originally pro-
posed from work with private and public sector managers. Again, what we have in
this research is the perspective of experienced adult leaders used as the trigger for
responses from younger people about leadership.
While Posner reviews some literature on student leadership briefly, none
refers to students speaking for themselves, however he does point to the kind of
research we would favour when he says:

280 Australian Journal of Education

 Studies investigating just how leadership development occurs would be inval-
uable not just for those involved and responsible for student leadership devel-
opment, but also for people who provide leadership education for corporate,
civic and community organizations (2004, p. 444).

Posner’s suggested research direction is supported by Fielding (2004), who

sees student leadership contributing to what he calls ‘civic renewal’, a process
relying on ‘new wave’ student voice. He puts it thus:
The re-emerging field of ‘student voice’ has the potential to offer an important
contribution to education for civic society. An exploration of what ‘student
voice’ aspires to and what it actually does, suggests quite different sets of
possibilities for educational and civic renewal (2004, p. 217).

Evidence that youth and adult leadership may be separate phenomena comes
from the findings of a 10-year participant-observer study of youth based organis-
ations and the ways in which young people enacted leadership (Roach, 1999).
Young people were found to emphasise ‘the group, the situation and the moment’
and accordingly to value ‘mutual, shifting and emerging’ types of leadership. Roach
characterised this as ‘wisdom in spontaneity’, in contrast to the ‘wisdom through
experience’ accounts of adult leaders. The focus for young people in this study
was more on ‘how leadership happens’ and less on who leads. There are striking
parallels between these findings and the noted shift in leadership styles among
Generation X and Y workers away from heroic and positional models (endorsed by
the preceding Boomer generation) towards ‘leaders who will work with followers
as intimate allies’ (Merrill Associates, 2004).This clear emphasis on the relational has
also been emphasised in young peoples’ leadership behaviours in online communi-
ties. Cassell, Huffaker, Tversky and Ferriman (2006) report that elected online
forum leaders (ages 9 to 16) typically adopted linguistic styles that focused on the
goals and needs of the group and did not engage in traditional leadership styles of
contributing many ideas and using powerful language.
There are extremely positive and optimistic resonances in this pattern of find-
ings emphasising the relational functions of leadership among young people.Young
people’s emerging notions of leadership can be seen as an appropriate response to
a social context that is characterised by high levels of cultural change and social
pluralism. The tasks of inclusion and social cooperation have perhaps never been
more challenging and complex. The defining leadership skills of the new context
appear more than ever to be capacities to self regulate in the face of challenge and
change, and to successfully negotiate diversity and difference. Given that reciprocal
social exchange is the basis for social trust and cohesion (Dasgupta & Serageldini,
2000), we should perhaps be optimistic that such forms of leadership may develop
new forms of social capital and organisation rather than bemoan the perceived loss
or decline in more traditional social forms and institutions.
There are of course, a number of methodological challenges in studying
youth leadership. These range from the impact of: tacit norms—for example,
adolescents do not acknowledge or use the notion of ‘peer leadership’ (Carter,
Bennetts, & Carter, 2003); social influence and authority— for example, youth have

Student leadership: Necessary research 281

been found to reflect back what they think adults want to hear rather than
their own authentic views (van Linden & Fertman, 1998); and the potential over-
statement of the divergence of adult and youth conceptions of leadership—for
example, Schneider, Ehrhart and Ehrhart (2002) report significant correlations
between peer nominations of leaders and teacher ratings of leadership behaviour.
Perhaps most importantly we need to distinguish between our imposed ideals and
emergent realities, namely studying student leaders as ‘who and what we would like
them to be’ as opposed to ‘who and what they are’. This can be very challenging
conceptual and political territory. Miller-Johnson et al. (2003), for example, in a
study of contrasting patterns of peer group leadership in American seventh-grade
students found unconventional (controversial) students were more likely to be
influential with their peers than conventional (adult-sanctioned) students.
There is sufficient evidence from the limited research done to date that both
conceptual and practical progress in our understanding of youth leadership will not
be achieved by seeking to discern which adult notions of leadership best match
young peoples’ experiences. Komives et al. (2005) convincingly demonstrate,
through their intensive study of student leaders that the appropriate focus for
inquiry is a first-principles understanding of how young people develop and nego-
tiate their leadership identities.

Suggestions for research

Our brief review of some of the relevant recent research has led us to argue that
there is little evidence that leadership is a concept that has been adequately
described from the student’s point of view.We suggest that this kind of knowledge
is a critical precursor to reconceptualising approaches to student and youth leader-
ship training and development. It is to the kind of research we believe is necessary
that we turn in the final part of this article.
Having shown that there has been a lack of attention paid to developing a
deep understanding of leadership through the eyes of secondary school students,
we move to add some further justification for the kind of research we feel is now
needed. We do this by referring to a study of leadership and learning undertaken
in the Gap State High School in Queensland, Australia (Dempster, 2006). While
the primary purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between leader-
ship and learning, there were a number of outcomes in that school which have
indicated that further investigation of leadership as a concept may well help
secondary schools in their ongoing work with adolescent students.
Over the last five years, the Gap State High School has given significant
prominence to leadership development as an embedded part of its curriculum for
all students across the five years of their secondary schooling. Using a purpose-built,
adventure-style leadership centre with ropes courses, ladders, climbing walls and
obstacle courses, each student participates in one six-week leadership training
module every year. In these modules, they undertake, among other things, activi-
ties concentrating on personal development, teamwork, leading self and leading
others. They also participate in leadership development camps and projects that
benefit others within and beyond the school. This concentration on leadership

282 Australian Journal of Education

development seems to have contributed to the enhanced engagement of students
with their school, a continuing commitment to learning and to good relationships
between the school’s administration and its students, particularly boys (Hay &
Dempster, 2004). While we acknowledge the limitations of such a small study, we
are encouraged by what is happening at this school—however, yet again, the leader-
ship development curriculum employed by the Gap State High School has not
been built on knowledge or understanding provided by secondary school students
themselves.
Our discussion in this paper has led us to the view that there are a number of
matters related to student leadership on which research should now be focused in
secondary schools.We argue that we need:
• studies which try to get inside the heads of adolescents to understand how they
conceptualise the abstract concept of leadership;
• studies which provide responses to the who, how and why of leadership amongst
young people;
• studies which lead to understanding the purposes of leadership as seen through
student’s eyes;
• studies of leadership relationships and the situations in which they are played
out; and
• cross-cultural studies of adolescent views of leadership.
Our last suggestion helps to underscore the importance of the kind of
knowledge we are saying is necessary. Assuming that adult views of leadership are
acontextual or that in secondary schools there is a single view of leadership held by
adolescents from different cultural backgrounds is counter-intuitive.
To sum up, the kind of research we believe is now necessary is that which will
provide a grounded understanding of the meanings attached to leadership by
adolescents.This seems to us to be an important next step.Without it, programs of
development and training are likely to continue to be built on adult assertion about
what adolescent leadership is regarded to be, or even worse, what some adults
believe it should be.

Conclusion
We have presented an argument in this article that began with an assumption that
there is discernable decreasing active civic engagement in the community. This,
together with an adult literature on leadership that seems to dominate leadership
development processes amongst the young, has acted as a spur for renewing our
interest in student leadership.The result of our thinking is the claim that leadership
development and training for secondary school students will only be improved
when there is a much more substantial knowledge base and indeed, theoretical
explanation about student leadership, than exists at present.

Keywords
leadership leadership training student attitudes
student leadership student responsibility teacher attitudes

Student leadership: Necessary research 283

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Authors
Professor Neil Dempster is Professor of Education at Griffith University and President of
the Australian College of Educators.
Email [email protected]
Associate Professor Alfred Lizzio is Head of School in the School of Psychology at Griffith
University, Brisbane.

Student leadership: Necessary research 285