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Application of soilless culture technologies in the modern greenhouse

industry – A review

Article in European Journal of Horticultural Science · November 2018

DOI: 10.17660/eJHS.2018/83.5.2

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 Eur. J. Hortic. Sci. 83(5), 280–293 | ISSN 1611-4426 print, 1611-4434 online | https://doi.org/10.17660/eJHS.2018/83.5.2 | © ISHS 2018

Review article – Thematic Issue German Society for

Horticultural Science

Application of soilless culture technologies in the modern

greenhouse industry – A review
D. Savvas1 and N. Gruda2
1
Department of Crop Science, Laboratory of Vegetable Crops, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
2
Department of Horticulture, University of Bonn, Germany

Summary Significance of this study

Soilless culture systems (SCS) are increasingly What is already known on this subject?
adopted as a major technological component in the • Soilless culture is a modern cultivation technology
modern greenhouse industry. The core advantage of applied mainly in greenhouses which developed
soilless culture, frequently referenced to as “hydro- rapidly during the last 30–40 years. The major
ponics”, is the independence of the crop from the soil objective of this cultivation technology is the
which, as a natural medium, is heterogeneous, accom- elimination of problems associated with the
modates pathogens, tends to degrade in monoculture greenhouse soil, such as soil-borne diseases, poor soil
systems, and may be infertile, saline or sodic. The cul- fertility, salinity, etc. These main innovations during
tivation on horticultural growing media (GM) such as the 30–40 years that rendered soilless culture the
rockwool, perlite, and coconut is worldwide the most leading cultivation technology in modern greenhouses
frequently used SCS for production of fruit vegetables include the development of suitable growing media
and cut flowers. Water culture systems such as float- (GM) with optimal physical, hydraulic, and chemical
ing hydroponics, Nutrient Film Technique and aero- properties, such as rockwool and coir, and the
ponics are mainly used for production of leafy vege- advances in plant nutrition and irrigation via modern
tables. Modern, fully automated fertigation heads are fertigation equipment and automation technologies.
used for the preparation and timely supply of nutri-
ent solution (NS), which serves both the nutrition and What are the new findings?
irrigation of the plants. In soilless culture, the NS that • In the last years, the research on soilless culture has
drains out of the root zone can be easily collected and mainly focused on automation of nutrient and water
recycled, thereby considerably increasing the water supply, particularly in closed systems in which the
use efficiency and minimizing environmental impacts excess nutrient solution is recycled. Special efforts are
arising from fertilizer residues. The spread of patho- in progress in order to develop plant factories based
gens via the recycled effluents is a challenge that can on soilless cultivation technologies. Another aspect
be encountered by introducing a suitable system for under investigation is the complete standardization of
their disinfection before reusing, based mainly on the substrate analysis in order to obtain more reliable
UV radiation, slow sand or membrane filtration, or a results that can be comparable on a common basis,
chemical treatment (mainly O3, H2O2 or chlorination). and to facilitate their interpretation. The present
In SCS, the NS composition has to be adapted to the paper, as a mini-review, provides a concise overview
composition of the water used for its preparation, the of both standard and new findings in soilless culture
plant species and even the cultivar, the growth stage, based on a detailed literature survey.
the season of the year and the current climatic condi-
tions, and this is a challenge that can be encountered What is the expected impact on horticulture?
by using modern information and computer technol- • The complete control of nutrition via the nutrient
ogies. Last but not least, the frequency of irrigation solution in soilless culture systems and the optimal
in GM-grown crops is high due to the limited volume physicochemical environment in the root zone due to
of rooting medium per plant and has to be efficient- the use of GM result in higher yields in comparison
ly controlled. Suitable automation technologies are to soil-grown greenhouse crops, and improve the
mostly based on real-time measurement of param- product quality, particularly in vegetable crops,
eters related either to the greenhouse microclimate such as tomato, melon, and lettuce. Furthermore,
(e.g., solar radiation, vapor pressure deficit, air tem- the switching over from the soil to a soilless root
perature) or to the GM water status (water tension or environment results in decreased application of
content). pesticides and other toxic agrochemicals, which are
necessary in soil-grown crops to disinfect the soil and
Keywords control soil-borne pathogens. Finally, the recycling of
closed system, growing media, hydroponics, nutrient the excess nutrient solution that drains off after each
solution, substrate, water culture watering application may contribute to a considerable
reduction of nitrate and phosphate leaching to
surface- and groundwater resources.

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Savvas and Gruda | Application of soilless culture technologies in the modern greenhouse industry

Introduction water culture systems because the ability of the substrate to

The term “soilless culture” generally refers to any meth- retain water can provide a safety reserve, if a technical fail-
od of growing plants without the use of soil as a rooting me- ure occurs. Furthermore, substrates can provide better root
dium (Savvas, 2003; Gruda et al., 2016a). Besides, “hydro- aeration than water culture systems other than aeroponics
ponics” is frequently used as a synonym to “soilless culture”. due to their porous nature (Van Os et al., 2002).
Both terms are used interchangeably in this paper, although The lay-out of cultivation systems on substrates may
some scientists consider hydroponics a subgroup of soilless vary, depending mainly on the substrate receptor (Van Os et
culture which excludes the cultivation on chemically active al., 2008). The receptors of the substrate may be bags, pots,
growing media (GM) such as peat, coir, zeolite, etc. (Adams, other types of containers, or troughs (Savvas et al., 2013).
2002). Currently, the soilless culture systems (SCS) are con- Although the cost of the substrate is higher when packed in
sidered a major technological component of modern green- bags, the bag culture is the most widely used type of culti-
houses due to their advantages. The core advantage of SCS is vation on substrates because the bags can be standardized
the independence of the crop from the soil which, as a nat- and are easy-to-handle, thereby minimizing labor costs and
ural medium, is heterogeneous, accommodates pathogens, errors in installation. The bags are made of UV-resistant
tends to degrade in monoculture systems, and may be infer- polyethylene sheet, white on the outside to reflect radiation,
tile, saline or sodic. The independence from the soil as a root- thereby limiting overheating, and black inside, to prevent al-
ing medium in SCS enables optimization of both physical and gal development.
chemical characteristics in the root environment and a more Before planting a new crop, no drainage is allowed and
efficient control of pathogens without the need to apply soil the substrate is irrigated up to the point of saturation, to
fumigation. As a result, higher yields at a reasonable produc- ensure a complete filling of its pores with nutrient solution
tion cost with minimal use of pesticides and high product (Savvas et al., 2013). Immediately after planting, full drain-
quality can be attained (Gruda et al., 2018, this issue). age has to be allowed to avoid hypoxic conditions in the root
zone. In a bag culture, drainage slits are cut, which can be
Soilless culture systems and equipment vertical, oblique, or horizontal, but they should extend up to
The SCS include both water culture systems with mere- the bottom level of the bag to facilitate full drainage, thereby
ly nutrient solution as root environment and cultivation on minimizing stagnation of nutrient solution at the lowest part
porous growing media (GM) which create a matrix that can of the root zone.
retain both air and water at suitable ratios for plant growth. In cultivations on GM, the particle size of the GM and the
The SCS can be either open or closed; in open systems the container geometry have to be properly selected to balance
drainage solution (DS) is discharged while in closed systems water availability and aeration in the root zone (Figure 1).
the DS is collected and reused. Especially the height of the substrate layer should be high
enough to allow for good drainage and aeration, depending
Systems of cultivation on growing media on the hydraulic properties of the substrate (Heller et al.,
Cultivation on pathogen-free GM allowing maintenance 2015). Overall, GM dominated by fine particles perform bet-
of a suitable balance between water and air availability to the ter when placed in tall and narrow receptors, while coarser
plant roots is the most common technology to commercial- substrates should be placed into shallow bags or channels to
ly produce vegetables and ornamentals independent of the ensure sufficient water availability (Savvas, 2009).
soil. The substrate-based hydroponic systems dominate over

50 0-2 mm 40
0-5 mm
Actual water content (% v/v)

35
Actual air content (% v/v)

45 0-8 mm
4-8 mm 30
40 25

20
35
15
30
10

25 5
5 10 15 20 25 5 10 15 20 25
Container height (cm) Container height (cm)

Figure 1.  Actual water content of a containerized GM (pumice) at container capacity as influenced by container geometry
FIGURE
(height 1. substrate
of the Actual water content
in the of a containerized
container) GM (pumice)
and the particle at container
size range capacity as influenced by container
(Savvas, 2009).
geometry (height of the substrate in the container) and the particle size range (Savvas, 2009).

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 Savvas and Gruda | Application of soilless culture technologies in the modern greenhouse industry

Table 1.  Typical characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of the three most important water culture systems (WCS) for
commercial production of vegetables and cut flowers in greenhouses.
WCS Short description Advantages Disadvantages
Floating Placement of plants on perforated The most robust and forgiving of the Limitations in oxygen availability in the root
system plates consisting of lightweight plastic available WCS systems (Brechner and zone especially when the NS temperature
material such as expanded polystyrene Both, 2017). Due to the high volume of is high.
which are left to flow above the surface NS per plant, it is characterized by a high Not suitable for fruit vegetables and long-
of the NS (Savvas et al., 2013). buffering capacity. term crops.
Nutrient film Placement of plant roots in a shallow The high ratio of NS surface area to Lack of buffering capacity due to the low
technique stream of NS that flows along channels solution volume contributes to better root volume of NS per plant. High risk of crop
(NFT) (Van Os et al., 2008). aeration. collapse in case of a technical failure.
Stagnation of NS inside the channels due
to excessive root biomass in long-term
crops.
Aeroponics The plant roots grow inside closed Optimal root aeration combined with High risk of crop collapse in case of a
boxes or other types of containers sufficient supply of NS (Kratsch et al., technical failure.
and are continuously or periodically 2006).
sprayed with fine drops of NS.

Water culture systems sensors capable of measuring nutrient concentrations in real

Several water culture systems (WCS) have been deviced time are already available (Kim et al., 2013) but their use in
but only the floating system (including deep flow techniques commercial practice is still scarce due to high cost on the one
based on placement of the plants onto floating polystyrene and lack of reliability in the long term on the other side. The
rafts), the nutrient film technique (NFT) and the aeroponic use of ion selective sensors that can be connected on-line to
system are important for commercial greenhouse produc- monitor individual nutrient concentrations in the DS is espe-
tion (Van Os et al., 2008). Of these three systems, the floating cially important for closed hydroponic systems (Katsoulas et
WCS is considered the most robust and forgiving (Brechner al., 2015).
and Both, 2017), because the large amounts of available NS
in the root environment provide a high buffering capacity Open and closed soilless culture systems
and sufficient time to react if any failure in the system of Only crops growing on GM can operate either as open or
NS supply occurs. In all three systems, the NS consumed by as closed SCS. In contrast, by their nature WCS are essentially
plants is automatically compensated for by supplying a re- closed systems, because the NS run-off from the root zone
plenishment NS. Water culture systems are predominantly is not controlled through the water retention capacity of a
used for production of leafy vegetables, such as lettuce (Van porous medium. Thus, operating a water culture as an open
Os et al., 2008). An overview of the typical characteristics, system would result in a huge waste of NS. The target per-
advantages and disadvantages of the three most important centage of supplied NS that runs off as DS in substrate-grown
WCS for commercial production is provided in Table 1. crops operated as open systems ranges from 10 to 30%,
depending on water quality and crop sensitivity to salinity,
Fertigation heads and automated control systems while in closed systems this percentage can be higher, since
The fertigation unit is of major importance for SCS since the DS is not wasted (Savvas, 2002).
it serves as an automated system to accurately dose fertil- The reuse of the DS in hydroponic crops grown on GM
izers to the irrigation water. Furthermore, through the fer- restricts or even eliminates leaching of nutrients into the
tigation heads the growers can schedule the frequency and groundwater, thereby resulting in fertilizer savings ranging
duration of NS supply. To prepare a fresh NS, fertilizer stock between 40–50% of the total supply (Savvas, 2002). Al-
solutions are diluted into irrigation water either in a mixing though the economic benefits arising from fertilizer savings
tank or in the main irrigation pipe (Van Os et al., 2008; Savvas are not negligible, the environmental benefits are even more
et al., 2013). In most cases, the whole process of NS prepara- significant, given that in long-term tomato crops the year-
tion is automatically controlled by monitoring the electrical ly leaching of NO3-N via the discharged DS may exceed 380
conductivity (EC) and the pH of the outgoing solution. Thus, kg ha-1 y-1 (Morard, 1997). Nevertheless, if the salt concen-
the injection rate can be adjusted in real time according to trations and especially those of Na+ and Cl- in the irrigation
the measured EC and pH values. The standard practice is to water are higher than 1–3 mmol L-1, depending on crop sen-
use two tanks containing two different stock solutions to sitivity to salinity, periodic discharge of DS is inevitable to
separate calcium from sulphate and phosphate fertilizers, prevent significant yield losses (Katsoulas et al., 2015).
thereby avoiding precipitation due to low solubility of calci- In closed SCS, the DS should be filtered and disinfected
um sulphates and phosphates (Sonneveld and Voogt, 2009). before it is recycled, to avoid spread of pathogens (Wohan-
However, in large greenhouse enterprises, more sophisticat- ka, 2002). Different technologies for DS disinfection may be
ed fertigation heads are used with a separate stock solution applied in substrate-grown crops, such as UV-treatment, pas-
tank for each individual fertilizer, which are capable of au- teurization via heating, slow sand filtration, microfiltration,
tomatically preparing NS of any desired composition merely and chemical treatment with ozone, H2O2 or chlorination
by introducing the target NS characteristics into the control (Postma et al., 2008). Novel biological methods using bene-
software (Savvas and Adamidis, 1999; Van Os et al., 2008). ficial microorganisms are under investigation (Pagliaccia et
In the future, the liquid stock solution of each individu- al., 2007; Hultberg et al., 2011). However, in WCS, only chem-
al fertilizer will be injected into the mixing tank in response ical disinfection is economically feasible due to the high flow
to ion selective sensors (Rius-Ruiz et al., 2014). Ion selective rate of NS through the roots (Savvas, 2002).

282 E u r o p e a n J o u r n a l o f H o r t i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e
Savvas and Gruda | Application of soilless culture technologies in the modern greenhouse industry

Growing media and their use in SCS near future GM can no longer be solely production-driven.
In order to survive the challenges of the future, GM should
Classification of growing media also be environmental friendly and consumer-driven (Gruda,
GM or “substrates” are defined as all solid materials, oth- 2012a). As a result, GM firms are no longer evaluated only
er than soil, which alone or in mixtures can guarantee better according to their financial success. Nowadays, life cycle as-
plant growth conditions than agricultural soil in one or many sessment is used for the classification of GM constituents,
aspects (Gruda et al., 2013). GM have been used for both the based on their environmental impact and sustainability, en-
production of high-value vegetables and ornamental plants, vironmental protection, and the application of “green tech-
as well as for plant propagation, e.g., seedling and container nologies” for their production. Generally, the use of peat sub-
plant production. Generally, in the horticultural industry a stitutes, such as, e.g., compost or biochar, can substantially
mixture of GM constituents and additives are used. Additives reduce the carbon footprint in horticulture (Martínez-Blanco
include fertilizers, liming materials and bio-control or wet- et al., 2013; Steiner and Harttung, 2014).
ting agents while GM constituents include combinations of
different materials. These could be of organic or inorganic Analyzing the growing media’s
nature (Gruda et al., 2013). However, for commercial soilless performance
production of vegetables and cut flowers, stand-alone sub- Performance of GM is for sure the very first prerequisite
strates such as rockwool, perlite or coir are used, which can for success. When analyzing performance, one must consider
also be divided into organic and inorganic materials. the physical, chemical and biological properties.
All inorganic GM originate from natural sources and only
a part of them are subjected to industrial processing before Physical properties
their use. Rockwool was originally produced as insulation in The physical properties of GM are very important (i) be-
the construction industry. Benefited by its light-weight and cause they have a strong impact on air and water availability to
ease of handling it has become the dominant GM for fruit the plant roots, and (ii) these properties cannot be changed by
vegetable production in greenhouses throughout the world growers. Furthermore, the volume of GM per plant is relative-
(Gruda et al., 2016b). Perlite is a well-established GM in Eu- ly small, underlining the importance of physical properties.
rope, while in the Mediterranean region it is more extensive- However, two points have to be emphasized: (i) the analytical
ly used due to its lower cost (Grillas et al., 2001). Gravel and methods used to determine physical properties vary and of-
sand were used in older installations but their performance ten different definitions or terminology are used (Barret et al.,
was poor due to their low porosity. Besides rockwool and 2016); (ii) the range of values for physical properties of organ-
perlite, different inorganic GM, such as pumice, zeolite, tuff, ic media are quite different from those in mineral soils (Caron
volcanic porous rock, expanded clay granules, and vermicu- et al., 2015; Gruda et al., 2016b). To cope with the first point,
lite have been used as GM (Gruda et al., 2016b). an ENI method is recommended, to study the physical proper-
Organic GM can be synthetic, e.g., polyurethane, or can ties of GM. With respect to the second point, for instance the
consist of a natural organic matter, e.g., peat, wood-based concept of particle size distribution, unlike mineral soils, has a
substrates. The organic materials which are most available limited use as a quality criterion with organic GM (Caron et al.,
and applicable are peat (Schmilewski, 2009), composts (Ra- 2015; Gruda et al., 2016b). Therefore, in addition to the parti-
viv, 2013), bark (Maher and Thomson, 1991) and wood res- cle size distribution, Caron et al. (2015) suggested to extend
idues (Gruda and Schnitzler, 2004). Peat is the most widely the parameters to gas diffusivity and unsaturated hydraulic
used GM and substrate component in horticulture. Currently, conductivity for research and application purposes. According
peat accounts for 77–80% of GM used annually in Europe’s to Caron et al. (2015) and Gruda et al. (2016b) an excellent or-
horticultural industry (Schmilevski, 2009; Gruda, 2012a). ganic substrate should have an equivalent proportion of easily
However, peat is predominantly used in nurseries and orna- available water, defined as the difference of water between
mental pot plant production, while its use for vegetable and -1 kPa and -10 kPa. An optimal water availability is a prerequi-
cut flower production is limited. The use of peat as a main site for good plant growth, because both the moisture tension
component of GM is due to its relatively low costs, its excel- and the hydraulic conductivity drop dramatically as the water
lent chemical, biological and physical properties with low content decreases to levels below 5–10 kPa (Raviv et al, 2002;
nutrient content, low pH, high water-holding capacity, high Gizas et al., 2012).
air space and light weight (Gruda et al., 2016b). Recently, Apart from the GM properties, the container geometry
there has been an increasing interest in biochar (Nemati et and the production process as well as the overall irrigation
al., 2014) and hydrochar. Biochar generally has a low bulk regime play a crucial role (Gruda and Schnitzler, 2000; Gizas
density, a high CEC and a high nutrient holding capacity. and Savvas, 2007; Heller et al., 2015). The containers for plant
Thereby it reduces nutrient leaching (Nemati et al., 2014). production are much smaller and more shallow than the soil
On the other hand, the properties of biochar are variable, the profile and could become quickly saturated or dry (Gruda et
pH is relatively high and the production costs as well. al., 2013; Caron et al., 2015; Gruda et al., 2016b). Therefore,
Both inorganic and organic materials have their advan- as equivalent to “field capacity” in soil, “container capacity”
tages and disadvantages when being used as raw materials is recommended to be used for containerized GM. The actual
or as GM constituents (Table 2). container capacity of a containerized substrate, and thus the
air porosity and the water holding capacity, depend on con-
Growing media choice tainer height (Savvas, 2009). In addition, the water desorp-
Choosing which material should be used as a growing me- tion curve described through the Van Genuchten-Durner ap-
dium or component depends on the type of crop to be grown. proach should incorporate wetting angle changes during the
Therefore, GM properties have to meet the plant production desorption and rewetting process, taking into account the
needs that in turn are driven by plant biology and applied hysteresis phenomenon, which is sometimes extraordinarily
plant technology. Furthermore, the decision to use a specif- large in organic media (Caron et al., 2015), such as, e.g., peat.
ic GM depends also on its cost. However, recently and in the

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Table 2. Main advantages and disadvantages of inorganic and organic materials used as growing media (GM) or GM consti-
tuents (Gianquinto et al., 2006; Gruda et al., 2016b).
Material Origin Advantages Disadvantages
Sand Natural with particles Relatively inexpensive, good drainage ability. Low nutrient- and water holding capacity,
of 0.05–2.0 mm high volume-weight (1400–1600 kg m-3),
low TPS (40–50% V/V).
Rockwool Melted silicates at Light volume weight (80–90 kg m-3), high total pore Disposal problems, energy consumed during
1500–2000°C space (95–97% V/V), ease of handling, totally inert, manufacture.
nutrition can be carefully controlled.
Vermiculite Mg+, Al + and Fe + Light volume weight (80–120 kg m-3), high nutrient Compacts when too wet, energy consuming
silicate sieved and holding ability, good water holding ability, good pH product, expensive.
heated to 1000°C buffering capacity, good aeration: TPS (70–80%
V/V).
Perlite Siliceous volcanic Light volume weight (90–130 kg m-3), sterile, Low nutrient capacity, energy consuming product,
mineral sieved and neutral in pH (6.5–7.5), no decay, TPS expensive.
heated to 1000°C (50–75% V/V).
Pumice Light silicate mineral of Light volume weight (450–670 kg m-3), good High transport costs, pH may be high.
volcanic material TPS (55–80% V/V), cheap and long-lasting,
environmentally friendly.
Peat Natural anaerobically Physical stability, good air and water holding Finite resource, environmental concerns and
processed plant capacity: TPS (85–97% V/V), low microbial activity, contribution to CO2 release, increasing cost due to
residues light volume weight (60–200 kg m-3), low and easily energy crisis, may be strongly acidic, shrinking may
to adjusted pH, low nutrient content. lead to substrate hydro-repellence.
Coconut coir By-product of fiber Physical stability, light weight (65–110 kg m ),
-3 May contain high salt levels, energy consumption
coconut processing good air content TPS (94–96% V/V) and water during transport.
holding capacity, subacid-neutral pH (5–6.8).
Bark By-product or waste of Good air content and water holding capacity, good High variability, need time to reduce C:N ratio and
(well-aged) wood manufacture TPS (75–90% V/V), sub-acid-neutral pH terpenes concentrations, increasing cost since used
(5–7), average volume weight (320–750 kg m-3), as an alternative to fuel and in landscaping.
long lasting.
Green Composted plant Good source of potassium and micronutrients, Variable in composition, high volume weight (600–
compost residues suppression of diseases, good moisture holding 950 kg m-3), may contain excess salt, need time to
capacity, urban waste reduction. be composted, becomes easily waterlogged.
Biochar and Solid material derived Production is energy-neutral, helps with carbon Properties vary dependent on feedstock (biochar),
hydrochar from biomass pyrolysis sequestration, biologically very stable, wet material high production costs, biochar often has high pH,
or biomass hydrolysis can be used for hydrochar; hydrochar has low EC. can be dusty.
TPS = total pore space.

Chemical properties some organic GM, e.g., pine tree substrates, change during
When evaluating chemical properties of GM, the most the storage process (Jackson et al., 2009).
important criteria are pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC) CEC provides information about the sorption force and
and the nutrient concentrations (Gruda et al., 2013, 2016b). buffering ability of GM for nutrients. GM with high CEC can
Unlike physical, chemical properties could be adjusted at a store more nutrients. In addition, such GM can more effi-
certain level by growers. ciently buffer the fertilizer or mineral materials when hard
The pH plays an important role in chemically active GM water is used (Gruda et al., 2016b).
as it determines the availability of various nutrients. For
most plants the optimal nutrient availability occurs when Biological properties
the pH in the root environment is between 5.5 and 6.0. In GM must be free from pests, pathogens and weeds, bio-
general, a lower pH value and lower nutrient and salt con- logically stable, and non-toxic. The use of forestry products
centrations are better for GM preparation and production. as well as immature compost can involve problems of phy-
Initial materials with these characteristics such as, e.g., peat totoxicity. For instance, high potassium and manganese con-
moss, permit substrate manufacture where: (i) the pH val- tent (Maher and Thomson, 1991) and the presence of pheno-
ue can be increased easily by lime addition; (ii) it is possible lic compounds (Ortega et al., 1996), terpenes, organic acids
to regulate and balance the relatively high pH value of other and fatty acids (Morel and Guillemain, 2004) can cause such
component materials; and (iii) the demands or requirements problems (Gruda et al., 2009). Methods such as composting,
of different plants can be accurately taken into account and ageing, leaching, washing, mixing and fertilization, have been
controlled (Gruda et al., 2013). Since the pH value of some used to reduce or eliminate phytotoxicity properties (Ortega
organic materials such as compost is relatively high, Raviv et al., 1996; Gruda et al., 2000, 2013). Grunert et al. (2016)
(2013) recommends the use of a low-pH organic matter by reported that mineral and organic GM have a distinct bac-
composting, mixing compost with non-buffered peat moss or terial community structure, stability and functionality in
adding sulphur before planting or during the growing peri- SCSs. The differences in communities can be used to develop
od. Furthermore, it should be considered that pH values for strategies to move towards a sustainable horticulture with

284 E u r o p e a n J o u r n a l o f H o r t i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e
Savvas and Gruda | Application of soilless culture technologies in the modern greenhouse industry

increased productivity and quality. As the importance of SCS is likely to rise in the near future,
All organic materials are subject to biodegradation. Al- it is essential that researchers work with GM manufacturers
though the high biodegradability of organic GM facilitates towards identifying new materials that are environmentally
their recycling, it could be a problem during their use as GM. sustainable, commercially viable and able to perform as well
Apart from the material properties, a number of factors, such as those they are replacing (Barret et al., 2016).
as, e.g., water, oxygen, temperature and light, determine the
degradation rate. Biodegradability of GM can be measured Plant nutrition and fertilization in soilless
based on respiration rate, i.e., the produced carbon dioxide cultivation systems
(CO2), or the rate of O2 consumption. In addition, plant res-
piration can influence both the CO2 and O2 concentrations Composition of nutrient solutions
in GM (Gruda et al., 2008a, b; Dresbøll, 2010). However, al- In modern SCS, all essential plant nutrients are supplied
though it is well known that gas exchange within the root via the NS, with the exception of carbon, which is acquired
zone could strongly affect the growth of cultivated plants from the air as carbon dioxide. Most fertilizers used to pre-
(Gruda et al., 2008a), biodegradability alone cannot deter- pare NSs are highly soluble inorganic salts but some acids,
mine and provide information about plant growth (Gruda such as nitric and phosphoric acid, are also used.
et al., 2008b; Dresbøll, 2010). Dresbøll (2010) investigat- Due to their ability to selectively take up nutrients accord-
ed six different peat-based growing media as well as three ing to their nutritional needs, different plant species can be
mixtures of peat and perlite, compacted by 0%, 20% or 40% successfully cultivated using a single NS composition as that
with short periods of low oxygen availability corresponding suggested by Hoagland and Arnon (1950). Nevertheless, the
to fluctuations in water content during the irrigation cycles. need to optimize plant nutrition in commercial SCS forced
Despite substantial differences in their composition and pe- scientists to fine-tune the NS composition so as to meet more
riods of anoxia in the bottom of the containers, plant quality precisely the special nutritional needs of each cultivated
or the subsequent keeping quality of roses were not affected. plant species. Thus, currently, specialized NS compositions
Furthermore, some GM, such as, e.g., wood fibers, can immo- for each greenhouse crop species are available (e.g., De Kreij
bilize some nitrogen during their use (Gruda et al., 2000). et al., 1999; Sonneveld and Voogt, 2009; Savvas et al., 2013).
Theoretically, the composition of a NS for a particular
Environmental perspective crop species and developmental stage is optimal when the
Increasing environmental awareness among consumers, mean uptake ratios between individual nutrients are similar
constant despoiling of ecologically important peat bog areas with the relative proportions between the same nutrients in
and a pervasive waste problem forced the horticultural in- the supplied NS. This principle should be strictly followed in
dustry to consider changes (Gruda, 2012b). Moreover, the closed hydroponic systems to avoid nutrient accumulation
question concerning a replacement for peat as a horticul- and/or depletion (Sonneveld and Voogt, 2009; Savvas et al.,
tural substrate has become increasingly important (Gruda, 2017). However, in open hydroponic systems, part of the NS
2012a; Gruda et al., 2013). Despite the high value of peat runs off. Therefore, the ratios between some nutrients in
as a growing substrate, there is a concern with the fact that solutions prescribed for open hydroponic systems are differ-
peat comes from peatland ecosystems, which are important ent than their uptake ratios which more or less correspond
for a wide range of wildlife habitats, for water quality and to their ratios in the whole plant tissue. This is the case for
cycle and carbon sequestration. Consequently, a “wise use” instance with the K:Ca and K:Mg ratios, which should be
approach of mires and peatlands and peat usage has been substantially lower in the root zone than the corresponding
adopted and extensive research has been carried out (Gruda uptake ratios, to ensure a sufficient uptake of the bivalent
et al., 2016b). The disposal problems, and the consumption cations (Sonneveld and Voogt, 2009).
energy during manufacture of mineral wool are two main Since plant transpiration, and concomitantly water con-
criticisms for using rockwool in the soilless culture industry. sumption, are fully independent from metabolic functions as-
Consequently, the international trend for GM develop- sociated with nutrient assimilation, the climatic parameters
ment tends towards the use of local, natural resources and may differently affect the nutrient uptake rates than those of
renewable raw materials. Particularly in industrialized water uptake. As a result, the nutrient/water uptake ratios
countries the re-use of wastes has become common (Gruda, may alter under contrasting different climatic conditions,
2012b). Barrett et al. (2016) reported a detailed summary which means that the optimal composition of a nutrient solu-
of novel materials that have been investigated as soilless GM tion may depend also on the local climatic conditions. Conse-
components since1990. The majority of these materials are quently, a fine-tuning may be needed when a NS composition,
from industrial, agricultural and municipal waste streams. which proved to be optimal in one region, has to be applied in
However, renewable fast-growing plants, such as Miscanthus, another region with contrasting climatic conditions. Most NS
peatmoss (Sphagnum) from paludiculture or seaweed (Po- formulae suggested in the international literature are based
sidonia) can also be used as GM constituents. on research carried out in temperate climates (De Kreij et al.,
Important trends that strengthened the role of local, or- 1999; Adams, 2002; Sonneveld and Voogt, 2009). Therefore,
ganic GM are the advantages in their simple recycling as well in the last years, several investigators attempted to develop
as the increasing importance of organic farming and organic NS formulations specialized for soilless crops grown under
food production. According to Khachatryan et al. (2014), the dry and hot climatic conditions as those prevailing in Medi-
consumer is willing to pay more for products perceived as terranean environments (e.g., Pardossi et al., 2004; Savvas et
being ‘environmentally friendly’. Nevertheless, while many al., 2017; Neocleous and Savvas, 2015).
waste stream materials investigated to date have the potential The nutrient needs of a plant species may change at dif-
to offer a multitude of benefits at the experimental level, few ferent developmental stages (Sonneveld, 2002; Gianquinto
(coir, pine bark, wood fibre, and green composts) are actually et al., 2013). Therefore, in commercial SCS, the NS compo-
able to meet the requirement of being environment-friendly sition needs periodic adjustment during a cropping period.
in the commercial sector (Gruda, 2012a; Barrett et al., 2016). However, programmed changes in the NS composition may

V o l u m e 8 3 | I s s u e 5 | O c t o b e r 2 0 1 8 285
 Savvas and Gruda | Application of soilless culture technologies in the modern greenhouse industry

be insufficient in many cases because the exact nutrient tions not only for the NS supplied to the crop but also for the
needs change from crop to crop and a standard composition NS that is in contact with the plant roots, which is common-
cannot match all individual crops. In commercial practice, ly termed root-zone solution. Due to difficulties in directly
this problem is tackled by frequently analysing samples of collecting a representative sample of root-zone solution, its
DS and adjusting the standard NS formula according to the composition is commonly estimated indirectly by measuring
analytical results. the composition of the DS, although the latter in most cases
The irrigation water may contain some macronutrients is not identical to the former (Sonneveld, 2000). The nutrient
(Ca2+, Mg2+, SO42-), micronutrients (Mn2+, Zn2+, Cu2+, B and Cl-) concentrations in the root zone are of primary importance,
and other non-nutrient ions (HCO3-, Na+) at appreciably high since the plants are in contact and respond to the nutrient
concentrations (Sonneveld and Voogt, 2009). These nutri- status prevailing around their roots. The composition of the
ents have to be taken into consideration when the amounts of nutrient solution supplied to the crop is also important but
fertilizers needed to prepare a NS are calculated. Hence, the its impact on crop performance is indirect, as it is the main
fertilizer masses needed to prepare a NS of a specific compo- tool to achieve and maintain the target nutrient concentra-
sition should be individually computed for each grower. tions in the root zone (Savvas, 2001; Sonneveld and Voogt,
The need for frequent changes in the composition of the 2009). Therefore, the target nutrient concentrations in the
supplied NS during a cropping period, which have to be per- supplied NS may be frequently modified during the cropping
formed individually for each grower, entails the use of a com- period in order to achieve more closely the target concentra-
putational tool to easily calculate new NS formulae whenev- tions in the root zone, while the latter are always the same
er needed. Savvas and Adamidis (1999) developed a simple for a particular plant developmental stage. Nevertheless, the
computer program that can be easily applied to calculate the plant requirements of a particular nutrient may alter during
amounts of fertilizers needed to prepare commercial NSs different plant developmental stages because different plant
taking into consideration the mineral composition of the ir- parts (i.e., fruit versus leaf) may exhibit some differences in
rigation water. This computer program is freely accessed at: their relative nutrient composition (Adams, 2002; Gianquin-
http://www.ekk.aua.gr/excel/index.htm. to et al., 2013). Hence, for plants with a long harvesting pe-
riod (e.g., tomato) it is better to suggest different nutrient
Adjustment of crop nutrition solution compositions in the vegetative and the reproductive
As a rule, the nutrient concentrations in the root zone of stages (Table 3).
plants grown in SCS cannot be maintained to similar levels The electrical conductivity (EC), which is an estimate of
as in the supplied NS, even if the composition of the latter is the total ionic concentration in a NS, is considered one of the
optimal (Sonneveld, 2002). The changes of the nutrient con- most important NS characteristics, since a too low value in-
centrations in the root zone with reference to those in the dicates shortages in nutrient supply, while a too high value
supplied NS occur gradually as a result of differences in ion points to salt stress conditions. Due to selectivity in nutri-
uptake selectivity between individual nutrients (Sonneveld, ent uptake by plants, the EC in the root zone of the crop may
2002). Therefore, when instructions regarding the nutrition drop below or exceed the range for optimal plant growth and
of a particular plant species in soilless cultivation systems are yield. Supplying a NS solution with an optimal composition,
given, it is essential to recommend target nutrient concentra- monitoring the nutrient status in the crop through frequent

Table 3. Recommended EC (dS m-1), pH and concentrations of macronutrients (mmol L-1) and micronutrients (μmol L-1) in
nutrient solutions (NS) supplied to tomato crops grown in open or closed soilless culture systems under Mediterranean
climatic conditions as well as in the root-zone NS during the vegetative and the reproductive developmental stage (based on
Savvas et al., 2013 and Savvas et al., 2017).
Vegetative stage Reproductive stage
Desired characteristics
SSOS1 SSCS2 RZ3 SSOS SSCS RZ
EC* 2.80 2.30 3.20 2.70 2.10 3.40
pH 5.60 - 5.80–6.70 5.60 - 5.80–6.70
[K+] 8.20 8.20 7.50 8.00 8.00 8.20
[Ca2+] 5.00 3.50 7.80 4.80 3.00 8.00
[Mg2+] 2.80 1.80 3.40 2.60 1.40 3.40
[NH4+ ] 1.40 1.60 <0.60 1.20 1.40 <0.40
[SO42- ] 4.30 2.40 5.00 4.40 1.80 6.00
[NO3-] 14.60 13.70 18.00 13.20 12.80 17.20
[H2PO4-] 1.50 1.40 1.00 1.50 1.30 1.00
[Fe] 15.00 15.00 25.00 15.00 15.00 25.00
[Mn] 10.00 10.00 8.00 10.00 10.00 8.00
[Zn] 8.00 7.00 7.00 7.00 6.00 7.00
[Cu] 0.80 1.00 0.80 0.70 0.80 0.80
[B] 30.00 20.00 50.00 25.00 20.00 50.00
[Mo] 0.50 0.50 - 0.50 0.50 -
1
SSOS: NS supplied to open systems; 2 SSCS NS supplied to closed systems; 3 RZ target concentrations in the root zone.
* EC values corresponding to 1 mmol L-1 NaCl in the irrigation water.

286 E u r o p e a n J o u r n a l o f H o r t i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e
Savvas and Gruda | Application of soilless culture technologies in the modern greenhouse industry

analysis of the DS and adjusting the composition of the sup-

plied NS whenever needed, can normally prevent the occur-
rence of too low or too high EC levels in the root zone due to
nutrient depletion or accumulation, respectively. Sometimes,
the Ca and/or Mg concentrations in the irrigation water are NH4+ H2PO4-

Uptake of individual nutrients (meq L-1)

higher than the target concentrations in the NS to be sup-
Mg
2+
plied to the crop, and thus the EC of the supplied NS will inev-
itably be higher than the target level. In such cases, the con- SO42-
centrations of all other cations should not change, to avoid
any further increases of the EC which may reduce yield (Neo-
cleous and Savvas, 2013). However, in most cases, increased
Ca
2+
EC levels in the root zone of soilless-cultivated plants, which
expose the crop to salinity stress, occur due to accumulation
of Na+ and Cl- originating from the irrigation water. Neverthe-
less, in open hydroponic systems, part of the excessive Na+
and Cl- ions are leached out via the DS. Therefore, in open NO3-
hydroponic systems, salinity becomes a problem for the crop K
+

only if the NaCl concentration in the irrigation water exceeds

a threshold level, ranging from 3 to 10 mmol L-1, depending
on the plant species (Sonneveld, 2000). When the EC in the
root zone exceeds a threshold level but all nutrients are in-
cluded at sufficient levels in the nutrient solution, the yield
decreases more or less linearly (Sonneveld, 2000; Savvas, Cations Anions
2001). The impact of increased EC on plant growth in hydro-
ponics depends also on the prevailing climatic conditions. As Figure 2.   Schematic representation of the balance deficit
a rule, the detrimental salinity effects are more profound un- between the uptake of nutrient cations and anions by plants
FIGURE 2. Schematic representation of the balance deficit between the uptake of nutrient cations and anions by
der high light intensity and/or low air humidity (Sonneveldplants when the NH4-N/total-Ν
when the NH -N/total-Ν
in the supplied nutrient solution is
in the supplied nutrient solution is high, which is compensated for by release of
4

and Voogt, 2009). [H ] byhigh,

the root which isetcompensated
cells (Savvas
+ al., 2013). for by release of [H+] by the root
The most efficient strategy to prevent excessively high EC cells (Savvas et al., 2013).
levels in the root zone of soilless cultivated plants is to use
irrigation water of good quality for NS preparation, if this is considerably modify the total cation to anion uptake ratio.
possible. In some cases, a too high EC in the root zone may As previously stated, changes in this ratio have a profound
be corrected by increasing the irrigation frequency (Sonne- impact on the root-zone pH. Indeed, the imbalance of total
veld, 2000). Nevertheless, the use of plain irrigation water to cation over anion uptake in the rhizosphere originating from
wash out salts from substrates is an erroneous practice, which enhanced ΝΗ4+ uptake (Figure 2) is electrochemically com-
results in excessively high pH levels and nutrient imbalances pensated for by release of protons, and this results in a low-
in the root zone, unless rainwater is available (Savvas et al., ering of the medium pH (Lea-Cox et al., 1996; Savvas et al.,
2013). 2010). Similarly, the excess of anion over cation uptake due 21
The optimal pH in the root zone of hydroponically grown to increased supply of NO3- is compensated for by H+ influx or
plants ranges from 5.5–6.5, although values between 5.0–5.5 equivalent anion extrusion (OH- and HCO3-), which increases
and 6.5–7.0 may not cause problems in most crops (Adams, the pH of the external solution.
2002). However, in SCS, the pH may quickly increase or fall In SCS, it is much easier and safer than in soil-grown
below the safety range due to the limited volume of NS per crops to improve the produce quality by properly manipu-
plant in the root zone. Most plants, when exposed to external lating the composition of the NS. The most typical example is
pH levels above 7 or below 5, show growth restrictions (Son- the increase of the EC in the root-zone of soilless-grown fruit
neveld, 2002). If the root-zone pH in SCS is higher than 7.0, P, vegetable crops above the upper threshold level for optimal
Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn deficiencies may occur. Similarly, at pH lev- growth, in order to improve the produce quality (Dorais et
els below 5.0, there is a high risk for Mn and/or Al toxicity, as al., 2001; Sonneveld and Voogt, 2009). In tomato, the main
well a direct H+ injury in the root tissues (Islam et al., 1980). favorable effects of salinity on fruit quality include increas-
Furthermore, if the too low pH in the root zone is accompa- es in dry matter content, sugar content, and titratable acid-
nied by excessively high NH4-N concentration, the uptake of ity in the fruit juice (Schnitzler and Gruda, 2002). In other
Ca may be impaired (Sonneveld and Voogt, 2009). studies, the shelf life of tomato was also prolonged by NS
In most cases, the control of pH in the root zone of plants salinity whilst the incidence of the physiological disorders
grown in SCS requires measures aimed at preventing the blotchy ripening, gold specks and russeting were decreased
occurrence of a too high pH. If the percentage of DS is rela- (Sonneveld, 2000; Savvas, 2001). Furthermore, a moderate
tively low, an increase in irrigation frequency and/or water increase of the EC in the root zone enhances vitamin C and
dosage at each irrigation cycle might restore normal pH lev- total carotene levels in tomato fruit and increases fruit firm-
els within the root zone. However, if the adjustment of the ness (Schnitzler and Gruda, 2002). In contrast to vegetables,
irrigation schedule fails to reduce the pH to normal levels, the quality of cut flowers does not benefit from a moderate
an increase in ammonium supply may be needed. Nitrogen increase of the EC in the root zone (Sonneveld et al., 1999).
can be supplied to plants in both anionic (NO3-) and cationic Another example of improving the produce quality in
(ΝΗ4+) forms via fertigation, while the uptake rates of both N SCS is the reduction of nitrate contents in leafy vegetables by
forms are influenced by their external concentrations. Thus, lowering or eliminating the NO3-N supply a few days before
the manipulation of ΝΗ4-Ν/ΝΟ3-Ν in the supplied nutrient harvesting, or alternatively by using NH4-N as a partial sub-
solution without altering the total-N concentration may stitute for NO3-N in the NS (Liu et al., 2012).

V o l u m e 8 3 | I s s u e 5 | O c t o b e r 2 0 1 8 287
 Savvas and Gruda | Application of soilless culture technologies in the modern greenhouse industry

Nutritional control in closed soilless cultivation systems

In closed SCS, the nutrient concentrations in the sup-
plied NS depend not only on the composition and the injec- 7
tion rates of stock solutions to water but also on the nutri-
ent concentrations in the recycled DS. However, the latter 6
change during the cropping period and hence the injection
of nutrients via stock solutions cannot be constant but needs

K UC (mmol L-1)
5
frequent adjustment based on sound estimations of the nu-
trient uptake rates (Savvas et al., 2017). To address this need, 4
various automation techniques involving measurements of A-15% A-30% A-45%
DS characteristics and adjustments in real time are used in 3
modern closed-cycle SCS (Katsoulas et al., 2015).
A standard recycling technique applied in closed SCS in- 2
K UC under Dutch climatic conditions
volves mixing of DS and water at an automatically adjustable
ratio by aiming at a preset EC (Em) in the outgoing mixture 1 (Sonneveld, 2002)
(Figure 3A). Subsequently, a standard injection rate of stock
solutions is needed to raise the EC from Em to the target level 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
suggested for this particular crop species (Et). The Et adjust-
ed in closed systems is usually similar to that suggested in
open SCSs. A-15% A-30% A-45%
1.6
An alternative technique (Figure 3B) is to inject the stock
solutions of fertilizers into the irrigation water at standard 1.4

rates aiming at a preset EC (Eu) and subsequently mixing the 1.2

obtained solution with the DS to be recycled at an automati- Mg UC (mmol L-1)
cally adjustable ratio by aiming at a preset EC which is equal 1.0
to that suggested for this particular crop species (Et).
0.8
Both techniques require the use of a mixer which is ca-
pable of automatically adjusting the mixing ratio so as to 0.6
Mg UC under Dutch climatic conditions
A
A 0.4
(Sonneveld, 2002)
Injection of
Injection of stock
stock
Drainage solutions
solutions 0.2
Drainage
solution
solution
0.0
Mix 0 10 20 30 40 50
Mix of
of DS
DS and
and
water
water (E
(Em)) Fertigation
m
Fertigation 4
head
head A-15% A-30% A-45%
SN
SN supplied
supplied toto
Automatically the
Automatically the crop (Et))
crop (E t
adjustable
adjustable mixer
mixer
3
Ca UC (mmol L-1)

Water
Water
Injection
Injection of
of stock
stock
B
B solutions
solutions 2

NS
NS for
for closed
Water Fertigation head
Fertigation head system
closed 1 Ca UC under Dutch climatic conditions
Water (Euu))
system (E
SN
SN supplied
supplied toto
the
the crop (Et))
crop (E
(Sonneveld, 2002)
t

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Automatically
Automatically
Drainage
Drainage
adjustable
adjustable mixer
mixer Time (days after planting)
solution
solution

FIGURE 4. Mean uptake concentrations (UC) of K, Mg, and Ca (mmol of n

Figure
F
F
IGURE
3.  Schematic representation ofrecycling
twothe alternative
3. Schematic representation of two alternative methods of automatically recycling the drainage solution
3. Schematic representation of two alternative methods of automatically drainage solution Figure 4.  Mean uptake concentrations (UC) of K, Mg, and Ca
in a hydroponic cucumber crop during three successive time intervals, cal
IGURE
(DS) in closed hydroponic systems. A: mixing DS and water at an automatically adjustable ratio by aiming at a
(DS) in closed hydroponic systems. A: mixing DS and water at an automatically adjustable ratio by aiming at a
methods ofthe automatically recycling the todrainage solution
preset EC (E ) in the outgoing mixture and subsequently injecting fertilizers to the mix via a fertigation head
m
preset EC (E ) in outgoing mixture and subsequently injecting fertilizers the mix via a fertigation head (mmol of nutrient uptake per liter of water uptake) in a
removal from the recirculating nutrient solution (Savvas et al., 2014
m
aiming at a target EC (E ). B: injecting fertilizers to water via a fertigation head to prepare a NS suitable for closed
t
aiming at a target EC (E ). B: injecting fertilizers to water via a fertigation head to prepare a NS suitable for closed
(DS) inwithclosed
a target EChydroponic
of E and subsequentlysystems. A: DSmixing DS and waterratio byat hydroponic cucumber crop during three successive time
t
systems with a target EC of E and subsequently mixing this NS with DS at an automatically adjustable ratio by
u
systems mixing this NS with at an automatically adjustable
irrigation frequencies which resulted in three different mean drainage pe
u
aiming at a preset EC (E ) in the outgoing solution.
t
aiming at a preset EC (E ) in the outgoing solution.
an automatically adjustable ratio by aiming at a preset EC intervals, calculated on the basis of nutrient and water
t

45% of the total supply.

(Em) in the outgoing mixture and subsequently injecting removal from the recirculating nutrient solution (Savvas et
fertilizers to the mix via a fertigation head aiming at a target al., 2014). Data are provided for three different irrigation
EC (Et). B: injecting fertilizers to water via a fertigation head frequencies which resulted in three different mean drainage
to prepare a NS suitable for closed systems with a target22 22EC percentages (A), particularly 15%, 30% and 45% of the total
of Eu and subsequently mixing this NS with DS at an supply.
automatically adjustable ratio by aiming at a preset EC (Et) in
the outgoing solution.

288 E u r o p e a n J o u r n a l o f H o r t i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e
 in closed systems is usually similar to that suggested in open SCSs.
An alternative technique (Figure 3B) is to inject the stock solutions of fertilizers into the
irrigation water at standard rates aiming at a preset EC (Eu) and subsequently mixing the
Savvas obtained
and Grudasolution withofthe
| Application DS toculture
soilless be recycled at an in
technologies automatically adjustableindustry
the modern greenhouse ratio by aiming
at a preset EC which is equal to that suggested for this particular crop species (Et).
Both techniques require the use of a mixer which is capable of automatically adjusting
achievethea target
mixingEC (Emso
ratio Euto
oras ) inachieve
the outgoing
a targetsolution.
EC (Em or Eu)Ein
The rarely
m the applied
outgoing in commercial
solution. The Em (dS cultivations
m- of vegetable and
(dS m-11)) is
is estimated
estimated through
through the
the equation:
equation: cut flower crops because it favours salt accumulation in the
upper portion of the root zone due to lack of salt leaching
Em = aEd + (1 − a) E w (1) (Schröder and Lieth, 2002; Lieth and Oki, 2008).
 (1)
Ed is the
wherewhere Ed is ECtheof EC
the ofDS,theEwDS, Ew is
is the ECtheof EC
theofirrigation
the irrigationAdjusting
water and theairrigation dosage
is the fraction of
and a is the
water recycled The Eof
DS.fraction recycled DS. The
u corresponds Eu corresponds
to the EC of a NS with In plants grown on
concentrations substrates,
equal to the irrigation has to be applied
to the anticipated
EC of a NS with mean concentrations
ratios of nutrientequalto to water
the anticipated
uptake, which before the easily termed
are commonly available water (EAW) in the GM is con-
“uptake
mean ratios of nutrient(Sonneveld
concentrations” to water uptake, which 2009).
and Voogt, are common-
Irrespectivesumed
of theby applied
plants. Consequently,
technique, theirrigation events have to be
ly termed “uptake concentrations”
composition of the stock solutions (Sonneveld is and Voogt, bytriggered
computed aiming before
at NS the moisture tension in the GM falls below
concentrations
2009).corresponding
Irrespective oftothe theapplied technique,
anticipated meanthe composi-
uptake -5 kPa. However,
concentrations in most GM,
for this particular the transition from moisture
crop
tion ofspecies.
the stock Thesolutions
uptake is computed by aiming
concentrations exhibit at someNS con-
stabilitytensions
over time at which the waterplant
for a particular is easily available to tensions at
centrations
species corresponding
but may change to the anticipated
under contrasting mean uptakeconditions
climatic which the water
(Figure 4).isTherefore,
unavailablethe needs only a small decrease
concentrations for this particular
uptake concentrations crop aspecies.
constitute good basisThe foruptake
nutrientofinput
the moisture
in closedcontent (Raviv et al., 2002). In addition, the
SCS (Sonneveld,
concentrations
2002; Savvas exhibitet some stability
al., 2014). Mean over time for
uptake a particu- for
concentrations water
manyavailability
greenhouse depends
cropsnot only on the moisture tension
have
lar plant
beenspecies but may
estimated change under
experimentally bycontrasting climatic (e.g.,
several investigators but also on the and
Sonneveld hydraulic
Voogt,conductivity
2009; in the GM, which di-
conditions (Figure
Neocleous and 4).Savvas,
Therefore,
2015;the uptake
Savvas concentrations
et al., 2017). minishes rapidly as the moisture content decreases (Raviv
constituteIfa the
good Nabasis
+ andfor Cl- nutrient input ininclosed
concentrations SCS (Son-
the irrigation wateretare
al.,high,
2004).theTherefore, for safety
EC in the root zone reasons, irrigation events
neveld,and2002; Savvas et al.,
concomitantly in 2014).
the DS Meantends uptake
to increaseconcentra-
due to theirhave to be initiated
accumulation. as soon ifasthe
However, a certain fraction of the EAW
tions for many
target ECgreenhouse
in the supplied cropsNS have been estimated
is maintained exper-
constant, the increase of the EC in the DS due to
imentally
salt by several investigators
accumulation imposes (e.g., Sonneveld
a decrease in theandpercentage
Voogt, of DS that is mixed with fresh
2009; nutrient
Neocleous and Savvas,
solution and a 2015; Savvas etincrease
corresponding al., 2017). in the discharged DS (Katsoulas et al., 2015).
3
If the Na+ and Clif- concentrations
Furthermore,
are high, theions
of salt EC increase,
the EC of the supplied
in the root thezone
in the irrigation
and concentrations
nutrient concomitantly in
water constant while the concentrations
DS is maintained
willthe
inevitably decrease, as shown in Figure
A
DS tends
5A. toToincrease
minimize due DSto their accumulation.
discharge and to However,
prevent ifa progressive decrease of nutrient Et
the target EC in the supplied
concentrations NS is maintained
in the supplied NS, the target constant,
EC of thethelatter should be gradually elevated up
EC in the supplied NS (dS m-1)

increase
to aofmaximum
the EC in the DS due to
acceptable salt as
level, accumulation
shown in Figure imposes5B. ENa
a decrease in the percentage of DS that is mixed with fresh 2
Irrigation
nutrient solution andina SCS corresponding increase in the dis-
charged DS (Katsoulas
The total amounts et al.,of2015).
availableFurthermore, if the EC are smaller in the root zone of plants
water and nutrients
of the grown
supplied DS is maintained constant
in SCS than in plants grown in the soil, while the concen-
due to a limited volume of the root zone,
trations of saltaions
despite increase,
greater the nutrient
water-holding concentrations
capacity of most GM. will Consequently, frequent and accurate
inevitably
supplydecrease,
of NS isas showntoinmaximize
needed Figure 5A. cropTo productivity
minimize DS(Schrö der1and Lieth, 2002; Lieth and
discharge
Oki, and to prevent
2008). However, a progressive
this is not decrease of nutrientof SCS, because the triggering and
a disadvantage
concentrations
termination of water supply can be controlledthe
in the supplied NS, the target EC of latter
fully automatically.
should be gradually elevated up to a maximum acceptable
level, as shown in
Methods ofFigure 5B. in soilless cultivation systems
irrigation En
Overhead, surface and subsurface irrigation can be applied to deliver NS to the plants in
0
Irrigation inand
SCS (Lieth SCSOki, 2008). However, irrigation in SCS and especially in substrate-grown
The totalisamounts
crops dominated of by
available
surfacewater and nutrients
and particularly dripare 5
irrigation systems. In drip systems, the
smaller
NSinisthe root zone
supplied viaofdrippers
plants grown
pinnedin or
SCSlaid
than
oninthe
plants
upper surface of the GM and the excess
grownsolution
in the soil, due to a limited
is discharged volume of the
or recirculated. Theroot
most zone,
common type of dripper in SCS is the B Et
despite
spaghetti tube. Overhead systems, which apply Con-
a greater water-holding capacity of most GM. NS to the aerial4 part of the plants via
sequently, frequent
sprinklers, andinaccurate
result excessive supply
wasteofofNS is needed
water to favor fungal attacks due to frequent
while they
maximize crop of productivity
the foliage(Schröder andetLieth, 2002; Therefore,
Lieth
EC in the supplied NS (dS m-1)

wetting (Goodwin al., 2003). overhead systems are mainly

and Oki,
applied in nurseries, while their use in productive SCS,
2008). However, this is not a disadvantage of hydroponic crops is scarce. Subirrigation
because 3
hasthe
been triggering and experimentally
also tested termination of (Incrocci
water supply
et al.,can
2006; Rouphael et al., 2006). However,
be controlled fully automatically.
En
Methods of irrigation in soilless cultivation systems 2 E
Overhead, surface and subsurface irrigation can be ap- 10Na
plied to deliver NS to the plants in SCS (Lieth and Oki, 2008).
However, irrigation in SCS and especially in substrate-grown 1
crops is dominated by surface and particularly drip irriga-
tion systems. In drip systems, the NS is supplied via drippers
pinned or laid on the upper surface of the GM and the excess 0
solution is discharged or recirculated. The most common
Time from recycling initiation (d)
type of dripper in SCS is the spaghetti tube. Overhead sys-
tems, which apply NS to the aerial part of the plants via sprin-
klers, result in excessive waste of water while they favor fun- Figure 5.  Changes in the contribution of the injected
FIGURE 5. Changes in the contribution of the injected nutrients (En) and NaCl (ENa) to the EC of the NS supplied
gal attacks due to frequent wetting of the foliage (Goodwin et (Etnutrients
plants (En) and NaCl
) in a closed hydroponic system:(E ) to the
A)Nawhen the EEC of the NSconstant
t is maintained supplied towhen the injection ra
and B)
al., 2003). Therefore, overhead systems are mainly applied plants
of nutrients (Et)theinEna) are
(and thus closed hydroponic
maintained system:
constant during A) when
the cropping the Et is
period.
in nurseries, while their use in productive hydroponic crops maintained constant and B) when the injection rates of
is scarce. Subirrigation has been also tested experimentally nutrients (and thus the En) are maintained constant during
(Incrocci et al., 2006; Rouphael et al., 2006). However, it is the cropping period.

V o l u m e 8 3 | I s s u e 5 | O c t o b e r 2 0 1 8 289
 Adjusting the irrigation dosage
In plants grown on substrates, irrigation has to be applied before the easily available
water (EAW) in the GM is consumed by plants. Consequently, irrigation events have to be
triggered
Savvas and Gruda before the
| Application of moisture
soilless culture tension in the GMinfalls
technologies below -5
the modern kPa. However,
greenhouse industry in most GM, the
transition from moisture tensions at which the water is easily available to tensions at which
the water is unavailable needs only a small decrease of the moisture content (Raviv et al.,
is consumed 2002). In addition,
(indicatively from the0.2 water availability
to 0.4) depends not Kizito
and terminated only onetthe al. moisture
[2008] and tension
Pardossibut also
et al. [2009]). The sensor
as soon as on the hydraulic
container capacity conductivity
is achieved.inConsequently,
the GM, whichthe diminishes
is locatedrapidly as the
in the root moisture
zone of content
a plant that is representative
it is rarely applied in commercial cultivations of vegetable and cut flower crops because it
amount of decreases
water to be(Raviv replenishedet al., 2004).at each Therefore,
irrigation event for safetyis reasons,
of the entire irrigation
crop. The events have tocontrol
irrigation be system continually
favours salt accumulation in the upper portion of the root zone due to lack of salt leaching
constant for initiated
a particular as soon type asand a certain
volume fraction
of GM, of the EAW is consumed
irrespective monitors(indicatively
the moisturefrom tension0.2 or
to content
0.4) in the GM and trig-
(Schrö der and Lieth, 2002; Lieth and Oki, 2008).
of climaticand terminated
conditions andas soonfactors
other as container capacity isthe
that determine achieved. gersConsequently,
an irrigationthe eventamountonce of a water
set-point value is measured.
rate of water to be replenishedThus,
consumption. at each theirrigation
durationevent of each is constant
irriga- for In aSCS
particular type and
the set-point ofvolume
moisture of GM,
tension is a value higher
Adjusting the irrigation dosage
tion event (T irrespective of climatic conditions and other factors
i in min) depends on the volume and type of GM thanthat -5 determine
kPa, while the theset-point
rate of waterof moisture content is a val-
In plants grown on substrates, irrigation has to be applied before the easily available
which determineconsumption.the volume Thus,ofthe EAW, duration of each irrigation
the particular fraction event (Ti incorresponds
ue that min) depends to aon the volume
moisture tension higher than -5 kPa
water (EAW) in the GM is consumed by plants. Consequently, irrigation events have to be
of EAW that and hastypeto of beGM which determine
replenished, and thethe flow volume
rate ofofthe EAW, the particular
according fraction
to the waterofretention
EAW thatcurve has of the particular GM.
triggered before the moisture tension in the GM falls below -5 kPa. However, in most GM, the
to be replenished,
drippers. Mathematically, thisand can the flow rate of
be expressed usingthe the drippers.
fol- Mathematically,
Nevertheless, the this can be
control ofexpressed
the irrigation frequency through
transition from moisture tensions at which the water is easily available to tensions at which
lowing formula:using the following formula: sensors that monitor the moisture tension or content in GM
the water is unavailable needs only a small decrease of the moisture content (Raviv et al.,
��� � � is currently a research objective rather than a reality in com-
2002). In addition, the water
𝑇𝑇� = (���)� availability depends not only(2)on themercial moisture tension but also
� �
(2) SCS due to their inadequate performance and their
on the hydraulic conductivity in the GM, which diminishes rapidly as the moisture content
high cost. The main reason for their poor performance is
decreases where (Raviv W et is al.,the2004).
volumetric Therefore, fraction for of safety
EAW reasons,
(values irrigationto 1)events have to be from the
where Wf is the volumetric f fraction of EAW (values from 0 from the0sharp which
decrease is computed
of the moisture tension in GM with small
initiated as soon as a certain fraction of the EAW is
Vs is the volumeconsumed (indicatively from 0.2 to 0.4) of EAW
to 1) which water retentionfrom
is computed curvethe of the
water GM,retention curve of (L) ofchanges
GM per plant, in theF moisture
is the fraction content even within the range of
and terminated that assetsoon as container capacity is achieved. Consequently, whenthe amount of water
the GM, Vs is theisvolume as threshold
(L) of GMfor pertriggering
plant, F isanthe irrigation
fractionevent moisture it tension
is consumed (values from 0
that corresponds to EAW (>-5 kPa). As a
to be replenished
to 1), at each
a isasthe irrigation
target drainage event is constant
fraction for a particular type and R is the of
volume GM,rate of the
of EAW that is set threshold for triggering an (values
irrigation from result,
0 to 1)the andmeasurements flow are fully dependent on the height
irrespective of climatic h-1).conditions and other factors that determine the rate of water
event whendrippers(L
it is consumed (values from 0 to 1), a is the target from the bottom at which the sensor is placed. An additional
consumption. Thus, the duration of each irrigation event (Ti in min) depends on the volume
drainage fraction (values from 0 to 1) and R is the flow rate of reason for their poor performance is the heterogeneity with-
and type ofControlGM which determine the volume of EAW, the particular fraction of EAW that has
the drippers(L h-1). of irrigation frequency in the crop and even within one bag or container.
to be replenished, The and mostthe flow rate
obvious wayof totheadjustdrippers. Mathematically,
automatically the irrigationthis can be expressed
frequency according to the
using the following formula:
rate of water
Control of irrigation frequency consumption is to relate it to climatic Conclusions and
parameters. Indeed, manyperspectives
growers use
pyranometers
��� � �� � to measure
The most obvious way to adjust automatically the irriga- in real time the solar radiation intensity and a solar
The rapid expansion of SCS all over integrator to the world in the last
𝑇𝑇� = (���)�
convert it into solar per (2)
tion frequency according to theenergy rate ofinterception
water consumption cultivated threearea (Lieth may
decades and Oki, 2008). Then,
be ascribed to their ability to uncouple
is to relate using a suitableparameters.
software, they relate triggering of an irrigation eventthe to thesoilaccumulation of
where Wf is itthetovolumetric
climatic fraction of Indeed, EAW (values many growers
from the crop
0 to 1) which from
is computed from andtheits drawbacks, including the soil-
use a fixed amount
pyranometers to measure of solarin real energy
time persolar
the unit radiation
of cultivatedborne area, starting
pathogens. with a standard
Soilless culture value.
seems currently the safest
water retention curve of the GM, Vs is the volume (L) of GM per plant, F is the fraction of EAW
intensity Subsequently,
and a solar the initiation
integrator to convert of each
it intoirrigation
solar event is set
energy and bymosttrial effective
and erroralternative
to an appropriateto soil disinfection by means
that is set as threshold for triggering an irrigation event when it is consumed (values from 0
interception value of solar energy interception that2008).
results in the delivery of as much NSAs asaconsumed byare becoming increas-
to 1), a is theper cultivated
target drainage areafraction
(Lieth and Oki,
(values from 0Then, to 1) andofRmethyl is the bromide.
flow rate of the result, SCS
the
using a suitable plants in the interval between two successive irrigation events, plus inan additional 20 to
drippers(L h-1). software, they relate triggering of an irri- ingly important protected cultivation including not only
gation event 30% of DS
to the (Schrö der and
accumulation of a Lieth, 2002). The
fixed amount of solar value ofmodern,
solar energy interception
fully equipped at whichbut also simple green-
glasshouses,
energy per irrigation is triggered
unit of cultivated area, should
starting be frequently
with a standard adjusted house as longconstructions
as plants are aimed growing up andfavorable climatic con-
to utilize
Control of irrigation frequency
value. the leaf area
Subsequently, theindex of the crop
initiation of eachchanges.
irrigation event ditions. Moreover, the cultivation of greenhouse crops and
The most obvious way to adjust automatically the irrigation frequency according to the
is set by trial A more
and error sophisticated
to an appropriate approach value toofautomatically
solar en- trigger
the irrigationof
achievement events
high according
yields and to quality are possible
good
rate of water consumption is to relate it to climatic parameters. Indeed, many growers use
ergy the actual
interception that cropresultswater in consumption,
the delivery ofasasdetermined
much NS bywith
the current
SCS even weather
in saline,conditions,
sodic or is to
non-arable soils with poor
pyranometers to measure in real time the solar radiation intensity and a solar integrator to
as consumed estimate
by the the crop
plants transpiration.
in the interval Indeed,
between several
two models
suc- have
structure, been developed
which represent to estimate
a major the
proportion of the agricul-
convert it into solar energy interception per cultivated area (Lieth and Oki, 2008). Then,
cessive evapotranspiration
irrigation events, plus inadditional
greenhouse crops. ofADSsimpletural butland accurate enough model Cultivation
for
using a suitable software, they an relate triggering 20 to 30%
of an irrigation event to thethroughout
accumulation theofworld. on high quality
commercial applications derived from the Penman-Monteith equation by BailleGM et al. (1994)
a(Schröder
fixed amountand Lieth,
of solar 2002).energy Theper value unit ofofsolar energy
cultivated inter-starting
area, and withconsumer-oriented
a standard value. with focus on environmental is-
to calculate the is evapotranspiration (E,frequently
kg m-2 h-1) ofsues greenhouse crops is will based on the
Subsequently, the initiation of each irrigation event is set by trial and error to an appropriate remain also in the near future the
ception at which irrigation triggered should be and sustainability
adjusted following
as long equation:
as plants are growing up andinthe
value of solar energy interception that results theleafdeliveryarea of as standard
much NSchoice for soilless
as consumed by production of edible vegetables,
index of theincrop changes.between two successive irrigation events, cut plus
flowers, seedlings,20 and tocontainer plants in greenhouses.
the plants theE = A[1 − exp(− K ∗ LAI )]G + B ∗ LAI ∗ D (3)
interval an additional
30% of DS (Schrö der and Lieth, 2002). The value of solar energy interception at which by large and modern greenhous-
A more sophisticated approach to automatically trigger In countries dominated
irrigation is
irrigation events Gaccording
triggered
where is solarshould tobethe
radiation actual
(MJ m-2crop
frequently day-1water
adjusted ), D is asthecon-
long es
airasvapour butpressure
plants lessgrowing
are favorable
deficit climatic
and LAIconditions,
up(kPa), is the high investment
sumption,
the leaf area as determined
index
leaf areaofindex the cropby the
(m changes.
2 current weather conditions, costs are
m ), K is a light attenuation coefficient related to the reduction of light
-2 needed to maximize yield and optimize product
is toAestimate thecanopy
moreinsophisticated
the crop transpiration.
approach
with LAI, and toIndeed, several models
automatically
A (dimensionless) trigger and Bquality
irrigation
(W m-2eventsby
kPacompletely
-1)according
are parameters controlling
to which all growing conditions.
haveactual
the beencropdeveloped
must water
be calibratedto estimate
consumption, for any the evapotranspiration
asparticular
determined cropbyand thestagein ofHence,
current weather
plant the conditions,
inclusion ofisequipment
development. to for hydroponics, which is
greenhouse
estimate the crop crops. A simple
transpiration.
An alternative but accurate
Indeed,toseveral
approach enough model
models have
automatically for
schedule a
beenthe small
developed aliquot
irrigation of
tofrequency the
estimate the total
is to measure constitutes the nec-
investment,
commercial
evapotranspiration applications
the waterinstatus derived
greenhouse from
in the crops. the
GM usingPenman-Monteith
A simple
sensors essary
butto accurate
monitor enough supplement
either the model to exclude
moisturefor tensionthe last imponderable factor
equation by
commercial Baille et al. (1994)
applications
(tensiometers) derived
or the to
from calculate
moisture the evapotrans-
the Penman-Monteith
content (TDR or that
equation
FDR could
probes, by Baillerestrict
see et al.yield
Kizito (1994)
et al.and quality,
[2008] andnamely the soil. In con-
piration
to calculate (E, kg
Pardossim h
-2 -1
) of
the evapotranspiration greenhouse
et al. [2009]). The(E, crops
sensor is based
kg mis-2located
h-1) of in on the
greenhouse trast,
the root zone when
cropsof a is the
based
plant greenhouse
thaton the is a
is representative simple construction mainly
following equation:
following equation: aimed at exploiting the favorable climatic conditions, even
a small increase in the installation and operation costs that
E = A[1 − exp(− K ∗ LAI )]G + B ∗ LAI ∗ D (3) (3) is required to switch over to hydroponics can often not be
recouped by higher yields because another factor may be
11
where G is is solar
solarradiation
radiation(MJ (MJmm day -2-2
day ),),DDisisthe
-1-1
theairairvapour
vapourpressure deficit
limiting. It is(kPa), LAI is the
acceptable only when the problems originating
leaf area index
pressure deficit(m 2 m-2), K is a light attenuation coefficient
(kPa), LAI is the leaf area index (m2 m-2), K isrelated from to the
the soil
reduction
become ofcritical,
light water resources are limited, or
in the canopy
a light attenuation withcoefficient
LAI, and Arelated (dimensionless)
to the reduction and Bof(W m-2 kPa
light -1) are parameters which
the environmental pollution by nutrient leaching is serious.
must
in thebe canopy
calibrated with for any LAI,particular crop and stage ofand
and A (dimensionless) plantBdevelopment.
This seems to be the main reason for the lower expansion of
(W An m-2alternative
kPa-1) are approach
parameters to automatically
which must be schedule
calibrated the irrigation
for frequencySCS
commercial is to
in measure
countries characterized by, e.g., a Mediter-
the water
any particular status
crop in andthe stage GMof using sensors to monitor either
plant development. the moisture
ranean-type climate.tension
(tensiometers)
An alternative or approach
the moisture content (TDR
to automatically or FDRthe
schedule probes,
ir- see Kizito et al. [2008] and
Pardossi et al. [2009]).
rigation frequency is toThe sensorthe
measure is located
water statusin the root in the zoneGMof a plant that is representative
using sensors to monitor either the moisture tension (tensi-
ometers) or the moisture content (TDR or FDR probes, see
11

290 E u r o p e a n J o u r n a l o f H o r t i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e
Savvas and Gruda | Application of soilless culture technologies in the modern greenhouse industry

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Savvas, D., Ntatsi, G., and Passam, H.C. (2008). Plant nutrition and
physiological disorders in greenhouse grown tomato, pepper and Received: Oct. 10, 2017
eggplant. Europ. J. Plant Sci. Biotechnol. 2, 45–61. Accepted: Feb. 20, 2018
Savvas, D., Leneti, E., Mantzos, N., Kakarantza, L., and Barouchas, P.
(2010). Effects of enhanced NH4+-N supply and concomitant changes
Addresses of authors:
in the concentrations of other nutrients needed for ion balance Dimitrios Savvas1,* and Nazim Gruda2
on the growth, yield, and nutrient status of eggplants grown on
1
Department of Crop Science, Laboratory of Vegetable
rockwool. J. Hortic. Sci. Biotechnol. 85, 355–361. https://doi.org/10. Crops, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
1080/14620316.2010.11512680. 2
Department of Horticulture, University of Bonn, Germany
* Corresponding author; E-mail: [email protected]
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