Zen

Zen (Chinese: ; pinyin: Chán; Japanese: 禅

, romanized: zen;
선
Korean: , romanized: Seon; Vietnamese: Thiền) is a school of Zen
Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang Chinese name
dynasty, known as the Chan School (Chánzong 禪宗
), and later Traditional Chinese
developed into various sub-schools and branches. From China,
Chán spread south to Vietnam and became Vietnamese Thiền, Simplified Chinese
northeast to Korea to become Seon Buddhism, and east to Japan, Transcriptions
becoming Japanese Zen.[1] Standard Mandarin
The term Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of the Hanyu Pinyin Chán
Middle Chinese word 禪 (chán), an abbreviation of 禪那 Wade–Giles Ch'an2
(chánnà), which is a Chinese transliteration of the Sanskrit word
IPA [ʈʂʰǎn]
dhyāna ("meditation").[note 1] Zen emphasizes rigorous self-
⾒性
restraint, meditation-practice, insight into the nature of mind ( , Yue: Cantonese
Ch. jiànxìng, Jp. kensho, "perceiving the true nature") and nature Jyutping Sim4
of things (without arrogance or egotism), and the personal Middle Chinese
expression of this insight in daily life, especially for the benefit of
others.[3][4] As such, it de-emphasizes knowledge alone of sutras Middle Chinese dʑjen
and doctrine,[5][6] and favors direct understanding through spiritual Vietnamese name
practice and interaction with an accomplished teacher[7] or Master. Vietnamese Thiền

Zen teaching draws from numerous sources of Mahāyāna thought, Hán-Nôm 禪

especially Yogachara, the Tathāgatagarbha sūtras, the Laṅkāvatāra Korean name
Sūtra, and the Huayan school, with their emphasis on Buddha-
nature, totality, and the Bodhisattva-ideal.[8][9] The Prajñāpāramitā
Hangul 선
literature[10] as well as Madhyamaka thought have also been Hanja 禪
influential in the shaping of the apophatic and sometimes Transcriptions
iconoclastic nature of Zen rhetoric.[11]
Revised Romanization Seon
Furthermore, the Chan School was also influenced by Taoist Japanese name
philosophy, especially Neo-Daoist thought.[12] Kanji 禅
Kana ぜん
Transcriptions
Contents
Romanization Zen
Etymology
Practice
Dhyāna
Chinese Buddhism
Pointing to the nature of the mind
Observing the mind
Meditation manuals
Common contemporary meditation forms
Mindfulness of breathing
Silent Illumination and shikantaza
 Hua Tou and Kōan contemplation
Nianfo chan
Bodhisattva virtues and vows
Physical cultivation
The arts
Intensive group practice
Chanting and rituals
Esoteric practices
Doctrine
Buddhist Mahayana influences
Buddha-nature and subitism
Caodong/Sōtō/Tào Động
Linji/Rinzai
Scripture
The role of the scripture
Grounding Chán in scripture
Literature
Organization and institutions
Narratives
History
Chinese Chán
Origins
Proto-Chán
Early Chán
Middle Chán
Song Dynasty Chán
Post-Classical Chán
Modern era
Spread outside of China
Vietnamese Thiền
Korean Seon
Japanese Zen
Zen in the West
See also
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links

Etymology
The word Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation (kana: ぜん ) of the Middle Chinese word 禪
(Middle Chinese: [dʑian]; pinyin: Chán), which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna ( यान),[2]
which can be approximately translated as "absorption" or "meditative state".[13]

The actual Chinese term for the "Zen school" is 禪宗 (pinyin: Chánzōng), while "Chan" just refers to the
practice of meditation itself (Chinese: ; pinyin: xíchán) or the study of meditation (Chinese: ;
pinyin: chánxué) though it is often used as an abbreviated form of Chánzong. [14]

"Zen" is traditionally a proper noun as it usually describes a particular Buddhist sect. In more recent times,
the lowercase "zen" is used when discussing the philosophy and was officially added to the Merriam-
Webster dictionary in 2018.[15]

Practice

Dhyāna

The practice of dhyana or meditation, especially sitting meditation ( 坐禪， Chinese: zuòchán, Japanese:
zazen /ざぜん ) is a central part of Zen Buddhism.[16]

Chinese Buddhism

The practice of Buddhist meditation first entered China through the translations of An Shigao (fl. c. 148–
180 CE), and Kumārajīva (334–413 CE), who both translated Dhyāna sutras, which were influential early
meditation texts mostly based on the Yogacara (yoga praxis) teachings of the Kashmiri Sarvāstivāda circa
1st–4th centuries CE.[17] Among the most influential early Chinese meditation texts include the Anban
Shouyi Jing ( 安般守意經 , Sutra on ānāpānasmṛti), the Zuochan Sanmei Jing ( 坐禪三昧經， Sutra of
sitting dhyāna samādhi) and the Damoduoluo Chan Jing (
[19]
達摩多羅禪經 , [18] Dharmatrata dhyāna
sutra). These early Chinese meditation works continued to exert influence on Zen practice well into the
modern era. For example, the 18th century Rinzai Zen master Tōrei Enji wrote a commentary on the
Damoduoluo Chan Jing and used the Zuochan Sanmei Jing as source in the writing of this commentary.
Tōrei believed that the Damoduoluo Chan Jing had been authored by Bodhidharma.[20]

While dhyāna in a strict sense refers to the four dhyānas, in Chinese Buddhism, dhyāna may refer to
various kinds of meditation techniques and their preparatory practices, which are necessary to practice
dhyāna.[21] The five main types of meditation in the Dhyāna sutras are ānāpānasmṛti (mindfulness of
breathing); paṭikūlamanasikāra meditation (mindfulness of the impurities of the body); maitrī meditation
(loving-kindness); the contemplation on the twelve links of pratītyasamutpāda; and contemplation on the
Buddha.[22] According to the modern Chan master Sheng Yen, these practices are termed the "five
methods for stilling or pacifying the mind" and serve to focus and purify the mind, and support the
development of the stages of dhyana.[23] Chan also shares the practice of the four foundations of
mindfulness and the Three Gates of Liberation (emptyness or śūnyatā, signlessness or animitta, and
wishlessness or apraṇihita) with early Buddhism and classic Mahayana.[24]

Pointing to the nature of the mind

According to Charles Luk, in the earliest traditions of Chán, there was no fixed method or formula for
teaching meditation, and all instructions were simply heuristic methods, to point to the true nature of the
mind, also known as Buddha-nature.[25] According to Luk, this method is referred to as the "Mind
Dharma", and exemplified in the story (in the Flower Sermon) of Śākyamuni Buddha holding up a flower
silently, and Mahākāśyapa smiling as he understood.[25] A traditional formula of this is, "Chán points
directly to the human mind, to enable people to see their true nature and become buddhas."[26]

Observing the mind

According to John R. McRae the "first explicit statement of the sudden and direct approach that was to
become the hallmark of Ch'an religious practice" is associated with the East Mountain School.[27] It is a
method named "Maintaining the one without wavering" (shou-i pu i, 守⼀不移 ),[27] the one being the
nature of mind, which is equated with Buddha-nature.[28] According to Sharf, in this practice, one turns the
attention from the objects of experience, to the nature of mind, the perceiving subject itself, which is
equated with Buddha-nature.[29] According to McRae, this type of meditation resembles the methods of
"virtually all schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism," but differs in that "no preparatory requirements, no moral
prerequisites or preliminary exercises are given," and is "without steps or gradations. One concentrates,
understands, and is enlightened, all in one undifferentiated practice."[27][note 2] Sharf notes that the notion
of "Mind" came to be criticised by radical subitists, and was replaced by "No Mind," to avoid any
reifications.[31][note 3]

Meditation manuals

Early Chan texts also teach forms of meditation that are unique to Mahāyāna Buddhism, for example, the
Treatise on the Essentials of Cultivating the Mind, which depicts the teachings of the 7th-century East
Mountain school teaches a visualization of a sun disk, similar to that taught in the Sutra of the
Contemplation of the Buddha Amitáyus.[33]

Later Chinese Buddhists developed their own meditation manuals and texts, one of the most influential
being the works of the Tiantai patriarch, Zhiyi. His works seemed to have exerted some influence on the
earliest meditation manuals of the Chán school proper, an early work being the widely imitated and
influential Tso-chan-i (Principles of sitting meditation, c. 11th century).[34]

Common contemporary meditation forms

Mindfulness of breathing

During sitting meditation ( 坐禅 , Ch. zuòchán, Jp. zazen, Ko. jwaseon), practitioners usually assume a
position such as the lotus position, half-lotus, Burmese, or seiza, often using the dhyāna mudrā. Often, a
square or round cushion placed on a padded mat is used to sit on; in some other cases, a chair may be used.

To regulate the mind, Zen students are often directed towards counting breaths. Either both exhalations and
inhalations are counted, or one of them only. The count can be up to ten, and then this process is repeated
until the mind is calmed.[35] Zen teachers like Omori Sogen teach a series of long and deep exhalations and
inhalations as a way to prepare for regular breath meditation.[36] Attention is usually placed on the energy
center (dantian) below the navel.[37] Zen teachers often promote diaphragmatic breathing, stating that the
breath must come from the lower abdomen (known as hara or tanden in Japanese), and that this part of the
body should expand forward slightly as one breathes.[38] Over time the breathing should become smoother,
deeper and slower.[39] When the counting becomes an encumbrance, the practice of simply following the
natural rhythm of breathing with concentrated attention is recommended.[40][41]

Silent Illumination and shikantaza

A common form of sitting meditation is called "Silent illumination" (Ch.
mòzhào, Jp. mokushō). This practice was traditionally promoted by the
Caodong school of Chinese Chan and is associated with Hongzhi
Zhengjue (1091—1157) who wrote various works on the practice.[42] This
method derives from the Indian Buddhist practice of the union (Skt.
yuganaddha) of śamatha and vipaśyanā.[43]

In Hongzhi's practice of "nondual objectless meditation" the mediator

strives to be aware of the totality of phenomena instead of focusing on a
single object, without any interference, conceptualizing, grasping, goal
seeking, or subject-object duality.[44]

This practice is also popular in the major schools of Japanese Zen, but
especially Sōtō, where it is more widely known as Shikantaza (Ch. Venerable Hsuan Hua
zhǐguǎn dǎzuò, "Just sitting"). Considerable textual, philosophical, and meditating in the lotus
phenomenological justification of the practice can be found throughout the position, Hong Kong, 1953
work of the Japanese Sōtō Zen thinker Dōgen, especially in his
Shōbōgenzō, for example in the "Principles of Zazen"[45] and the
"Universally Recommended Instructions for Zazen".[46] While the
Japanese and the Chinese forms are similar, they are distinct
approaches.[47]

Hua Tou and Kōan contemplation

During the Tang dynasty, gōng'àn (Jp. kōan) literature became

popular. Literally meaning "public case", they were stories or
dialogues, describing teachings and interactions between Zen The 'meditation hall' (Jp. zendō, Ch.
masters and their students. These anecdotes give a demonstration chántáng) of Dai Bosatsu Zendo
of the master's insight. Kōan are meant to illustrate the non- Kongo-Ji
conceptual insight (prajña) that the Buddhist teachings point to.
During the Sòng dynasty, a new meditation method was
popularized by figures such as Dahui, which was called kanhua chan
("observing the phrase" meditation), which referred to contemplation on a
single word or phrase (called the huatou, "critical phrase") of a
gōng'àn.[48] In Chinese Chan and Korean Seon, this practice of
"observing the huatou" (hwadu in Korean) is a widely practiced
method.[49] It was taught by the influential Seon master Chinul (1158–
1210), and modern Chinese masters like Sheng Yen and Xuyun. Yet,
while Dahui famously criticised "silent illumination,"[50][51] he
nevertheless "did not completely condemn quiet-sitting; in fact, he seems Calligraphy of "Mu" (Hanyu
[50] Pinyin: wú) by Torei Enji. It
to have recommended it, at least to his monastic disciples."
figures in the famous
In the Japanese Rinzai school, kōan introspection developed its own Zhaozhou's dog kōan
formalized style, with a standardized curriculum of kōans, which must be
studied and "passed" in sequence. This process includes standardized
"checking questions" (sassho) and common sets of "capping phrases" (jakugo) or poetry citations that are
memorized by students as answers.[52] The Zen student's mastery of a given kōan is presented to the
teacher in a private interview (referred to in Japanese as dokusan, daisan, or sanzen). While there is no
unique answer to a kōan, practitioners are expected to demonstrate their spiritual understanding through
their responses. The teacher may approve or disapprove of the answer and guide the student in the right
direction. The interaction with a teacher is central in Zen, but makes Zen practice also vulnerable to
misunderstanding and exploitation.[53] Kōan-inquiry may be practiced during zazen (sitting meditation),
kinhin (walking meditation), and throughout all the activities of daily life. The goal of the practice is often
termed kensho (seeing one's true nature), and is to be followed by further practice to attain a natural,
effortless, down-to-earth state of being, the "ultimate liberation", "knowing without any kind of
defilement".[54]

Kōan practice is particularly emphasized in Rinzai, but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen
depending on the teaching line.[55]

Nianfo chan

Nianfo (Jp. nembutsu, from Skt. buddhānusmṛti "recollection of the Buddha") refers to the recitation of the
Buddha's name, in most cases the Buddha Amitabha. In Chinese Chan, the Pure Land practice of nianfo
based on the phrase Nāmó Āmítuófó (Homage to Amitabha) is a widely practiced form of Zen meditation.
This practice was adopted from Pure land Buddhism and syncretized with Chan meditation by Chinese
figures such as Yongming Yanshou, Zhongfen Mingben, and Tianru Weize. During the late Ming, the
harmonization of Pure land practices with Chan meditation was continued by figures such as Yunqi
Zhuhong and Hanshan Deqing.[56]

This practice, as well as its adaptation into the "nembutsu kōan" was also used by the Japanese Ōbaku
school of Zen.

Bodhisattva virtues and vows

Since Zen is a form of Mahayana Buddhism, it is grounded on the

schema of the bodhisattva path, which is based on the practice of
the "transcendent virtues" or "perfections" (Skt. pāramitā, Ch.
bōluómì, Jp. baramitsu) as well as the taking of the bodhisattva
vows.[57][58] The most widely used list of six virtues is:
generosity, moral training (incl. five precepts), patient endurance,
energy or effort, meditation (dhyana), wisdom. An important
source for these teachings is the Avatamsaka sutra, which also
Victoria Zen Centre Jukai ceremony,
outlines the grounds (bhumis) or levels of the bodhisattva path.[59]
January 2009
The pāramitās are mentioned in early Chan works such as
Bodhidharma's Two entrances and four practices and are seen as
an important part of gradual cultivation (jianxiu) by later Chan figures like Zongmi.[60][61]

An important element of this practice is the formal and ceremonial taking of refuge in the three jewels,
bodhisattva vows and precepts. Various sets of precepts are taken in Zen including the five precepts, "ten
essential precepts", and the sixteen bodhisattva precepts.[62][63][64][65] This is commonly done in an
initiation ritual (Ch. shòu jiè, Jp. Jukai, Ko. sugye, "receiving the precepts"), which is also undertaken by
lay followers and marks a layperson as a formal Buddhist.[66]

The Chinese Buddhist practice of fasting (zhai), especially during the uposatha days (Ch. zhairi, "days of
fasting") can also be an element of Chan training.[67] Chan masters may go on extended absolute fasts, as
exemplified by master Hsuan Hua's 35 day fast, which he undertook during the Cuban missile crisis for the
generation of merit.[68]

Physical cultivation
Traditional martial arts, like Japanese archery, other forms of
Japanese budō and Chinese martial arts (gōngfu) have also been
seen as forms of zen praxis. This tradition goes back to the
influential Shaolin Monastery in Henan, which developed the first
institutionalized form of gōngfu.[69] By the late Ming, Shaolin
gōngfu was very popular and widespread, as evidenced by
mentions in various forms of Ming literature (featuring staff
wielding fighting monks like Sun Wukong) and historical sources,
which also speak of Shaolin's impressive monastic army that
Two grandmasters of the Shaolin
rendered military service to the state in return for patronage.[70]
Temple of Chinese Chan, Shi DeRu
These Shaolin practices, which began to develop around the 12th
and Shi DeYang
century, were also traditionally seen as a form of Chan Buddhist
inner cultivation (today called wuchan, "martial chan"). The
Shaolin arts also made use of Taoist physical exercises (taoyin)
breathing and energy cultivation (qìgōng) practices.[71][72] They were seen as therapeutic practices, which
improved "internal strength" (neili), health and longevity (lit. "nourishing life" yangsheng), as well as
means to spiritual liberation.[73]

The influence of these Taoist practices can be seen in the work of Wang Zuyuan (ca. 1820–after 1882), a
scholar and minor bureaucrat who studied at Shaolin. Wang's Illustrated Exposition of Internal Techniques
(Neigong tushuo) shows how Shaolin exercises were drawn from Taoist methods like those of the Yi jin
jing and Eight pieces of brocade, possibly influenced by the Ming dynasty's spirit of religious
syncretism.[74] According to the modern Chan master Sheng Yen, Chinese Buddhism has adopted internal
cultivation exercises from the Shaolin tradition as ways to "harmonize the body and develop concentration
in the midst of activity." This is because, "techniques for harmonizing the vital energy are powerful
assistants to the cultivation of samadhi and spiritual insight."[75] Korean Seon also has developed a similar
form of active physical training, termed Sunmudo.

In Japan, the classic combat arts (budō) and zen practice have been
in contact since the embrace of Rinzai Zen by the Hōjō clan in the
13th century, who applied zen discipline to their martial
practice.[77] One influential figure in this relationship was the
Rinzai priest Takuan Sōhō who was well known for his writings
on zen and budō addressed to the samurai class (especially his The
Unfettered Mind) .[78] The Rinzai school also adopted certain
Taoist energy practices. They were introduced by Hakuin (1686–
1769) who learned various techniques from a hermit named Bows and quivers at Engaku-ji
Hakuyu who helped Hakuin cure his "Zen sickness" (a condition temple, the temple also has a Dōjō
of physical and mental exhaustion).[79] These energetic practices, for the practice of Kyūdō and the Zen
known as Naikan, are based on focusing the mind and one's vital priests practice this art here.[76]
energy (ki) on the tanden (a spot slightly below the navel).[80][81]

The arts

Certain arts such as painting, calligraphy, poetry, gardening, flower arrangement, tea ceremony and others
have also been used as part of zen training and practice. Classical Chinese arts like brush painting and
calligraphy were used by Chan monk painters such as Guanxiu and Muqi Fachang to communicate their
spiritual understanding in unique ways to their students.[82] Zen paintings are sometimes termed zenga in
Japanese.[83] Hakuin is one Japanese Zen master who was known to create a large corpus of unique sumi-e
(ink and wash paintings) and Japanese calligraphy to communicate zen in a visual way. His work and that
of his disciples were widely influential in Japanese Zen.[84] Another example of Zen arts can be seen in the
short lived Fuke sect of Japanese Zen, which practiced a unique
form of "blowing zen" (suizen) by playing the shakuhachi bamboo
flute.

Intensive group practice

Intensive group meditation may be practiced by serious Zen

practitioners. In the Japanese language, this practice is called
sesshin. While the daily routine may require monks to meditate for
Hakuin Ekaku, Hotei in a Boat, Yale
several hours each day, during the intensive period they devote
University Art Gallery
themselves almost exclusively to zen practice. The numerous 30–
50 minute long sitting meditation (zazen) periods are interwoven
with rest breaks, ritualized formal meals (Jp. oryoki), and short
periods of work (Jp. samu) that are to be performed with the same
state of mindfulness. In modern Buddhist practice in Japan,
Taiwan, and the West, lay students often attend these intensive
practice sessions or retreats. These are held at many Zen centers or
temples.

Chanting and rituals

The kare-sansui (dry landscape) zen
Most Zen monasteries, temples and centers perform various rituals, garden at Ryōan-ji
services and ceremonies (such as initiation ceremonies and
funerals), which are always accompanied by the chanting of
verses, poems or sutras.[85] There are also ceremonies that are
specifically for the purpose of sutra recitation (Ch. niansong, Jp.
nenju) itself.[86] Zen schools may have an official sutra book that
collects these writings (in Japanese, these are called kyohon).[85]
Practitioners may chant major Mahayana sutras such as the Heart
Sutra and chapter 25 of the Lotus Sutra (often called the
"Avalokiteśvara Sutra"). Dhāraṇīs and Zen poems may also be
part of a Zen temple liturgy, including texts like the Song of the
Precious Mirror Samadhi, the Sandokai, the Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī, Chanting the Buddhist Scriptures, by
and the Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra. Taiwanese painter Li Mei-shu

The butsudan is the altar in a monastery, temple or a lay person's

home, where offerings are made to the images of the Buddha, bodhisattvas and deceased family members
and ancestors. Rituals usually center on major Buddhas or bodhisattvas like Avalokiteśvara (see Guanyin),
Kṣitigarbha and Manjushri.

An important element in Zen ritual practice is the performance of ritual prostrations (Jp. raihai) or bows.[87]

One popular form of ritual in Japanese Zen is Mizuko kuyō (Water child) ceremonies, which are performed
for those who have had a miscarriage, stillbirth, or abortion. These ceremonies are also performed in
American Zen Buddhism.[88] A widely practiced ritual in Chinese Chan is variously called the "Rite for
releasing the hungry ghosts" or the "Releasing flaming mouth". The ritual might date back to the Tang
dynasty, and was very popular during the Ming and Qing dynasties, when Chinese Esoteric Buddhist
practices became diffused throughout Chinese Buddhism.[89] The Chinese holiday of the Ghost Festival
might also be celebrated with similar rituals for the dead. These ghost rituals are a source of contention in
modern Chinese Chan, and masters such as Sheng Yen criticize the practice for not having "any basis in
Buddhist teachings".[90]
Another important type of ritual practiced in Zen are various repentance or
confession rituals (Jp. zange) that were widely practiced in all forms of
Chinese Mahayana Buddhism. One popular Chan text on this is known as
the Emperor Liang Repentance Ritual, composed by Chan master
Baozhi.[91] Dogen also wrote a treatise on repentance, the Shushogi.[92]
Other rituals could include rites dealing with local deities (kami in Japan),
and ceremonies on Buddhist holidays such as Buddha's Birthday.[93]

Funerals are also an important ritual and are a common point of contact
between Zen monastics and the laity. Statistics published by the Sōtō
school state that 80 percent of Sōtō laymen visit their temple only for
reasons having to do with funerals and death. Seventeen percent visit for
spiritual reasons and 3 percent visit a Zen priest at a time of personal
trouble or crisis.[94] Gifu Daibutsu and altar at
Shōhō-ji

Esoteric practices

Depending on the tradition, esoteric methods such as mantra and dhāraṇī

are also used for different purposes including meditation practice,
protection from evil, invoking great compassion, invoking the power of
certain bodhisattvas, and are chanted during ceremonies and rituals.[95][96]
In the Kwan Um school of Zen for example, a mantra of Guanyin Play media
("Kwanseum Bosal") is used during sitting meditation.[97] The Heart Sutra Monks chanting the "Heart
Mantra is also another mantra that is used in Zen during various rituals.[98] Sutra" in Sōji-ji Temple in
Another example is the Mantra of Light (kōmyō shingon), which is Yokohama, Japan
common in Japanese Soto Zen and was derived from the Shingon sect.[99]

In Chinese Chan, the usage of esoteric mantras in Zen goes back to the Tang dynasty. There is evidence
that Chan Buddhists adopted practices from Chinese Esoteric Buddhism in findings from Dunhuang.[100]
According to Henrik Sørensen, several successors of Shenxiu (such as Jingxian and Yixing) were also
students of the Zhenyan (Mantra) school.[101] Influential esoteric dhāraṇī, such as the Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya
Dhāraṇī Sūtra and the Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī, also begin to be cited in the literature of the Baotang school
during the Tang dynasty.[102] Many mantras have been preserved since the Tang period and continue to be
practiced in modern Chan monasteries. One common example is the Śūraṅgama Mantra,which has been
heavily propagated by various prominent Chan monks, such as Venerable Hsuan Hua who founded the
City of Ten Thousand Buddhas.[103] Another example of esoteric rituals practiced by the Chan school is
the Mengshan Rite for Feeding Hungry Ghosts, which is practiced by both monks and laypeople during the
Hungry Ghost Festival.[104][105][106] Chan repentance rituals, such as the Liberation Rite of Water and
Land, also involve various esoteric aspects, including the invocation of esoteric deities such as the Five
Wisdom Buddhas and the Ten Wisdom Kings.[107][108]

There is documentation that monks living at Shaolin temple during the eighth century performed esoteric
practices there such as mantra and dharani, and that these also influenced Korean Seon Buddhism.[109]
During the Joseon dynasty, the Seon school was not only the dominant tradition in Korea, but it was also
highly inclusive and ecumenical in its doctrine and practices, and this included Esoteric Buddhist lore and
rituals (that appear in Seon literature from the 15th century onwards). According to Sørensen, the writings
of several Seon masters (such as Hyujeong) reveal they were esoteric adepts.[110]

In Japanese Zen, the use of esoteric practices within Zen is sometimes termed "mixed Zen" (kenshū zen 兼
修禪 ), and the figure of Keizan Jōkin (1264–1325) is seen as introducing this into the Soto
school.[111][112] The Japanese founder of the Rinzai school, Myōan Eisai (1141–1215) was also a well
known practitioner of esoteric Buddhism and wrote various works on the subject.[113]

According to William Bodiford, a very common dhāraṇī in Japanese Zen is the Śūraṅgama spell (Ryōgon
shu 楞嚴呪 ; T. 944A), which is repeatedly chanted during summer training retreats as well as at "every
important monastic ceremony throughout the year" in Zen monasteries.[114] Some Zen temples also
perform esoteric rituals, such as the homa ritual, which is performed at the Soto temple of Eigen-ji (in
Saitama prefecture). As Bodiford writes, "perhaps the most notable examples of this phenomenon is the
ambrosia gate (kanro mon ⽢露⾨ ) ritual performed at every Sōtō Zen temple", which is associated feeding
hungry ghosts, ancestor memorial rites and the ghost festival.[115] Bodiford also notes that formal Zen
rituals of Dharma transmission often involve esoteric initiations.

Doctrine
Zen teachings can be likened to "the finger pointing at the
moon".[116] Zen teachings point to the moon, awakening, "a
realization of the unimpeded interpenetration of the
dharmadhatu".[117] But the Zen-tradition also warns against taking
its teachings, the pointing finger, to be this insight
itself.[118][119][120][121]

Buddhist Mahayana influences

A Dharma talk by Seon nun
Though Zen-narrative states that it is a "special transmission Daehaeng Kun Sunim, Hanmaum
outside scriptures", which "did not stand upon words",[122] Zen Seon Center, South Korea
does have a rich doctrinal background that is firmly grounded in
the Buddhist tradition.[123] It was thoroughly influenced by
Mahayana teachings on the bodhisattva path, Chinese Madhyamaka (Sānlùn), Yogacara (Wéishí),
Prajñaparamita, the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, and other Buddha nature texts.[124][125][126] The influence of
Madhyamaka and Prajñaparamita can be discerned in the stress on non-conceptual wisdom (prajña) and
the apophatic language of Zen literature.[124][127][128][note 4]

The philosophy of the Huayan school also had an influence on Chinese Chan. One example is the Huayan
doctrine of the interpenetration of phenomena, which also makes use of native Chinese philosophical
concepts such as principle (li) and phenomena (shi).[129] The Huayan theory of the Fourfold Dharmadhatu
also influenced the Five Ranks of Dongshan Liangjie (806–869), the founder of the Caodong Chan
lineage.[130]

Buddha-nature and subitism

Central in the doctrinal development of Chan Buddhism was the notion of Buddha-nature, the idea that the
awakened mind of a Buddha is already present in each sentient being[131] (pen chueh in Chinese
Buddhism, hongaku in Japanese Zen).[132] This Buddha-nature was initially equated with the nature of
mind, while later Chan-teachings evaded any reification by rejecting any positivist terminology.[133][note 3]
The idea of the immanent character of the Buddha-nature took shape in a characteristic emphasis on direct
insight into, and expression of this Buddha-nature.[134][135] It led to a reinterpretation and Sinification of
Indian meditation terminology, and an emphasis on subitism, the idea that the Buddhist teachings and
practices are comprehended and expressed "sudden,"[136] c.q. "in one glance," "uncovered all together," or
"together, completely, simultaneously," in contrast to gradualism, "successively or being uncovered one
after the other."[137] The emphasis on subitism led to the idea that "enlightenment occurs in a single
transformation that is both total and instantaneous"[138] (Ch. shih-chueh).[139]

While the attribution of gradualism, attributed by Shenhui to a concurring faction, was a rhetoric device, it
led to a conceptual dominance in the Chan-tradition of subitism, in which any charge of gradualism was to
be avoided.[134][note 5] This "rhetorical purity" was hard to reconcile conceptually with the actual practice
of meditation,[141][134] and left little place in Zen texts for the description of actual meditation practices,
apparently rejecting any form of practice.[142][134][133][note 6] Instead, those texts directly pointed to and
expressed this awakened nature, giving way to the paradoxically nature of encounter dialogue and
koans.[134][133]

Caodong/Sōtō/Tào Động

Sōtō is the Japanese line of the Chinese Caodong school, which was
founded during the Tang Dynasty by Dongshan Liangjie. The Sōtō-school
has de-emphasized kōans since Gentō Sokuchū (circa 1800), and instead
emphasized on shikantaza.[144] Dogen, the founder of Soto in Japan,
emphasized that practice and awakening cannot be separated. By
practicing shikantaza, attainment and Buddhahood are already being
expressed.[145] For Dogen, zazen, or shikantaza, is the essence of
Buddhist practice.[146] Gradual cultivation was also recognized by
Dongshan Liangjie.[147]

A lineage also exists in Vietnam, founded by 17th-century Chan master

Thông Giác Đạo Nam. In Vietnamese, the school is known as "Tào
Động."[148] Japanese Buddhist monk
from the Sōtō Zen sect

Linji/Rinzai

The Rinzai school is the Japanese lineage of the Chinese Linji school, which was founded during the Tang
dynasty by Linji Yixuan. The Rinzai school emphasizes kensho, insight into one's true nature.[149] This is
followed by so-called post-satori practice, further practice to attain Buddhahood.[150][151][152]

Other Zen-teachers have also expressed sudden insight followed by gradual cultivation. Jinul, a 12th-
century Korean Seon master, followed Zongmi, and also emphasized that insight into our true nature is
sudden, but is to be followed by practice to ripen the insight and attain full buddhahood. This is also the
standpoint of the contemporary Sanbo Kyodan, according to whom kenshō is at the start of the path to full
enlightenment.[153]

To attain this primary insight and to deepen it, zazen and kōan-study is deemed essential. This trajectory of
initial insight followed by a gradual deepening and ripening is expressed by Linji in his Three Mysterious
Gates and Hakuin Ekaku's Four Ways of Knowing.[154] Another example of depiction of stages on the path
are the Ten Bulls, which detail the steps on the path.

Scripture

The role of the scripture

Contrary to the popular image, literature does play a role in the
Zen training. Zen is deeply rooted in the teachings and doctrines of
Mahāyāna Buddhism.[155] Classic Zen texts, such as the Platform
sutra, contain numerous references to Buddhist canonical
sutras.[156] Unsui (Zen-monks), "are expected to become familiar
with the classics of the Zen canon".[157] A review of the early
historical documents and literature of early Zen masters clearly
reveals that they were well versed in numerous Mahāyāna
sūtras,[5][note 7][note 8][5][note 9] as well as Mahayana Buddhist
Archaeologist Aurel Stein's 1907
philosophy such as Madhyamaka.[124]
view of Mogao Cave 16, with altar
and sutra scrolls
Nevertheless, Zen is often pictured as anti-intellectual.[155] This
picture of Zen emerged during the Song Dynasty (960–1297),
when Chán became the dominant form of Buddhism in China, and
gained great popularity among the educated and literary classes of Chinese
society. The use of koans, which are highly stylized literary texts, reflects
this popularity among the higher classes.[134] The famous saying "do not
establish words and letters", attributed in this period to Bodhidharma,[160]

...was taken not as a denial of the recorded words of the

Buddha or the doctrinal elaborations by learned monks, but as
a warning to those who had become confused about the
relationship between Buddhist teaching as a guide to the truth
and mistook it for the truth itself.[161] Tablets of the Tripiṭaka
Koreana, an early edition of
the Chinese Buddhist
What the Zen tradition emphasizes is that the enlightenment of the Buddha canon, in Haeinsa Temple,
came not through conceptualization but rather through direct insight.[162] South Korea
But direct insight has to be supported by study and understanding
(hori[163]) of the Buddhist teachings and texts.[164][note 10] Intellectual
understanding without practice is called yako-zen, "wild fox Zen", but "one who has only experience
without intellectual understanding is a zen temma, 'Zen devil' ".[166]

Grounding Chán in scripture

The early Buddhist schools in China were each based on a specific sutra. At the beginning of the Tang
Dynasty, by the time of the Fifth Patriarch Hongren (601–674), the Zen school became established as a
separate school of Buddhism.[167] It had to develop a doctrinal tradition of its own to ascertain its
position[134] and to ground its teachings in a specific sutra. Various sutras were used for this even before
the time of Hongren: the Śrīmālādevī Sūtra (Huike),[168] Awakening of Faith (Daoxin),[168] the
Lankavatara Sutra (East Mountain School),[168][5] the Diamond Sutra[169] (Shenhui),[168] and the Platform
Sutra.[5][169] None of these sutras were decisive though, since the school drew inspiration from a variety of
sources.[170] Subsequently, the Zen tradition produced a rich corpus of written literature, which has become
a part of its practice and teaching. Other influential sutras are the Vimalakirti Sutra,[171][172][173]
Avatamsaka Sutra,[174] the Shurangama Sutra,[175] and the Mahaparinirvana Sutra.[176]

Literature
The Zen-tradition developed a rich textual tradition, based on the interpretation of the Buddhist teachings
and the recorded sayings of Zen-masters. Important texts are the Platform Sutra (8th century), attributed to
Huineng ;[134] the Chán transmission records, teng-lu,[177] such as The Records of the Transmission of the
Lamp (Ching-te ch'uan-teng lu), compiled by Tao-yün and published in 1004;[178] the "yü-lü" genre[179]
consisting of the recorded sayings of the masters, and the encounter dialogues; the koan-collections, such as
the "Gateless Gate" and the "Blue Cliff Record".

Organization and institutions

Religion is not only an individual matter, but "also a collective endeavour".[180] Though individual
experience[181] and the iconoclastic picture of Zen[182] are emphasised in the Western world, the Zen-
tradition is maintained and transferred by a high degree of institutionalisation and hierarchy.[183][184] In
Japan, modernity has led to criticism of the formal system and the commencement of lay-oriented Zen-
schools such as the Sanbo Kyodan[185] and the Ningen Zen Kyodan.[186] How to organize the continuity
of the Zen-tradition in the West, constraining charismatic authority and the derailment it may bring on the
one hand,[187][188][53] and maintaining the legitimacy and authority by limiting the number of authorized
teachers on the other hand,[180] is a challenge for the developing Zen-communities in the West.

Narratives
The Chán of the Tang Dynasty, especially that of Mazu and Linji with its emphasis on "shock techniques",
in retrospect was seen as a golden age of Chán.[134] It became dominant during the Song Dynasty, when
Chán was the dominant form of Buddhism in China, due to support from the Imperial Court.[134] This
picture has gained great popularity in the West in the 20th century, especially due to the influence of D.T.
Suzuki,[189] and further popularized by Hakuun Yasutani and the Sanbo Kyodan.[181] This picture has
been challenged, and complemented, since the 1970s by modern scientific research on
Zen.[134][190][191][192][193][194]

Modern scientific research on the history of Zen discerns three main narratives concerning Zen, its history
and its teachings: Traditional Zen Narrative (TZN),[195][196] Buddhist Modernism (BM),[189] Historical
and Cultural Criticism (HCC).[195] An external narrative is Nondualism, which claims Zen to be a token of
a universal nondualist essence of religions.[197][198]

History

Chinese Chán

禪
Zen (Chinese: Chán ) Buddhism, as we know it today, is the result of a long history, with many changes
and contingent factors. Each period had different types of Zen, some of which remained influential, while
others vanished.[134] The history of Chán in China is divided into various periods by different scholars,
who generally distinguish a classical phase and a post-classical period.

Ferguson distinguishes three periods from the 5th century into the 13th century:

1. The Legendary period, from Bodhidharma in the late 5th century to the An Lushan
Rebellion around 765 CE, in the middle of the Tang Dynasty. Little written information is left
from this period.[199] It is the time of the Six Patriarchs, including Bodhidharma and Huineng,
and the legendary "split" between the Northern and the Southern School of Chán.[134]
 2. The Classical period, from the end of the An Lushan Rebellion
around 765 CE to the beginning of the Song Dynasty around
950 CE.[199] This is the time of the great masters of Chán, such
as Mazu Daoyi and Linji Yixuan, and the creation of the yü-lü
genre, the recordings of the sayings and teachings of these
great masters.
3. The Literary period, from around 950 to 1250,[199] which
spans the era of the Song Dynasty (960–1279). In this time the
gongan-collections were compiled, collections of sayings and
deeds by the famous masters, appended with poetry and
commentary. This genre reflects the influence of literati on the
development of Chán. This period idealized the previous
period as the "golden age" of Chán, producing the literature in
which the spontaneity of the celebrated masters was portrayed.

Although McRae has reservations about the division of Chán-history in

Huike Offering His Arm to
phases or periods,[200] he nevertheless distinguishes four phases in the
Bodhidharma, Sesshū Tōyō
history of Chán:[201] (1496).

1. Proto-Chán (c. 500–600) (Southern and Northern Dynasties

(420 to 589) and Sui Dynasty (589–618 CE)). In this phase,
Chán developed in multiple locations in northern China. It was based on the practice of
dhyana and is connected to the figures of Bodhidharma and Huike. Its principal text is the
Two Entrances and Four Practices, attributed to Bodhidharma.[202]
2. Early Chán (c. 600–900) (Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE)). In this phase Chán took its first
clear contours. Prime figures are the fifth patriarch Daman Hongren (601–674), his dharma-
heir Yuquan Shenxiu (606?–706), the sixth patriarch Huineng (638–713), protagonist of the
quintessential Platform Sutra, and Shenhui (670–762), whose propaganda elevated
Huineng to the status of sixth patriarch. Prime factions are the Northern School, Southern
School and Oxhead school.[203]
3. Middle Chán (c. 750–1000) (from An Lushan Rebellion (755–763) till Five Dynasties and
Ten Kingdoms period (907–960/979)). In this phase developed the well-known Chán of the
iconoclastic zen-masters. Prime figures are Mazu Daoyi (709–788), Shitou Xiqian (710–
790), Linji Yixuan (died 867), and Xuefeng Yicun (822–908). Prime factions are the
Hongzhou school and the Hubei faction[note 11] An important text is the Anthology of the
Patriarchal Hall (952), which gives a great amount of "encounter-stories", and the well-
known genealogy of the Chán-school.[206]
4. Song Dynasty Chán (c. 950–1300). In this phase Chán took its definitive shape including
the picture of the "golden age" of the Chán of the Tang-Dynasty, and the use of koans for
individual study and meditation. Prime figures are Dahui Zonggao (1089–1163) who
introduced the Hua Tou practice and Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) who emphasized
Shikantaza. Prime factions are the Linji school and the Caodong school. The classic koan-
collections, such as the Blue Cliff Record were assembled in this period,[207] which reflect
the influence of the "literati" on the development of Chán.[208][160] In this phase Chán is
transported to Japan, and exerts a great influence on Korean Seon via Jinul.

Neither Ferguson nor McRae give a periodisation for Chinese Chán following the Song-dynasty, though
McRae mentions "at least a post-classical phase or perhaps multiple phases".[209] According to David
McMahan:
 During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) Chán was part of a
larger, syncretic Buddhist culture. A final phase can be distinguished from the 19th century
onward, when western imperialism had a growing influence in South-East Asia, including
China. A side effect of this imperial influence was the modernisation of Asian religions,
adapting them to western ideas and rhetorical strategies.[189]

Origins

Before the arrival of the "founder" of Chan, Bodhidharma, various Buddhist masters of meditation or
dhyana (i.e. Chan) had taught in China. These figures also brought with them various meditation texts,
called the Dhyāna sutras (Chinese: 禪經 chan jing). These early meditation works mainly drew from the
teachings of the Sarvāstivāda school of Kashmir.[210] These texts include the translations of the Parthian
An Shigao (147–168 CE) like the Anban shouyi jing (Sanskrit: Ānāpānasmṛti-sūtra), the numerous
translations of Kumārajīva (334–413 CE, such as the Zuochan sanmei jing (Sutra of Sitting Dhyāna
samādhi) and those of Buddhabhadra (like the Damoduoluo chan jing, Dharmatrāta Dhyāna
sūtra).[211][212][213] These early meditation texts laid the groundwork for the practices of Chan Buddhism
(Zen) and the works of the Tiantai meditation master Zhiyi.[214]

The translation work of Kumārajīva (especially his Prajñāpāramitā translations and his Vimalakirti Sutra),
Buddhabhadra (Avatamsaka Sutra) and Gunabhadra (Lankāvatāra sūtra) were also key formative
influences on the origins of Chan. These Buddhist texts are some of the key sources for later Chan
masters.[215] Indeed, in some early Chan texts (like the Masters of the Lankāvatāra), it is Gunabhadra, not
Bodhidharma, which is seen as the first patriarch who transmits the Chan lineage (here seen as synonymous
with the Lankāvatāra tradition) from India.[216] The meditation works of the fourth Tiantai patriarch Zhiyi,
such as his monumental Mohezhiguan, were also important sources on later Chan meditation manuals, like
the Tso-chan-i.[217]

A further possible influence on the origin of Chan Buddhism is Taoism. Some of the earliest Chinese
Buddhists were influenced by Daoist thought and terminology and this has led some scholars to see a
Taoist influence on Chan.[218][219][220][221] In his history of Zen, Heinrich Dumoulin argued that Chan
Buddhist developed out of the confluence of Indian Mahayana and Chinese Taoism.[222] Two Chinese
disciples of Kumārajīva, Sengzhao and Tao Sheng were influenced by Taoist works like the Laozi and
Zhuangzi.[221] These Sanlun figures in turn had an influence on some early Chan masters.[223]

Proto-Chán

Proto-Chán (c. 500–600) encompasses the Southern and Northern Dynasties period (420 to 589) and Sui
Dynasty (589–618 CE). In this phase, Chán developed in multiple locations in northern China. It was
based on the practice of dhyana and is connected to the figures of Bodhidharma, Seng-fu and Huike,
though there is little actual historical information about these early figures and most legendary stories about
their life come from later, mostly Tang sources. What is known is that they were considered Mahayana
meditation masters.[224][134]

An important text from this period is the Two Entrances and Four Practices, found in Dunhuang, and
attributed to Bodhidharma.[202] Later sources mention that these figures taught using the Laṅkāvatāra
Sūtra though there is no direct evidence of this from the earliest sources.[225][226] According to John
McRae, the earliest Chan sources on these masters show considerable influence from Madhyamaka
thought, while the influence from the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra is actually much less pronounced and it is
questionable if it was there at all with regards to the earliest figures like Bodhidharma and Huike.[224]
Early Chán

Early Chán refers to early Tang Dynasty (618–750) Chán. The fifth
patriarch Daman Hongren (601–674), and his dharma-heir Yuquan
Shenxiu (606?–706) were influential in founding the first Chan
institution in Chinese history, known as the "East Mountain school"
(Dongshan famen).[227] Hongren taught the practice of shou-hsin,
"maintaining (guarding) the mind," in which "an awareness of True
Mind or Buddha-nature within" is maintained, "[exhorting] the
practitioners to unremittingly apply themselves to the practice of
meditation."[228]

Shenxiu was the most influential and charismatic student of Hongren,

he was even invited to the Imperial Court by Empress Wu.[229]
Shenxiu also became the target of much criticism by Shenhui (670–
762), for his "gradualist" teachings. Shenhui instead promoted the
"sudden" teachings of his teacher Huineng (638–713) as well as what
Bodhidharma, stone carving in
later became a very influential Chán classic called the Platform
Shaolin Temple.
Sutra.[230] Shenhui's propaganda campaign eventually succeeded in
elevating Huineng to the status of sixth patriarch of Chinese
Chán.[231][134] The sudden vs. gradual debate that developed in
this era came to define later forms of Chan Buddhism.[232]

Middle Chán

The Middle Chán (c. 750–1000) period runs from the An Lushan
Rebellion (755–763) to the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
period (907–960/979). This phase saw the development new
schools of Chan. The most important of these schools is the
Hongzhou school of Mazu Daoyi (709–788), to which also belong
Shitou, Baizhang, and Huangbo. This school is sometimes seen as
the archetypal expression of Chán, with its emphasis on the
personal expression of insight, and its rejection of positive
statements, as well as the importance it placed on spontaneous and
unconventional "questions and answers during an encounter" (linji
wenda) between master and disciple.[125][233]

However, modern scholars have seen much of the literature that Hongren
presents these "iconoclastic" encounters as being later revisions
during the Song era, and instead see the Hongzhou masters as not
being very radical, instead promoting pretty conservative ideas, such as keeping precepts, accumulating
good karma and practicing meditation.[233] The school did produce innovative teachings and perspectives
such as Mazu's views that "this mind is Buddha" and that "ordinary mind is the way", which were also
critiqued by later figures, such as the influential Guifeng Zongmi (780–841), for failing to differentiate
between ignorance and enlightenment.[234]

By the end of the late Tang, the Hongzhou school was gradually superseded by various regional traditions,
which became known as the Five Houses of Chán. Shitou Xiqian (710–790) is regarded as the Patriarch of
Cáodòng (Jp. Sōtō) school, while Linji Yixuan (died 867) is regarded as the founder of Línjì (Jp. Rinzai)
school. Both of these traditions were quite influential both in and outside of China. Another influential
Chán master of the late Tang was Xuefeng Yicun. During the later Tang, the practice of the "encounter
dialogue" reached its full maturity. These formal dialogues between master and disciple may have used
absurd, illogical and iconoclastic language as well as non-verbal
forms of communication such as the drawing of circles and
physical gestures like shouting and hitting.[235]

It was also common to write fictional encounter dialogues and

attribute them to previous Chán figures.[235] An important text
from this period is the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (952),
which gives many "encounter-stories", as well as establishing a
genealogy of the Chán school.[206] The Great Anti-Buddhist
Persecution in 845 was devastating for metropolitan Chan, but the
Chan school of Mazu survived, and took a leading role in the
Chan of the later Tang.[236]
Mazu
Song Dynasty Chán

During Song Dynasty Chán (c. 950–1300), Chán Buddhism took its
definitive shape, through the development of the use of koans for
individual study and meditation. It was also during the Song that Chan
literati developed their own idealized history of Chan, particularly
promoting the idea of a Tang "golden age" of Chan.[238] During the Song,
Chán became the largest sect of Chinese Buddhism and had strong ties to
the imperial government, which led to the development of a highly
organized system of temple rank and administration.[239]

The dominant form of Song Chán was the Linji school due to support
from the scholar-official class and the imperial court.[240] This school
developed the study of gong'an ("public case") literature, which depicted
stories of master-student encounters that were seen as demonstrations of
the awakened mind. Most of these stories depicted the idealized encounters
Dahui introduced the method
of past Chan masters, particularly from the Tang era, and show the
of kan huatou, or "inspecting
influence of the Chinese literati class.[241][238][208][160] The most
the critical phrase", of a
influential of these works are the Blue Cliff Record, the Book of
kōan story. This method
Equanimity and The Gateless Gate.[207] was called the "Chan of
kōan introspection" (Kanhua
During the 12th century, a rivalry emerged between the Linji and the
Chan).[237]
Caodong schools for the support of the scholar-official class. Hongzhi
Zhengjue (1091–1157) of the Caodong school emphasized silent
illumination or serene reflection (mòzhào) as a means for solitary practice, which could be undertaken by
lay-followers. The Linji school's Dahui Zonggao (1089–1163) meanwhile, introduced k'an-hua chan
("observing the word-head" chan), which involved meditation on the crucial phrase or "punch line" (hua-
tou) of a gong'an.[242][243]

The Song also saw the syncretism of Chán and Pure Land Buddhism by Yongming Yanshou (904–975),
which would later become extremely influential.[244] Yongming also echoed Zongmi's work in indicating
that the values of Taoism and Confucianism could also be embraced and integrated into Buddhism. Chán
also influenced Neo-Confucianism as well as certain forms of Taoism, such as the Quanzhen
school.[245][246]

During the Song, Chán was also transported to Japan by figures like Eisai and exerted a great influence on
Korean Seon via Jinul.
Post-Classical Chán

During the Ming Dynasty, the Chán school was so dominant that all Chinese monks were affiliated with
either the Linji school or the Caodong school.[247]

Some scholars see the post-classical phase as being an "age of syncretism."[248] The post-classical period
saw the increasing popularity of the dual practice of Chán and Pure Land Buddhism (known as nianfo
Chan), as seen in the teachings of Zhongfeng Mingben (1263–1323) and the great reformer Hanshan
Deqing (1546–1623). This became a widespread phenomenon and in time much of the distinction between
them was lost, with many monasteries teaching both Chán meditation and the Pure Land practice of
nianfo.[249][250][56]

The Ming dynasty also saw the efforts of figures such as Yunqi Zhuhong (1535–1615) and Daguan
Zhenke (1543–1603) to revive and reconcile Chan Buddhism with the practice of Buddhist scriptural study
and writing.[248]

In the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, Chán was "reinvented", by the "revival of beating and shouting
practices" by Miyun Yuanwu (1566–1642), and the publication of the Wudeng yantong ("The strict
transmission of the five Chan schools") by Feiyin Tongrong's (1593–1662), a dharma heir of Miyun
Yuanwu. The book placed self-proclaimed Chan monks without proper Dharma transmission in the
category of "lineage unknown" (sifa weixiang), thereby excluding several prominent Caodong monks.[251]

Modern era

After further centuries of decline during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912),

Chán activity was revived again in the 19th and 20th centuries by a flurry
of modernist activity. This period saw the rise of worldly Chan activism,
what is sometimes called Humanistic Buddhism (or more literally
"Buddhism for human life", rensheng fojiao), promoted by figures like
Jing'an (1851–1912), Yuanying (1878–1953), Taixu (1890–1947), Xuyun
(1840–1959) and Yinshun (1906–2005). These figures promoted social
activism to address issues such as poverty and social injustice, as well as
participation in political movements. They also promoted modern science
and scholarship, including the use of the methods of modern critical
scholarship to study the history of Chan.[253]

Many Chán teachers today trace their lineage back to Xuyun, including Xuyun was one of the most
Sheng-yen and Hsuan Hua, who have propagated Chán in the West where influential Chán Buddhists of
it has grown steadily through the 20th and 21st centuries. Chán Buddhism the 19th and 20th
was repressed in China during the 1960s in the Cultural Revolution, but in centuries.[252]
the subsequent reform and opening up period in the 1970s, a revival of
Chinese Buddhism has been taking place on the mainland, while
Buddhism has a significant following in Taiwan and Hong Kong as well as among Overseas Chinese.

Spread outside of China

Vietnamese Thiền

Chan was introduced to Vietnam during the early Chinese occupation periods (111 BCE to 939 CE) as
Thiền. During the Lý (1009–1225) and Trần (1225 to 1400) dynasties, Thiền rose to prominence among
the elites and the royal court and a new native tradition was founded, the Trúc Lâm ("Bamboo Grove")
school, which also contained Confucian and Taoist influences. In
the 17th century, the Linji school was brought to Vietnam as the
Lâm Tế, which also mixed Chan and Pure land. Lâm Tế remains
the largest monastic order in the country today.[254]

Modern Vietnamese Thiền is influenced by Buddhist

modernism.[255] Important figures include Thiền master Thích
Thanh Từ (1924–), the activist and popularizer Thích Nhất Hạnh
(1926–) and the philosopher Thích Thiên-Ân. Vietnamese Thiền
is eclectic and inclusive, bringing in many practices such as breath
meditation, nianfo, mantra, Theravada influences, chanting, sutra
recitation and engaged Buddhism activism.
Thích Nhất Hạnh leading a namo
avalokiteshvaraya chanting session
Korean Seon with monastics from his Order of

선
Interbeing, Germany 2010
Seon ( ) was gradually transmitted into Korea during the late
Silla period (7th through 9th centuries) as Korean monks began to
travel to China to learn the newly developing Chan tradition of
Mazu Daoyi and returned home to establish the Chan school. They
established the initial Seon schools of Korea, which were known
as the "nine mountain schools" (九⼭ , gusan).

Seon received its most significant impetus and consolidation from

the Goryeo monk Jinul (1158–1210), who is considered the most
influential figure in the formation of the mature Seon school. He
founded the Jogye Order, which remains the largest Seon tradition Jogyesa is the headquarters of the
in Korea today. Jinul founded the Songgwangsa temple as a new Jogye Order. The temple was first
center of Seon study and practice. Jinul also wrote extensive works established in 1395, at the dawn of
on Seon, developing a comprehensive system of thought and the Joseon Dynasty.
practice. From Dahui Zonggao, Jinul adopted the hwadu method,
which remains the main meditation form taught in Seon today.

Buddhism was mostly suppressed during the strictly Confucian Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), and the
number of monasteries and clergy sharply declined. The period of Japanese occupation also brought
numerous modernist ideas and changes to Korean Seon. Some monks began to adopt the Japanese practice
of marrying and having families, while others such as Yongseong, worked to resist the Japanese
occupation. Today, the largest Seon school, the Jogye, enforces celibacy, while the second largest, the
Taego Order, allows for married priests. Important modernist figures that influenced contemporary Seon
include Seongcheol and Gyeongheo. Seon has also been transmitted to West, with new traditions such as
the Kwan Um School of Zen.

Japanese Zen

Zen was not introduced as a separate school until the 12th century, when Myōan Eisai traveled to China
and returned to establish a Linji lineage, which eventually perished.[256] Decades later, Nanpo Shōmyō ( 南
浦紹明 ) (1235–1308) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese Otokan lineage,
the most influential and only surviving lineage of Rinzai in Japan.[256] In 1215, Dōgen, a younger
contemporary of Eisai's, journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of the Caodong master
Tiantong Rujing. After his return, Dōgen established the Sōtō school, the Japanese branch of Caodong.
The three traditional schools of Zen in contemporary Japan are the Sōtō
曹洞
( 臨済
), Rinzai ( ), and Ōbaku (⿈檗 ). Of these, Sōtō is the largest, and
Ōbaku the smallest, with Rinzai in the middle. These schools are further
divided into subschools by head temple, with two head temples for Sōtō
(Sōji-ji and Eihei-ji, with Sōji-ji having a much larger network), fourteen
head temples for Rinzai, and one head temple (Manpuku-ji) for Ōbaku, for
a total of 17 head temples. The Rinzai head temples, which are most
numerous, have substantial overlap with the traditional Five Mountain
System, and include Myoshin-ji, Nanzen-ji, Tenryū-ji, Daitoku-ji, and
Tofuku-ji, among others.

Besides these traditional organizations, there are modern Zen organizations

that have especially attracted Western lay followers, namely the Sanbo
Kyodan and the FAS Society.
Sojiji Temple, of the Soto
Zen in the West Zen school, Tsurumi-ku,
Yokohama, Japan
Although it is difficult to trace the precise moment when the West first
became aware of Zen as a distinct form of Buddhism, the visit of Soyen
Shaku, a Japanese Zen monk, to Chicago during the World Parliament of Religions in 1893 is often pointed
to as an event that enhanced the profile of Zen in the Western world. It was during the late 1950s and the
early 1960s that the number of Westerners other than the descendants of Asian immigrants who were
pursuing a serious interest in Zen began to reach a significant level. Japanese Zen has gained the greatest
popularity in the West. The various books on Zen by Reginald Horace Blyth, Alan Watts, Philip Kapleau
and D. T. Suzuki published between 1950 and 1975, contributed to this growing interest in Zen in the
West, as did the interest on the part of beat poets such as Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg and Gary
Snyder.[257] In 1958, the literary magazine Chicago Review played a significant role in introducing Zen to
the American literary community[258] when it published a special issue[259] on Zen featuring the
aforementioned beat poets and works in translation. Erich Fromm quotes D. T. Suzuki in his 1960 book
Psychoanalysis and Zen Buddhism.[260]

See also
List of Buddhists
Outline of Buddhism
Timeline of Buddhism
Chinese Chán
101 Zen Stories
Chinso
Shussan Shaka

Notes
1. Dumoulin writes in his preface to Zen. A History. Part One: India and China: "Zen (Chin.
Ch'an, an abbreviation of ch'an-na, which transliterates the Sanskrit Dhyāna (Devanagari:
यान) or its Pali cognate Jhāna (Sanskrit; Pāli झान) , terms meaning "meditation") is the name
of a Mahāyāna Buddhist school of meditation originating in China. It is characterized by the
practice of meditation in the lotus position (Jpn., zazen; Chin., tso-ch'an and the use of the
koan (Chin., kung-an) as well as by the enlightenment experience of satori[2]
2. It first appears in a Chinese text named the Ju-tao an-hsin yao-fang-pien fa-men (JTFM,
Instructions on essential expedients for calming the mind and accessing the path), itself a
part of the Leng Ch'ieh Shih TZu Chi (Records of the Masters of the Lankavatara).[27] The
Records of the Masters of the Lankavatara is associated with the early Chan tradition known
as the "East Mountain School" and has been dated to around 713.[30]
3. Compare Mazu's "Mind is Buddha" versus "No mind, no Buddha": "When Ch'an Master Fa-
ch'ang of Ta-mei Mountain went to see the Patriarch for the first time, he asked, "What is
Buddha?"
The Patriarch replied, "Mind is Buddha." [On hearing this] Fa-ch'ang had great awakening.
Later he went to live on Ta-mei mountain. When the Patriarch heard that he was residing on
the mountain, he sent one of his monks to go there and ask Fa-ch'ang, "What did the
Venerable obtain when he saw Ma-tsu, so that he has come to live on this mountain?"
Fach'ang said, "Ma-tsu told me that mind is Buddha; so I came to live here."
The monk said, "Ma-tsu's teaching has changed recently."
Fa-ch'ang asked, "What is the difference?"
The monk said, "Nowadays he also says, 'Neither mind nor Buddha."'
Fa-ch'ang said, "That old man still hasn't stopped confusing people. You can have 'neither
mind nor Buddha,' I only care for 'mind is Buddha."'
The monk returned to the Patriarch and reported what has happened. "The plum is ripe."
said the Patriarch."[32]
4. According to Kalupahana, the influence of Yofacara is stronger in the ts'ao-tung school and
the tradition of silent meditation, while the influence of Madhyamaka is clear in the koan-
tradition and its stress on insight and the use of paradoxical language.[128]
5. Nevertheless, the Platform Sutra attempts to reconcile Shenhui's rhetorics with the actual
Zen practices, just like later Chan writers like Zong-mi did.[140]
6. Nevertheless, the classical texts of Chan which seem to reject practice, also contain
references to practice.[133] Chieng Cheng: "...in the writings that are associated with [Ma-
tsu's] school there is a marked tendency towards elocutionary purity, where all forms of
verbal formulation are eschewed, including any instructions about practice. However,the fact
that practical advice about day-to-day cultivation is something that is usually lacking in the
records of the masters of this tradition does not necessary means that it was not given by
them. In the records of Ma-tsu's Hung-chou school there are instances with very clear
"gradual" ting [...] In looking for possible reasons for the apparent lack of expedient means in
the extant records of the teachings of the Hung-chou school, it might be useful to remind
ourselves of the audience to whom the teaching was directed. As the records make it clear,
most of the teachings were received by monks who were familiar with the basic Buddhist
practices and (ideally) had good command of the doctrinal teachings [...] It seems that the
basic practices of worship, study, precepts, and meditation were all too familiar to be
regarded as somethingthat was necessary to be recorded."[143]
7. Sasaki's translation of the Linji yulu contains an extensive biography of 62 pages, listing
influential Chinese Buddhist texts that played a role in Song dynasty Chán.[158]
8. Albert Low: "It is evident that the masters were well versed in the sutras. Zen master
Tokusan, for example, knew the Diamond Sutra well and, before meeting with his own Zen
master, lectured upon it extensively; the founder of the Zen sect, Bodhidharma, the very one
who preached selfrealization outside the scriptures, nevertheless advocated the
Lankavatara Sutra; Zen master Hogen knew the Avatamsaka Sutra well, and koan twenty-
six in the Mumonkan, in which Hogen is involved, comes out of the teaching of that sutra.
Other koans, too, make reference directly or indirectly to the sutras. The autobiography of yet
another Zen master, Hui Neng, subsequently became the Platform Sutra, one of those sutras
so condemned by those who reject intellectual and sutra studies"[159]
 9. Poceski: "Direct references to specific scriptures are relatively rare in the records of Mazu
and his disciples, but that does not mean that they rejected the canon or repudiated its
authority. On the contrary, one of the striking features of their records is that they are filled
with scriptural quotations and allusions, even though the full extent of their usage of
canonical sources is not immediately obvious and its discernment requires familiarity with
Buddhist literature." See source for a full-length example from "one of Mazu's sermons", in
which can be found references to the Vimalakīrti Scripture, the Huayan Scripture, the
Mahāsamnipata-sūtra, the Foshuo Foming Scripture
[5]
佛說佛名經 , the Lankāvatāra scripture
and the Faju jing.
10. Hakuin goes as far as to state that the buddhat path even starts with study: "[A] person [...]
must first gain wide-ranging knowledge, accumulate a treasure-store of wisdom by studying
all the Buddhist sutras and commentaries, reading through all the classic works Buddhist
and nonBuddhist and perusing the writings of the wise men of other traditions. It is for that
reason the vow states "the Dharma teachings are infinite, I vow to study them all.""[165]
11. McRae gives no further information on this "Hubei faction". It may be the continuation of
Shenxiu's "Northern School". See Nadeau 2012 p.89.[204] Hebei was also the place where
the Linji branch of chán arose.[205]

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at+the+moon%22uzuki&pg=PA154), University of California Press, ISBN 9780520222267
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Takeuchi Yoshinori (ed.), Buddhist Spirituality. Indian, Southeast Asian, Tibetan, Early
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Tomoaki, Tsuchida (2003), "The Monastic spirituality of Zen Master Dogen", in Takeuchi
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Tweed, Thomas A. (2005), "American Occultism and Japanese Buddhism. Albert J.
Edmunds, D. T. Suzuki, and Translocative History" (https://web.archive.org/web/2012052200
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Further reading
Modern popular works

D.T. Suzuki, Essays in Zen Buddhism, First Series (1927), Second Series (1933), Third
Series (1934)
R. H. Blyth, Zen and Zen Classics, 5 volumes (1960–1970; reprints of works from 1942 into
the 1960s)
Alan Watts, The Way of Zen (1957)
Lu K'uan Yu (Charles Luk), Ch'an and Zen Teachings, 3 vols (1960, 1971, 1974), The
Transmission of the Mind: Outside the Teaching (1974)
Paul Reps & Nyogen Senzaki, Zen Flesh, Zen Bones (1957)
Philip Kapleau, The Three Pillars of Zen (1966)
Shunryu Suzuki, Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind (1970)
Katsuki Sekida, Zen Training: Methods & Philosophy (1975)

Classic historiography

Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 1: India and China. World
Wisdom Books.ISBN 978-0-941532-89-1
Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 2: Japan. World Wisdom
Books.ISBN 978-0-941532-90-7

Critical historiography

Overview

Heine, Steven (2007), "A Critical Survey of Works on Zen since Yampolsky" (http://enlight.li
b.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/phil149574.pdf) (PDF), Philosophy East & West, 57 (4):
577–592, doi:10.1353/pew.2007.0047 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fpew.2007.0047),
S2CID 170450246 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170450246)

Formation of Chán in Tang & Song China

McRae, John (2004), The Sutra of Queen Śrīmālā of the Lion's Roar and the Vimalakīrti
Sutra (https://web.archive.org/web/20140912130032/http://www.bdkamerica.org/digital/dBE
T_Srimala_Vimalakirti_2004.pdf) (PDF), Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist
Translation and Research, ISBN 1886439311, archived from the original (http://www.bdkam
erica.org/digital/dBET_Srimala_Vimalakirti_2004.pdf) (PDF) on 2014-09-12
Welter, Albert (2000), Mahakasyapa's smile. Silent Transmission and the Kung-an (Koan)
Tradition. In: Steven Heine and Dale S. Wright (eds)(2000): "The Koan. Texts and Contexts
in Zen Buddhism, Oxford: Oxford University Press
Schlütter, Morten (2008), How Zen became Zen. The Dispute over Enlightenment and the
Formation of Chan Buddhism in Song-Dynasty China, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i
Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-3508-8

Japan
 Bodiford, William M. (1993), Sōtō Zen in Medieval Japan (https://archive.org/details/sotozeni
nmedieva0000bodi), University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 0-8248-1482-7

Modern times

Victoria, Brian Daizen (2006), Zen at war (Second ed.), Lanham e.a.: Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers, Inc.

Orientalism and East-West interchange

Borup, Jorn (n.d.), Zen and the Art of inverting Orientalism: religious studies and
genealogical networks (http://terebess.hu/english/borup.html)
King, Richard (2002), Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic
East", Routledge
McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University
Press.ISBN 978-0-19-518327-6

Contemporary practice

Borup, Jørn (2008), Japanese Rinzai Zen Buddhism: Myōshinji, a Living Religion, Brill
Hori, Victor Sogen (1994), "Teaching and Learning in the Zen Rinzai Monastery" (http://ww
w.essenes.net/pdf/Teaching%20and%20Learning%20in%20the%20Rinzai%20Zen%20Mon
astery%20.pdf) (PDF), Journal of Japanese Studies, Vol (1): 5–35, doi:10.2307/132782 (http
s://doi.org/10.2307%2F132782), JSTOR 132782 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/132782)
Buswell, Robert E. (1993a), The Zen Monastic Experience: Buddhist Practice in
Contemporary Korea, Princeton University Press

External links
thezensite (http://www.thezensite.com/)
Zen Buddhism WWW Virtual Library (https://web.archive.org/web/20050120084412/http://w
ww.ciolek.com/WWWVL-Zen.html)
Chart of (Asian) Zen schools (https://web.archive.org/web/20120819140600/http://www.ciole
k.com/WWWVLPages/ZenPages/ZenSchools.html)
Glossary of Japanese Zen terms (http://terebess.hu/zen/szoto/szotar/szotar.html)
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: entry on Japanese Zen Buddhism (https://plato.stanfor
d.edu/entries/japanese-zen/)
What is Zen Buddhism? (https://tricycle.org/beginners/buddhism/what-is-zen-buddhism/)

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