COURSE CODE: CCE -3607

CO URS E T I T L E : CE L L UL AR M O B IL E CO M M UN ICAT ION

Md. Humayun Kabir

Assistant Lecturer
Dept. of CCE, IIUC

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 1

Course Objective:
The course addresses the fundamentals of wireless communications and provides an overview of existing and
emerging wireless communication Technology and networks. It covers radio propagation and fading models,
fundamentals of cellular communications, multiple access technologies, and various wireless systems like GSM,
CDMA etc., including past and future generation wireless networks.

Course Learning Outcomes (CLOs):

CLOs Upon the successful completion of the course, Bloom’s Taxonomy Program Learning
CLOs
students will be able to Domain/Level Outcomes (PLOs)
Understanding of basic wireless and cellular communication Cognitive
CLO: 1 PLO – 1
techniques. (Understand)
Ability to solve different propagation and path loss model
related problems. Comprehend the operation of GSM and other
Cognitive
CLO: 2 types of Cellular Mobile Communication system, Diversity PLO – 2
(Analysis, Create)
techniques, Rake Receiver, Multiple Input Multiple Output
(MIMO) technique, underwater communication system etc.

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 Contents
S.L. Final Examination (50 Marks)
Part A
1 Large scale Path loss and Path loss models in Mobile Wireless Communications
2 Factors influencing Small scale Fading and multipath Different types of Fading in Mobile Wireless Communications
3 Details: Types of small-scale fading.
4 Rayleigh fading, Rician and other fading
6 GSM, specifications for cellular telephony, Difference between GSM and other types of Cellular Mobile Communication system.
7 GSM Architecture.
8 Functions of MSC, BSC, BTS and other functional blocks (subsystems and parts) of a GSM system.
9 Situations and Techniques of Handover in GSM
10 Different types of Channels and Signaling in GSM, Voice and Control channels of a GSM system,
11 Channel Structure and traffic channels, Control Channel and Burst structure
12 Advanced cellular: Enhancement of GSM for Data transmission,
13 GPRS and EDGE, LTE system

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 Contents
S.L. Final Examination (50 Marks)
Part B
1 Brief introductions to 3G and 4G Cellular Mobile Communications Systems.
2 Advanced and recent communication: Multiple input multiple input (MIMO) basic
3 Multiple Access Techniques for wireless communication
4 Fundamentals of Equalization
5 Survey of Equalization Techniques
6 Different types of diversity
7 Rake Receiver
8 MIMO diversity and multiplexing
9 MIMO capacity
10 MIMO application
11 Underwater communication basic
12 Underwater communication necessity
13 Underwater communication requirement and challenge
14 Underwater communication design issue
15 Recent wireless communication systems.
16 Review of entire syllabus, problem solutions and suggestions

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Lecture 1

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 5

Propagation Model for Mobile Communications
In mobile radio systems, path loss models are necessary for proper planning, interference estimations, frequency
assignments, and cell parameters which are basic for network planning process.

A Radio Propagation Model (RPM), also known as the Radio Wave Propagation Model (RWPM) or the Radio
Frequency Propagation Model (RFPM), is an empirical mathematical formulation for the characterization of radio
wave propagation as a function of frequency, distance and other conditions.

Most radio propagation models are derived using a combination of analytical and empirical methods.

In general, most cellular radio systems operate in urban areas where there is no direct line-of-sight path between
the transmitter and receiver and where the presence of high rise buildings causes severe diffraction loss.

Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary transmitter-receiver separation distance
are useful in estimating the radio coverage area of a transmitter and are called large-scale propagation model.

On the other hand, propagation models that characterize the rapid fluctuations of the received signal strength
over very short travel distances or short time durations are called small scale or fading models.

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What is Path Loss?
Path loss (PL) refers to the loss or attenuation a
propagating electromagnetic signal (or wave)
encounters along its path from transmitter to the
receiver.
As a result of path loss, the received signal power level is
several orders below the transmitted power level. The
received power level is dependent on factors such as
transmission power, antenna gains, frequency of operation
and the distance between the transmitter and the
receiver. Like any other gain or attenuation, path loss is
also expressed in decibel (dB). We can relate the received
power level and the path loss but before that, let’s know
the expression of path loss.

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Path loss characteristics of a channel are commonly important in wireless communications and signal propagation.
Path loss may occur due to many effects, such as free-space loss, refraction, diffraction, reflection, aperture-
medium coupling loss and absorption. Path loss is also influenced by terrain contours, environment (urban or
rural, vegetation and foliage), propagation medium (dry or moist air), the distance between the transmitter and
the receiver, and the height of antennas.

Path loss normally includes propagation losses caused by:

✓ The natural expansion of the radio wave front in free space (which usually takes the shape of an ever
increasing sphere)
✓ Absorption losses (sometimes called penetration losses)
✓ When the signal passes through media not transparent to electromagnetic waves, diffraction losses when
part of the radio wave front is obstructed by an opaque obstacle and
✓ Losses caused by other phenomena.

The signal radiated by a transmitter may also travel along many and different paths to a receiver simultaneously;
this effect is called multipath. Multipath can either increase or decrease received signal strength, depending on
whether the individual multipath wavefronts interfere constructively or destructively.

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Path loss can be expressed as the ratio of the power of the transmitted signal to the power of the same signal
received by the receiver, on a given path. It is a function of the propagation distance.
✓ Estimation of path loss is very important for designing and deploying wireless communication networks
✓ Path loss is dependent on a number of factors such as the radio frequency used and the nature of the terrain.
✓ The free space propagation model is the simplest path loss model in which there is a direct-path signal between
the transmitter and the receiver, with no atmosphere attenuation or multipath components.

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Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 10
Large Scale Path Loss
✓ As the mobile moves away from the transmitter over larger distances, the local average received signal will
gradually decrease. This is called large-scale path loss.
➢ Typically the local average received power is computed by averaging signal measurements over a
measurement track of 5λ to 40λ. (For PCS, this means 1m-10m track)
✓ The models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary-receiver transmitter (T-R) separation distance
are called large-scale propagation models.
➢ Useful for estimating the coverage area of transmitters.
Large Scale Model:
✓ Predict the average received signal strength over large distance from the transmitter.
✓ Variations due to path loss and shadowing.
✓ Signal reduces when traveling farther.
✓ Slow variation about mean caused by large obstructions.

Small-scale path loss

➢ Rapid fluctuations that occur over small movements in receiver position (a few wavelengths). Also known as
fading.

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Fading
Fading refers to the fluctuations in signal strength when received at the receiver.
Fading can be classified in to two types −
✓ Fast fading/small scale fading and
✓ Slow fading/large scale fading
Fast fading refers to the rapid fluctuations in the amplitude, phase or multipath delays of the received signal, due
to the interference between multiple versions of the same transmitted signal arriving at the receiver at slightly
different times.
The time between the reception of the first version of the signal and the last echoed signal is called delay
spread. The multipath propagation of the transmitted signal, which causes fast fading, is because of the three
propagation mechanisms, namely −
✓ Reflection
✓ Diffraction
✓ Scattering
The multiple signal paths may sometimes add constructively or sometimes destructively at the receiver causing a
variation in the power level of the received signal. The received single envelope of a fast fading signal is said to
follow a Rayleigh distribution to see if there is no line-of-sight path between the transmitter and the receiver.

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Fading is a phenomenon that occurs due to varying parameters and conditions of the channel during wireless
propagation. To better understand and eliminate the adverse effects of fading, it is divided into various types. Let
us take a look into them in detail.

The figure above shows the different types of fading and the sub-categories. We have tried to elaborate on each
type of fading below and provide information on how do they affect wave propagation.

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Large Scale Fading: This refers to the attenuation of signal power due to obstacles between the transmitter and
receiver. It also covers the attenuation and fluctuations of signal when the signal is transmitted over a long
distance (usually in kilometers).

✓ Path Loss: It refers to the attenuation when a signal is transmitted over large distances. Wireless signals
spread as they propagate through the medium and as the distance increases, the energy per unit area
starts decreasing (Click here to try the Path Loss Calculator).This is a fundamental loss that is independent
of the type of transmitter and medium. Although, we can minimize its effects by increasing the capture
area/dimension of the receiver. The figure below shows the radiation pattern and spread of the signal
transmitted from the antenna.

✓ Shadowing: This refers to the loss in signal power due to the obstructions in the path of propagation.
There are a few ways in which shadowing effects can minimize signal loss. One that is most effective, is to
have a Line-Of-Sight propagation.

Shadowing losses also depend on the frequency of the EM wave. As we know, EM Waves can penetrate
through various surfaces but at the cost of loss in power i.e signal attenuation. The losses depend on the
type of the surface and frequency of the signal. Generally, the penetration power of a signal is inversely
proportional to the frequency of the signal.

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Small-scale Fading
Small-scale fading refers to the rapid changes of the amplitude and phase of a radio signal over a short period of
time (on the order of seconds) or a short distance (a few wavelengths).
The name Slow Fading itself implies that the signal fades away slowly. The features of slow fading are as given
below.
✓ Slow fading occurs when objects that partially absorb the transmission lie between the transmitter and receiver.
✓ Slow fading is so called because the duration of the fade may last for multiple seconds or minutes.
✓ Slow fading may occur when the receiver is inside a building and the radio wave must pass through the walls of
a building, or when the receiver is temporarily shielded from the transmitter by a building. The obstructing
objects cause a random variation in the received signal power.
✓ Slow fading may cause the received signal power to vary, though the distance between the transmitter and
receiver remains the same.
✓ Slow fading is also referred to as shadow fading since the objects that cause the fade, which may be large
buildings or other structures, block the direct transmission path from the transmitter to the receiver.

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The factors influencing small scale fading are:
Multipath propagation:
✓ Reflecting objects and scattering in the channel creates a constantly changing environment that
dissipates the signal energy in amplitude, phase and time. This results in multiple version of transmitted
signal that arrive at the receiving antenna, displaced with respect to one another in time and space.
✓ The random phase and amplitude of the different multipath components cause fluctuations in signal
strength causing small scale fading.
✓ Multipath propagation increase the time required for the baseband portion of signal to reach the receiver
which cause signal smearing due to intersymbol interference.

Speed of mobile:
✓ The relative motion between the base station and the mobile results in random frequency modulation due
to different Doppler shifts on each of the multipath components.
✓ Doppler shift is positive if mobile receiver is moving toward the base station and is negative if mobile
receiver is moving away from the base station.

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Surrounding of mobile:
✓ If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they induce varying Doppler shift on multipath components.
✓ If the surrounding objects move at a greater rate than the mobile, then this effect dominates the small-
scale fading. Otherwise motion of surrounding objects can be ignored.
Transmission bandwidth of signal:
✓ If transmitted radio signal bandwidth is greater than the bandwidth of the multipath channel, the
received signal will be distorted but the received signal strength will not fade much over a local area.
✓ If transmitted radio signal bandwidth is less than the bandwidth of the multipath channel, the received
signal will not be distorted but the received signal strength will change rapidly.
✓ Bandwidth of the channel is quantified by the coherence bandwidth which is related to specific multipath
structure of the channel. Coherence bandwidth is measure of maximum frequency difference for which
signals are strongly correlated in amplitude.

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Small Scale Fading: This refers to the fluctuations in signal strength and phase over short distance and small
duration of time. It is also called Rayleigh Fading. Small Scale Fading affects almost all forms of wireless
communication and overcoming them is a necessity to increase efficiency and decrease error.

✓ Fast Fading: It occurs mainly due to reflections for surfaces and movement of transmitter or receiver.
High doppler spread is observed in the fast fading with Doppler bandwidth comparable to or greater than
the bandwidth of the signal and the channel variations are as fast or faster than the signal variations. It
causes linear distortions in the shape of the baseband signal and creates Inter Symbol Interference (ISI).
One way to remove ISI is adaptive equalization.

✓ Slow Fading: It occurs mainly due to shadowing where large buildings or geographical structures
obstruct the LOS. Low doppler spread is observed in Slow Fading with the doppler bandwidth being
smaller compared to the bandwidth of the signal and the channel variations are slow relative to the signal
variations. It results in reduction of SNR which can be overcome using error correction techniques and
receiver diversity techniques.

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Multipath Fading: It occurs when a signal reaches the receiver from various path i.e. when multipath
propagation takes place. Multipath fading can affect all ranges of frequencies starting from low frequency to
microwave and beyond. It affects both the amplitude and the phase of the signal causing phase distortions and
ISI.

Multipath fading can affect signal transmission in two ways:

✓ Flat Fading: In flat fading, all frequency components get affected almost equally. Flat multipath fading
causes the amplitude to fluctuate over a period of time.

✓ Selective Fading: Selective Fading or Selective Frequency Fading refers to multipath fading when the
selected frequency component of the signal is affected. It means selected frequencies will have increased
error and attenuation as compared to other frequency components of the same signal. This can be
overcome by techniques such as OFDM which spreads the data across the frequency components of the
signal to reduce data loss.

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Rayleigh Fading

✓ Rayleigh fading is caused by multipath reception. The mobile antenna receives a large number, say N,
reflected and scattered waves. Because of wave cancellation effects, the instantaneous received power
seen by a moving antenna becomes a random variable, dependent on the location of the antenna.

✓ The Rayleigh fading model is ideally suited to situations where there are large numbers of signal paths
and reflections. Typical scenarios include cellular telecommunications where there are large number of
reflections from buildings and the like and also HF ionospheric communications where the uneven nature
of the ionosphere means that the overall signal can arrive having taken many different paths.

✓ The Rayleigh fading model is also appropriate for tropospheric radio propagation because, again there are
many reflection points and the signal may follow a variety of different paths.

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Rician Fading
✓ The model behind Rician fading is similar to that for Rayleigh fading, except that in Rician fading a strong
dominant component is present. This dominant component can for instance be the line-of-sight wave.

✓ Refined Rician models also consider that the dominant wave can be a phasor sum of two or more
dominant signals, e.g. the line-of-sight, plus a ground reflection.

✓ Multiple replicas of the transmitted signal arrive with different attenuations and different delays to the
receiver, being added to their antenna.

✓ Rician fading is a modeling of real-world phenomena in wireless communications, being stochastic for the
radio signal propagation anomaly caused by the partial cancellation of a radio signal by itself, causing the
signal to reach the receiver displaying multipath interference and at least one of the paths is changing,
occurs when one of the paths, typically a line of sight signal, is much stronger than the other.

✓ Besides the dominant component, the mobile antenna receives a large number of reflected and scattered
waves.

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Lecture 2

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The propagation models are developed to predict the loss of signal strength or coverage in a particular
location. Thus, they are mathematical tools used by engineers and scientists to plan and optimize wireless
communication systems.
Moreover, path loss can be defined as the ratio of the transmitted to received power, usually expressed as the
following form in decibels:

𝒅
𝑷𝑳 𝒅𝑩 = 𝑷𝑳 𝒅𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎
𝒅𝟎
where d is the distance, d0 is the reference point at 1 km, n is the path loss exponent. Moreover, path loss
normally includes propagation losses caused by the natural expansion of the radio wave propagation in free
space.

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Two Ray Ground Reflection Model
In a mobile radio channel, a single direct path between
the Base Station and a mobile is rarely the only physical
means for propagation, and hence the Free space
propagation model is in most cases is inaccurate when
used alone. The 2-ray ground reflection model shown in
Figure 2 is a useful propagation model that is based on
geometric optics, and considers both the direct path and a
ground reflected propagation path between transmitter
and receiver. This model has been found to be reasonably
accurate for predicting the large-scale signal strength over
distances of several kilometers for mobile radio systems
that use tall towers (heights which exceed 50 m), as well Figure: Two Ray Ground Reflection Model
as for line-of-sight microcell channels in urban
environments.
The model consists of a Tx and Rx antenna each of height ht and hr respectively. The signal reaches the receiver
by two multipath components: The LOS component and the reflected component. For simplicity, it is assumed that
the entire impinging signal on the surface is totally reflected back , i.e. there is no ET ( transmitted E-field
component passing through the surface). We assume perpendicular polarized wave reasons of which will be
discussed later.

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Thus, the received power can be calculated by using the following equation:

Where Pt is the transmitted signal power, ht is the height of transmitter, hr is the height of receiver, d is the distance
between transmitter and receiver, L is equal to 1, Gt is the antenna gain of transmitter and Gr is the antenna gain of
receiver.
This model has been found to be reasonably accurate for predicting the large-scale signal strength over distance of
several kilometres for mobile radio systems that use tall towers as well as for line-of-sight microcell channels in
urban environments.
In most mobile communication systems, the maximum T-R separation distance is at most only a few tens of
kilometres, and the earth may be assumed to be flat. The total received E field, ETOT is then a result of the direct
line-of-sight microcell, ELOS and the ground reflection component Eg.
When there are two paths, one direct and one ground reflection, the theoretical models show behavior that has two
different path loss exponents, 1/d2 for d less than a threshold, and 1/d4 for d above the threshold. This matches
what we’ve observed from measurements and presented as the empirical “multiple breakpoint” model.

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Log Distance Path Loss Model
Log distance path loss model is an extension to the Friis free space model. It is used to predict the propagation
loss for a wide range of environments, whereas, the Friis free space model is restricted to unobstructed clear
path between the transmitter and the receiver. The model encompasses random shadowing effects due to signal
blockage by hills, trees, buildings etc. It is also referred as log normal shadowing model.

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Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 27
The Hata-Okumura Model
The Hata-Okumura Model (Hata 1981 & Neskovic et al. 2000), incorporates the graphical information from the
Okumura Model (Okumura et al. 1968). The Hata Model for Urban Areas (also known as the Okumura-Hata
model), is a widely used propagation model for predicting path loss in urban areas. This model takes into account
the effects of diffraction, reflection and scattering caused by city structures. The model also has formulations for
predicting path loss in Suburban and Open Areas.
The hata model is empirical formulation of graphical path loss (PL) data. It is valid in the range from 150 MHz to
1500 MHz. It is provided by Okumura and hence the name. Hata has given standard formula for propagation loss
for urban area. He has also provided correction equations for other situations.

There are two forms of Okumura Hata model as mentioned below.

➨In first form, path loss (dB) is expressed as follows:

PL = PLfree space + Aexc + Hcb + Hcm

Where,
PLfree space = Free space Path Loss
Aexc = Excess Path Loss for BS height of 200 meters and MS height of 3 meters.
Hcb, Hcm = Both are correction factors

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Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 29
The Hata Model for Urban Areas has the following parameters:
✓ Frequency Range: 150 MHz to 1500 MHz
✓ Transmitter Height: 30 m to 200 m
✓ Link distance: 1 km to 20 km
✓ Mobile Station (MS) height: 1 m to 10 m

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Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 31
Lecture 3

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Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM):
If you are in Europe or Asia and using a mobile phone, then most probably you are using GSM technology in your mobile phone. It
is widely used mobile technology across the world.
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital cellular technology used for transmitting mobile voice and
data services.
This concept was implemented at Bell Laboratories using a mobile radio system in 1970. As the name suggests, it is the
standardization group name that was established in the year1982 to make a general European mobile telephone standard. This
technology owns above 70% of the market share of the digital cellular subscriber around the world. This technology was developed
by using digital technology. At present, GSM technology supports above 1 billion mobile subscribers around the world in the above
210 countries. This technology provides voice and data services from fundamental to complex. This article discusses an overview of
GSM technology.
It is called 2G or Second Generation technology. There are various GSM standards such as GSM900, EGSM900, GSM1800 and GSM
1900 which uses different frequency bands for their operation. GSM uses TDMA/FDMA access technique. GSM 900 uses uplink
frequency band from 890 to 915 MHz and downlink frequency band from 935 to 960 MHz. It uses bandwidth of 200 KHz.
GSM technology was developed as a digital system using the time division multiple access (TDMA) technique for communication
purposes. A GSM digitizes and reduces the data, then sends it down through a channel with two different streams of client data,
each in its own particular time slot. The digital system has the ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data rates.

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➢ GSM or Global System for Mobile Communication is a digital mobile communication standard, which is
used for transmitting and receiving data and voice signals over a network.
➢ It is also known as the second-generation standard for mobile networks or telecommunication, and it
operates on a wedge spectrum.
➢ GSM uses the TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) and FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) for
separating the users & cells and transmitting the signals.
➢ Due to the GSM standard, various other wireless services such as GPRS(General Packet Radio Service),
UMTS(Universal Mobile Radio System), and EDGE(Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution) have
also evolved.
➢ It operates on three different radio frequencies, which are 900MHz, 1800MHz, and 1900MHz.
➢ Among these three frequencies, the 900MHz band frequency is used by the Original GSM system, and the 1800
MHz band frequency is used to provide the added support for increasing customers. The 1900MHz band is
specifically used in the US (United States).
➢ The GSM users have first taken advantage of the service Short Message System (SMS), by which the
users can communicate with each other using text messages over the given network.

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Why GSM?
➢ Listed below are the features of GSM that account for its popularity and wide acceptance.
➢ Improved spectrum efficiency
➢ International roaming
➢ Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)
➢ High-quality speech
➢ Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and other telephone company services
➢ Support for new services

Features of GSM are:

➢ Supports international roaming
➢ Clear voice clarity
➢ Ability to support multiple handheld devices.
➢ Spectral / frequency efficiency
➢ Low powered handheld devices.
➢ Case of accessing network
➢ International ISDN compatibility.
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GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells are used in GSM :

➢ Macro : In this size of cell, Base Station antenna is installed.

➢ Micro : In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the average roof level.
➢ Pico : Small cells’ diameter of few meters.
➢ Umbrella : It covers the shadowed (Fill the gaps between cells) regions.

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GSM Specifications
GSM was designed to be platform-independent. The GSM
specifications do not specify the actual hardware
requirements, but instead specify the network functions and
interfaces in detail. This allows hardware designers to be
creative in how they provide the actual functionality, but at
the same time makes it possible for operators to buy
equipment from different suppliers. The GSM
recommendations consist of twelve series which are listed in
the table below. These series were written by different
working parties and a number of expert groups. A
permanent nucleus was established in order to coordinate
the working parties and to manage the editing of the
recommendations. All these groups were organized by ETSI.

The GSM 1800 section is written as a delta part within the

GSM recommendations, describing only those differences
between GSM 900 and GSM 1800. GSM 1900 is based on
GSM 1800 and has been adapted to meet the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard.

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GSM Phases
In the late 1980s, the groups involved in developing the GSM standard realized that within the given time-frame
they could not complete the specifications for the entire range of GSM services and features as originally planned.
Because of this, it was decided that GSM would be released in phases with phase 1 consisting of a limited set of
services and features. Each new phase builds on the services offered by existing phases.

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Phase 1
➢ Phase 1 contains the most common services including:
➢ Voice telephony
➢ International roaming
➢ Basic fax/data services (up to 9.6 kbits/s)
➢ Call forwarding
➢ Call barring
➢ Short Message Service (SMS)

Phase 1 also incorporated features such as ciphering and Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) cards. Phase 1
specifications were then closed and cannot be modified.

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Phase 2
Additional features were introduced in GSM phase 2 including:
➢ Advice of charge
➢ Calling line identification
➢ Call waiting
➢ Call hold
➢ Conference calling
➢ Closed user groups
➢ Additional data communications capabilities

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Phase 2+
The standardization groups have already begun to define the next phase, 2+. The phase 2+ program will
cover multiple subscriber numbers and a variety of business oriented features.

Some of the enhancements offered by Phase 2+ include:

➢ Multiple service profiles

➢ Private numbering plans
➢ Access to Centrex services
➢ Interworking with GSM 1800, GSM 1900 and the Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications
(DECT) standard

Priorities and time schedules for new features and functions depend primarily on the interest shown by
operating companies and manufacturers and technical developments in related areas.

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GSM Frequency Bands
As GSM has grown worldwide, it has expanded to operate at three frequency bands: 900, 1800 and 1900.

GSM 900
➢ The original frequency band specified for GSM was 900 MHz.
➢ Most GSM networks worldwide use this band.
➢ In some countries and extended version of GSM 900 can be used, which provides extra network capacity.
➢ This extended version of GSM is called E-GSM, while the primary version is called P-GSM.

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GSM 1800
In 1990, in order to increase competition between operators, the United Kingdom requested the start of a
new version of GSM adapted to the 1800 MHz frequency band. Licenses have been issued in several
countries and networks are in full operation.
By granting licenses for GSM 1800 in addition to GSM 900, a country can increase the number of operators.
In this way, due to increased competition, the service to subscribers is improved.

GSM 1900
In 1995, the Personal Communications Services (PCS) concept was specified in the United States. The basic
idea is to enable "person-to-person" communication rather than "station-to-station".
PCS does not require that such services be implemented using cellular technology, but this has proven to be
the most effective method. The frequencies available for PCS are around 1900 MHz.
As GSM 900 could not be used in North America due to prior allocation of the 900 MHz frequencies, GSM
1900 MHz is seen as an opportunity to bridge this gap.
The main differences between the American GSM 1900 standard and GSM 900 is that it supports ANSI
signaling.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 43

Frequency-related Specifications

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 44

Difference between CDMA and GSM
➢ Cellular mobile services have been used all over the world for a long time and still evolving day by day. With
these services, various communication services also evolved, and CDMA and GSM are two of them.
➢ CDMA and GSM are the two most important technology standards that are known for mobile communication.
Both the GSM and CDMA converts the data from the mobile phone into radio waves.
➢ But these technologies are differentiated in the way in which the calls & data transfer takes place over a
network.
➢ One of the key differences between CDMA and GSM is that GSM uses SIM cards to connect a mobile
phone with its network, whereas CDMA does not need any SIM card and operates on ESNs
(Electronic Serial Number).

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 45

1. Technology Used
➢ The GSM is based on the wedge spectrum technology, also known as a carrier. This carrier is split into various time slots on
the basis of TDMA technology, and each time slots are assigned to each user. Due to this, until one outgoing call is finished,
no other user can access that slot. It uses FDMA to provide multiuser access by dividing the user frequencies.
➢ On the other hand, CDMA uses the spread spectrum technology and hence it makes optimal use of the available bandwidth.
It enables each user to transfer the data over the entire frequency spectrum at any time.

2. SIM Cards
➢ SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) is a smart card that contains the user identification information to identify the subscriber
on a telephony device. In a GSM-based phone, a SIM card is required to make the data or call transmission. These cards can
be easily replaced from one mobile phone to another with saved information.
➢ On the other hand, CDMA based devices do not require a SIM card; instead, it uses ESN (Electronic Serial Number). Since it
does not use a SIM card, hence changing a device from another is difficult and required a proper procedure.

3. Flexibility
➢ The GSM standard is more flexible as compared to CDMA. It is because, in GSM, the SIM card can be inserted into any
device and can be used. Whereas, CDMA mobile phone can only be used if ESN is registered in its database.
➢ If a CDMA stops working on a phone, we need to buy the new phone, whereas if a SIM stops working, we can use another
SIM rather than changing the phone.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 46

4. Spectrum Frequencies
➢ The GSM works on the frequency spectrum ranging from 850 MHz to 1900 MHz, whereas CDMA also operates in
the frequency range of 850MHz and 1900MHz.
5. Radiation Exposure
➢ In GSM phones, there is 28 times more radiation exposure takes place as compared to CDMA phones.
➢ GSM phone continuously transmits wave pulses, whereas CDMA phones do not continuously produce such
pulses.
6. Global Reach
➢ GSM is more used globally as compared to CDMA technology. Approx. 80% of the mobile networks across 210
countries use GSM compared to CDMA. The CDMA-based mobile phones are mostly used in the US, Canada, and
Japan.
7. Security
➢ The CDMA provides more security as compared to GSM technology because it has inbuilt encryption and uses
the spread spectrum for data transmission.
➢ In CDMA, the signal detection is much difficult than in GSM. Hence it is more secure.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 47

8. Data Transfer Rate
The data transfer rate is high in CDMA compared to GSM technology. In CDMA, EVDO data transfer technology is
used, which provides a maximum download speed of 2 Mbps.
On the other hand, GSM uses EDGE data transfer technology that provides a maximum download speed of 384
Kbps, which is much slower than CDMA.

Both GSM and CDMA have their own importance and depends on how both technologies are being used.
Approximately 80% of the world uses GSM, and CDMA is used mostly in the US and somewhere in Canada and
Japan.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 48

GSM Network Architecture Elements
In order that the GSM system operates together as a complete system,
the overall network architecture brings together a series of data
network identities, each with several elements.
The GSM network architecture is defined in the GSM specifications and
it can be grouped into four main areas:
➢ Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
➢ Base-Station Subsystem (BSS)
➢ Mobile station (MS)
➢ Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)
The different elements of the GSM network operate together and the
user is not aware of the different entities within the system.
As the GSM network is defined but the specifications and standards, it
enables the system to operate reliably together regardless of the
supplier of the different elements.
A basic diagram of the overall system architecture for the 2G GSM
mobile communications system includes four major elements which are
shown below:

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 49

Within this diagram the different network areas can be seen - they are grouped into the four areas that provide
different functionality, but all operate to enable reliable mobile communications to be achieved.
The overall network architecture provided to be very successful and was developed further to enable 2G evolution to
carry data and then with further evolutions to allow 3G to be established.

1. Mobile Station (MS): Mobile Station is made up of two entities.

A. Mobile Equipment (ME):
➢ It is a portable, vehicle mounted, hand held device.
➢ It is uniquely identified by an IMEI number.
➢ It is used for voice and data transmission. It also monitors power and signal quality of surrounding cells foe
optimum handover. 160 characters long SMS can also be sent using Mobile Equipment.
B. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM):
➢ It is a smart card that contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) number.
➢ It allows users to send and receive calls and receive other subscriber services. - It is protected by password
or PIN.
➢ It contains encoded network identification details. it has key information to activate the phone.
➢ It can be moved from one mobile to another.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 50

2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS): It is also known as radio subsystem, provides and manages radio
transmission paths between the mobile station and the Mobile Switching Centre (MSC). BSS also manages interface
between the mobile station and all other subsystems of GSM. It consists of two parts.
A. Base Transceiver Station (BTS):
➢ It encodes, encrypts, multiplexes, modulates and feeds the RF signal to the antenna.
➢ It consists of transceiver units.
➢ It communicates with mobile stations via radio air interface and also communicates with BSC via Abis
interface.
B. Base Station Controller (BSC):
➢ It manages radio resources for BTS. It assigns frequency and time slots for all mobile stations in its area.
➢ It handles call set up, transcoding and adaptation functionality handover for each MS radio power control.
➢ It communicates with MSC via A interface and also with BTS.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 51

3. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS): it manages the switching functions of the system and allows MSCs to
communicate with other networks such as PSTN and ISDN. It consist of
A. Mobile Switching Centre (MSC):
➢ It is a heart of the network. It manages communication between GSM and other networks.
➢ It manages call set up function, routing and basic switching.
➢ It performs mobility management including registration, location updating and inter BSS and inter MSC call
handoff.
➢ It provides billing information.
➢ MSC does gateway function while its customers roam to other network by using HLR/VLR.
B. Home Location Registers (HLR): It is a permanent database about mobile subscriber in a large service area.
Its database contains IMSI, IMSISDN, prepaid/post-paid, roaming restrictions, supplementary services.
C. Visitor Location Registers (VLR): It is a temporary database which updates whenever new MS enters its area
by HLR database. It controls mobiles roaming in its area. It reduces number of queries to HLR. Its database
contains IMSI, TMSI, IMSISDN, MSRN, location, area authentication key.
D. Authentication Centre: It provides protection against intruders in air interface. It maintains authentication
keys and algorithms and provides security triplets (RAND, SRES, Ki).
E. Equipment Identity Registry (EIR):
➢ It is a database that is used to track handset using the IMEI number.
➢ It is made up of three sub classes- the white list, the black list and the gray list.
Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 52
4. Operational Support Subsystem (OSS): It supports the operation and maintenance of GSM and allows system engineers to
monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot all aspects of GSM system. It supports one or more Operation Maintenance Centres (OMC)
which are used to monitor the performance of each MS, Bs, BSC and MSC within a GSM system. It has three main functions:
➢ To maintain all telecommunication hardware and network operations with a particular market.
➢ To manage all charging and billing procedures
➢ To manage all mobile equipment in the system.

Public Network
➢ The public switched telephone network (PSTN)
➢ Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
➢ Data Networks
The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) –
➢ The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is the worldwide collection on interconnected public telephone network
that was designed primarily for analog calls.
➢ PSTN was only an analog system, but it is now almost entirely digital.
➢ PSTN uses signaling system no. 7, SS7 as signal protocol.
➢ SS7 is used to set up and terminate a telephone call.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) –
➢ ISDN is a set of international communicate standards designed in 1980’s and improved in 1990’s.
➢ It is a digital network which is to transmit voice, image, video and text over the existing circuit – switched PSTN telephone
network.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 53

GSM Service Area

The GSM service area is the entire geographical area in

which a subscriber can gain access to a GSM network.
The GSM service area increases as more operators sign
contracts agreeing to work together. Currently, the
GSM service area spans dozens of countries across the
world from Ireland to Australia and South Africa.

International roaming is the term applied when an MS

moves from one PLMN to another.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 54

Requirements for GSM Handover
The process of handover or handoff within any cellular system is of great importance. It is a critical process and if performed
incorrectly handover can result in the loss of the call. Dropped calls are particularly annoying to users and if the number of
dropped calls rises, customer dissatisfaction increases and they are likely to change to another network. Accordingly GSM handover
was an area to which particular attention was paid when developing the standard.
Types of GSM Handover
Within the GSM system there are four types of handover that can be performed for GSM only systems:
➢ Intra-BTS handover: This form of GSM handover occurs if it is required to change the frequency or slot being
used by a mobile because of interference, or other reasons. In this form of GSM handover, the mobile remains
attached to the same base station transceiver, but changes the channel or slot.
➢ Inter-BTS Intra BSC handover: This for of GSM handover or GSM handoff occurs when the mobile moves
out of the coverage area of one BTS but into another controlled by the same BSC. In this instance the BSC is
able to perform the handover and it assigns a new channel and slot to the mobile, before releasing the old BTS
from communicating with the mobile.
➢ Inter-BSC handover: When the mobile moves out of the range of cells controlled by one BSC, a more involved
form of handover has to be performed, handing over not only from one BTS to another but one BSC to another.
For this the handover is controlled by the MSC.
➢ Inter-MSC handover: This form of handover occurs when changing between networks. The two MSCs
involved negotiate to control the handover.
Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 55
GSM Handover Process
Although there are several forms of GSM handover as detailed above, as far as the mobile is concerned, they are effectively seen
as very similar. There are a number of stages involved in undertaking a GSM handover from one cell or base station to another.
A key element of the GSM handover is timing and synchronization. There are a number of possible scenarios that may occur
dependent upon the level of synchronization.

➢ Old and new BTSs synchronized: In this case the mobile is given details of the new physical channel in the neighboring
cell and handed directly over. The mobile may optionally transmit four access bursts. These are shorter than the standard
bursts and thereby any effects of poor synchronization do not cause overlap with other bursts. However in this instance where
synchronization is already good, these bursts are only used to provide a fine adjustment.

➢ Time offset between synchronized old and new BTS: In some instances there may be a time offset between the old and
new BTS. In this case, the time offset is provided so that the mobile can make the adjustment. The GSM handover then takes
place as a standard synchronized handover.

➢ Non- synchronized handover: When a non- synchronized cell handover takes place, the mobile transmits 64 access bursts
on the new channel. This enables the base station to determine and adjust the timing for the mobile so that it can suitably
access the new BTS. This enables the mobile to re-establish the connection through the new BTS with the correct timing.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 56

GPRS (General Packet Radio Services)
General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) is a best-effort packet-switching protocol for wireless and cellular network communication
services. It is considered best effort because all packets are given the same priority and the delivery of packets isn't guaranteed.

General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a packet-based mobile data service on the global system for mobile communications
(GSM) of 3G and 2G cellular communication systems. It is a non-voice, high-speed and useful packet-switching technology
intended for GSM networks.

GPRS can be used to enable connections depending on Internet protocols that support a wide variety of enterprises, as well as
commercial applications. It enables the sending and receiving of compact data bursts and large data volumes across mobile
phone networks. Prior to sending the data, it is broken into individual packets and shifted through the core network and radio.
The data is then reassembled at the recipient's end.

Following three key features describe wireless packet data:

➢ The always online feature - Removes the dial-up process, making applications only one click away.

➢ An upgrade to existing systems - Operators do not have to replace their equipment; rather, GPRS is added on top of
the existing infrastructure.

➢ An integral part of future 3G systems - GPRS is the packet data core network for 3G systems EDGE and WCDMA.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 57

GPRS technology brings a number of benefits for users and network operators alike over the basic GSM system. It was widely
deployed to provide a realistic data capability via cellular telecommunications technology.
GPRS technology offered some significant benefits when it was launched:

Advantages of GPRS include:

High-speed: GPRS offers an optimum speed of 171.2 kbps, which is almost three times quicker than the data transfer speed of
fixed telecommunications networks. Also, it is ten times faster than the existing GSM network services

Instant connection and immediate data transfer: GPRS provides instantaneous and steady connections, which permit data
to be sent wherever and whenever required

Cost-effective solution: Minimizes the incremental expenditure required for providing data services. This in turn enables
increase in the penetration of data services amongst business and consumer users

Innovative and superior applications: GPRS facilitates usage of Internet applications over mobile networks. This includes Web
browsing, IM messages, e-commerce and location oriented applications. In addition, it allows for file transfer and the ability to
remotely gain access for monitoring or controlling machines and house appliances

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 58

Enhanced Data GSM Environment (EDGE)
Enhanced Data GSM Environment (EDGE) is a high-speed wireless data service that can deliver speeds of up to 384kbps using all
GSM channels. This speed now enables the possibility of the delivery of multimedia and other broadband application to mobile
phones and computer users.
The EDGE standard is still built on the GSM standard, but is more specifically enhancements on the general packet radio system
(GPRS) and high-speed circuit switched data (HSCSD) technologies.
Features
✓ It provides an evolutionary migration path from GPRS to UMTS.
✓ It is standardized by 3GPP.
✓ EDGE is used for any packet switched application, like an Internet connection.
✓ EDGE delivers higher bit-rates per radio channel and it increase the capacity and performance.
Advantage
✓ It has higher speed.
✓ It is an “always-on” connection
✓ It is more reliable and efficient
✓ It is cost efficient

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 59

LTE (Long-Term Evolution)
LTE (Long-Term Evolution) is a fourth-generation (4G) wireless standard that provides increased network capacity and speed for
cellphones and other cellular devices compared with third-generation (3G) technology.
In brief, while LTE is not technically the same as 4G, its evolution has occurred on 4G networks. LTE data is transferred faster and
with lower latency, as we will explore in this section and the next.

LTE has introduced a number of new technologies when compared to the previous cellular systems. They enable LTE to be able to
operate more efficiently with respect to the use of spectrum, and also to provide the much higher data rates that are being
required.
OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex): OFDM technology was used for the signal format for LTE because it
enabled high data bandwidths to be transmitted efficiently while still providing a high degree of resilience to reflections and
interference. As data was carried on a large number of carriers, if some were missing as a result of interference from reflections,
etc, the system was still able to cope. The access schemes differed between the uplink and downlink: OFDMA (Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiple Access was used in the downlink; while SC-FDMA(Single Carrier - Frequency Division Multiple Access)
was used in the uplink. SC-FDMA was used in view of the fact that its peak to average power ratio is smaller than for OFDMA - the
lower peak to average power ratio enabling better levels of final RF power amplifier to be achieved - this was and is an important
factor for mobile handset battery life.
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output): One of the main problems that previous telecommunications systems has
encountered was that of multiple signals arising from the many reflections that are encountered. By using MIMO, these additional
signal paths could be used to advantage and were able to be used to increase the throughput.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 60

When using MIMO, it is necessary to use multiple antennas to enable the different paths to be distinguished. Accordingly schemes
using 2 x 2, 4 x 2, or 4 x 4 antenna matrices could be used. While it is relatively easy to add further antennas to a base station,
the same was not true of mobile handsets, where the dimensions of the user equipment limited the number of antennas which
should be placed at least a half wavelength apart.

SAE (System Architecture Evolution): With the very high data rate and low latency requirements for 3G LTE, it was necessary
to evolve the system architecture to enable the improved performance to be achieved. One change was that a number of the
functions previously handled by the core network were transferred out to the periphery. Essentially this provided a much "flatter"
form of network architecture. In this way latency times could be reduced and data routed more directly to its destination. As part
of the upgrade an Evolved Packet Core, EPC was developed to ensure that the packet data was routed as efficiently as possible.

IP data: 4G LTE is an all IP data system. 3G UMTS had included circuit switched voice, but LTE had not provision for any circuit
switched voice. Originally it had been anticipated that operators would supply the data capability and voice would be via OTT
applications. As operators would lose out significant revenues as voice, at the time, constituted a major element of the revenue.
To overcome this GSMA set the standard for voice connectivity as the Voice over LTE scheme, VoLTE.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 61

MIMO - Multiple Input Multiple Output
MIMO stands for ‘Multiple-Input Multiple-Output’ and refers to the practice of housing two or more
antennas within a single wireless device. Having multiple antennas with which to receive and
transmit data simultaneously, the device becomes capable of achieving faster data transfer rates
than otherwise.
The use of multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver in wireless systems, popularly known
as MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output) technology, has rapidly gained in popularity over the
past decade due to its powerful performance-enhancing capabilities. Communication in wireless
channels is impaired predominantly by multi-path fading. Multi-path is the arrival of the
transmitted signal at an intended receiver through differing angles and/or differing time delays
and/or differing frequency (i.e., Doppler) shifts due to the scattering of electromagnetic waves in
the environment. Consequently, the received signal power fluctuates in space (due to angle
spread) and/or frequency (due to delay spread) and/or time (due to Doppler spread) through the
random superposition of the impinging multi-path components. This random fluctuation in signal
level, known as fading, can severely affect the quality and reliability of wireless communication.
Additionally, the constraints posed by limited power and scarce frequency bandwidth make the
task of designing high data rate, high reliability wireless communication systems extremely
challenging.

MIMO technology constitutes a breakthrough in wireless communication system design. The

technology offers a number of benefits that help meet the challenges posed by both the
impairments in the wireless channel as well as resource constraints. In addition to the time and
frequency dimensions that are exploited in conventional single-antenna (single-input single-
output) wireless systems, the leverages of MIMO are realized by exploiting the spatial dimension
(provided by the multiple antennas at the transmitter and the receiver).
Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 62
A channel may be affected by fading and this will impact the signal to noise ratio. In turn this will impact the error rate, assuming
digital data is being transmitted. The principle of diversity is to provide the receiver with multiple versions of the same signal. If
these can be made to be affected in different ways by the signal path, the probability that they will all be affected at the same
time is considerably reduced. Accordingly, diversity helps to stabilize a link and improves performance, reducing error rate.

Several different diversity modes are available and provide a number of advantages:

➢ Time diversity: Using time diversity, a message may be transmitted at different times, e.g. using different timeslots and
channel coding.

➢ Frequency diversity: This form of diversity uses different frequencies. It may be in the form of using different
channels, or technologies such as spread spectrum / OFDM.

➢ Space diversity: Space diversity used in the broadest sense of the definition is used as the basis for MIMO. It uses
antennas located in different positions to take advantage of the different radio paths that exist in a typical terrestrial
environment.

MIMO is effectively a radio antenna technology as it uses multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver to enable a variety of
signal paths to carry the data, choosing separate paths for each antenna to enable multiple signal paths to be used.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 63

MIMO Diversity and Multiplexing
Apart from the antenna configurations, there are two flavors of MIMO with respect to how data is transmitted across the given
channel. Existence of multiple antennas in a system, means existence of different propagation paths. Aiming at improving the
reliability of the system, we may choose to send same data across the different propagation (spatial) paths. This is called spatial
diversity or simply diversity. Aiming at improving the data rate of the system, we may choose to place different portions of the
data on different propagation paths (spatial-multiplexing). These two systems are listed below.
MIMO Diversity:

➢ Signal copies are transferred from multiple antennas or received at more than one antenna
➢ Redundancy is provided by employing an array of antennas, with a minimum separation of λ/2 between neighboring
antennas.

MIMO – implemented using diversity techniques – provides diversity gain – Aimed at improving the reliability

MIMO Multiplexing:

➢ The system is able to carry more than one data stream over one frequency, simultaneously

MIMO – implemented using spatial-multiplexing techniques – provides degrees of freedom or multiplexing gain –
Aimed at improving the data rate of the system.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 64

MIMO Capacity
It is known that the channel capacity in a MIMO communication system depends on the number of transmit and
received antennas, the signal-to-noise ratio, the channel state, and the autocorrelation or covariance matrix of the
transmitted signal vector.
The theoretical capacity of this system is expressed by the following formula (Telatar, 1999).

where, Q = E[xxH] is the input covariance matrix and Es is the total transmit power, N0 is the noise power in each
antenna at the receive side.
In Eq., the mean is taken over the random channel. The capacity depends on the number of antennas at both
sides, input covariance matrix Q and the channel statistics. When channel H is Rayleigh distributed, its mean will be
zero (no LOS component exists) and its covariance is 1.
The Q matrix represents the covariance matrix of the transmitted vector. This matrix is diagonal and its elements
are all real numbers. The trace of this matrix should not exceed the number of transmit antennas. In other words,
tr (Q) = Mt. There are two cases for this matrix, when the transmitter does not have a prior knowledge about the
channel, this channel will be the identity matrix Q = IMt, when the instantaneous channel is available at the
transmitter, therefore transmitter can optimize Q matrix to obtain the optimum capacity.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 65

Typical MIMO Configurations:
➢ 2x2 MIMO (two transmit antennas, two receive antennas)
➢ 3x3 MIMO (three transmit antennas, three receive antennas)
➢ 4x4 MIMO (four transmit antennas, four receive antennas)
➢ 8x8 MIMO (eight transmit antennas, eight receive antennas)

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 66

Applications of MIMO
1. MIMO in LTE, LTE advanced
➢ MIMO technology can be used in LTE and LTE advanced radio networks for improving network efficiency. With the introduction of MIMO
technology, signal disturbances due to multipath have been significantly reduced. MIMO technology make use of multipath phenomenon to
maximize transmission by receiving bounced signals from obstructions.

➢ Multipath is a phenomenon in wave propagation. Transmitted signals reflected from buildings, vehicles, trees and other terrain. These
reflected signals with slight delay will cause confusion at receiver side and information couldn’t be decoded correctly.

➢ In order to increase signal quality and gain, multiple antennas are placed in different directions without interfering the radiation pattern of
each antenna. In order to implement MIMO technology, much complex signal processing is required at transmitting and receiver side.

2. MIMO in Wireless LAN

➢ One of the common uses of MIMO technology today is wireless LAN. Wireless routers with multiples antenna become common nowadays.
Data rate can be doubled or multiplied many times with effective use of MIMO technology in wireless routers and mobile devices. In order
to have an efficient system, both transmitting and receiving devices must be compatible.

3. 5G and Internet of Things

➢ 5G and Internet of Things requires massive data rate. MIMO technology with Beamforming is one of the significant transmission
terminologies for super charged 5G networks and IoT. Transmission tower will be equipped with multiple antennas. It will locate a particular
user at a specific location and will transmit to that user using multiple antennas simultaneously.

➢ Change in user location can be tracked and user will be handled by the antennas located at the specific direction of user. It enables
network operators to offers an uninterrupted service effectively.

MIMO can be used in Internet of Things, smart home, smart cities and connected car applications.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 67

Rake Receiver
The Rake Receiver is nothing more than a radio, whose goal is to try to minimize the effects of the signal fading due to multipath
suffers when he travels. In fact, we can understand a set of Rake Receiver sub-radios, each lagged slightly, to allow the individual
components of the multipath can be tuned properly.
A Rake Receiver is a radio receiver which is designed for the purpose to counter the effects of multipath fading. Due to reflections
from multiple obstacles in the environment, the radio channel can consist of multiple copies of the transmitted signal having
different amplitude, phases or delays.
A rake receiver can resolve this issue and combine them. For this purpose, several sub-receivers are used which are known as
“fingers”.

When the transmitter transmits the signal then it travels through the environment which consists of various obstacles and the
transmitted signal is reflected by them and is received by the rake receiver from multiple paths. Rake receiver then feeds them to
different fingers (correlators). The delays in each received signal are compensated and are feeded to the Combiner, Integrator
and Comparator which combines them suitably with different appropriate time delays.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 68

Difference between FDMA, CDMA and TDMA :
FDMA TDMA CDMA
FDMA stands for Frequency Division TDMA stands for Time Division Multiple CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple
Multiple Access. Access. Access.
In this, there is sharing of both i.e.
In this, sharing of bandwidth among In this, only the sharing of time of satellite
bandwidth and time among different
different stations takes place. transponder takes place.
stations takes place.
There is no need of any codeword. There is no need of any codeword. Codeword is necessary.
In this, there is only need of guard bands
In this, guard time of the adjacent slots In this, both guard bands and guard time
between the adjacent channels are
are necessary. are necessary.
necessary.
Synchronization is not required. Synchronization is required. Synchronization is not required.

The rate of data is low. The rate of data is medium. The rate of data is high.

Mode of data transfer is continuous signal. Mode of data transfer is signal in burts. Mode of data transfer is digital signal.
It is little flexible. It is moderate flexible. It is highly flexible.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 69

Underwater Wireless Communication
Underwater wireless communication systems refer to general communication systems utilized or taken into
consideration under water including, but not limited to, acoustic, radio-frequency, and optical wireless
communications.

Underwater acoustic communication is a technique of sending and receiving messages below water. There are
several ways of employing such communication but the most common is by using hydrophones.

Underwater communication is difficult due to factors such as multi-path propagation, time variations of the channel,
small available bandwidth and strong signal attenuation, especially over long ranges. Compared to terrestrial
communication, underwater communication has low data rates because it uses acoustic waves instead of
electromagnetic waves.

Underwater wireless communications can be carried out through acoustic, radio frequency (RF), and optical waves.
Compared to its bandwidth limited acoustic and RF counterparts, underwater wireless communications can support
higher data rates at low latency levels.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 70

As mentioned in the table-1 below, underwater acoustic communication links are classified based on range. Table
mentions bandwidths used for different ranges in this type of communication. Acoustic links used in underwater
wireless communications are of two types viz. vertical and horizontal. This is based on direction of the sound ray.
Acoustic frequencies from 10Hz to 1MHz are used in underwater wireless communication.
Table-1: Acoustic communication range and bandwidth
Link Type Range in Km Bandwidth in KHz
Very Long 1000 <1
Long 10 to 100 2 to 5
Medium 1 to 10 ~ 10
Short 0.1 to 1 20 to 50
Very Short <0.1 >100

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 71

There are two network topologies which can be used for
underwater communication system viz. centralized and
decentralized. In centralized architecture all the nodes(i.e.
underwater(uw) sink) communicate using a central station(onshore
sink or surface sink/station). Centralized architecture is very similar
to cellular network architecture. In decentralized architecture, nodes
communicate using their neighbors.

Decentralized architecture is also known as adhoc network.

Figure-1 depicts centralized architecture of underwater communication system. As shown a group of sensor nodes are installed at
the bottom of ocean. These nodes communicate with one or more underwater installed sinks(uw-sinks). These uw-sinks operate
as relays between underwater nodes and surface station. As shown surface station communicates with surface sink and onshore
sink using satellite links. Like land mobile communication, bottom area of ocean is divided into clusters. One uw-sink is installed or
anchored in each of the clusters.

In order to achieve communication with both underwater nodes and also with surface station, uw-sink is equipped with two
transceivers namely horizontal and vertical.

Horizontal transceiver provides communication between uw-sink and sensor nodes. Over these links commands/configuration data
is sent from uw-sink to sensors. Moreover sensors collect the monitored data from uw-sink using these links. These horizontal
transceivers are short range transceivers.

Vertical transceivers are used for long range communication between uw-sink and surface station as shown. These transceivers
can cover distance of upto 10 km.
Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 72
Underwater Acoustic Communication
Protocol Stack
The protocol stack of this system consists of layers namely physical layer, datalink layer, network layer and
transport layer. These layer have the same functionality as of OSI layers.

Physical Layer: This layer takes care of modulation and Error Correction. As phase tracking is tedious task in
underwater, non-coherent FSK modulation is used in modem used for underwater communication system. Now-a-
days due to advancement in DSP have lead to the development of PSK and QAM based modem used for these
underwater applications.

Datalink Layer: It is similar to MAC layer used for providing access of common resources to multiple nodes. The
common techniques used for multiple access are FDMA, TDMA and CDMA.

Network Layer: This layer basically takes care of routing of messages within the network. The protocols depend
on network topology employed in underwater network.

Transport Layer: This layer provides reliable communication between two systems (i.e. transmitting and
receiving). It also takes care of flow control as well as congestion control.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 73

What is 5G?
➢ 5G is the 5th generation mobile network. It is a new global wireless standard after 1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G
networks. 5G enables a new kind of network that is designed to connect virtually everyone and everything
together including machines, objects, and devices.
➢ 5G wireless technology is meant to deliver higher multi-Gbps peak data speeds, ultra low latency, more
reliability, massive network capacity, increased availability, and a more uniform user experience to more
users. Higher performance and improved efficiency empower new user experiences and connects new
industries.
How does 5G work?
➢ Like other cellular networks, 5G uses radio frequencies that ride over spectrum to send data. But 5G
networks can run on any frequency, including the “high-band,” short-range airwaves.
➢ Verizon’s 5G network is built using three different bands of spectrum—low-band, mid-band and high-band.
5G Nationwide uses the low-band spectrum and high-performance 5G Ultra Wideband uses a combination of
mid-band and high-band spectrum.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 74

What is IoT
➢ The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of physical objects or devices – “things” – that are embedded with sensors,
software, and other technologies to exchange data among the devices on the internet to help organizations solve
problems.
➢ For example, IoT solutions provide flexibility to the workforce as employees can work remotely with connected devices,
thus organizations can incur lesser operational costs that relate to employee management.
➢ The network of devices can be found/created almost everywhere and anywhere, from an ordinary household setting to a
complex industrial environment with machines.

IoT Architecture
➢ IoT solutions send out various messages every second with rich information about processes, anomalies, and
inconsistencies that the devices are configured to monitor.
➢ The data may be sent to central databases or a hub that has processing capabilities.

Elements of IoT Architecture

➢ Connectivity - IoT solutions rely on the connectivity of things/devices. Devices, for example, connect to devices in other
regions through a centralized gateway or an IoT platform.
➢ Identity - IoT solutions that run on cloud platforms require devices to be registered and assigned an identity for
connectivity.
➢ For any connected device that fails to broadcast its identity information as it tries to communicate, the connectivity
should be closed.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 75

Capture - IoT solutions require data, and the frequency of data capture is crucial. IoT devices should capture
information based on the solution intended. For example, a device can capture moisture content in the air or soil as
parameters for agricultural IoT solutions.

Ingestion - Out of the data sent by devices, meaningful information needs to be extracted. For this reason, an IoT
platform that is capable of consuming millions of data to retrieve valuable insights is required.

Storage - IoT solutions deal with vast and valuable data that requires analytics. Storage solutions are required to
guarantee adequate throughput and latency, high availability, scalability, and security for the ever-growing data
from devices.

Transformation and Analytics - The data in storage solutions is filtered, sorted, enriched, and transformed into
consumable components for APIs further downstream. The transformed data becomes the input for analytics
APIs/platforms depending on the IoT solution that is required.

Presentation - Information from the analytics end that contains patterns and answers can be presented through
dashboards and reports. The dashboards present information that helps realize new organizational values.

Md. Humayun Kabir, Assistant Lecturer, CCE, IIUC 76