Chapter 1 (metaphysics – philosophical science

begins)
What is the place of ethics in the life of the Normative Discipline of philosophy that posits
contemporary man? the question: what is good and what
is bad. (moral philosophy)
If ethics is a philosophy of action, how can it affect the Practical Discipline in philosophy which reflects
life of man of today? upon truth in relation to action.
It is a backbone of human existence (logic)
It serves as vertebrae that gives support to the whole Critical Discipline in philosophy that posits
life direction of man the questions: what is the truth?
Without ethics- (epistemology)
There will be a total collapse of the whole human
person and entire human society. With this we can now say that ethics is a normative
Life itself will become a stinking mess philosophical science that deals with the goodness or
badness, the rightness or the wrongness of human acts.
Kant It is a man’s rational duty ETHICS MORALITY
Mill and Bentham Because of pleasure and From Geek word “ethos” From Latin word “mos”
happiness which means custom or “moris” which means
Fletcher It depends upon the situation custom.
Lawrence Kohlberg Because of our fear of Ethics as normative Morality actualizes the
punishment philosophical science, is a theory. (doing ethics)
Saint Augustine & Because there is God theoretical science of
Aquinas good and bad, right or
Aristotle, Plato & Because of happiness wrong actions.
Socrates This means that ethics does not actually guarantee
Mohammed Because of Allah that man will be moral or good. One can oldy become
moral (good human person) when one applies ethics.
Friedrich Nietzsche an atheist philosopher believes that
God has nothing to do with man’s quest for Postulates of Ethics
goodness. For Nietzsche, man could do good even Postulates are proven facts that need to be
without God. presupposed.
Ethics need not prove them; instead it takes them as
Why really do we want to be moral? they are because they are already proven by other
 Because we want to win the good opinion science. In moral philosophy, there are 3 basic
or impression postulates:
 Because we want to refrain from troubles, The existence of God
or consequently punishment that would The existence of intellect and free will; and
result from immortality. The spirituality and the immorality of the
 Because we are persons who exist in the soul
collectivity of persons.
Ethics compared with other Sciences that deal with
Etymologically, ethics derived from the Greek word Man
“ethicos” or that which pertains to “ethos”, the English PSYCHOLOGY ETHICS
translation of which is “custom” or “character”. From Psychology is a Ethics guides man’s
this ethics is taken to mean as philosophical science that descriptive philosophy intellect to know moral
deals with the morality of human conduct or human that treats of man’s truths and man’s will to
acts intellect, free will, and translate his intellectual
conduct. knowledge of moral
There are four divisions or disciplines in philosophy truths into action
Descriptive Discipline in philosophy that posits (conduct)
or the question: what is the nature “How does man “why does man ought to
speculative (essence) of reality. behave?” behave?”
 Ethics and Sociology 4. Intellect Compare with will
Sociology deals with human relations. Human INTELLECT WILL
relations, however, presuppose proper setup or order Wisdom Highest Goal Virtue
in society. These proper laws postulate the moral Truth Goal Good
values or order of right and wrong action which is Thinking Function Doing
ethics. Knowing Purpose Choosing

 Ethics and Logic 5. Concrete Basis of Morality

Logic is a branch of philosophy that deals with Morality is applied ethics. Therefore, it is real
man’s correct thinking. Ethics deals with man’s and concrete. It became real through the following:
correct doing and correct living  When one encounters a moral
experience
 Ethics and Anthropology  Moral experience could ensue when
Anthropology deals with man’s origin and the one encounters a moral problem; and
behavior or primeval man. Ethics deals with the  A person encounters a moral problem
principles of right conduct as applied to all men at all when the problem injuncts him of
times. moral obligation.

 Ethics and Moral Theology In reality moral obligation is of three degrees namely:
Moral philosophy (ethics) and moral theology  “should”
presuppose God’s existence; they too have the same  “must”
end: i.e., the attainment of man’s ultimate goal: GOD.  “ought”
They differ in their bases. Moral philosophy bases its Any of these degrees singles out an to be
principles on reason, while moral theology bases its responsible for his actions but since man has freedom, it
principles on Faith or Divine Revelation and reason. is “ought: that fits in morality. Therefore, when one is
caught up in a moral problem one should face his
Morality and Human Existence obligation:
1. Man is the only moral being by virtue of the  What ought I do?
following reasons:  What must I do?
 Man is being of action  What should I do?
 Man has intellect ACTIONS ACTIONS
 Man has will
2. Man as animal (and rational being)
As an animal
Good
Right or
Good (better?)
MA Bad
Wrong
Good (best?)
 Knowledge : Senses
 Appetency : Instinct
Bad (less)
N Bad (worse or
worst?)
As Rational
 knowledge : sense and intellect
 Appetency : instinct and will

3. Man as a rational animal

It is his being rational that makes man man. It is
only in this context that man is to be understood as a
moral being or moral agent. It is man’s being rational
that makes him a unique grade of animal. Being
rational, man’s knowledge does not stop in the senses
since his sensual knowledge (perception) is further
“processed” by his intellect in the form of abstraction.
Man, therefor does not just perceive things but also
analyses, assess, criticizes and intellectualizes things.
CHAPTER 2: DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MORAL AND NON- should when we say you should eat more
MORAL STANDARDS fruits.
 An amoral action is one performed by
What is Ethics? someone who is not morally aware, that is
Morality understood in an everyday sense broadly doesn’t have any concepts or understanding
means having some kind of systems of values, deciding of right and wrong.
what is right or wrong for oneself. Ethics however takes
a much more systematic and critical approach to the What is considered a moral dilemma?
question. The focus of ethics is indeed the notion of A moral dilemma - is a conflict in which you
right and wrong, but what it attempts to explain is why have to choose between two or more actions and
people make certain moral decisions, how we create have moral reasons for choosing each action.
moral systems which tell us how to act; some ethical An ethical dilemma - is a decision-making
theories also aim to tell us what moral standards we problem between two possible moral imperatives,
should choose and how we could achieve the good life. neither of which is unambiguously acceptable or
preferable. It's sometimes called an ethical paradox
The difference between a moral issue and a non-moral in moral philosophy.
one.
One of the first tasks of moral philosophy is to be clear What are the 3 level of moral dilemma?
on what makes an action moral and differentiate Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development:
between moral and non-moral judgments. Clearly,  Preconventional
telling a friend that she should buy the red coat I have  conventional, and
just seen in a shop is not a moral judgment, whereas  postconventional.
telling her that she shouldn’t buy a red coat made by
child slaves in India is. But how can we explain the A. Pre- conventional level
difference between the two?  obedience
 Self interest
Moral standards - involve the rules people have about
the kinds of actions they believe are morally right and B. Conventional Level
wrong, as well as the values they place on the kinds of  Conformity
objects they believe are morally good and morally bad.  Law and order

Non-moral standards - refer to rules that are unrelated C. Post-conventional level

to moral or ethical considerations  Social contract orientation
 Universal human ethics
Do you think the following examples are moral issues?
 We shouldn’t litter the street. STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
 You shouldn’t tell white lies. LEVEL STAGE AGE RANGE DESCRIPTION
 We should watch tv. I.Obedience/ infancy No difference
 we shouldn’t experiment on animals. Punishment between doing the
 I should get 3 a-levels. right thing and
avoiding
The main difference thus, between moral and non-moral punishment
issues is that moral issues are based on values. Self-interest Pre-school Interest shifts to
rewards rather than
This has led philosophers to make a distinction punishment – effort
between moral, immoral and amoral actions. is made to secure
 an immoral action is that is considered greatest benefit for
morally wrong. oneself.
 a moral action is an action which is II.Conformity School age The “good boy/girl”
considered morally right or good. and level. Effort is made
 A morally neutral action is one that is interpersonal to secure approval
independent from moral judgment; for accord and maintain
example, the prudential use of the verb friendly relations
 with others. To say that moral judgements should be logical
Authority School age Orientation toward implies several things. Our moral judgment should
and social fixed rules. The follow logically from their premises:
order purpose of morality a. the standard
is maintaining the b. the conduct or policy
social order. c. the moral judgement should be such that a and b
III.Social Teens Mutual benefit, logically entail.
contract reciprocity. Morally Our goal is to be able to support our moral
right and legally judgments with reasons and evidence, rather than
right are not always basing them solely on emotion, sentiment or social or
the same. personal preference
Utilitarianism rules
that make life better 2. Moral judgments should be based on facts.
for everyone. Adequate moral judgments cannot be made in
Universal Adulthood Morality is based on vacuum. We must gather as much relevant information
principles principles that as possible before making them.
transcend mutual
benefit. 3. Moral judgments should be based on acceptable
moral principles.
Foundations of Morality We know that moral judgments are based on
 Care * loyalty moral standards. At the highest level of moral
• Liberty * Authority reasoning, these standards embody and express very
• Fairness * Sanctity general moral principles. Reliable moral judgments
Foundations of Morality (Sanche) must be based on sound moral principles- principles
• Care - protect others from harm. This foundation that can withstand critical scrutiny and rational
underlies virtues of kindness, gentleness, and criticism.
nurturance. After knowing that moral judgment should be
logical, should be based on facts, and should appeal to
• Liberty - overcome tyranny and oppression valid moral principles, bearing this in mind can often
help especially when various people are discussing an
• Fairness - exchanges are reciprocal and issue and proposing rival answers.
proportional, don’t cheat. These foundations 1. In any moral discussion, make sure participants
generate, ideas of justice, rights and autonomy agree about the relevant facts.
2. Once there is general agreement on factual
• Loyalty - support our team and our tribe. This matters, try to spell out the moral principles to
foundation underlies virtues of patriotism and which people are at least implicitly, appealing.
self-sacrifice from the group. (one for all, all for Seeking to determine these principles will often
one). help people clarify their own thinking enough to
reach a solution.
• Authority - respect those above you in hierarchy.
This foundation underlies virtues of leadership Keep the following rough guidelines in mind when
and followership including deference to handling cases of conflicting obligations, ideals and
legitimate authority and respect for traditions. effects:
1. When two or more moral obligations conflict,
• Sanctity - noble things are good, disgusting choose the stronger one.
things are bad. This foundation underlies 2. When two or more ideals conflict, or when
religious notions of striving to live in an elevated, ideals conflict with obligations honor the more
less carnal, more noble way. important one.
3. When rival actions will have different results,
Requirements of Moral Judgement choose the action that produces the greater
1. Moral judgements should be logical. good or the lesser harm.
 POSITIVE TRAITS/STRENGTHS
CHAPTER 3: The Filipino Way
A nation empowers itself depending on the belief’s goals,
1. Hospitality
ideal, aspirations, and values of its citizens. In order to achieve
national unity and progress, it needs the full cooperation of its - the Filipino community are very warm and
people. Values as a people and as a nation gives the identity that hospitable. They even give “pasalubong” (welcome
differentiates one race from the others. These values may improve gifts) and “pabaon” (farewell gifts) to guests.
or hinder development and progress but nonetheless, with unity of
diversity, development and progress are achievable.
2. Respect
Every country has its differing values and stereotypes, and the - the use of po and opo in conversing with older
Philippines is no exception people.

We Filipinos firmly believe that our country has the best values in 3. Strong family ties/family orientation
the world.
– results to the family still being intact
Filipino value system or Filipino values refers to the set of values or regardless that the children are old and with families of
the value system that a majority of the Filipino have historically held their own.
important in their lives. This Philippines value system includes their
own unique assemblage of consistent ideologies, moral codes, 4. Generosity and Helpfulness
ethical practices, etiquette and cultural and personal values that are
promoted by their society. - filipinos are generous people. Even when we
have very little, we always share with those around us.

MODELS OF THE FILIPINO VALUES (F. Landa Jocano) 5. Strong work ethic
- filipinos are hardworking people. They always
 Exogenous model (Foreign model) find creative ways to earn a living.
– described to be a “legal and formal model”.
6. Love and Caring
 Indigenous model (Traditional Model) - Filipinos are sweet and most loving people in
– described as traditional and non-formal the world.
model” and deeply embedded in the
subconscious of the Filipinos. 7. Strong faith in God
- their faith in God keeps them united to
Elements and composition of Filipino values overcome all the problems and challenges of life.

 Surface Values – values readily seen and 8. Flexibility, adaptability and creativity
observed, values exhibited and esteemed by - studies show that Filipinos often have an
every Filipinos. aversion to a set of standardized rules or procedures;
- propriety/dignity (hiya) they are known to follow a “natural clock” or organic
- companionship/esteem (pakikisama) sense of time- doing things in the time they feel is right.
- gratitude/ They are present-oriented; which means that one
 Core Values – surface values are considered attends to a task or requirement at the time it is needed
branches from a single origin- the actual core and does not worry much about future engagement.
value of the Filipino personality – “KAPWA”
9. Kagandahang-loob
Kapwa means “togetherness” and refers to community, - is literally translated as “beauty-of-will” and is
or not doing things alone. synonymous with another term kabutihang-loob or
Categories of Kapwa “goodness-of-will”. According to Virgilio Enriquez.
• 1. Ibang tao (other people)
• 2. Hindi ibang tao (not other people) 10. Joy and Humor
- this famous trait is the ability of Filipinos to
find humor in everything. It sheds light on the optimism
and positivity of Filipinos in whatever situation they are
in so as to remain determined in going through
struggles of challenges. It serves as a coping technique,
the same way a child who has fallen laughs at - most Filipinos find it hard to say, “I’m sorry” or
him/herself to hide his/her embarrassment. “pasensya na”. Their precious pride always gets the best
NEGATIVE TRAITS/WEAKNESSES of them.
7. “Kanya kanya”
1. Fatalism/come what may - a trait which shows self-centeredness and lack
- this is also synonymous to the phrase “Que of regard for others. There are Filipinos who give
sera sera” (Whatever will be, will be), or “Hakuna priority to what they and their families could have,
Matata” (No worries). It leaves everything to chance or rather than what they can do to share their wealth and
just let the circumstances take care of themselves, serve others better. This trait shows poor signs of
embracing luck over good reason. patriotism, loyalty to community, concerns for the
needs of others.
When the Filipinos ways “Bahala na”, several things are
implied: 8. “Fatalism”
- an attitude of “what goes around, comes
a. He does not know of that point how things will turn around” or “come what may”. We have a tendency to
out surrender our future to fate. We often accept bad news
b. He classifies responsibility nonetheless to try and or circumstances without trying to stop or change them.
do something to influence events.
c. He assumes such responsibility, knowing well that 9. Lack of discipline
the case looks hopeless and, - manifests in casual and relaxed attitude
d. He hopes that luck will help when other things fail. towards time and space.

2. “Ningas Kugon” 10. Kanya-kanya syndrome

- “kugon” is a kind of grass that burns easily - Filipinos have a selfish, self-serving attitude, a
when dry but extinguished easily as well. Like the cogon feeling of envy and competitiveness toward others.
grass, Filipinos start things with great enthusiasm but at
the first sign of difficulty, the enthusiasm is consumed
as fast as it has ignited. PASSIVITY (submission to others or to outside
influences)
3. Colonial Mentality
- Filipinos prefer foreign-made products instead 1. Indebtedness “utang na loob”
of patronizing Philippine-made ones. This result to - Filipinos are fond of asking for personal favors
higher gains for foreign businessmen than local from others. It is ingrained for them to acknowledge the
businessmen. Thus, it motivates Filipino businessmen to person who had helped them in times of need. This is a
improve the quality of their products to make it more good act but if forced to repay with something bad to
competitive against foreign ones. show gratitude then it becomes a problem. “Utang na
loob” must not be paid with unlawful acts.
4. “Mamaya Na” or “Bukas Na Lang” Habit
- a poor habit, a sign of laziness, of leaving for a 2. Interpersonal Relationships “Pakikisama”
later time what can be done at the moment or today. - every person wants to belong to a group where
Thus, resulting to stacked workload to be done and then they can share ideas, jokes and feelings but sometimes it
becomes a negative thing when the group is the one that
complain about it.
influences the person to do unlawful or foolish things in
order to belong or to gain approval. This is usually evident
5. Crab Mentality
in the Filipino youth where peer pressure challenges
- a troublesome trait evident in a Filipino where someone’s morality.
when one sees the progress of a comrade, the other
becomes resentful rather than to praise, he would 3. Lack of Self-confidence “Hiya”
highlight everything negative about that person to bring - the Filipinos are shy to boast their achievements
him down or destroy his reputation. They would focus because they might be regarded as show-offs. They prefer
on their own faults rather their own inadequacies. to just hide those achievements and call the idea “being
humble”. This is actually a sign of lack of self-confidence.
6. Patigasan
These characteristics are a challenge for every Filipino. In order to attain From Islam
development and progress, they must value and prioritize their strengths
rather than hide under the clutches of their weaknesses. Embracing the Adore you Lord who created you, as He did those
strengths and conquering their weaknesses will truly help the Filipino nation before you. – Koran 2:21
go forward in attaining its plans and aspirations for a richer and more fun
Philippines where most foreign countries will be jealous of. From Taoism
Hold to the truth. – Tao Te Ching 8
CHAPTER 4: UNIVERSAL VALUES 2. Self-respect with humility, self-discipline and
acceptance to responsibility
A value is a universal value – if it has the same  To respect and care for oneself
value worth for all, or almost all, people spheres of  To not exalt oneself or overindulge, to
human value encompass morality, aesthetic preference, show humility and avoid gluttony, greed
human traits human endeavor, and social order. or other forms of selfishness or self-
centeredness.
Values have major influence on a person’s  To act in accordance with one’s
behavior and attitude and serve as broad guidelines on conscience and to accept responsibility
all situations. to one’s behavior.
From Christianity
The claim for universal values can be understood in Whoever exalts himself will be humbled and whoever
two different ways: humbles himself will be exalted. – Matthew 23:12
From Islam
1st, it could be that something has a universal value If you give alms openly, it is well, but if you do it secretly
when everybody finds it valuable. and give o the poor that is better. – Koran 2:271
According to Isaiah Berlin, universal values, are From Hinduism
values that a great many human beings in the vast majority of
The immature ran after pleasures. – Katha Upanished
places and situations, at almost all times, do in fact hold in
common, whether consciously and explicitly or as expresses 11:2
in their behavior. From Taoism
Live for your enter, not your senses. Tao Te Ching 12
2nd, something could have universal values when all
people have reason to believe it has value. 3. Respect and caring for others. (golden rule)
Amartya Sen interprets the term in this way pointing  To recognize the connectedness
out that when Mahatma Gandhi argued non-violence is a between all people
universal value, he was arguing that all people have reason to
 To serve humankind and to be helpful
value non-violence, not that all people currently value non-
violence.
to an individual.
 To be caring respectful, compassionate,
FOUR MAJOR CATEGORIES AND MORE SPECIFIC tolerant and forgiving of others.
VALUES  To not hurt others (do not murder,
1. Commitment to something greater than itself abuse, steal from, cheat or lie to
 To recognize the existence of and be others.)
committed to the Supreme Being the
higher principle, transcendent purpose From Christianity
or meaning to one’s existence. Always treat others as you would have them to
 To seek truth, (truths) treat you. – Matthew 7:12
 To seek justice From Judaism
Love your fellow as yourself. – Leviticus 19:18
From Christianity From Islam
You will know the truth and the truth shall set you Do not take life which God has forbidden except
free. – John 8:32 in a just cause. – Koran 17:33
From Judaism From Hinduism
To love the Lord you God and walk in all His ways Do not kill. – Bhagavard Gita 16:12
and to keep His commandments, and to hold fast to
Him, and to serve Him with all your heart and soul. – 4. Caring for other living things and the
Joshua 22:5 environment
  Stay away from what makes you discontent
From Christianity  Take care of yourself
What man shall there be among you have one Schwartz results from a series of studies that included
sheep and if it falls unto pit on the Sabbath day will not surveys of more than 25, 000 people in 44 countries
lay hold it and let it out. – Matthew 12:11 with a wide range of different cultural types suggest
that there are 56 specific universal values and 10 types
From Judaism of universal value.
The Lord took the man and placed him into the
Garden of Eden to till it and tend it. – Genesis 2:15 10 UNIVERSAL VALUES
From Islam 1. Power
His knowledge extends over the heavens and 2. Achievement
the earth and the preservation of them both tires Him 3. Hedonism
not. – Koran 2:255 4. Stimulation
From Taoism 5. Self-direction
Love the world as yourself and you will be able 6. Universalism
to care for it properly. – Tao TE Ching 13 7. Benevolence
8. Tradition
From Buddhism
9. Conformity
One who is harmless to all living things is noble.
10. Security
– Dhammapada 19:15
From Humanism Below are each of the value types, with the specific
The planet earth must be considered a single related values alongside:
ecosystem. The cultivation and conservation of nature VALUE SPECIFIC VALUES
as a moral value we should perceive as ourselves as TYPES
integral to the source of our being in nature. – Humanist - authority - social power
Power
Manifesto II p6 - leadership - wealth
- dominance
S.H Schwartz Achievement - success - Influence
Along with a number of psychology colleagues, - capability - Intelligence
has carried out empirical research investigating whether - ambition - self-respect
there are universal values and what those values are. Hedonism - pleasure
- enjoying life
Stimulation - daring activities
Schwartz defined “values” – as conceptions of the
- varied life
desirable that influence the way people select action - exciting life
and evaluate events. He hypothesized that universal self-direction - creativity - curiosity
values would relate to three different types of human - freedom - choosing your
needs: - independence own goals
 Biological needs Universalism - broadmindedness
 Social coordination needs - wisdom - unity with
 Needs related to the welfare and survival of nature
groups. - social justice - protecting the
- equality environment
- a world at peace - inner harmony
CONTENTMENT
- a world of beauty
- It is a state of being happy and satisfied. It’s - helpfulness - loyalty
Benevolence
being satisfied with what you have, whatever - honesty - responsibility
that is. - forgiveness - friendship
Tradition - accepting one’s portion in life
6 practices that can increase your contentment - humility
 Express gratitude. Intentionally identifying - devoutness
things to be grateful for helps us recognize just - respect for tradition
how blessed we are. - moderation
 Keep a thankfulness journal conformity - self-discipline
 Be generous/ practice gratitude - obedience
Security - cleanliness
- family security
- national security
- stability of social order
reciprocation of favors’ health
- sense of belonging
CHAPTER 5: How is Moral Character Developed? & Stages He state “Excellence of Character” then is a state
of Moral Development concerned with choice lying in a mean relative to us, this
being determined by reason and in the way which the man
When a person is said to have character, it usually implies depends on excess and that which depend on defect.
they have distinguishing moral qualities, moral virtues, and A character is a state, whereas, the actions
moral reasoning abilities. Less frequently used terms determine the way the person acts. A virtuous character is
include morality, virtue, and ethics. not a feeling or mere tendency to behave in a certain way.
A moral person - understands, right and wrong Aristotle makes an argument about different virtues.
and willfully chooses what is right, a virtuous person - Virtues relate to the feelings and actions from each
engages in good behavior intentionally, predictably, and individual.
habitually; an ethical person - figures out what is right or
good when this is not obvious. 2. Confucius – is another prominent figure that has
been relative to the modern development of a
Moral character – is an evaluation’s stable moral qualities. moral character. His techings were basically full of
Moral character begins to develop from birth of a person ethics on human behaviors. He spoke more on the
up to the end of the continuously learn and adapt different kindness of human rather than spiritual concepts.
traits and characteristics that will prove and attest their - He argued that things must be clear to one’s
morality. It is much easier to develop a person’s moral mind in order to function properly in an
character in his early childhood as long as a child is still environment.
needed to be educated. - He argues that the life of an individual is to
protect one’s virtue. The acts of that
Confucius – is another prominent figure that has been individual must be preserved to act to the
relative to modern development of a moral character. good. Another saying that substantiate
Confucius spends may year thinking about the concept to Confucius argument is IV.25 (Eastern), it
human kindness and the development of a character. His states, “Virtues is not left to stand alone. He
teaching was basically full of ethics on human behavior. He who practices it will have neighbors.”
spoke more on the kindness of human rather than spiritual
concepts. He argued that things must be clear to one’s 3. Plato – another prominent figure in the world of
mind in order to function properly in an environment. philosophy.
COMPONENTS OF MORAL CHARACTER - His writings such as Apology demonstrate
Moral behavior Prosocial, sharing, donating to dramatic accounts of the event leading to his
charity, telling the truth death, as well as illustrating matters of
Moral values Believe in moral goods concerns, ethical living, and clarity of thought
Moral emotion Guilt, empathy, compassion and expression.
Moral reasoning Abut right and wrong - “Apology” – means “legal defense of trial”.
Moral identity Morality as an aspect self-image - He offers to discuss about the defense of
Moral personality Enduring tendency to act with philosophy as a way of life. A soul is part of a
honesty, altruism, responsibility life, whereas, the soul determines the things
Metamoral Characteristics meaning, they we do every day.
make morality possible even - In Phaedo, Plato argued that the soul is
though they are not inherently “something”, rather than a sense of
moral “harmony”. Unlike harmony, the soul exists,
which is more active than others. Souls are
Three philosophers who studies moral development more virtuous, which harmony does not
1. Nicomachean ethics – is a remarkable work pertain to. Soul pre-exists which harmony
written in 350 B.C by Aristotle. His work was does not.
focused on the importance of development and To sum it up, Philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle
behavior among virtuous characters. Aristotle argued that the cognitive and effective states were
clarified the importance of ethnical behavior, and important.
how actions play a role in which an individual These philosophers agree that happiness links to virtue.
performs. They suggested everyone who is happy is one who is
Eudaimonia – is a relative to the how a brave, restraint, and understanding. However, it is difficult
moral character develops. It is an end in itself. to understand.
Aristotle argued that it was known as a goal of a Plato and Aristotle both agree that a positive moral
healthy life character involves more than a Socrates’ understanding of
the superior. Both agree that it is important to have
harmony between the cognitive and the affective with the result that it may not adequately address the
materials from a person. arguments of those who value other moral aspects of
actions. Similarly, critics argue that Kohlberg’s states are
SIX FACTORS INFLUENCING MORAL DEVELOPMENT culturally biased – that the highest stages in particular
Family The first influencer on children’s reflect a westernized ideal of justice based on
moral development individualistic thought. This is biased against those that live
School The relationships children in non-western societies that place less emphasis on
develop in schools become individualism.
critical to their positive
development (Skiner, 1964). The Another criticism is that
way they feel towards peers, - people frequently demonstrate significant
teachers, staffs and leaders at inconsistency in their moral judgements.
school will affect their moral life. This often occurs in moral dilemmas involving drinking and
Peer groups Peer interaction and aggression driving or business situations where participants have
behaviors that children do will been shown to reason at a lower developmental stage,
affect their moral developments. typically using more self-interest driven reasoning (i.e.,
Society and culture Moral development prevents stage two) than authority and social order obedience
people from acting on driven reasoning (i.e., stage four). Critics argue that
unchecked urges, instead Kohlberg’s theory cannot account for such inconsistencies.
considering what is right for
society and good for others.
Age Children develop a sense of Problems with Kohlberg’s Methods
morality as they grow 1. The dilemmas are artificial (i.e., they lack
Sex The relation of sex, gender and ecological validity). Most of the dilemma are
personality, influences moral unfamiliar to most people (Rosen, 1980)
development.
However, Kohlberg’s subjects were aged between 10 and
Based on Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development, 16. They have never been married, and never been placed
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) – American psychologist in a situation remotely like the one in the story. How
developed his own theory of moral development in should they know whether Heinz should steal the drug.
children. According to Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development, there are 6 stages of moral development, 2. The sample is biased
known as Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.
According to Giligan (1977), because Kohlberg’s theory
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT was based on all-male sample, the stages reflect a male
 Pre conventional definition of morality (it’s androcentric). Mens’ morality is
 Conventional based on abstract principles of law and justice, while
 Post conventional womens’ is based on principles of compassion and care.

Critiques of Kohlberg’s Theory 3. The dilemmas are hypothetical (i.e., they are not
Kohlberg has been criticized real)
- for his assertion that women seem to be
deficient in their moral reasoning abilities In a real situation, what course of action a person takes
when compared to men. will have real consequences – and sometimes very
Carol Giligan (1982), a research assistant of Kohlberg, unpleasant ones for themselves. Would subjects reason in
criticized her former mentor’s theory because it was based the same way if they were placed in real situation? We just
narrowly on research using white, upper-class men and don’t know.
boys. She argued that women are not deficient in their
moral reasoning and instead proposed that males and 4. Poor research design
females’ reason differently: girls and women focus more
on staying connected and maintaining interpersonal The way in which Kohlberg carried out his research when
relationships. constructing this theory may not have been the best way
to test whether all children follow the same sequence of
- for emphasizing justice to the exclusion of stage progression. His research was cross-sectional,
other values, meaning that he interviewed children of different ages to
see what level of moral development they were at.
 2. Define the ethical issues
A better way to see if all children will follow the  Don’t jump to solutions without first identifying
same order through the stages would have been to carry the ethical issue (s) in the situation.
out longitudinal research on the same children.  Define the ethical basis for the issue you want
to focus on.
Problems with Kohlberg’s Theory  There may be multiple ethical issues-focus on
1. Are there distinct stage of moral development? one major at a time.
Kohlberg claims that there are, but the evidence
3. Identify the affected parties
does not always support this conclusion. For example, a
Identify all of the stakeholders
person who justified a decision on the basis of principled
 Who are the primary or direct stakeholders?
reasoning in one situation (post conventional morality
stage 5 or 6) would frequently fall back on conventional  Who are the secondary or indirect
reasoning (stage 3 or 4) with another story. In practice, it stakeholders?
seems that reasoning about right and wrong depends Why are they stakeholders for the issue?
more upon the situation that upon general rules.  Perspective-taking – try to see things through
the eyes of those individuals affected.
2. Does moral judgement match moral behavior?
4. Identify the consequences
Kohlberg never claimed that there would be a one  Think about potential positive and negative
to one correspondence between thinking and acting (what consequences for affected parties by the
we say and what we do) but he does suggest that the two decision (focus on primary stakeholders to
are linked. However, Bee (1994) suggest that we also need simplify analysis until you become comfortable
to take account of; with the process.
a) Habbits that people have developed overtime.  What are the magnitude of the consequences
b) Whether people see situations as demanding their and the probability that the consequences will
participation. happen.
c) The costs and benefits behaving in a particular  Short term vs. Long term consequences – will
way. decision be valid over time.
d) Competing motive such as peer pressure, self-
 Broader systemic consequences – tied to
interest and so-on.
symbolic and secrecy.
3. Is justice the most fundamental moral principle?  Symbolic consequences – each decision
sends a message.
This is Kohlberg’s view. However, Giligan (1977)  Secrecy consequences – what are the
suggests that the principle of caring for others is equally consequences if the decision or action
important. Furthermore, Kohlberg claims that the moral become public?
reasoning of males has been often in advance of that of  Did you consider relevant cognitive
females. barriers/biases?
 Consider what your decision would be base
CHAPTER 6: The 7 Steps of Moral Reasoning Model only on consequences – then move on and see
if it is similar given other considerations.
Seven Steps of Moral Reasoning Model
1. Gather the facts 5. Identify the relevant principles, rights and justice
 Don’t jump to conclusions without the facts issues
 Questions to ask:  Obligations should be thought of in terms of
who, what, where, when, how, and why principles and rights involved.
 However, facts may be difficult to find because A. What obligations are created because of
of the uncertainty often found around ethical particular ethical principles you might
issues. use in the situations?
 Some facts are not available.  Examples:
 Assemble as many facts as possible before Do no harm: do unto others as you
proceeding. would have them do unto you; do
 Clarify what assumptions you are making. what would have anyone in your
shoes do in the given context.
 B. What obligations are created because of
specific rights of the stakeholders?
 What rights are more basic vs.
secondary in nature?
 Which help protect individual’s
basic autonomy?
 What types of rights are involved –
negative or positive?

C. What concepts of justice (fairness is

relevant – distributive or procedural
justice?
 Did you consider any relevant
cognitive barriers/biases?
 Formulate the appropriate decision
or action based solely on the above
analysis of these obligations.

6. Consider your character and integrity

 Consider what your relevant community
members would consider to be the kind of
decision that an individual of integrity would
make in this situation.
 What specific virtues are relevant in the
situation?
 Disclosure rule – what would you do if the
New York Times reported your action and
everyone was to read it.

7. Monitor and Modify

Ethical decision makers – monitor the effects of
their choices. If they are not producing the intended
results, or are causing additional unintended and
undesirable results, they re-assess the situation and
make new decisions.