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LEARNER SUPPORT IN A
DIVERSE CLASSROOM
A guide for Foundation, Intermediate and Senior
Phase teachers of language and mathematics

EDITORS
Norma Nel
Mirna Nel
Anna Hugo
or applicable copyright law.

Van Schaik
PUBLISHERS

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Published by Van Schaik Publishers
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Preface

Based on the fact that South Africa has adopted inclusive education, the Edu-
cation White Paper No. 6, Special Needs Education, Building an Inclusive
Education and Training System (Department of Education, 2001) specifies
that all schools and all educational institutions have to accept inclusion as
part of their ethos. To address barriers to learning, a learner-centred
approach is needed for teaching and learning, and thus the authors will be
looking at a differentiated curriculum and instructional approach. As a
teacher you have the privilege of making a difference in the lives of children.
This will be influenced by the way you interact with your learners, the class-
room environment, the curriculum, learning activities and teaching methods
you use. Motivating your learners to believe in themselves and making them
feel accepted and respected as individuals will also make them more able to
learn. Looking at differentiated instruction involves breaking the curriculum
into smaller chunks. Another important aspect is curriculum mapping, and
including hands-on activities, cooperative learning groups, peer tutoring and
plenty of visual aids in the classroom. Inclusive education involves a different
way of presenting curricular content, for example coteaching e.g. special and
general teachers (Thousand, Villa & Nevin, 2007: 7–8). Teachers should do
whatever it takes to maximise the learners’ learning and not to rely on a “one-
size-fits-all” approach to teaching the whole class.
This book consists of two parts. Part 1 is more theoretical. However, we do
not delve into theory at great length as we really just give the reader an
overview of what learner support in diverse classrooms is all about. Part 2 is
more practical. Here we are interested in assisting teachers to make changes
in their day-to-day teaching strategies by providing them with practical
examples of how learners in the classroom can have access to a differentiated
curriculum that will enable them to reach their maximum potential.
We hope that by reading this book, you will be able to find answers to some
of the difficulties you experience in teaching learners with diverse needs. Note
that we have linked theories and practices.
We would like to thank Heather Symonds, Dyslexia Coordinator at the
London College of Communication, University of the Arts, London, who pro-
vided valuable information for the book.
or applicable copyright law.

Norma Nel, Mirna Nel & Anna Hugo (editors)

August 2012
v

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About the authors

Norma Nel (editor) is an associate professor in the Department of Psychology

of Education, College of Education at the University of South Africa. Her
responsibilities include teacher training (tuition), postgraduate supervision,
research, community engagement and international collaborative research
projects. She has presented several papers at national and international con-
ferences and published articles in journals and books during her academic
career at Unisa. Prof. Nel is also an avid researcher. She serves as an editor
for an international journal as well as for three international conference com-
mittees. Her interests are in inclusive education, barriers to learning, English
second language, learner support and early childhood development.

Mirna Nel (coeditor) is a senior lecturer in the School of Educational Sci-

ences at the North West University, Vaal Triangle Campus. She lectures
modules on inclusive education, learning support and life orientation for pre-
as well as postgraduate students in education. She is also the BEd pro-
gramme manager for this campus. Her responsibilities include supervising
Master’s and PhD students. She has published articles in accredited as well
as online journals. Her research projects focus on inclusive education, pre-
graduate training, life orientation and English second language. She has pre-
sented many papers on these topics at national as well as international con-
ferences.

Anna Hugo (coeditor) is a professor in the Department of Lanugage Educa-

tion, Arts and Culture College of Education at the University of South Africa.
She has 22 years’ experience as a lecturer at Unisa. At present, she is respon-
sible for the module on inclusive education that is offered to all BEd students
focusing on primary school to secondary school. She also offers the modules on
language teaching for the BEd and PGCE (Foundation Phase). Prof. Hugo has
read many papers at a national and an international level. She has been
keynote speaker at a summer school in Pamplona and has been invited to be
keynote speaker at a teacher education conference in Brazil in 2010. She is
the author and coauthor of more than 20 academic articles. She is an associ-
ate editor for an international journal and she is the coeditor of a book on the
or applicable copyright law.

teaching of English as an additional language.

LDM “Oupa” Lebeloane is a professor in the College of Education at the

vi University of South Africa. He has 19 years’ experience as a lecturer at Unisa.
At present, he is director in the “School of Education, College of Education” at
Unisa. Prof. Lebeloane has taught undergraduate and postgraduate modules
and before that he was Chair of Department and later acting director. He still

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supervises Master’s and doctoral students in education. He has read many

papers at national and international conferences and seminars, including a
presentation at UNESCO. He serves as an executive committee member of
the International Seminar for Teacher Education (ISfTE). He also serves on
some committees in South Africa. He is the author and coauthor of a number
of scientiﬁc articles.

Elizabeth Walton is a senior lecturer in inclusive education in the Universi-

ty of the Witwatersrand School of Education. She teaches undergraduate and
postgraduate courses in inclusive education, supervises postgraduate stu-
dents and is actively researching. Her research interests include teacher edu-
cation for inclusive education, the language of in/exclusion and pedagogies for
inclusion. She has published in journals and presented papers at conferences
nationally and internationally. She is on the editorial board of an accredited
international journal and on the board of the Southern African Association for
Learning and Educational Differences (SAALED). She also has 20 years’
experience as a high school English teacher and in school management.

Sharon Moonsamy is a speech pathologist and audiologist, lecturing at the

University of the Witwatersrand. Her fields of teaching and research include
cross-field disciplines of speech pathology, audiology, psychology and educa-
tion, specifically in the areas of language and cognition. Sharon’s premise for
teaching and learning is based on the belief that all learners are capable of
change, given the appropriate instruction. Her doctoral work has been in
metacognition and reading. She is affiliated to the cognitive associations both
locally (IACESA) and internationally (IACEP), as well as to the Southern
African Association of Learning and Educational Differences (SAALED).

Fleur Durbach is deputy principal and remedial therapist at Bellavista

School in Johannesburg. She has more than 30 years’ experience in primary
education. Fleur is passionate about assisting learners with special needs and
has spent many years exploring a variety of different approaches to reading.
She is currently completing her Master’s degree in education. Her research
evaluates the level of engagement required by teachers to promote reading
effectively. Fleur worked for ten years at the cognitive research unit at Wit-
watersrand University developing materials to enhance cognitive education.

Azette Engelbrecht is a learning support coordinator in the Tshwane South

District of the Gauteng Department of Education. She supports teachers, par-
or applicable copyright law.

ents and learners from a number of schools in the Centurion area. Her initial
postgraduate studies were aimed at the education of gifted learners. Although
her current studies is aimed at learner support in general, she had always
been passionate about alternative ways of teaching mathematical concepts vii
and skills to learners whose learning modalities deviate from those consid-
ered to be “usual”, “ordinary” or “typical”. This interest stems from raising
twins with equal (promising) mathematical potential, but displaying diver-

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gent learning modalities. After teaching for 25 years, Azette and a colleague
of hers (Hanlie Swanepoel) designed an in-service training course on address-
ing diversity in the South African classroom through multilevel teaching
practices. They have trained hundreds of South African teachers.
or applicable copyright law.

viii

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Contents

Part 1 Theory
Chapter 1 Inclusive education: the necessity of providing support to all
learners
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 What is inclusive education? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Global agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Inclusive education in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.1 Important South African inclusive education documents . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 Theoretical grounding of inclusive education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.1 Medical model paradigm versus the socioecological model paradigm . 9
1.5.2 Two important theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5.2.2 The constructivist theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.2.3 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Barriers to learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6.1 Extrinsic barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6.2 Intrinsic barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Chapter 2 Learning
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 What is learning? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3 Learning theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.1 Behavioural theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.2 Neobehaviourism or cognitive-behavioural theories of learning . . . . . 28
2.3.3 Cognitive theories of learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.3.1 Active learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.3.2 Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.3.3 Connecting with prior knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.3.4 Guided discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.3.5 Scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
or applicable copyright law.

2.3.3.6 Social constructivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.3.3.7 Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4 Learning styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 ix
2.4.1 The auditory modality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.2 Visual learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.3 Kinaesthetic learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

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2.5 Multiple intelligences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.6 Teaching styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.7 Learning problems and learning disabilities (LD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Chapter 3 Assessment and learner support

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2 The identiﬁcation of barriers to learning and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3 Assessment to determine support needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3.1 Diagnostic assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4 Learning support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.2 Support teams (taken from the SIAS document, 2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4.2.2 Composition of ILSTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4.2.3 Functions of the ILST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.4.2.4 District-based support teams (DBST) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.4.2.5 The key functions and roles of the ILST and the DBST . . . . 58
3.4.3 Intensity of support needed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.4.4 Classroom support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4.4.1 Teaching methods and learning styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4.4.2 Differentiation (see also Chapter 5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4.4.3 Universal design for learning (UDL) (see also Chapter 5) . . 60
3.4.4.4 Accommodations and adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.4.4.5 Scaffolding (see Chapter 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.4.4.6 Cognitive complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.5 Individual education plan (IEP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.6 Screening, identiﬁcation, assessment and support (SIAS) (DoE, 2008) . . . . . 73
3.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Chapter 4 English language

4.1 What is language? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.1.1 The forms of language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
or applicable copyright law.

4.1.2 Elements of language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4.1.2.1 Language form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.1.2.2 Language content (semantics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
x 4.1.2.3 Language use (pragmatics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2 Language development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.1 Prelinguistic stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.2 Emerging language stage (12–18 months) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

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4.2.3 Developing language stage (27–46 months) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

4.2.4 Language for learning stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3 Oral language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.4 Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4.1 What is reading? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4.1.1 Phonemic or phonological awareness (refer to section 4.4.1.2) 90
4.4.1.2 Phonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.4.1.3 Word recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.4.1.4 Fluency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.4.1.5 Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.4.1.6 Comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.4.2 The reading process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.4.2.1 The visual cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.4.2.2 The visual perceptual cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.4.2.3 The syntactic cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.4.2.4 The semantic cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.4.3 Reading development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.4.4 Reading in the class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.4.4.1 Possible ways to read in the classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.4.5 How to determine the learner’s reading level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.5 Written language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.5.1 Stages of writing development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.6 Spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.6.1 Spelling development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.6.1.1 Precommunicative stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.6.1.2 Semi-phonetic stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.6.1.3 Phonetic stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.6.1.4 Transitional stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.6.1.5 The correct stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.6.2 Tips for teaching spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.7 Handwriting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.7.1 English second-language (ESL) learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.8 Aims of teaching language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.8.1 Differentiated approach to teaching English language . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Chapter 5 Learner support through differentiated teaching and learning

or applicable copyright law.

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

5.2 Rationale for differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.2.1 Education policy mandates differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 xi
5.2.2 Differentiation is a means to make inclusion a reality . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.2.3 Differentiation enables learners to experience success . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.2.4 Differentiation prevents learning gaps from occurring . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

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5.2.5 Differentiation provides opportunities for cognitive development . . . 120

5.2.6 Differentiation reduces challenging behaviour in classrooms . . . . . . . 120
5.3 The problems of differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.3.1 Preoccupation with difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.3.2 The reification of differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.3.3 Differentiation and social justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.3.4 The dilemma of difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.4 Implementing differentiation in the classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.4.1 The role of the teacher in differentiating teaching and learning . . . . . 124
5.4.1.1 Developing a classroom culture that supports differentiation 124
5.4.1.2 What teachers need to know in order to differentiate . . . . . . 124
5.4.1.3 Using the principle of universal design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.4.2 Differentiated instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.4.2.1 Multilevel teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.4.2.2 Enabling learning through scaffolding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.4.3 Differentiated learning activities and assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.4.3.1 Differentiation with no adjustment to conceptual difficulty . 132
5.4.3.2 Differentiation by varying the complexity of the learner
activity or assessment task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.4.4 Individual support plans (see section 3.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.5 Conclusion: common questions about differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.5.1 What about standardised external assessments, like matric? . . . . . . . 136
5.5.2 How do reports reflect differentiation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.5.3 How do we respond to complaints that differentiation is not fair? . . . 136
5.5.4 How is differentiation different from streaming? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Chapter 6 Perceptual skills

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.2 Defining perception and perceptual difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.3 Theoretical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.4 Identification and support of perceptual difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.4.1 Auditory perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.4.1.1 Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.4.1.2 Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.4.2 Visual perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
or applicable copyright law.

6.4.2.1 Reversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

6.5 Perception related to motor abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
xii 6.6 General guidelines in dealing with perceptual difﬁculties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

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Part 2
Chapter 7 Language and literacy assessment and support
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.2 Section A: assessment and intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.2.1 Observation portfolio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.3 Section B: record and analyse reading behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.3.1 Analysing the record of reading behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.4 Section C: learner’s written proﬁles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.5 Section D: assessment and intervention in context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.5.1 Lesson 1: listening comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.5.2 Lesson 2: oral or silent reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
7.5.3 Lesson 3: speaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7.5.4 Lesson 4: writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
7.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Addendum A to Chapter 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

Chapter 8 Supporting learners in acquiring the skill of mathematisation

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
8.2 Transmission of knowledge (direct instruction) versus construction of
meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
8.2.1 The sage on the stage ... or the guide on the side? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
8.2.2 The mediator in the middle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
8.3 Barriers to teaching mathematics in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
8.4 Prevention remains better than cure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
8.4.1 Mathematical literacy starts at birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
8.4.2 Mathematical literacy needs to be taught . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
8.4.3 Link classroom mathematics to real-life scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
8.4.4 Teach mathematics from and within the learners’ social context . . . . 242
8.4.5 Beyond school: what are we aiming at? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.5 Understanding intrinsic barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.5.1 Identify in order to understand and support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.5.2 Emotional immaturity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
8.5.3 Maths anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
8.5.4 Dyscalculia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8.5.5 Right-brain hemisphere dominance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
or applicable copyright law.

8.5.6 Giftedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

8.6 Understanding and acknowledging extrinsic barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
8.6.1 Barriers to learning within the school and classroom environment . . 256
8.6.2 Barriers to learning within the home, family and community xiii
environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
8.6.2.1 Socioeconomic status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
8.7 Pinpointing the starting point of intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

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8.7.1Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
8.7.2Pinpointing starting point of intervention in the content area:
numbers, operations and relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
8.8 Support strategies to alleviate barriers at a Grade 4 level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
8.8.1 Supporting number concept in the number range 0–10 000 . . . . . . . . . 277
8.8.2 Supporting mental maths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
8.8.2.1 Addition and subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8.8.2.2 Multiplication up to 10 x 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
8.8.2.3 Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
8.8.3 Supporting written calculations and problem solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
8.8.3.1 Written calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
8.8.3.2 Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
8.8.3.3 Financial mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
8.8.3.4 Patterns, space and shape, measurement and data
handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
8.8.3.5 Problem solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.9 Support strategies to prevent or alleviate general barriers to
mathematising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
8.9.1 Cooperative learning groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
8.9.2 Storytelling to improve conceptualisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
8.9.3 Enrichment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
8.9.4 Use of technology as “TEACHnology” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
8.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Addendum A to Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
or applicable copyright law.

xiv

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PAR T 1
Theory
or applicable copyright law.

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1
?
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Inclusive education:
the necessity of
providing support
to all learners
NormA NEL
mIrNA NEL
ANNA Hugo

OBJECTIVES

When you have read this chapter

1.1 Introduction you should be able to
Blue Cloud Primary School is in a poor socioeconomic • describe what inclusive
city area. Since this school is a previous Model C education is in terms of a global
school it mostly has white teachers, however, in the agenda, as well as seen from a
South African perspective
last few years many black teachers have been
• explain the theoretical grounding
appointed. The learners of this school come mainly of inclusive education
from townships and informal settlements. The num-
• understand the two main
ber of learners in a classroom ranges from 40 to more theories on which inclusive
than 50 per class. The principal of this school is a education is built
visionary and adopted the principles of inclusive edu- • differentiate between intrinsic
cation. However, there are many challenges to the and extrinsic barriers to learning
and development
successful implementation of an inclusive education
policy. • define the concept “barriers to
learning”.
Extrinsic barriers that cause difficulties are issues
such as: poverty and the unemployment rate in the
area; gangster activities; the drug and alcohol abuse
of parents; a high rate of HIV/AIDS; vandalism; the
illiteracy of parents; many different home languages;
inadequately trained teachers with regard to learn-
ing support; and a lack of sufficient support services.
There are a few churches that are actively involved
or applicable copyright law.

in supporting the community with cultural and sport

youth activities, supplying food packages and provid-
ing counselling services. 3
There are many learners in this school who experi-
ence a diversity of intrinsic barriers to learning, such
as learning difﬁculties, attention and hyperactivity

000p
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difﬁculties, visual and hearing impairments, physical disabilities; even learn-

ers with Autism and Down Syndrome are attending the school. Since special
or specialised schools are not in the vicinity of Blue Cloud and parents cannot
afford to send their children to schools far away, these learners have been
accepted here. Although the teachers of Blue Cloud are inspired by their pas-
sion to teach any learner and are supported and motivated by the principal,
they admit that they still lack appropriate training to support some learners
experiencing barriers to learning.
Keeping this case study in mind, the issues to be discussed in this chapter
include: what inclusive education is; what inclusive education entails globally
and locally; the theoretical grounding of inclusive education, making inclusive
education work within an ecosystemic perspective as well as the deﬁnitions of
extrinsic and intrinsic barriers to learning.

1.2 What is inclusive education?

If one considers the case study discussed above, the question could be asked:
why inclusion, aren’t there too many challenges? Many teachers will tell you
that inclusive education is not working. However, before you confirm the
same beliefs, let’s have a look at what inclusive education is. Sapon-Shevin
(2007) states that inclusion begins with the right of every child to be in the
mainstream of education. Learners do not have to “earn” their way into a
classroom, they need to be assumed as full members even if modifications,
adaptations and extensive support are needed. With inclusive education
teachers cannot have the attitude of “This is my classroom – let’s see if you
can fit in”. Inclusion requires teachers to think about all aspects of their class-
room – pedagogy, curriculum and classroom climate to ensure that the cli-
mate is welcoming and educative for every learner. Inclusive education,
therefore, requires teachers to be responsive to the whole child and not just to
one aspect or characteristic (Sapon-Shevin, 2007: 6).
Although there are many interpretations of inclusion, there are broad prin-
ciples, which are commonly accepted in the international arena, such as the
building of a more democratic society through an equitable and quality educa-
tion system. This means that all schools, including regular schools, such as
Blue Cloud Primary school, have the responsibility to accommodate all
learners’ diverse learning needs. Diverse learning needs refer not only to dis-
abilities, but also to differences such as age, gender, ethnicity, language,
class, HIV or other infectious diseases (DoE, 2001: 6). Sapon-Shevin (2007:
or applicable copyright law.

xiv) emphasises that one must be careful not to associate inclusion exclusively
with the practice of including learners with disabilities in regular classrooms.
We need to remember that all learners come to school with their own charac-
4 teristics and identities that will inﬂuence their academic progression. Inclu-
sion, therefore, means that all learners can learn and all learners will at a
stage need some kind of support (DoE, 2001), even learners without disabili-
ties or learning difﬁculties (e.g. There is death or trauma in the family. This

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will inﬂuence a learner’s ability to concentrate and he or she will have speciﬁc
learning needs during that time).
In Figure 1.1, Walton (2006: 41) depicts how inclusive education should
work in practice:
Figure 1.1

School and system-wide restructuring Meeting diverse needs in the general

and improvement towards greater classroom by providing appropriate
effectiveness through support through

Increasing participation and reducing exclusion (particularly of those who experience

barriers to learning) from curricula, classrooms, culture and school communities

Training of teachers in requisite knowledge, skills, values and attitudes

Developing collaborative team relationships among staff, with parents and other
stakeholders (such as the community, psychologists, speech therapists, occupational
therapists, etc.)

Making necessary modifications to instruction, the curriculum and the environment

Understanding that inclusion is both a process and an outcome

Underpinned by ...

An inclusive culture that values diversity Inclusive policy and legislation that
and welcomes all learners as contributing initiates and entrenches inclusive practice
members of the school community

Figure 1.1 Making inclusive education work

Source: Walton (2006: 41)

Finally inclusive education is about an intention and a commitment.

Sapon-Shevin (2007: 14–16) asserts that we have to think about the following
issues:
i) Access. For example, how do we make the school more accessible for a
child in a wheelchair? If poverty excludes learners from attending school
what plans do we make to assist these learners?
ii) Cultures and beliefs. In a country like South Africa where there are so
many different cultures and beliefs we especially need to be open-minded
about the differences.
iii) Inclusivity, not exclusivity. We need to design strategies to ﬁgure out how
or applicable copyright law.

to connect and support one another so that everyone can participate.

iv) Classroom structure. Our classrooms need to be structured in such a way
that every learner’s “smartness” is acknowledged and style of learning is 5
accommodated.
v) Engagement. All members of the school community need to be considered
(see the discussion on the ecological model on page 11).

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1.3 Global agenda

Inclusive education is a universal philosophy and practice that can be adopted
and indigenised by local cultures and conditions. It has, therefore, a global
agenda and has played a huge role in the educational reforms of many coun-
tries. This international focus guides and informs local practice. We are living
in a country where discrimination has been removed by law and human
rights have been entrenched in our Constitution. It is, therefore, important
that we should embrace inclusive education as part and parcel of our educa-
tion system.
The global agenda for inclusive education evolves from the human rights
culture worldwide and focuses on disability rights, children’s rights and edu-
cation. The United Educational Scientiﬁc and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO) of the United Nations has been the driving force behind inclusive
education. The belief that all children have the right to education, that they
need to be valued and respected and treated with human dignity as well as
that they should not be discriminated against, are the values and beliefs upon
which inclusive education is built (Ainscow, 1995: 149). At the World Confer-
ence on Special Needs Education held in 1994, the Salamanca Statement and
Framework for Action on Special Needs Education was adopted. This docu-
ment declared that every child has the fundamental right to education (a
learner-centred approach) and that all children are unique and therefore edu-
cation must consider their diverse needs and characteristics. This document
also reiterates that children with special needs in education need to have
access to regular schools. The fundamental principle of inclusive schools
described in this document is that all children need to learn together and at
the same time their individual differences and learning needs must be catered
for through the provision of support that is speciﬁcally planned for them
(Walton, 2006: 20, 21, 24 & 25). This means that every learner’s needs have to
be accommodated in any classroom.

1.4 Inclusive education in south africa

Despite the global movement towards inclusive education, South Africa had
speciﬁc reasons to change its education system to inclusivity. In the previous
apartheid system, segregation in education based on race and disability were
the order of the day. It is estimated that only 20 per cent of learners with dis-
abilities (especially black learners) were accommodated in the education sys-
tem then. The World Health Organisation (WHO) states that between 2.2 per
cent and 2.6 per cent of learners in any school system could be identiﬁed as
or applicable copyright law.

disabled or impaired (DoE, 2001: 9). In 2001, from a possible 400 000 learners
with disabilities only 64 200 learners were accommodated in special schools.
The few special schools, that were available for black learners with disabili-
6 ties, were also underresourced and underfunded (DoE, 2001: 9). Our Consti-
tution (Act 108 of 1996) is founded on the values of human dignity, the
achievement of equality and the advancement of human rights and freedoms
(Section 1a) and these values need to be implemented in an inclusive educa-

tion system to ensure that all learners, with and without disabilities, pursue
their learning potential to the fullest (DoE, 2001: 11). Consequently, the
much-needed move to inclusive education in South Africa.
These values and beliefs, which form the foundation of inclusive education,
need to be understood in the way they are incorporated in the South African
education practice. This has been done, and still continues, through regular
audits, projects, policies and legislation. Changing education practice to a
more inclusive practice started with the National Commission on Special
Needs in Education and Training (NCSNET) and the National Committee on
Education Support Services (NCESS) report in 1997. After this report, White
Paper 6 was accepted in 2001 as the legal policy to build an inclusive educa-
tion-and-training system. Both the NCSNET and NCESS report as well as
White Paper 6 was grounded on the Constitution of South Africa (Republic of
South Africa, 1996b), which guarantees human rights, and the South African
Schools Act (Republic of South Africa, 1996a). The main focus of these docu-
ments was the integration of special and ordinary education through building
alterations, curriculum development and modiﬁcations, staff training and
intersectoral collaboration (Walton, 2006: 45).
Since White Paper 6 is the policy on which inclusive education in South
Africa is built, it will be the golden thread running through this chapter.
According to White Paper 6 (2001), inclusive education is deﬁned as “a learn-
ing environment that promotes the full personal, academic and professional
development of all learners, irrespective of race, class, gender, disability, reli-
gion, culture, sexual preference, learning styles and language”. Consequently,
a school that is inclusive accommodates all learners. In such a school the cur-

Table 1.1 Principles and strategies of White Paper 6

Principles on which the Strategies to provide

White Paper is based different levels of support

• All children and youth can learn and need • Special schools need to be improved and
support. converted to resource centres.
• Diversity (including learning needs) is val- • Reach children with disabilities not in the
ued. school system and out-of-school youth.
• Education must meet the needs of all • Convert 500 primary schools to full-service
learners. schools to cater for the full range of learn-
• Home and community is an important ing needs.
source of learning. • Management and teachers in ordinary
• Attitudes, behaviours and teaching schools to be introduced to inclusive edu-
methodologies need to change in order to cation, focusing on early intervention in the
meet diverse needs. Foundation Phase.
or applicable copyright law.

• Maximised learner participation in the edu- • District-based support teams as well as

cational process is necessary. Institutional Learning Site Teams (ILST) to
• Learners’ individual strengths need to be be established to provide support services.
encouraged. • An information programme supporting 7
inclusion should be implemented.
• A funding strategy must be put in place.

Source: Adapted from Walton (2006: 46)

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ricula, methods, materials and procedures must also be adapted to become

more responsive to learners with special educational needs (SEN), also
referred to as learners who experience barriers to learning. In order to accom-
modate all learners, a school has to design and provide support to learners
who need additional support. In designing additional support, a variety of
teaching methods, as well as multilevel teaching to address different learning
needs have to be planned for. Aspects such as curriculum and assessment
modiﬁcations must also be included when planning support.
White Paper 6 (2001) is based on the principles discussed in Table 1.1.
These principles give rise to strategies for levels of support that can be used
in the school system.
The documents that directed the implementation of inclusive education in
South Africa have already been mentioned as the Constitution of South Africa
(1996), the Schools Act (1996), the NCSNET and NCESS report and conse-
quently White Paper 6. However, the following are also important South
African inclusive education documents. (This list was compiled in 2010.)

1.4.1 Important South African inclusive education documents

• Republic of South Africa. Department of Education. 2002. Draft conceptual
and operational guidelines for the implementation of inclusive education.
Pretoria: Government Printer.
• Republic of South Africa. Department of Education. 2005. Conceptual and
operational guidelines for special schools as resource centres. Pretoria: Gov-
ernment Printer.
• Republic of South Africa. Department of Education. 2005. Conceptual and
operational guidelines for full service schools. Pretoria: Government Printer.
• Republic of South Africa. Department of Education. 2005. Conceptual and
operational guidelines for district based support teams. Pretoria: Govern-
ment Printer.
• Republic of South Africa. Department of Education. 2005. Guidelines for
inclusive learning programmes. Pretoria: Government Printer.
• Republic of South Africa. Department of Education. 2005. Draft national
strategy on screening, identification, assessment and support. Pretoria: Gov-
ernment Printer.
• Republic of South Africa. 2007. National Education Policy Act (27/1996):
national policy on assessment and qualifications for schools in the general
education and training band. Pretoria: Government Printer.
or applicable copyright law.

• Republic of South Africa. 2008. Department of Education. National strategy

on screening, identification, assessment and support. Pretoria: Government
8 Printer.
• Republic of South Africa. 2009. Department of Education (DoE). 2009.
Guidelines for full service/inclusive schools. Pretoria: Department of Edu-
cation.

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• Republic of South Africa. Department of Education (DoE). 2010. Guidelines

for inclusive learning programmes. Pretoria: Government Printer.

1.5 Theoretical grounding of inclusive education

To be able to understand what is involved when an inclusive education
approach is implemented, it is necessary to provide a brief background
regarding its applicable philosophical paradigm and theoretical framework.

1.5.1 medical model paradigm versus the socioecological model

paradigm
In the previous education system, learners experiencing barriers to learning
were often categorised based on their medical conditions, or the “problem-
within-the-child”. This gave rise to the so called “medical model”. Learners
were diagnosed and treated and consequently placed in a specialised environ-
ment, which resulted in labelling. In these specialised environments, a special
curriculum was followed and these “special” learners received intervention by
specialist staff and professional experts to “ﬁx” them (Swart & Pettipher,
2011: 5). The medical model is not the accepted model anymore, since it is
seen as discriminatory. However, it is essential to mention that medical infor-
mation cannot be ignored when learners experiencing barriers to learning are
assessed and supported. Yet, it should not be the central focus when a support
plan is designed.
With the move to inclusive education a paradigm shift was needed to a more
social and ecological theoretical model. This socioecological model moved the
focus away from the “specialness” of learners to the removal of stumbling
blocks within the society and including everybody in the everyday life of socie-
ty (Florian in Swart & Pettipher, 2011: 7). This requires a systemic change in
which “issues of difference (including diversity in learning needs) are recog-
nised, acknowledged and responded to from the perspectives of social justice
and equity” (Howell, 2007: 99). Table 1.2 provides an overview of the main dif-
ferences between the medical and socioecological models.
It is evident that in the socioecological model teachers play a central role in
identifying, assessing and supporting learners who experience barriers to
learning in any classroom. They need to have knowledge and skills on how to
differentiate instruction to be able to address the individual needs of learners
in their diverse classrooms (Thousand, Villa and Nevin, 2007: 10). For this to
be successful, systems need to be in place to support teachers in gaining
or applicable copyright law.

knowledge and skills.

1.5.2 Two important theories

9
1.5.2.1 Introduction
Teachers always complain that theory is not essential for them to know about,
that the practice is more important. However, practice is built on theory, and

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Table 1.2 Differences between medical and socioecological models

Medical model Socioecological approach

• Identify the difﬁculty/fault/deﬁcit. • Identify the learners’ strengths.

• Assess the child in isolation from • Take the learners’ environment and community
their daily lives. into consideration.
• Refer to specialists and/or special • Do not separate screening, identification from
classes/aid classes or special teaching and learning.
schools for treatment and education. • The classroom is the best place to offer support.
• Factors such as the home environ- • Teachers are the key role players in screening,
ment, socioeconomic circumstances, identification, assessment and support.
diseases, language of learning and
teaching, teaching methods and • The teacher needs to be reflective – reflecting on
materials, an inflexible curriculum his/her teaching styles, methodologies and strate-
and so on were not considered. gies.
• Systems need to be in place to support teachers.

Source: Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS) (DoE, 2008)

theories are built upon evidence from the practice. A theory is an explanation
that can be substantiated about some aspect of life. It is an organised system
of accepted knowledge that explains phenomena such as learning, attitudes
and influences. The theories discussed in this book relate to teaching, teachers
and learning. Teachers have to know about theories. The more theoretical
knowledge teachers have and the more varied the remedial strategies they can
apply, the more the diverse learner profiles can develop, frustrations can be
overcome and learners can succeed (Gander & Strothman, 2005: 45).
Therefore, for the purpose of this book it is important to explain why teach-
ers have to know about theories. The more theoretical knowledge teachers
have, the greater the variety of learning support strategies they can apply,
the more diverse learner profiles they can develop and the greater the number
of learner frustrations that can be overcome so that learners can succeed as
academic achievers (Gander & Strothman, 2005: 45).
Naicker (2006: 4) states that in South Africa educationists need to under-
stand the changes needed in teaching and learning by being exposed to episte-
mological issues such as theories about knowledge and the relationship
between theory and practice. This can help teachers to be more dynamic, cre-
ative and reflective when teaching.
Since learners are not empty vessels and differ in the way they learn, it is
necessary for teachers to understand how learners learn, what enhances or
impedes their learning and also gain knowledge about flexible curriculum
planning. When teachers are familiar with theories of learning, it enables
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them to know:
i) which teaching methods to use
10 ii) which different learning styles to address
iii) how to achieve educational outcomes
iv) the curriculum content; and
v) what steps and processes are involved in learning.

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Having knowledge about this can, in turn, help teachers anticipate learning
difﬁculties and prevent or reduce learning problems (Westwood, 2004: 1–2).

This book deals with support that can be rendered to learners to help them
learn better and therefore learning is central to the book. Inclusive education
is essentially built on the constructivist theory to learning as a new learn-
ing theory as well as Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. These
two theories will make you aware of how the various systems within which a
learner exists, can inﬂuence this learner’s behaviour and academic progress
at school.

1.5.2.2 The constructivist theory

According to the constructivist theory, knowledge, and therefore learning,
is not just passively passed on from one person to the next, but are actively
and continuously constructed anew by each individual through their experi-
ences and reﬂections (Donald, Lazarus & Lolwana, 2010: 80). According to
Vygotsky (one of the pioneers of constructivism) (Donald et al., 2010: 80),
these experiences and reﬂections are closely linked to a person’s social, histor-
ical and cultural contexts. Such knowledge, that is actively learned, is regard-
ed as viable if it helps people to cope with the world (Human-Vogel, 2004).
This implies a learner-centred, active learning approach.
Besides the belief that knowledge must be actively learned, social construc-
tivists (like Piaget, Bruner and Vygotsky) believe that knowledge is construct-
ed through social experiences and therefore it is important that learners col-
laborate on an interpersonal level. This can be done through cooperative
group work, discussion and problem-solving activities. Teachers are thus com-
pelled to create exploratory activities for the learners adopting a process-cen-
tred teaching approach where the teacher is the facilitator.
The constructivist principles of teaching and learning will be discussed in
Chapter 2.

1.5.2.3 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory

Since inclusive education focuses on a systems approach, which means that
systems in the society (e.g. classroom, school, family, community, govern-
ment) need to interact with each other to provide a supportive structure for
the learner, it is important that teachers also familiarise themselves with
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. This theory enables teach-
or applicable copyright law.

ers to understand complex inﬂuences, interactions and interrelationships

between the learner and all the other systems to do with the learner. This
multidimensional model of human development also looks at layers of inter-
acting systems which result in the change, growth and development (physical, 11
biological, psychological, social and cultural) of the learner. There are contin-
uous causal processes occurring, which can result in changes. This means
that whatever happens in the one system will affect or be affected by the

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other systems. (To make it easier to understand, think about an ecosystem in

nature. Everything in nature interacts with each other. If something happens
to one system, it causes changes in other systems, e.g. if a river’s water dries
up, what happens then?)
Bronfenbrenner has identiﬁed four interacting dimensions, which are
needed to understand how different levels of systems in the social context
interact:
i) person factors, for example, behaviour tendencies
ii) process factors such as patterns of interaction
iii) contexts such as schools and families; and
iv) time, such as changes in the environment due to maturation which takes
place over time.

Proximal interactions are interactions that occur face to face and involve a
long-term relationship (e.g. between a learner and a teacher and a mother
and a child). Person factors as well as social contexts affect proximal interac-
tions (Donald et al., 2010: 40).
Bronfenbrenner (Donald et al., 2010: 40) states that child development
takes place within four nested systems, namely the micro-, meso-, exo- and
macrosystem of which all four interact with the chronosystem:
• The microsystem is characterised by individuals and events that are the
closest to a person’s life.
• The mesosystem is a system of microsystems which continuously interact
with each other.
• The exosystem refers to environments where the learner is not directly
involved, but still influences the people who have proximal relationships
with a person in his microsystems.
• The macrosystem refers to attitudes, beliefs, values and ideologies within
the systems of a society and culture, which may impact or be influenced by
other systems. Values and beliefs could include democracy, social justice
and ubuntu.
• Lastly the chronosystem looks at the developmental time frames that
take place in the interactions between these systems and their influences
on individual development (Swart & Pettipher, 2011: 13–15).
or applicable copyright law.

The systems theory forms an integral part of understanding Bronfenbrenner’s

model of human development. It comprises principles such as:
12 i) dynamic balance, which implies adapting to internal and external change
ii) circular causality which means that change in one system or an individ-
ual will affect other systems or individuals and may then be a cause for
further change

iii) the whole system is greater than the sum of its parts, such as a school
which encourages reciprocal relationships; and
iv) rules – as rules are needed to “maintain a stable and consistent system”.

It is important to bear in mind that there is an interdependence of all the sys-

tems and that one must not lose sight of the whole system (Swart & Pet-
tipher, 2011: 15–16).

ACTIVITY

Read through the next case study and answer the questions that follow. It will
help you to understand how the interacting nested systems of Bronfenbren-
ner work in practice. (Adapted from Donald et al., 2010.)
Pule lives with his mother and grandmother in an informal settlement. He has two
younger brothers and one baby sister. His father died last year of an HIV/AIDS-
related disease. His grandmother is very old and no longer healthy and his mother
works in the city and travels by taxi every day. This means that she leaves the
house very early in the morning and comes back when it is already dark. Pule is
only 12 years old and in Grade 6. He and his brothers go to the primary school,
which is three kilometres away from their house. They cannot afford to pay for the
taxi every day and consequently walk to school and back home every day.
Although there is a lot of love in his house, circumstances makes it very difﬁcult to
really care about what is going on in everybody’s life, because survival is the most
important thing. Since Pule’s mother isn’t home much and his grandmother is
unwell, Pule is responsible for taking care of his younger siblings because he is the
oldest. The children’s mother is still grieving the loss of her husband and is some-
times so sad that she doesn’t have the strength to care for her family. To make
ends meet, Pule, without his mother’s knowledge, sometimes begs on the street.
He tries his best to achieve at school and although he has not been retained in a
grade yet, he barely progresses. He struggles to understand some of the work, but
doesn’t have the courage to ask his teachers for help. Most of the time, he is very
tired at school and struggles to concentrate. Other boys tease him because his
father died of an HIV/AIDS-related disease and they think his father slept around
with other women. (His father actually contracted HIV/AIDS during a blood transfu-
sion after an accident at work.) Consequently, Pule gets into ﬁghts with other boys
and often gets in trouble with his teachers as a result.

Questions
1. Identify the micro-, meso-, exo- and macrosystems in this case study.
or applicable copyright law.

2. Explain the negative interactions between the different systems.

3. Explain the positive interactions between the different systems.
4. In which of these systems might you realistically try to change what is happen-
ing? 13
5. Describe in practical terms what you might do in the classroom if you were his
teacher.

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In Brofenbrenner’s revised model, called the bioecological model (Donald et

al., 2010; Swart & Pettipher, 2011), the four principal components, namely
processes, person, contexts and time is still stressed. However, the core of the
bioecological model is the process. This refers to proximal processes, mean-
ing that there are forms of interaction between an organism and the environ-
ment, operating over time and these are primary mechanisms resulting in
human development.
Person characteristics, which have an inﬂuence on proximal processes
and developmental outcomes, are also emphasised more in this model. Three
types of person characteristics are:
i) dispositions, which are described as forces that can mobilise proximal
processes and sustain their operation, interfere with, limit or even pre-
vent their occurrence (e.g. impulsiveness, distractibility, aggression and
violence; feelings of insecurity, shyness, unresponsiveness, curiosity; and
responsiveness to initiatives by others)
ii) ecological resources that are biopsychological liabilities and assets that
inﬂuence the capacity of the person to engage effectively in proximal
processes (e.g. genetic defects, physical impairments, brain damage); and
iii) demand characteristics that have the capacity to provoke or discourage
reactions from the social environment (e.g. hyperactivity versus passivity).
It is these person characteristics that are considered in the macrosystem.

Systems of belief are instigative personal characteristics that are contextu-

ally bound. Personal characteristics are dependent on available options in a
certain culture at a certain time. “Within the macrosystem, the micro-, meso-
and exosystems share common patterns of characteristics, such as similar
belief systems, social and economic resources” (Swart & Pettipher, 2005: 14).
Time is also described more prominently in the revised model in three suc-
cessive levels: micro-, meso- and macrotime. It concerns proximal processes,
which involve progressively more complex reciprocal interaction. This needs
to occur more regularly in order to be effective. Where environments are more
unstable and unpredictable, proximal processes will be minimised over space
and time. It therefore helps one to understand huge changes over time and
what the implications of the changes have for the society’s future. Proximal
processes have the potential for further development and change; however
these process can also cause barriers to learning and development (Swart &
Pettipher, 2011: 11).
or applicable copyright law.

1.6 barriers to learning

14 If you can remember in 1.5.1, we discussed the old medical model that was in
place in the previous system and that the focus in this system was on the
“specialness” of learners. Consequently, these learners were labelled as “spe-
cial needs learners”. Although many teachers still use this terminology, the

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INCLUSIVE EDUCATION: THE NECESSITY O F P R O V I D I N G S U P P O R T T O A L L L E A R N E R S 1
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NCSNET and NCESS report recommended that we move away from the con-
cept of “special needs” and rather use the more descriptive terminology
“learners experiencing barriers to learning”. This terminology was officially
confirmed in White Paper 6. The reason for this is that “special needs” refers
to the “problem-within-child” whereby “barriers to learning” forces us to see
the learner as human being first before recognising he or she is experiencing a
barrier or barriers to learning. In the case study of Blue Cloud Primary
School, we saw that there were learners experiencing quite a diversity of bar-
riers to learning. This required that teachers had the knowledge and skills to
identify, assess and support the learner within a classroom in collaboration
with different role players (the systems approach).
Although learning difficulties and support to learners with learning diffi-
culties are the focus of this book, the various types of barriers to learning, as
discussed in this section, can cause a breakdown in learning. Therefore teach-
ers should know the various barriers to learning that exist. At the end of this
section you are supplied with the contact details of some of the societies in our
country, which you can approach for more information and possible support
for learners with specific barriers to learning and development.
As discussed, the concept “barriers to learning” is new. It is accepted that
any factor that may cause a breakdown in learning is a barrier to learning.
Barriers to learning can, for instance, be the result of an impairment or a
chronic illness. An impairment or disease can prevent a person from full par-
ticipation in learning activities and can further lead to discriminatory prac-
tices. There are many factors that can be barriers to learning. These are
divided into extrinsic barriers and intrinsic barriers.

1.6.1 Extrinsic barriers

Extrinsic barriers are conditions outside the person. In developing coun-
tries such as South Africa extrinsic barriers are more prominent than in
developed countries. For learners attending school, extrinsic barriers can be
caused by the societies in which they live or by the school system. Socioeco-
nomic barriers include aspects such as severe poverty, the family as a system,
abuse, crime, violence in the neighbourhood and at home, gangsterism, lack of
basic amenities such as water, electricity, proper housing and toilets, gender
issues in cultural groups and society, and a home language that differs from
the language of learning and teaching.
Systemic problems and pedagogical problems are to be found within the
or applicable copyright law.

school system. Systemic problems include: a lack of basic and appropriate

learning support materials, inadequate facilities at schools, overcrowded
classrooms, lack of mother-tongue instruction and a dysfunctional manage-
ment system. Pedagogical causes are: insufﬁcient support from teachers, 15
teachers that are not properly trained, inappropriate assessment procedures,
an inﬂexible curriculum, the language of teaching and learning, learning
styles, classroom management, the tempo of teaching and the content that is

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taught. The language of learning and teaching (LOLT) is a second language

for many learners in our schools. This is a serious extrinsic barrier to learning
and development. English as a second language will be discussed in Chapter
4. You are referred to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model (see section 1.5.2.3),
which describes the interaction between an individual’s development and the
social context of the systems within which the individual operates. This will
help you to understand better the inﬂuence that extrinsic barriers could have
on a learner’s progress at school.

ACTIVITY

Read through the case study of Blue Cloud Primary School again. Identify the
possible extrinsic barriers. Do you have some ideas on how you as a teacher,
and also the school, can possibly make a difference to change these extrinsic
barriers to more positive supportive structures?

1.6.2 Intrinsic barriers

Intrinsic barriers deal with conditions within the person. This usually
includes barriers such as medical conditions and medical disabilities. Often
children are born with these conditions. Intrinsic barriers include sensory
impairments such as visual- and hearing impairments, various forms of phys-
ical impairments including cerebral palsy and neurological conditions such as
epilepsy (DoE, 2004: 39).
Intrinsic barriers to learning will not be discussed in detail in this book.
However, it is important that you as the teacher should have basic knowledge
about intrinsic barriers so that you can be on the lookout for them. More
importantly, if you can identify these barriers you will be able to get the cor-
rect help and support. Remember that all physical- and health-related mat-
ters should ﬁrst be attended to by professional medical and paramedical peo-
ple. However, it is important that you interact with these people on a regular
basis to be able to support the affected learner in the classroom also.
Health is not in the scope of this book, but teachers should do all that they
can to promote healthy lifestyles for their learners, because health can become
a barrier to learning if not attended to. Close links with all the health services
are important and community involvement in health actions should be encour-
or applicable copyright law.

aged. Teachers should be on the lookout for any health problems that a learn-
er might have and problems that should be attended to. It is important that
all young learners should have their eyes and ears checked regularly. It is
16 advised to have these tested twice a year, but once a year is a must. Be aware
of children who may often have colds, blocked noses or types of allergic reac-
tions, as they are the ones whose hearing might be affected. The same applies
to children who often have eye infections as this may affect their vision.

You would think that giftedness surely cannot be regarded as a barrier to

learning, but it is mentioned here because the various extrinsic barriers, as
discussed in the previous paragraphs, could cause a breakdown in the learn-
ing process, which could prevent gifted learners from reaching their full
potential.
Learning difficulties can arise as a result of visual, hearing, motor or
physical impairments, intellectual impairments, or as a result of emotional,
environmental, cultural or economic circumstances. Learning difficulties also
refer to the problems related to the psychological processes involved in under-
standing or in using language, both spoken and written. It may manifest
itself in a limited ability to listen, speak, read, write, spell, think or do mathe-
matics. These learners lack the necessary skills to achieve academic success
at school. Most teachers are usually aware that learners with learning diffi-
culties are not achieving according to their potential even if they reach the
outcomes of a specific subject. Learners with learning difficulties and learners
with behavioural problems form the majority of the learners with barriers to
learning in South African schools.
The rest of the book will deal predominantly with learning difficulties.
Learning difficulties (such as reading, writing, spelling and mathematics)
usually arise during Grade 1 to 3 when formal learning starts. Reading prob-
lems, especially, can cause long-lasting learning difficulties since every sub-
ject (yes even maths and science) require an adequate reading ability. For
some learners, the manifestation of their learning problems could be so severe
that, without learning support, it continues to cause a barrier to learning in
Grade 4 and until secondary school. For many young learners, Grade 4 is a
very difficult year in their life at school. This is the year in which they are
expected to learn more on their own and do more formal assessments includ-
ing writing tests and examinations.
Visual impairments may manifest themselves in various ways in your
classroom. The learner may have any of the following problems, which you
should look out for. The learner
• is clumsy and sometimes drags his or her feet
• has problems copying from the board
• holds the book very near to or far away from his or her eyes when reading
or writing
• finds it very difficult to write between the lines of a book
• has problems with reading and loses his or her place while reading
• confuses letters that have the same shape such as “m” and “n”, “k” and “h”,
or applicable copyright law.

“b” and “d”, “r” and “p”

• does not like to take part in ball games or any activities that require good
vision.
17
Auditory impairments are easily hidden and therefore overlooked. Attend
to possible auditory problems if a learner often manifests the following. The
learner

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• seems inattentive and does not listen to what is said (many of these learn-
ers are wrongly labelled as ADD – Attention Deficit Disorder or ADHD –
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder learners)
• does not hear when the teacher speaks behind his or her back
• often misinterprets instructions
• watches the teacher’s lips and face all the time
• speaks too loudly, too softly or monotonously
• turns his or her head to listen
• finds it difficult to associate with friends.

Epilepsy involves two types of seizures, namely grand mal and petit mal.
The grand mal seizure is the most obvious one during which the learner
experiences convulsions. After such a seizure, these learners are disorientat-
ed and very tired. To make sure that these learners do not get hurt during the
seizure you should have knowledge about the safety measures that must be in
place (e.g. let them sit or lie where there are no physical obstacles that can
hurt them). It is important to get medical attention immediately. Hidden or
disguised (petit mal) epilepsy can occur when there are no outward symp-
toms (such as convulsions) of epilepsy. Hidden epilepsy may appear unexpect-
edly or suddenly and then the learner would demonstrate certain behaviour.
It usually seems as if they are “daydreaming” or are “cut off” from the world.
Afterwards, they may have sudden spells of aggressiveness or bad temper or
may have a sudden change in mood. During this hidden epilepsy seizure, the
child suffers from short processes of irritation in the brain that could be ruled
out with the correct treatment. Usually the parents or caregivers are aware if
the learners experience epileptic seizures and they will inform the teacher.
However, sometimes these seizures occur suddenly and therefore it is impor-
tant that you know the symptoms. These learners are usually dependent on
medication and you need to remind the learners to take it. Also remember
that the medication itself can inﬂuence the learner’s attention and concentra-
tion ability. A teacher should report any behaviour that could be related to
epilepsy to the parents or caregivers.
It is totally unacceptable to use terms such as “retarded” or “mental retar-
dation” when referring to learners who are intellectually impaired. Learn-
ers who are intellectually impaired have a generalised or global delay in all
areas of development. This includes motor, perceptual, speech and language
development (See Chapter 4). There are many causes of intellectual impair-
or applicable copyright law.

ments, such as: oxygen shortage at birth; accidents that result in brain dam-
age; genetic deﬁciencies, etc. Now that inclusive education has been accepted
as part and parcel of our education system, we notice that more and more
18 learners with Down’s syndrome are admitted to our mainstream schools
with success. Down’s syndrome is the result of an oddity of genes in the 21st
chromosome. Children with this syndrome usually have a slow rate of learn-
ing and other physical symptoms. These children are usually very lovable

people and are sometimes referred to as the “children of heaven”. Learners

with Down’s syndrome have certain characteristics. They may have, for
instance, poor manipulation skill due to shorter limbs and hypotonia (low
muscle tone). They might have visual perceptual problems such as difficulty
to order objects in sequence. It should also be kept in mind that most of our
Down’s syndrome children have intellectual impairments and that their
working memory is low. Teachers have to be aware of these characteristics in
order to plan for adaptations to the curriculum and the daily management of
learners with Down’s syndrome.
When the publisher of this book did an analysis in various areas in South
Africa to find out what the needs for a book on learning support were, a
dichotomy between the stances on support for perceptual problems arose.
One group indicated that they are in favour of direct instruction of support for
perceptual problems and another group indicated that they did support direct
instruction of perceptual skills. The authors and publisher thus decided to
include a section on perceptual skill training in the book, but they refrain
from supporting a viewpoint on perceptual skills training. It is for the reader
to decide whether to do perceptual skills training or not. You are referred to
chapters 6 and 7 for perceptual skills training.
Quite often small adaptations can be made in the classroom to support a
learner with a physical impairment. Enough space could, for instance, be
provided in a passage in the classroom for a person with a wheelchair to move
around. Physical activities can be adapted so that a learner with an impair-
ment, such as having only one leg, could also take part in activities. It is a
good idea to have a washbasin or even a small bowl with water available in a
classroom for a learner with a physical impairment so that learners with
crutches or who are in a wheelchair can wash their hands without going to
the bathroom. Make sure that the tables are high enough for wheelchairs and
put a frame around the table so that their stationery and books don’t fall off.
It is still acceptable that the word “disabilities” instead of impairments is
used by many professional practitioners and teachers. However, we should
refrain from referring to a disabled person as this is labelling. A person as a
whole is never disabled.
When childhood autism was first identified, one of the theories about it
suggested that the family’s style of interaction might be an important factor
in the development of the symptoms. However, we now know that autism has
a biological origin. Therefore professionals, including teachers, should refrain
from suggesting that parents’ manner in handling a child may be the cause of
or applicable copyright law.

his or her strange behaviour and social isolation. Teachers in preschool class-
es and teaching in the Foundation Phase play a very important role in identi-
fying that a young learner could possibly have a social interpersonal prob-
lem related to autism. It is important that learners with autism should be 19
detected in their early formative years. However, a teacher should never tell
parents, guardians or caregivers that a child is autistic, but rather help them
to seek advice from professionals. It is only professional people who will really

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be able to tell whether a child has autism. You as the teacher should know the
symptoms that can indicate that a young person may have autism. Teachers
teaching at schools for autistic learners do wonderful work and with their
help and dedication some learners who have certain forms of autism can be
placed back into mainstream education.
Autism or Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a lifelong, complex, perva-
sive developmental impairment, which appears to have a genetic predisposi-
tion and stems from multifaceted origins, causing disturbances in brain devel-
opment and functioning. It is found to occur in four times as many boys as
girls and the incidence of ASD seems to be on the increase. The onset of
autism is from birth or before the age of three years. Various subgroups are
referred to within the autistic spectrum disorders, the best of which are child-
hood autism, early infantile autism and Asperger’s syndrome. Learners with
ASD often have accompanying learning difﬁculties and there is a vast range
of intellectual abilities among learners with ASD. The presence of additional
impairments such as epilepsy, sensory impairments and intellectual impair-
ments can coexist with ASD.
Learners with ASD present many different levels of severity and they also
display a wide range of individual characteristics. They are all affected by
what is known as the “Triad of Impairments”. The triad is typically associated
with narrow, repetitive patterns of activities and resistance to change in
things that may directly affect the individual. It manifests with an impair-
ment in the quality of development in the following areas:
• Social interaction
• Language and communication
• Behaviour and imagination

Sometimes we see children who are extremely small or are very overweight
(the second condition is called obesity) in our classrooms. These learners can
also experience a breakdown in learning that can be easily corrected. This
includes aspects such the correct size chairs and tables or desks. The legs of a
learner who is very small might not rest on the ﬂoor and this could be very
uncomfortable. A small box to rest the feet on could be provided. The impor-
tance of food and especially nutritious food should be mentioned. Sometimes
children cannot concentrate in class because they eat the wrong food, such as,
food with too much sugar content or food with colourants and preservatives.
Some types of food can cause some children to be overactive or too passive.
or applicable copyright law.

However, an even bigger problem in our country is a lack of food. If there

are learners in a school who do not get proper and enough food at home, a
school should have a feeding scheme. Many schools in the rural areas in
20 South Africa have started their own vegetable gardens run by people from the
community. Usually the communities also beneﬁt from these gardens. The
Department of Agriculture is involved in an advisory capacity in some of the
school garden projects. There are schools in very dry areas where the learners

bring some used household water (so called grey water) in bottles or buckets
to school to help water the gardens. Sometimes class teachers and their class-
es have their own sections of the gardens where the children can plant seeds
and keep a record of the way in which the plants develop. If you need informa-
tion on this, you can access the education policy on the school feeding scheme
on the departmental website. If there are learners in a school who do not get
enough and proper food at home, a feeding scheme is a must at that school.
Hyperactivity and distractibility actually form part of a phenomenon
that is known as the ADD (Attention Deficit Disorder) or Attention-
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Hyperactivity refers to a surplus
of motor activity. Learners with hyperactivity are the ones who are forever
busy, ﬁddle with everything and run around. They seem to be in motion with
no apparent aim. Sometimes distractibility is known as “sensory hyperactivi-
ty”. Distractibility implies that learners are constantly on the move as far as
their attention is concerned. They react to every sensory stimulus. A learner
with ADHD can easily become the clown of the class and often teachers’
patience and courage are tapped by such a learner. A learner with ADHD in a
classroom requires good planning by the teacher to make sure that he or she
is kept interested, busy and out of mischief all the time. Teachers should try
to understand the learner’s world and provide as much structure as possible.
Work should be divided into shorter chunks to make sure that the learner is
able to concentrate on the task concerned. Too much visual and auditory stim-
ulation in a classroom can cause the ADHD learner to overreact and to get out
of hand.
Here are some tips that you as the classroom teacher can consider:
• Some teachers allow their learners to get up and stretch every now and
then when they notice that the learners are losing their concentration.
• Some teachers let their learners do some “brain gym” activities to help
them with their concentration. This includes activities such as the cross
crawl, brain buttons, drawing lazy 8s, hook ups, and thinking caps. For
more information on brain gym activities you can google the word brain
gym. There are also many books available in any bookshop.
• There are schools where teachers request their class to bring small bottles
with drinking water to school. When the teacher notices that the learners
are getting restless and that they are losing their concentration, the whole
class drinks some water from their bottles.
or applicable copyright law.

Try the tips in your classroom and see if they perhaps help your learners to
concentrate better.
A classroom teacher should be wary of any signs of family violence and
child abuse. By law, any person who is aware of abuse to a child should 21
report it immediately to a social worker or the police. At the moment there
are 27 Child Protection units and 15 Family Violence units in the police. The
people working in these units are specialised professionals and they are

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attached to the detective services. A teacher is often the only person from
whom a child who is subjected to abuse can get help. It is, however, important
that you know what the procedures are when you identify a learner who has
been abused. If you don’t handle this with care, you can cause more emotional
or psychological damage. Remember to keep everything conﬁdential and
when a learner talks to you tell him or her that you need to involve the appro-
priate authorities.
For the rest of the book the focus will be on ways to address the inﬂuence of
barriers to learning by providing differentiated support in the ordinary class-
room.

ACTIVITY

When reading the school scenario at the beginning of the chapter again, can you
identify the intrinsic as well as extrinsic barriers to learning that learners may
experience? Also discuss the following statement, keeping the scenario in mind:
Inclusion is not just about including learners with disabilities.
Here is a list of the details of societies that could be contacted, should you
require more information and advice about a specific impairment.
South African National Council for the Blind
Main office: 012 452 3811
Fax: 012 346 4699
E-mail: [email protected]
Association for the Deaf: Deafsa
Main office: 021 870 1345
Association for People with Disabilities
Main office: 012 328 6447
National Down’s Syndrome Society
Tel/Fax: 011 615 9401
E-mail: dssaoffi[email protected]
Association for Autism
Main office: 012 993 4628
E-mail: [email protected]
or applicable copyright law.

1.7 conclusion
22 You have now been introduced to the concept “inclusive education” and the
changed South African policy on inclusive education, as well as the two
important theories related to learning problems. The next chapter is dedicat-
ed to learning.

GLOSSARY

It is accepted that any factor that may cause Intrinsic barriers deal with conditions with-
a breakdown in learning is a barrier to in the person.
learning. The macrosystem refers to attitudes, beliefs,
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems values and ideologies within the systems of
theory enables teachers to understand a society and culture which may impact or
complex influences, interactions and inter- be influenced by other systems. Values and
relationships between the learner and all beliefs could include democracy, social jus-
the other systems to do with the learner. tice and ubuntu.
The chronosystem looks at the developmen- In the previous education system, learners
tal time frames, which take place in the experiencing barriers to learning were often
interactions between these systems and categorised based on their medical condi-
their influences on individual development tions, or the “problem-within-the-child”.
(Swart & Pettipher, 2005: 9–12; 2011: 15). This gave rise to the so called “medical
According to the constructivist theory, model”.
knowledge, and therefore learning, is not The mesosystem is a system of microsystems
just passively passed on from one person to which continuously interact with each other.
the next, but are actively and continuously The microsystem is characterised by individ-
constructed anew by each individual uals and events which are the closest to a
through their experiences and reflections person’s life.
(Donald, Lazarus & Lolwana, 2010: 80). The socioecological model moved the focus
The exosystem refers to environments in away from the “specialness” of learners to
which the learner is not directly involved, the removal of stumbling blocks within the
but still influences the people who have society and including everybody in the
proximal relationships with a person in his everyday life of society (Florian as refer-
microsystems. enced in Swart & Pettipher, 2005: 6).
Extrinsic barriers are conditions outside
the person.
Inclusive education requires teachers to be
responsive to the whole child and not just
to one aspect or characteristic (Sapon-
Shevin, 2007: 6).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ainscow, M. 1995. Education for all: Making Department of Education. 2008. National
it happen. Support for Learning, 10(4): Strategy on Screening, Identiﬁcation,
147–155. Assessment and Support (SIAS). Pretoria:
Alfonseca, E., Carro, R.M., Martin, E., Ortsa, Department of Education.
A. & Paredes, P. 2006. The impact of learn- Donald, D., Lazarus, S. & Lolwana, P. 2010.
ing styles on student grouping for collabo- Educational Psychology in Social Context.
rative learning: a case study. User Model- Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ing and User-adapted Interaction, 16(3–4): Gander, M. & Strothman, S.W. 2005. Teaching
377–401. writing to students with learning disabili-
or applicable copyright law.

Department of Education (DoE). 2001. Educa- ties. US: Landmark College.

tion White Paper 6 Special Needs Educa- Howell, C. 2007. Changing public and profes-
tion. Building an inclusive education and sional discourse. In Engelbrecht, P. &
training system. Pretoria: Department of Green, L. Responding to the challenges of 23
Education. inclusive education in southern Africa. Pre-
Department of Education. 2004. Workshop on toria: Van Schaik, 88–99.
Barriers to learning. Pretoria: Department Human-Vogel, S. 2004. Cognition and Learn-
of Education. ing. In Eloff, I. & Ebershön, L. (Eds). Keys to

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Educational Psychology. Cape Town: UCT Swart, E. & Pettipher, R. 2005. A framework
Press. for understanding inclusion. In Landsberg,
Kolb, A.Y. & Kolb, D.A. 2005. Learning styles E., Kruger, D. and Nel, N. (Eds). Addressing
and learning spaces: enhancing experiential barriers to learning. A South African per-
learning in higher education. Academy of spective. Van Schaik: Pretoria.
management learning and education, 4(2): Swart, E. & Pettipher, R. 2011. A framework
193–212. for understanding inclusion. In Landsberg,
Naicker, S. 2006. From policy to practice: a E., Kruger, D. & Swart, E. (Eds). Addressing
South-African perspective on implementing barriers to learning. A South African per-
inclusive education policy. International spective. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Journal of Whole Schooling, 3(1): 1–6. Thousand, J.S., Villa, R.A. & Nevin, A.I. 2007.
Prince, M.J. & Felder, R.M. 2006. Inductive Differentiating Instruction. Thousand Oaks:
teaching and learning methods: deﬁnitions, Corwin Press.
comparisons and research bases. Journal of Walton, E. 2006. The extent and practice of
Engineering Education, 95(2): 123–138. inclusion of independent schools (ISASA
Republic of South Africa. 1996a. South African members) in Southern Africa. DEd thesis:
Schools Act. No. 84 of 1996. Pretoria: Gov- Unisa.
ernment Printer. Westwood, P. 2004. Learning and learning dif-
Sapon-Shevin, M. 2007. Widening the circle. ficulties. London: David Fulton.
Boston: Beacon Press. Yamazaki, Y. 2005. Learning styles and
Swart, E., Engelbrecht, P., Eloff, I. & Pet- typologies of cultural difference: a theoreti-
tipher, R. 2002. Implementing inclusive edu- cal and empirical comparison. International
cation in South Africa: teachers’ attitudes Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(5):
and experiences. Acta Academia, 34(1): 521–548.
175–189.
or applicable copyright law.

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Learning
NormA NEL
mIrNA NEL

OBJECTIVES
2.1 Introduction
When you have read this chapter
Learning is a treasure that will follow its owner you should be able to

everywhere. • understand what learning entails

C HINESE PROVERB • explain different learning
theories
• describe how different learning
Learning is what the school of life is all about. We styles and multiple intelligences,
learn every day about different things. Without as well as teaching styles must
learning, we can be defined as non-existent. Since be addressed in your teaching
this book focuses on what teachers need to know, it is • differentiate between learning
difficulties and learning
important to mention that learning is not simply
disabilities.
about “I teach and you learn”. Learning is complex.
There are different ways of learning and also many
factors that influence our learning.
It is important for all teachers to know the differ-
ent ways that learners learn. Knowing these differ-
ent ways that learners learn, will inform teachers
how to differentiate their teaching to meet the learn-
ing needs of all learners, including those learners
experiencing barriers to learning.

2.2 What is learning?

or applicable copyright law.

Learning can be deﬁned as the process of going from

not knowing to knowing. Mwamwenda (2004) states
that learning involves a change of behaviour as a 25
result of what one has experienced and it shows in
the way a person thinks (cognitive), acts (psychomo-
tor) or feels (affective). Learning happens from the

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moment of birth to the last glint of life. A person not only learns consciously
and formally by deliberate intervention, but also spontaneously through
informal experiences. It is essential to keep in mind that school is also not the
only place of learning, because a child learns also from his grandparents, par-
ents, the community, his friends, the media and several other entities. Ray-
mond (2008: 286) also states that learning is the process by which experience
and practice result in a stable change in the learner’s behaviour that is not
explained simply by maturation, growth, or aging. We are natural developing
human beings. We learn to sit, crawl, walk, talk, etc. very much through bio-
logical maturation. However, for this maturation to take place, optimal stimu-
lation and teaching, and consequently learning, is imperative.
Since we live in a modern, enlightened age where we do not merely believe
everything that one person says, it is important for teachers to gain knowl-
edge about multiple theories about learning. As mentioned before learning is
not a simple “I teach – you learn” exercise. It is complex. The following theo-
ries bring very important knowledge to us as educationists, since theories
inform practice.

2.3 learning theories

It is important that teachers take the best from each of the theories to under-
stand different aspects of learning. Three categories of learning theories name-
ly behavioural, neobehavioural and cognitive will be discussed in this
section. Many of these theories come from a psychological, theoretical back-
ground. However, for the purpose of this chapter, the relevance of these theo-
ries to teaching and learning will be the focus and not the theoretical detail.

2.3.1 Behavioural theory

Behavioural learning theorists believe that all behaviour is learned and

that learning happens as a result of the effect that a person’s behaviour has
on the environment. One’s responses and actions are either rewarded or pun-
ished, thus being strengthened or weakened and the more an action or
response is rewarded, the more it will be repeated and strengthened. Of
course, the opposite goes for actions and responses that are punished. Teach-
ing approaches that are based on the behavioural theory believe that behav-
ioural management is successful when reinforcement, modelling (observation-
al learning) and prompts are used.
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Reinforcement has two dimensions. Firstly, reinforcement facilitates learn-

ing in the classroom (Mwamwenda, 2004: 174). If a learner is praised or
rewarded for a good effort (not only a good product), he or she is motivated to
26 apply him- or herself and continue with the good work to reach the learning
goal. Rewards can include a smile, a verbal reward and/or a physical reward
by playing a game, drawing a picture or reading a book. Be careful of giving
something like a sweet; rather paste a star or a smiling face where the learn-

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er did well. Reinforcement also refers to strengthening a learner’s knowledge

and skills by revision and repetition. Learning by imitation and observation is
an essential aspect of development. Consequently, how a teacher models
learning through his or her teaching makes an impact on how successful
learning is for the learner. For example, if a teacher only uses direct teaching,
he or she activates only one style of learning (auditory). Therefore, it is impor-
tant that a variety of teaching methods is used to ensure that all learning
styles are addressed. Prompts are used in order to get the learner to produce
a desired response, which, in turn, will be rewarded. However, it is important
to withdraw the prompts gradually, for the learner to function independently.
For a learner who experiences barriers to learning, e.g. struggles to spell
and read, positive reinforcement, modelling and prompting for every effort
that he or she puts in is very important (See chapters 1 and 6). These learners
will usually take much longer to achieve a learning goal, but if he or she is
motivated, will still work very hard in the process. This needs to be acknowl-
edged.
Behaviour can be strengthened or reinforced through rewards or praise,
but it can also be weakened through negative reactions and consequences.
Punishment may suppress certain negative behaviour temporarily, but may
lead to fear, resentment, poor relationships and associating school with pun-
ishment. Nevertheless, negative behaviour must have consequences. It is,
however, the way in which the punishment is implemented that is crucial.
Punishment must still be constructive and a learning experience. If a learner,
experiencing barriers to learning, hears the whole day how poorly he or she
performs and that he or she will not be able to accomplish anything in life, as
well as always getting punished, the learner will most probably react and per-
form according to these low expectations. When you acknowledge that this
learner experiences problems and needs support and react encouragingly you
will almost certainly get a positive reaction.
Direct teaching as a teaching method relies very much on behavioural theo-
ry and speciﬁcally operant conditioning principles. In direct teaching, the
teacher is the centre of the education process and there is usually only one-
way communication. It is used to present very speciﬁc information or to
demonstrate a particular skill. The learners can be left behind if the teacher
assumes that they have all understood and learnt. This method can be suc-
cessful for teaching certain knowledge and skills. However, since learners are
not expected to be active members in this method they can become bored and
demotivated. Consequently, this method must be used as one of a variety of
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methods and only when really necessary. Many science and maths teachers
will say that they prefer this method, but still they need to ask constructive
questions continuously to ensure that their learners understand and remem-
ber. In learner-centred education, which focuses on achievement, the teacher 27
is the facilitator of learning and uses many different teaching methods
addressing different learning styles. In a diverse classroom with different
learning needs this will be the more successful education approach.

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Behavioural theory also covers classical conditioning as a form of learning,

which refers to a physiological or emotional reaction evoked by a certain stim-
ulus as a result of good or bad experiences. Continuous failures at school will,
for example, result in learners disliking a particular teacher/s or subject
(Westwood, 2004: 17–19).

2.3.2 Neobehaviourism or cognitive-behavioural theories of learning

These theories are based on the belief that learning is the result of influences
from the environment, which interact with “innate predispositions and
processes within the learner” and that are mediated through a number of
internal factors. These include emotions, memories, perceptions of themselves
and future attitudes. The social cognitive theory is an example of neobehav-
ioural theory. Modelling and imitation in the learning (through observation)
of social behaviours and language plays a pivotal role.
Social cognitive theory also includes how people develop self-efficacy, which
means that they believe in their ability to cope effectively in different situa-
tions. This is the consequence of good results, praise, successes or failures –
criticism will result in the opposite effect. In addition, they will learn how to
monitor and manage their learning processes (self-regulation). Lowered self-
efficacy leads to lowered motivation, persistence and withdrawal from doing a
task. These learners tend to focus on their weaknesses instead of their
strengths and they find new learning situations threatening, which results in
learned helplessness, anxiety, stress and avoidance behaviour (Westwood,
2004: 25–27).

2.3.3 Cognitive theories of learning

It is necessary to know that there are different cognitive theories that impact
education (Mwamwenda, 2004), for example:
i) Bruner’s discovery learning describes how learners discover what they
are capable of doing and thinking themselves. Within this theory, it is
believed that teachers must allow learners to think, learn and solve prob-
lems autonomously and then only provide feedback.
ii) David Ausubel developed a theory called reception learning. According to
Ausubel, reception learning implies that learners are presented with all
possible information on a given topic in its ﬁnal form. Verbal learning is
the most used in this theory. In this theory any learning must be related
to the learner’s past, present and future experience.
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iii) Gagne’s conditions of learning. Gagne documented eight types of hierar-

chical learning, where learning starts with simple skills and then devel-
28 ops to more complex skills. This means that a learner must ﬁrst establish
the more simple skills before a teacher can move on to teaching the more
complex skills, e.g. a learner must ﬁrst learn vocabulary and grammar
before he will be able to write an essay. The eight types are: signal

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learning; stimulus-response learning; simple chaining; verbal association;

discrimination learning; concept learning; rule learning and problem solv-
ing.

Although it is necessary to be aware of the signiﬁcance of the previously men-

tioned theories on learning, the focus of this chapter is on the constructivist
perspective, since our curriculum and the inclusive education approach is
founded on constructivism. Constructivist theory is associated with the earlier
works of Piaget, Bruner and Vygotsky (Westwood, 2004: 22–23). Donald,
Lazarus and Lolwana (2010: 79) declare that constructivism is very important
in the ﬁeld of education. To understand constructivism fully, it is important to
compare it to the traditional teaching approach of positivism where the
absolute and unchanging truth or knowledge is out there, simply for us to dis-
cover and prove. The method of direct instruction is an example of positivism,
which basically perceives learners as empty vessels that need to be ﬁlled.

2.3.3.1 Active learning

In constructivist theory, it is important for the teacher to know that a learner-
centred, activity-based teaching approach is key. The most important theo-
rists of constructivism, such as Vygotsky, Erikson and Bronfenbrenner
believe that knowledge is actively constructed and reconstructed as the per-
son develops to higher levels of understanding. It is not passively received
and the truth may differ from context to context. Donald et al., (2010: 80)
assert that people are not passively inﬂuenced by forces around them, but
that they are active agents who make meaning of their lives within and
through their socialcultural contexts. There can be passive times in teaching
when the teacher needs to instruct, demonstrate or explain, but you still need
to connect with your students to make sure that they understand. During this
passive period, you still have to challenge your students to think (Donald et
al., 2010: 85).

2.3.3.2 Process
The process instead of the product, and exploration instead of transmission,
are both emphasised in constructivism. Donald et al. (2010: 84) maintain that
the process and the content are both important in constructive learning.
Knowledge is not just about the transferral of facts and information. Learners
also need to understand it. The viewpoint of the constructivist theory is
that learning is not passed on from one person to the next but that under-
or applicable copyright law.

standing must be constructed anew by each individual through his or her

experiences and reﬂections.
Processing information starts when stimuli such as sounds and colours are 29
received or ignored by the person. Since so many stimuli come one’s way, only
a certain number can be processed. Visual stimuli and auditory stimuli in the
sensory register only stay for brief seconds, and then move to the short-

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term/working memory to be processed and eventually pass into the long-term

memory in an encoded form such as words. Where there is a weakness in
attention and memory, it leads to learning failure. Information stored in the
long-term memory is referred to as declarative knowledge (facts, deﬁnitions,
images/schemata, such as models) and can be retrieved when the need arises,
or procedural knowledge (the know-how of doing a cognitive task). New infor-
mation is assimilated and accommodated by means of restructuring the exist-
ing schemata. Therefore, teaching must not just focus on the what, but also
on the how.

2.3.3.3 Connecting with prior knowledge

New learning needs to be facilitated by connecting with the learners’ prior
knowledge and where they are at that time in their understanding. When
information needs to be acquired, it must link to information stored in the
learners’ memory as it is easier to remember. As Donald et al. (2010: 85)
state: “connect the familiar with the unfamiliar”. Every learner comes to the
classroom with his or her personal cognitive framework built on previous
experiences and existing knowledge (Newby, Stepich, Lehman & Russel
(1996) as referenced in Nieman & Monyai, 2006: 7). New knowledge needs to
be attached to this so that understanding can take place.

2.3.3.4 Guided discovery

It must, however, be emphasised that active learning does not mean that
learners have to do it all on their own. Teachers must still guide their learn-
ers to discover new knowledge, skills and experiences. Donald et al. (2010: 86)
use the concept of guided discovery, which means that teachers need to guide
learners to key areas of discovery, such as connecting to what they know to
ﬁgure out what they have to know. Teachers should ask questions and then
guide learners to ﬁnd answers. Learners should also be encouraged to formu-
late their own questions, explore and assess what they know (Nieman &
Monyai, 2006: 8).
An important aspect of guided discovery is what Feuerstein calls mediat-
ed learning where the teacher acts as learning mediator to facilitate and
link elements: between learners and their cultural heritage; between learners
and their environment and between various aspects of the environment. The
process of learning is important (the how). It is essential that after guiding
the learner and mediating knowledge and experience, the learner must
become the owner of his or her ideas and independently master his or her own
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achievements (Presseisen (1990) as referenced in Nieman & Monyai, 2006:

12).
30
2.3.3.5 Scaffolding
Scaffolding and mediation is closely linked. (When studying this concept cre-
ate the image of a building scaffold in your mind). According to Donald et al.

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(2010: 87) scaffolding “is mediating the appropriate structures and/or strate-
gies of a particular area of knowledge”. First the teacher models knowledge
structures and strategies. This does not imply only direct teaching or the ver-
bal transfer of information. Communication, and making sure learners under-
stand, must still be the most important element of this modelling section.
Then the process follows where the teacher guides and mediates the learners
to make sure that they master understanding and internalise knowledge.
Thereafter the mediator gradually decreases the amount of help he or she
gives (Donald et al., 2010: 87). In the process of scaffolding, learners must be
actively engaged and prior knowledge and experience must be linked to new
knowledge and experience.

2.3.3.6 Social constructivism

Social constructivists believe that knowledge is constructed through social
experiences in different social contexts and therefore learners need to collabo-
rate on an interpersonal level. Bakhtin (Donald et al., 2010: 82) afﬁrms that
knowledge is constructed when discourses between people in different social
contexts take place. During these discourses, underlying values, assumptions
and worldviews are analysed, which is important in the process of developing
learners’ critical thinking skills. Cooperative group work, discussions and
problem-solving activities are emphasised.
Cooperative learning is an essential aspect of cognitive constructivism.
Consequently, it must be cognitively challenging, otherwise the purpose of
constructing knowledge gets lost. Many times cooperative learning is used as
just another learner activity with no well thought-out process and purpose. In
cooperative learning, meaningful interaction to solve a problem collectively
must take place. In this process, the teacher must mediate and facilitate.
Teachers are thus compelled to create exploratory activities for the learners
by adopting a process-centred teaching approach where the teacher facilitates
by providing cues and suggestions (Westwood, 2004: 22–23).

2.3.3.7 Language
Vygotsky emphasised the central role of language in cognitive development.
Since language is the way in which people communicate with each other, it
contains the cumulative social constructions of any community. With lan-
guage we gain knowledge, understanding and experience regarding values,
information and worldviews. In the modern age we use language to think, and
or applicable copyright law.

therefore it plays a crucial role in the development of critical thinking, which

should be the most important goal of the learning process. Consequently, lan-
guage interaction should be encouraged in the classroom (Donald et al., 2010:
55). However, teachers must be aware that many learners experience barriers 31
to learning because they do not learn in their mother tongue or have speciﬁc
speech and language difﬁculties, which can hamper their cognitive develop-
ment.

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ACTIVITY

In the following activity some guidelines will be provided on how a

constructive classroom should function.
Case study:
Grade 5 Classroom
Subject: Life orientation
Topic: Assertiveness

Step one (Objectives)

What do you want your learners to achieve at the end of a lesson?
• At the end of the lesson, learners should be able to
– describe the concept of assertiveness as a life skill
– share and understand cultural issues with regard to assertiveness
– analyse what the concept of assertiveness means in different life situations
– apply assertiveness in real life situations.
(Note: These objectives also address Bloom’s Taxonomy. See Chapter 3.)
(Note: It is important to create high expectations.)

Step two (Resources)

What types of resources are needed?
Do not rely on handbooks only. Use a variety of resources, such as pictures,
posters, worksheets with activities or questions for discussion, puppets for role
play, people that can speak about real-life experiences, etc.

Step three (Introduction)

Remember to
• involve learners actively in their learning
• link and relate to learners’ prior knowledge and experiences
• guide their discoveries/mediate their learning
• develop their language
• use cooperative learning
• observe and facilitate the process.

It is always good to start by creating a context, e.g. tell a story about assertive-
ness. Children love stories; they can usually associate with the characters, which
will make their understanding easier; and the same process develops language.
Use puppets or pictures with the story, as many learners depend more on visual
or applicable copyright law.

learning. If you are using new vocabulary, put up a poster with pictures and the
appropriate words. Tell the story interactively, e.g. stop halfway and discuss
characters, issues and new vocabulary. Let them also predict what is going to
32 happen next.
After the story, ask questions about it, remembering Bloom’s Taxonomy (see
3.4.4.6). This will inform you what learners already know and what they still need
to know and can be part of your baseline assessment.

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Step four (Middle phase)

Design activities for learning:

Assertiveness provides a wide variety of possibilities for activities. These can
include:
• Cooperative learning where learners can discuss different issues (such as cul-
tural ones)
• Role plays on a range of situation where you must be assertive
• Activities or tasks in the “real world”
• Asking peers or adults what they would do in different situations that require
assertiveness followed by a presentation; etc.
Note: The criteria for these activities must be very clear.
Note: If you do cooperative learning activities, remember that there are a variety
of strategies that you can use such as the Jigsaw Method. Learners must also
know exactly what their roles are. Make sure that your groups are heterogenic
(different cultures, different abilities, etc.).

After the activity, you need to summarise and provide feedback. Ask questions
again to ensure that they have achieved the objectives of the lesson. A worksheet
can also be used.

Step five (Assessment)

Use different forms of assessments (e.g. research assignment; designing a role
play, doing a collage, building a model, writing an essay, etc.). Again make sure
that your criteria are very clear. Always provide feedback. Give the learner a
chance to ask questions if he or she does not understand or disagrees with your
feedback.

Step six (Reflection)

Ask learners to tell you how they experienced the lesson. Ask speciﬁc as well as
general questions.
Take a few minutes to assess yourself.
or applicable copyright law.

• What worked and what didn’t?

• What must I do differently next time and/or what can I use again?
• Did I incorporate different learning styles? 33
• Which learners can I give more difﬁcult tasks to do next time?
• Which learners still need a bit more support?
• Did I ask a variety of questions addressing all the levels of Bloom’s taxonomy?

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• Could I think on my feet? If what I planned did not work out, could I do some-
thing differently?
• Was my classroom warm and welcoming?
• Did I take into consideration that there are learners experiencing different bar-
riers to learning, such as attention problems, hearing and sight impairments,
second-language barriers etc.?
• The topic of assertiveness can trigger emotional issues (e.g. learners that
have been abused, are very shy, etc.). Have I taken this into consideration?
• Have the learners eaten enough and is the food they have eaten healthy? Did
they drink water? (Remember this question as this will be an active class and
learners need to concentrate.)
Note: This type of lesson does not depend on direct teaching, where a teacher
follows a handbook and decided what learners must know about assertiveness.
It acknowledges what learners know and what their possible experiences can
be. It also recognises their input and lets them explore, with guidance, what
assertiveness is all about.

The involvement of different learning styles has been mentioned quite a few
times in this book already. In a constructive classroom, it is important that
you know that learners learn in different ways and that your teaching meth-
ods need to address this.

2.4 learning styles

Mortimore (2008: 6) urges that we understand the difference but also the link
between cognitive styles and learning styles. She states that learning style is
one aspect of cognitive style. Cognitive style is seen as a natural, almost auto-
matic, way in which an individual processes incoming stimuli, whereas a
learning style refers more to the strategies a learner adopts with learning
tasks and situations. Cognitive styles can therefore not easily be changed
where a learning style is more susceptible to change (Mortimore, 2008: 6).
Learners have different strengths and weaknesses and differ from each
other in their the way they develop cognitively, physically, socially and how
they communicate; their sensory abilities differ from each other; they differ
from each other in the manner they approach learning activities and tasks;
and their ability to learn in different activities is diverse (Winkler, 2004).
or applicable copyright law.

Some learners prefer to learn by listening and speaking and others learn bet-
ter by visual cues (looking and doing). Most learners learn best if they are
presented with a mixture of both visual and verbal cues. Working in groups is
34 not always preferable for many learners and other learners thrive doing
group work. In various ethnic and cultural groups, there are different learn-
ing styles and modality preferences. For example, learners living in cities are
inclined to be more hands-on, kinaesthetic learners, whereas students from

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Eastern cultures rely more on listening (Tileston, 2004: 15–16). Teaching and
reteaching by focusing on only one learning style, which may not be compati-
ble with the different learning styles in a class, will not ensure optimal learn-
ing.
There are three main types of learning styles, of which the three modalities
most used in the classroom are auditory, visual and kinaesthetic (Tileston,
2004: 16–21; Winkler, in Nel, 2004).

2.4.1 The auditory modality

This modality is usually the one least used by learners. Auditory learners
remember information best when they hear it, but they make up only 20 per
cent or less of the class. These learners prefer listening activities such as lec-
tures, talking and laughing and are able to tell stories from memory. They
respond well to direct instruction; peer tutoring; musical activities; group dis-
cussions; brainstorming oral directions; verbalising and self-talk; and cooper-
ative learning activities.

2.4.2 Visual learners

Visual learners are generally the largest group in a classroom. These learners
need to see how things work by means of drawings and non-linguistic organis-
ers such as mind-maps. They ﬁnd it difﬁcult to understand oral directions and
remember names. They enjoy looking at books and drawing pictures. They
are inclined to watch the speaker’s face. They also enjoy building puzzles (and
seeing details) and enjoy lessons where the teacher uses visual and non-lin-
guistic organisers. It is therefore important that teachers use visual learning
material, such as models, puzzles, DVDs, demonstrations, mind-games and
patterns.

2.4.3 Kinaesthetic learners

Kinaesthetic learners need to move, touch, smell and taste. Their motor skills
are usually well developed and they enjoy taking things apart to see how they
work. These learners often lose their attention. They talk to their peers and
move frequently and may even be hyperactive. They learn by doing and dis-
covery-learning in small groups, needing manipulative and tactile materials.
It is important that the teacher takes a hands-on approach to learning with
or applicable copyright law.

these learners, in order to provide them with opportunities to move and dis-
cover. Use activities such as music, art and break up the lessons into manage-
able chunks and encourage cooperative learning activities (Tileston, 2004: 35
16–21). These learners are many times wrongly diagnosed as learners with
ADD (Attention Deﬁcit Disorder) or ADHD (Attention Deﬁcit Hyperactivity
Disorder).

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2.5 Multiple intelligences

According to Thousand, Villa and Nevin (2007: 43) all learners are smart,
however each learner is smart in different ways. For example, Sarah is good
at addition, William can build puzzles in record time, Sipho is an amazing
dancer and Lerato reads very well, etc.
In 1983, Howard Gardner declared that the traditional IQ test is too nar-
row, since there are at least seven intelligences and corresponding styles of
learning (Rief & Heimburge, 1996: 6; Teele, 2004: 14–20; Sapon-Shevin, 2007:
192). Traditional IQ tests mainly focus on mathematical/logical, visual/spatial
and linguistic intelligence. According to Sapon-Shevin (2007: 193) the focus of
schools is also mainly on these intelligences. The learners who excel at mathe-
matics and languages get more admiration, and the other forms of intelli-
gence are not cultivated and valued as much. Leaf (2005: 25) states that all
seven of these intelligences exist in our brain, but that we need to ﬁnd out
which one is dominant to make it work well with the others so that it can
make us “cleverer”. The brain has a limitless capacity to store information,
but we use less than 0.001 per cent of it. So if you tap into more of the brain’s
potential and use all your different intelligences in a stimulating environ-
ment, learning potential will undeniably grow. Leaf (2005: 25) asserts that
intelligence is not a static entity, although there is a genetic component. This
means that brain capacity can grow and develop with nurturing/stimulation.
In the table below the different intelligences and corresponding learning
styles, as well as the strengths they require, and how learners learn the best
using a speciﬁc intelligence or learning style are explained (Rief & Heim-
burge, 1996: 6; Teele, 2004: 14–20).
According to Sapon-Shevin (2007: 193) there are two more intelligences,
namely, naturalistic intelligence (nature-smart) and spiritual intelligence.
As a result of these different intelligences and learning styles that will cer-
tainly occur in every classroom, it is essential that every teacher differentiate
Table 2.1 Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

Intelligences and Strengths required The ways in which

learning styles learners learn best

Linguistic learner Verbal and language skills (read- Express themselves best through
ing, writing, speaking). Auditory oral and written language. They do
skills are highly developed and well on standardised tests. What
information is processed through works best with these learners are
listening. They can remember oral presentations; discussions; writ-
names, places and dates well. ten assignments; reading aloud in
or applicable copyright law.

They like to read. They appreci- groups; telling stories; word process-
ate and use metaphors, analo- ing; audio books, DVDs and iPads;
gies, humour, and play with lan- debates; presentations; writing jour-
36 guage such as word games. nals; lectures; choral reading; word
They enjoy speaking to groups games; vocabulary quizzes; poetry;
and have a well-developed essays.
vocabulary. Their spelling is
accurate.

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Table 2.1 Continued

Intelligences and Strengths required The ways in which

learning styles learners learn best

Logical mathe- Manipulating numbers, prob- Experiments, search for patterns, make
matical learner lem solving, analytical rea- their own discoveries. They enjoy
soning, interpreting data, ﬁg- games such as Battleship. They learn
uring things out, exploring best during problem-solving activities;
abstract patterns, categories experiments; guided discovery; ﬂow
and relationships. They enjoy charts; if-then questions; exploring pat-
computers especially spread- terns and relationships; computer activi-
sheets and problem-solving ties; measurements; number games
programs. They are able to and activities where logical reasoning is
group and order data and required. Assessment should include
analyse, interpret it and make experiments; problems to be solved;
predictions. They like to play pattern games; graphic organisers; logic
strategy games and do exper- and rational exercises; deductive and
iments. Strong in mathemat- inductive reasoning; calculations.
ics and science.

Spatial learner They can visualise, perceive, Visual presentation – use images,
and recreate aspects of the colour, pictures, graphics. They enjoy
spatial world. They use their artistic activities and games such as
mind’s eye and make mental Pictionary; semantic mapping; graphic
pictures/images, draw, con- organisers; words to be accompanies
struct, design, create, build, by pictures; games where imagination is
paint and imagine. They are required; posters and pictures to
able to read maps, charts and accompany their learning; movies; com-
diagrams; they can draw puter-assisted learning (with colour);
accurately; they like movies puzzles. They can be assessed through
and photographs; they like to art activities; graphic representations,
do jigsaw puzzles and are visual illustrations; drawing maps, ﬂow-
daydreamers. charts, graphs to explain something;
performance-based assessment e.g.
recordings, photos, drawings, mind-
maps, graphic organisers.

Bodily-kinaesthet- Physical activities and goal- Learn by doing – active learning, move-
ic learner oriented movements where ment, hands-on activities, walking, act-
they touch or act out things. ing out a concept, and manipulating
They move, twitch, tap or objects. They enjoy sports, crafts and
ﬁdget. They enjoy physical games such as Twister. Using manipu-
activities and sport, games, lative, hands-on activities; games;
exercises and action-packed drama and dance; laboratory experi-
stories. They touch the peo- ments; modelling activities. The song
ple they talk to. They like to “Listen and move” can be used to learn
use their hands doing wood- vocabulary such as walk, run, leap etc.
work, sewing etc. – making by moving to describe the words. These
something. words can be on the overhead projector
or applicable copyright law.

or on a chart and the teacher points to

them while the learners say each word.
Performance-based assessments,
experiments, dramatisations, projects, 37
hands-on presentations, demonstrating
skills and illustrations using body lan-
guage and gestures are the best ways
to assess these learners.

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P A R T 1 THEORY

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Table 2.1 Continued

Intelligences and Strengths required The ways in which

learning styles learners learn best

Musical learner They appreciate, recognise and They learn best through music such
are attuned to rhythm, melody, as melody, rhythm and songs. They
pitch, tone. They are sensitive to like background music when work-
sounds in the environment. They ing. They learn best when games
like to listen, respond to, produce with rhythm and rhyme are used;
and express (sing songs, hums, clapping and clicking to words or
whistles) through music and can sounds, raps, poetry, analysing
often play a musical instrument. songs, creating or singing songs that
When studying, they like to listen match the curriculum; role playing.
to music. They remember Musical methods can be used to
melodies and can tell when a help learners to remember content
note is off key. They collect e.g. sing the months of the year.
songs (e.g. on an iPod or mobile Assessment methods for these
phone) and CDs. They have an learners include creating songs,
analytical and technical under- raps, music; use rhyme and rhythmic
standing of music. patterns to explain certain concepts;
compare musical structure to maths
structures.
Interpersonal They are sensitive to others’ They enjoy interaction with others for
learner feelings, moods, desires and example cooperative/collaborative
motivations. They are empathic learning activities and games with
and they are good mediators, partners or in groups. They respond
leaders and usually sociable. well to reciprocal teaching, peer
They like to interact and tutoring/teaching. They enjoy brain-
socialise with people and have storming, working with the communi-
many friends. They are good at ty and field trips. Good assessment
interpreting others’ moods and methods are group jigsaw experi-
temperaments and to respond to ences; teaching peers; think-pair-
them. They organise and com- share; peer-to-peer feedback; per-
municate well and enjoy group formance-based; interviews, group
activities. projects.
Intrapersonal They understand and know They need to use self-knowledge to
learner themselves. They are aware of guide their actions and make deci-
their own strengths, weaknesses sions. They like to work alone, inde-
and feelings. Introspective, pendently, working at their own pace
dreamers, and know their inter- and space on individual projects;
ests and goals. They are reflec- reflections; journal writing, discus-
tive thinkers, are intuitive and sions re: controversial topics and
have strong opinions during con- activities where their self-esteem can
troversial discussions. They are be developed. Assessment methods
independent, strong willed and include autobiographies; surveys
self-directed. They like to be and questionnaires; journals; self-
alone, have a deep sense of assessment; activities where they
self-confidence and self-determi- can set personal priorities and goals.
or applicable copyright law.

nation and have a hobby. They

like to do independent projects.

38 Source: Adapted from Rief & Heimburge (1996: 6); Teele (2004: 14−20)

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his or her curriculum instruction and assessment methods (Sapon-Shevin,

2007: 196; Thousand et al., 2007: 2–3). For example, learners do not all have
to complete an identical assignment (a two-page book report) according to
strict criteria. In a multilevel, differentiated classroom some can write a
report on the book, others can compose a song, make a drawing or tell the
story through a poster. (Note: The standard of your assessment must still be
reliable and valid. This means that just because some learners are singing or
drawing, the level of the criteria should not be lower than the learner writing
the report. It is only about difference and not about lowering standards).
It was found through research, that more than one intelligence must be
integrated in order to perform many skills. For example, a dentist will need
combined spatial, bodily-kinaesthetic and logical-mathematical intelligences
and an accountant will need logical-mathematical and intrapersonal intelli-
gences. Teachers should keep this in mind and consider what type of intelli-
gences are required to master certain subject content that they teach.
Carol Tomlinson (Sapon-Shevin, 2007: 197) says: “Our similarities make us
human. Our differences make us individuals.” All learners’ work must be val-
ued, but needs to be tailored differently according to learners’ individual
strengths, weaknesses and needs (see discussions about differentiation in
Chapter 3).

Classroom case study for incorporating different learning

styles and multiple intelligences
Theme – Space (planets, stars, milky way, etc.)
Josh, Peter, Salome and Mary are great at drawing. They do not like working
in groups. They will draw their own pictures of space to put up on the wall.
Sipho, Clarissa, Stephen, Bongani and Margaret love to make things and
can build the planet system. Since they are very social and prefer working
with others they can do this together.
Boitumelo is very active and a great dancer and Theresa tells great stories.
Together they need to work out a dance while Theresa tells the story of the
dance.
Pieter, Patience, Wayne and Tshepo are accomplished readers. They will go
to the library, do research and write individual reports on different aspects of
space, or, if they like working in groups they can also produce a combined
report.
Patience, Lyla, Donovan and Janine are excellent at maths and can do a
mathematical exercise related to the theme.
or applicable copyright law.

Since Naledi, Tiaan, Novak and Rafael are learning in their second lan-
guage their English proﬁciency is limited. They can do any of the activities
that do not involve too much language. However, since they need to learn the 39
language as well, they must have a dictionary with them always and compile
their own picture dictionary writing the words next to the picture or cutting
and pasting words from magazines and newspapers to the relevant pictures.

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Important: Although it is essential to address individual learners’ preferred

learning styles and different types of intelligences, do not give them the same
type of activities repeatedly. All learners need to become integrated, holistic
learners. Consequently, every learner must acquire new ways of learning and
continuously develop new skills, even though they are better with some and
not as good with others.

2.6 Teaching styles

According to Choate (2004: 38–39), the essence of inclusive instruction is to
match the teaching and learning process with the unique learning proﬁle of
the learner by offering choices of what and how to learn and how to demon-
strate learning. Individual instruction, small cooperative learning groups,
teacher-directed groups and whole class instruction need to be blended for the
teacher to manage differentiated instruction. Central to the differentiated
learning process is the learner’s learning style and instructional conditions,
which enable an individual learner to learn. It is therefore important that the
teacher is aware that the instructions for some learners need to be more
intense and explicit and teaching time needs to be increased or decreased
according to the need of the particular learner. Lesson formats, for example,
individual or group; presentation methods, for example, multisensory and
multimedia; offering alternate tasks and assignments; additional supervision,
feedback, correction and prompting are but some ways to reach the learners
with speciﬁc needs.

2.7 learning problems and learning disabilities (lD)

In the previous paragraphs, the concept “learning” was explained to you. As
we all know, many learners experience barriers to their optimal learning
potential. In this section, a brief explanation will be provided so that you will
be able to understand why learners sometimes struggle to achieve their opti-
mal learning potential even when you try your best as a teacher. To teach
effectively, it is important to have a theoretical foundation regarding learners
experiencing learning problems. If one understands the deﬁnition, classiﬁca-
tion and assessment of different learning problems, then it becomes clear why
certain teaching methods and strategies are more effective and why it is nec-
or applicable copyright law.

essary to adapt your teaching to the different learning needs of learners (Gan-
der & Strothman, 2005: 3).
Terminology to describe learning challenges can be very confusing. The
40 main three terms that are used interchangeably in other countries, as well as
South Africa, are: learning disabilities, learning difﬁculties and learning
impairments. In the past, dyslexia was also used and although it is not the
preferred terminology anymore, you will still ﬁnd this term in many books.

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Learners experiencing learning problems can broadly be divided into the

following categories:

• Some learners experience challenges in a few subjects, but perform well in

other subjects or experience problems with only some aspects of some sub-
jects. The causes are mostly extrinsic, for example, if a learner experienced
a trauma or he does not get along with the teacher or simply does not
understand certain aspects. If teachers also incorporate only one or two
types of learning styles, many learners will lose interest and attention.
After support (explaining again or in another way, using different teaching
strategies) from the teacher and the parents, the learner generally
improves. However, if these problems are not attended to they may develop
into more serious learning difficulties.
• Learners who have sight, hearing or physical impairments will have some
specific learning needs such as: Braille or enlarged fonts for the visually
impaired learner; more visual learning material for the hearing impaired; a
computer or other aids for a learner that struggles to write because of a
physical impairment. Many of these learners will need extra time. These
learners, however, do not have intrinsic learning problems. They have spe-
cific learning needs as a result of their impairments. Yet, it is important to
note that some of these learners could also experience intrinsic learning
problems in addition to their visual, hearing or physical impairment (see
the discussion on learning disabilities further on in this list).
• Another category of learners experiencing learning problems are learners
who grow up in an environment where learning opportunities were not
readily available. In a poor socioeconomic environment, where survival is a
greater concern, learners can be exposed to the following circumstances
that do not develop or stimulate important knowledge and skills needed for
optimal learning:
– Parents work long hours away from home; they are illiterate or not edu-
cated in child development. This can, for example, result in parents not
having conversations or reading books with their children to develop lan-
guage and literacy skills; or playing with their children to develop per-
ceptual and motor development;
– Many of these learners are exposed to diseases and illnesses, such as
HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, polio, middle-ear infections, etc. which could
hinder their perceptual, motor and language development; and
or applicable copyright law.

– Poor nutrition (not taking in enough and proper food) can negatively
inﬂuence brain development.
41
Learners in this category can also have learning disabilities as a result of a
neurological impairment. Their disadvantaged circumstances will then
usually worsen their learning problems.

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• A category that needs to be mentioned here also, is the many learners that
we have in South Africa who learn in their second language and experience
learning problems as a result. This will be discussed in more detail in chap-
ters 4 and 5.

Note: The learning problems that learners experience previously discussed are
generally called learning difficulties in most scientiﬁc literature.

• The last category refers to learners that experience learning problems as a

consequence of neurological impairments in the basic psychological
processes of the brain (i.e. intrinsic barriers to learning) (Dednam, 2005:
364). The United States has an act called the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA). In this act, the term learning disabilities (LD) is
used and is described as follows (Lerner & Kline, 2006: 207, 214):
The term “speciﬁc learning disability” means a disorder in one or more of
the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using lan-
guage, spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in imper-
fect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathemati-
cal calculations. Such term includes such conditions as perceptual
disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and
developmental aphasia. Such term does not include a learning problem
that is primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; or
mental retardation; of emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cul-
tural, or economic disadvantage.

It is important to mention here that many resources will also use the terms
learning difﬁculties or learning impairments describing the same deﬁnition.

Many researchers still assert that causes of a learning disability in many

cases are still uncertain. It is important to note that a LD is not the result of
social, economic or cultural problems or some form of sensory problem, such
as a visual of an auditory impairment. However, there are a few causes that
have been determined (Hallahan & Kaufman as referenced in Dednam, 2005:
365–366; Raymond, 2008: 144–145):
• Genetic: learners inherit their learning disability from their parents;
• Teratogenics: for example, Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) where the moth-
or applicable copyright law.

er drank alcohol excessively while pregnant; lead poisoning that causes

malformation and defects in the developing foetus; and
• Medical factors: premature birth; anoxia (oxygen shortage); brain damage
42
as a result of an accident or violent child abuse, illnesses such as encephali-
tis, prolonged high fever and poisoning.

How would you then identify a learner with a learning disability?

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There are a few general characteristics (Westwood 2004: 71–84; Dednam,

2005: 366–367; Gander & Strothman, 2005: 4; Bornman & Rose, 2010:
138–139):

Note: It is essential to keep in mind that the speciﬁc needs of learners experien-
cing a learning disability will differ. Not every learner with a learning disability will
have all the characteristics or every learner the same characteristics.

• A discrepancy between their learning potential and their achievement

• A history of late language development
• Expressive (oral language, articulation and pronunciation problems as well
as writing) and receptive language problems (listening, understanding and
interpreting verbal language as well as reading)
• Limited vocabulary
• Difﬁculty in expressing ideas, feelings, concerns and needs
• They may miss the subtle meanings in jokes and idioms and are unable to
stick to rules of social language e.g. taking turns and sticking to the topic
• Short-term and long-term memory problems
• Poor gross and ﬁne motor coordination
• Visual and auditory perception problems
• Poor spatial relations
• Poor laterality
• Reading problems
• Struggles with solving problems
• Dyscalculia: struggles with mathematical skills
• Dysgraphia: poor handwriting
• Spelling problems
• Dyspraxia: affects the planning of what to do and how to do it
• They are easily distracted and consequently experience attention and con-
centration problems
• Disorganisation
• Lack motivation for learning
• Emotional problems as a result of their learning disability (can be anxious,
withdrawn and immature)
or applicable copyright law.

• Behavioural problems
• Overdependence on teacher and/or peers
• Work pace is slow 43
• Overreaction to noises
• ADHD (Attention Deﬁcit Hyperactivity Disorder): severe problems with
inattention, hyperactivity and/or impulsivity

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Some learners with LD may be gifted and talented and often display spon-
taneity, inquisitiveness, imagination and enthusiasm. Often their needs are
not met in the general classroom and they resort to fidgeting, inattentiveness
and disruptiveness. Teachers are challenged to help them bypass their
deficits and use their strengths, to modify the assignments and curricula and
create environments where personal creativity and intelligence can be
expressed.
It is important to focus on the needs of the learner and not on the disability
when considering learner support. Teachers play an important role in the
lives of learners who experience learning problems. It depends on the teach-
ers’ abilities to identify and recognise the learners’ strengths and particular
learning styles and to capitalise on them. It is also important to identify the
learners’ particular difficulties and to be able to provide the appropriate stim-
ulation, assistance and support to enable the learners to reach their full
potential. These are the learners who are mainly catered for in Section B of
the book.
In this book, learning difficulties and learning disabilities are highlighted
as they encompass a whole range of factors, which are high frequency barriers
experienced by learners and which teachers need to cater for in their classes.
How to devise a support programme for these learners will be discussed in
chapters 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.

2.8 summary
It is necessary for teachers to know what is involved in the process of learning
in order to reach all learners in a diverse classroom. Successful teaching
necessitates knowledge of the different learning theories and taking the best
of each to inform their teaching practice. In addition, teachers need to know
how learners learn, and this includes learning styles and multiple intelli-
gences to motivate optimal learning.
Being able to recognise the difference between learning disabilities and
learning problems, gives the teacher an appropriate route to follow regarding
support for these two groups.

Questions
1. Explain what learning entails?
2. Describe the different learning theories.
3. Design a lesson plan incorporating a social constructivist approach with a variety of
or applicable copyright law.

activities to address different learning styles as well as various types of intelli-

gences.
4. In table form, differentiate between the different learning problems as well as a
44 learning disability.

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GLOSSARY

In the constructivist theory, it is important Mediated learning is where the teacher, act-
for the teacher to know that a learner-cen- ing as a learning mediator, facilitates and
tred, activity-based teaching approach is links elements: between learners and their
the key; that is active learning. cultural heritage; between learners and
Auditory modality describes learners who their environment and between various
prefer listening activities such as lectures, aspects of the environment.
talking and laughing and are able to tell Multiple intelligences: All learners are
stories from memory. smart, however each learner is smart in dif-
ferent ways.
Behavioural learning theorists believe that
all behaviour is learned and that learning Neobehaviourism or cognitive-behaviour-
results from the effect that a person’s al theories of learning are based on the
behaviour has on the environment. belief that learning is the result of influ-
ences from the environment, which interact
The viewpoint of constructivist theory is
with “innate predispositions and processes
that learning is not passed on from one per-
within the learner” and which are mediated
son to the next, but that understanding
through a number of internal factors.
must be constructed anew by each individ-
ual through his or her experiences and Scaffolding is about mediating the appropri-
reflections. ate structures and/or strategies of a particu-
lar area of knowledge.
During direct teaching the teacher is the
centre of the education process and there is The social cognitive theory is an example of
usually only one-way communication. neobehavioural theory. Modelling and imita-
tion in the learning (through observation) of
Guided discovery means that teachers social behaviours and language plays a piv-
need to guide learners to key areas of dis- otal role.
covery, such as connecting to what they
Social constructivism: Social constructivists
know to figure out what they have to know.
believe that knowledge is constructed
Kineasthetic learners need to move, touch, through social experiences in different social
smell and taste. contexts and therefore learners need to col-
Learning is defined as the process of going laborate on an interpersonal level.
from not knowing to knowing. Teaching styles are about matching the
Learning disabilities (LD): A disorder in teaching and learning process with the
one or more of the basic psychological unique learning profile of the learner by
processes involved in understanding or offering choices of what and how to learn
using language, spoken or written (or both), and how to demonstrate learning.
which may manifest itself in an imperfect Visual learners need to see how things work
ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, by means of drawings and non-linguistic
spell, or to do mathematical calculations. organisers such as mind-maps.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bornman, J. & Rose, J. 2010. Believe that all African perspective. Pretoria: Van Schaik
can achieve. Pretoria: Van Schaik. Publishers.
or applicable copyright law.

Choate, J.S. 2004. Basic principles and prac- Donald, D., Lazarus, S. & Lolwana, P. 2010.
tices on inclusive instruction. In Choate, Educational psychology in social context.
J.S. (Ed.), Successful inclusive teaching: Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Proven ways to detect and correct special Gander, M. & Strothman, S.W. 2005. Teaching 45
needs. 3rd edition. Boston: Pearson. writing to students with learning disabili-
Dednam, A. 2005. Learning impairment. In ties. US: Landmark College.
Landsberg, E., Kruger D., & Nel, N. (Eds), Leaf, C. 2005. Switch on your brain. Cape
Addressing barriers to learning: a South Town: Tafelberg.

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Lerner, J. & Kline, F. 2006. Learning disabili- Rief, S.F. & Heimburge, J.A. 2006. How to
ties and related disorders: characteristics reach and teach all children in the inclusive
and teaching strategies. Boston: Houghton classroom, 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-
Mifﬂin Company. Bass.
Mortimore, T. 2008. Dyslexia and learning Sapon-Shevin, M. 2007. Widening the circle.
style. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons. Boston: Beacon Press.
Mwamwenda, T.S. 2004. Educational Psychol- Swart, E., Engelbrecht, P., Eloff, I. & Pet-
ogy. An African perspective. Sandton: Heine- tipher, R. 2002. Implementing inclusive edu-
mann. cation in South Africa: teachers’ attitudes
Naicker, S. 2006. From policy to practice: a and experiences. Acta Academia, 34(1):
South-African perspective on implementing 175–189.
inclusive education policy. International Teele, S. 2004. Overcoming barricades to read-
Journal of Whole Schooling 3(1): 1–6. ing: a multiple intelligences approach. Cali-
Nel, M. 2004. A story-based language enrich- fornia: Corwin.
ment programme for Grade 4 English sec- Thousand, J.S., Villa, R.A. & Nevin, A.I. 2007.
ond-language learners, with inadequate Differentiating instruction. London: Corwin.
English proﬁciency. Potchefstroom Universi- Tileston, D.W. 2004. What every teacher
ty of Higher Education: Unpublished Thesis should know about diverse learners. Califor-
(PhD). nia: Corwin.
Nieman, M.M. & Monyai, R.B. (Eds). 2006. Westwood, P. 2004. Learning and learning dif-
The educator as mediator of learning. Preto- ficulties. London: David Fulton.
ria: Van Schaik. Winkler, G. 2004. All children can learn. Cape
Raymond, E.B. 2008. Learners with mild dis- Town: Francolin Publishers.
abilities: a characteristics approach, 3rd ed.
Boston: Pearson.
Rief, S.F. & Heimburge, J.A. 1996. How to
reach and teach all students in the inclusive
classroom. West Nyack, New York: Center
for Applied Research in Education.
or applicable copyright law.

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Assessment and
learner support
NormA NEL
mIrNA NEL
ouPA LEBELoANE

OBJECTIVES

3.1 Introduction When you have read this chapter

you should be able to
Learners who experience barriers to learning should
• understand the key principles
be identified as early as possible. Early identification and concepts that are used
and consequent immediate appropriate support is when identifying and assessing
essential to ensure that learners achieve according to barriers to learning and
determining learner support
their learning potential. If barriers are identified too
needs
late in a child’s life it will cause academic backlogs • be acquainted with learning
and possible learning difficulties. It can also cause support structures at schools
emotional problems leading to more extensive need- and districts
ed support, which does not always guarantee suc- • explain what the most effective
ways of learner support are that
cess. Thus, the earlier barriers are identified, the can be employed to cater for the
quicker support can be provided and the better a individual needs of learners
child’s opportunities are to achieve and become suc- experiencing barriers to learning.
cessful in life. However, early identification and
assessment of barriers to learning must be done cau-
tiously (Frederickson & Cline, 2002: 122–123). It
requires collaboration between all the involved role
players to ensure that barriers are accurately identi-
fied and that the consequent support strategies are
appropriately employed. These role players should
include the parents or caregivers, different health
or applicable copyright law.

professional specialists (e.g. psychologist, speech

therapist, occupational therapist, medical personnel,
etc.) and, of course, teachers. The ILST (institution- 47
al-level support team) and the DBST (district-based
support team) also have central roles to play in the
identiﬁcation, assessment and support process.

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When the barrier/s have been identiﬁed and the appropriate support strategy
has been decided on, it is essential to remember that this child must not be
stigmatised and his or her daily school routines must be kept as normal as
possible. Depending on the barrier/s to learning, a child may experience he or
she may require a specialised support strategy. Yet it is also necessary to
remember that in the classroom, differentiated learning opportunities must
be provided to ensure certain success.
In this chapter the identiﬁcation, assessment and consequent support
process will be discussed.

3.2 The identiﬁcation of barriers to learning and

development
It can be assumed that in every classroom there will be a learner or learners
who experience some kind of barrier to learning. In many instances, some of
these learners are wrongly labelled as “difficult” or “problem” children,
because teachers do not have adequate knowledge in identifying barriers to
learning. Although it cannot be expected of teachers to be experts in all types
of barriers to learning, it is still vital that teachers have at least some knowl-
edge to recognise when a learner is behaving or performing in a way that is
problematic and needs support. However, it is important for a teacher to
acknowledge that when a barrier is identified, it requires a team effort to
define the barrier accurately and implement the appropriate assessment and
support strategies. Consequently, it is important for you, as a central figure in
a learner’s learning, to gain knowledge and skills through self-development,
workshops, further studying, etc. to be able to identify learners who experi-
ence barriers to learning.
In the next section the what, why and how of assessment will be discussed.

3.3 assessment to determine support needs

Let us ﬁrst understand what the concept “assessment” means. Harlen, Gipps,
Broadfoot and Nuttal (as referenced in Lombard, 2010: 34) describe assess-
ment as a process of gathering, interpreting, recording and using information
about learner responses to an educational task. Wiggins (as referenced in
Lombard, 2010: 34) states that assessment is something done with and for
learners and not to learners. Consequently, “the learner should be the ben-
eficiary of assessment” (Lombard, 2010: 34).
or applicable copyright law.

In the context of assessing learners to determine their speciﬁc barriers to

learning, as well as their learning needs, assessment cannot be a once-off
event. It must be a dynamic, continuous process involving all role players in
48 the learner’s ecosystemic environment (see Chapter 1). If you page back to
Chapter 1 (1.5.1) you will remember we explained the medical model to you
that was used in the previous education system. In this model, the learner
was usually tested in isolation. This process did not always take into consid-

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eration that there are different interactions and influences in the learner’s life
that could have an impact on the findings and the consequent support
process. This can be described as static or formal assessment (Bouwer,
2005: 54). This type of assessment usually labelled or stereotyped learners.
For example, an IQ (Intelligence Quotient) test was conducted many times
with learners, individually or in groups. The final score of this test was writ-
ten in the learner’s confidential record to which teachers had access. This
once-off score often made a teacher decide what the learners’ learning poten-
tial was and he or she then taught and assessed the learner according to this
assumption. However, it could have been that on the day that these tests
were conducted, some learners did not perform well because of illness or prob-
lems at home and this was not taken into consideration. Many other such for-
mal or standardised tests focused on what was wrong with the learner and
did not identify the strengths that could have been used to improve the weak-
nesses. The different contexts (Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory,
see Chapter 1) with which the learner was involved and influenced their lives
were often also ignored in assessment and the consequent support pro-
grammes as well as general teaching. However, it must be emphasised that
this type of assessment cannot be discarded totally. Many of these formal
tests can provide valuable information to determine a learner’s barriers.
In the socioecological model, it is emphasised that when assessing a learn-
er, who is experiencing barriers to learning, we need to look also at the learn-
er’s strengths and not only at his weaknesses, and investigate all the interac-
tions and influences involved in the learner’s life, while devising a support
plan. As mentioned before, assessment must not be a once-off occasion. As
part of dynamic assessment, it should be a process of assess – teach/support
– assess, etc. (Bouwer, 2005: 54). This means, therefore, that assessment
must be part of the learning support process by determining support needs
and not only the “deficits” within learners.
Lombard (2010: 34–35) has designed a cyclic process of assessment which
can be adapted for the learning support process.
In the process of gathering information the teacher sets certain tasks.
The purpose of these tasks is to determine the learners’ knowledge, under-
standing, as well as their ability to perform these tasks. Evidence will be
gathered through the learners’ written and verbal responses as well as by
observing how learners execute these tasks (Lombard, 2010: 34–35). While
gathering this information, teachers can already identify if learners continu-
ally struggle to attain the outcomes of these set tasks. Remember that on
or applicable copyright law.

many occasions learners will struggle with a certain task, but when the
teacher makes his or her instruction clearer or explains it again the learner
understands and successfully executes the task.
Lombard (2010) combines the second and third processes, analysing and 49
interpreting the information about learners’ learning. The data gathered in
the ﬁrst step is analysed and then interpreted to determine if the learners
achieved the set criteria and consequently the learning outcomes. If the data

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Gathering information
about learners’ learning

Using information about

Analysing information
learners’ learning –
about learners’ learning
situation analysis

Reporting the recorded

Interpreting information
information about
about learners’ learning
learners’ learning

Recording interpreted
information about
learners’ learning

Figure 3.1 Cyclic assessment process

Source: Adapted from Lombard (2010: 34–35)

indicates that there are learners who continuously struggle to achieve the set
criteria, the teacher needs to reﬂect, ask why and investigate possible reasons
such as:
• Did I vary my teaching strategies to address various learning styles?
• Were my assessment tasks and criteria fair and valid?
– Fairness means that your tasks were unbiased, equitable to learner dif-
ferences and provided equal opportunities to demonstrate achievement.
– Validity asks the question: “Did your task measure what you wanted it
to measure?”
• Have I provided expanded opportunities?
• Have I spoken to the parents/guardians to gain some developmental and
background information?
• Is the learner experiencing barriers to learning such as learning difﬁcul-
ties, language problems, sight or hearing problems, diseases or illnesses,
problems at home, traumatic experiences, inadequate nutrition, etc.?
or applicable copyright law.

In the fourth process, the analysed and interpreted data is recorded (Lom-
bard, 2010: 34–35). It should be emphasised here that data should be continu-
50 ously recorded as part of the three steps. This can be done informally, for
example, by making notes of your observations. Formally you will usually use
mark sheets. It is important to allow space for comments on these mark
sheets. If you have many learners in your classroom it will be difﬁcult to

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remember certain important issues if you don’t write them down, especially
about learners that are struggling. If you need to discuss the data with par-
ents, the ILST, DBST or other health professionals this recorded data is
essential. It is also important if you want to recommend the learner for
repeating a grade or further intensive learning support.
Reporting the progress of learners can be done formally through report
cards and/or informally by inviting the parents/guardians for an interview.
During this interview, further support plans, such as referrals to the ILST,
DBST, and/or other professionals can be decided on. These interviews do not
only have to take place at the end of the term when report cards are dissemi-
nated. It must be a regular occurrence.
A situation analysis must be done continuously to ensure that the infor-
mation gathered about the learners’ learning is appropriately used to address
support needs. This is not only the teacher’s responsibility, but that of all the
involved role players, such as the learner him- or herself, parents, ILST,
DBST, other health professionals and maybe even the community.

Note: It is important to keep in mind that this process is cyclic and continuous.

In the process of learning support and continuous assessment to determine

learning needs, the focus will fall onto assessment for learning. McMillan
(2007) and Earl (2003) (both as referenced in Lombard, 2010: 51) describe
assessment for learning as process orientated and formatively inclined. It
focuses on the quality of assessment emphasising the advancement of learn-
ing. It will determine the status of learning by anticipating needs for future
learning. It is ongoing and criterion referenced (not norm-referenced). It cen-
tres on intrinsic motivation and depends on immediate feedback (descriptive
in nature providing learners with direction in terms of their strengths and
weaknesses). Since assessment for learning provides insights into learners’
learning and understanding, it is diagnostic in nature and consequently
allows for immediate support. The progress of learners is measured according
to their ability as well as effective teaching.
In the cyclic process of assessment, different methods can be employed
while determining support needs (Dreyer, 2008: 17; Lombard, 2010: 49).
Baseline assessment takes place before new learning commences and is
used to determine what the learners know and what they can do regarding
or applicable copyright law.

this new learning. In assessment for learning and in the process of determin-
ing learning needs, formative assessment plays an essential role since it
determines the progress of learners and teaching success to advance learning
during the teaching and learning process. Summative assessment deter- 51
mines the overall achievement of learners and takes place at the end of a
learning cycle, programme or phase. Diagnostic assessment is used to
establish which barriers to learning some learners might experience.

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An important mental note regarding assessment that you must not forget, is:
assessment is not about competition! Sapon-Shevin (2007: 160) emphasises
that a classroom atmosphere may not be created where learners are contrasted
and treated differently as a function of competitive assessments. “Each student
needs to be honoured and acknowledged for where she is now and challenged
to move to the next level” (Sapon-Shevin, 2007: 160).

In the following section, a more detailed description of diagnostic assessment

will be provided.

3.3.1 Diagnostic assessment

Diagnostic assessment can be done in various ways. Since it is impossible to
describe the diagnostic assessment of every barrier to learning, an example of
how to assess a learner with learning disabilities will be provided. Many
learners with other intrinsic barriers to learning, such as deafness, blindness
or epilepsy will most probably experience much of the same symptoms of
learning disabilities as a learner who has only learning disabilities. Please
remember that during diagnostic assessment a multidisciplinary, collabora-
tive approach must be employed. This means that colleagues that are/were
involved with the teaching of the learner, as well as parents and other health
professionals need to be part of the process. Formal assessments, such as
standardised tests, may be employed or requested by these professionals to
provide a holistic picture of the learner’s barriers to learning.

Note: Please remember that if a teacher is not professionally trained in diagnos-

ing barriers to learning you cannot make a diagnosis and state it as such to par-
ents. You can tell the parent what the problems are and that you recommend cer-
tain further action for more specialised intervention. For example, if you identiﬁed
a learner with the symptoms of ADHD (Attention Deﬁcit Hyperactivity Disorder),
you will not tell the parents that their child has ADHD, but rather that you suspect
the possibility, but further assessment is needed to make a proper diagnosis.

The process of diagnostic assessment (as adapted from Lerner & Kline, 2006:
55–57):
or applicable copyright law.

• While observing and implementing continuous assessment, the teacher

identifies behaviour that affects academic achievement as well as a cluster
52 of characteristics that can indicate learning disabilities. For example,
learners who have severe handwriting, spelling and reading problems.
• After you have identified the problems and you realise that these problems
cannot be rectified through classroom support only, a more formal

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approach within the learning support process needs to be activated. This

will involve a process of referrals to the ILST, DBST and probably other
health professionals. The ﬁrst step will then be to compile a case history of
this child usually by interviewing the parents/guardians. A case history
gathers information regarding the learner’s prenatal history, birth condi-
tions, developmental milestones, health history and school history.

• Thereafter you will be requested to continue observing the learner

where, as the observer, you can identify important characteristics, behav-
iours and personal adjustments of the learner in the classroom environ-
ment. Observations can corroborate other assessment measures. Details
such as the learner’s motor coordination and development and use of lan-
guage can be observed. For example, you can check whether the learner
has difﬁculty ﬁnding words or note how the learner reacts to an unknown
word when reading.

• Rating scales can also be employed where teachers/parents record their

observations using rating scales (to assess learners with LD).

• As mentioned before, standardised norm-referenced tests may also be

administered during the process of diagnostic assessment. The results of
the standardised tests are analysed and the individual learner’s scores are
compared with the scores of the rests of the group (i.e. of a comparable age
and grade). Generally, standardised tests provide overall scores and indi-
cate whether the learner is functioning above, below or on age level, where-
as diagnostic tests provides specific information about the learner’s func-
tioning. Often the final test score of a standardised test is not as valuable
as the performance measured in one of the subtests or the clinical observa-
tion of the administrator. It must be kept in mind that all tests only give a
limited measure of one’s abilities, that there are limitations to these tests
and that teachers should not use the scores to overgeneralise. Standardised
tests are criticised for not providing sufficient information. Issues include
that these tests do not assess what the learner is learning in class, are cul-
turally biased, and that teachers use class time to prepare learners for
these tests to ensure high scores, are mentioned. With some of these tests,
there is an emphasis on segmented skills instead of higher order thinking
and creativity. Therefore, these types of formal tests cannot be used in iso-
lation to determine the learning needs of learners’ experiencing barriers to
learning.
or applicable copyright law.

• Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is an important aspect of diag-

nostic assessment. During CBM, learner progress is measured frequently,
systematically and repeatedly. The results are graphed or charted. Current 53
levels of performance are determined and goals for learning are identiﬁed.
Expected rates of learning are compared against actual rates of learning.
Long-term goals are then determined and graphed. Informal assessment

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measures are essential to provide the full picture of a learner’s strengths

and weaknesses in diagnostic assessment. It assesses the learner in his or
her natural learning settings, makes use of the curriculum as well as what
the learner does in the classroom. Learners are encouraged to produce, con-
struct, demonstrate and perform a response, as close as possible to the
expected behaviours. These measures can be administered more frequently
and over a period of time. A variety of materials and procedures are used
and these assessments are conducted during instruction time and are less
expensive. Examples are:

– Portfolio assessment: a number of samples of the learner’s work such

as science projects, art samples, etc. are collected over a period of time
where the learner’s current achievement level and progress over time is
assessed. Although the Department of Education is moving away from
portfolio assessment, a portfolio does provide valuable information
regarding a learner’s strengths and weaknesses. However, it must be
work done by the learner and not the parent, siblings or others.

– There are also many informal tests available that can help with deter-
mining spelling, reading and writing problems. One such test is the
Informal Graded Word-Recognition Test which determines the
learner’s approximate reading level. Errors in word analysis can be
detected. Such a test can be constructed by selecting words from the
graded basal reader. The learners read the words from cards and the
teacher marks the errors on the sheet, notes the method of analysing
and pronunciation of difﬁcult words. The learner reads increasingly difﬁ-
cult words until three words are missed. Where two words are missed
the learner is reading on an instructional level (with help). Where one
word is missed, the learner is reading on an independent level. Where
the learner misses three words, the learner is reading on a frustration
level (Lerner & Kline, 2006: 71–74).

At this stage you should have a good comprehension of what assessment to

determine learning support needs, entails. The next section will deal with
learner support, but remember that assessment is part of the learning sup-
port process and not a separate activity.

3.4 learning support

or applicable copyright law.

3.4.1 Introduction
The learning support process is summarised in Figure 3.2.
54
Please note that the learning support process is cyclic and implementation will
vary depending on learners’ speciﬁc needs.

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Figure

Assessment process
Implement the assessment Identification of barriers
cycle continuously. to learning
Diagnostic assessment – Ensure that some knowledge
informally as well as formally, on the characteristics and
incorporating all role players, symptoms of different
such as parents, ILST, barriers to learning are
DBST, and other health gained.
professionals, etc.

Learning support
Gain knowledge and skills regarding the barriers
to learning that learners in your classroom experience.
Do not focus on weaknesses but emphasise strengths also.
Apply assessment for learning.
Vary teaching methods.
Differentiate.
Accommodate and adapt curriculum and assessment.
Address different learning needs and learning styles in your
planning, teaching and assessment.
Implement IEPs.
Collaborate with different role players such as parents,
colleagues, ILST, DBST, special schools as resource centres,
full service schools, and other health professionals.
Create a welcoming classroom
atmosphere for all learners.
or applicable copyright law.

Figure 3.2 Learning support process

55
We have mentioned that there should be certain support teams and struc-
tures in place ensuring collaboration so that the learning support process
functions successfully. These are now discussed.

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3.4.2 Support teams (taken from the SIAS document, 2008)

3.4.2.1 Introduction
According to Education White Paper 6, building an inclusive education and
training system (Department of Education (DoE), 2001), ILSTs (institutional-
level support teams) should be centrally involved in identifying “at-risk”
learners as well as in the learning support process.
Each school should have an ILST. The composition of the ILST will depend
on the size and needs of the school and the number of teachers available
(Landsberg, 2005: 67). In schools where there are no ILSTs, it is important for
the district-based support teams (DBST) to assist in setting it up. ILSTs need
to support educators and parents/caregivers in this process by providing
opportunities for regular, collaborative problem solving in areas of concern,
and facilitating the provision of support where needed.
DBSTs must provide a coordinated professional support service that draws
on expertise in further and higher education and local communities, targeting
special schools, specialised settings, designated full-service and other primary
schools and educational institutions (DoE, 2001).

3.4.2.2 Composition of ILSTs

It is suggested that the following educators (within and outside the same
school) make up the core members of this team:

• Those educators with knowledge and skills in areas such as learning sup-
port, life skills/guidance, or counselling.
• Those who volunteer because of their interest, or who represent various
levels of the programme, e.g. Foundation Phase, or even represent various
learning areas such as language and communication.
• The school management team (SMT) such as the principal, the deputy-
principal or another member who is directly involved in the management of
the school/institution.
• Non-educators such as administrative and care-taking staff from the insti-
tution.

Learner representatives at senior, further education or higher education lev-

els could serve as part of the “peer-support” group.
In addition to the above core team members who would meet on a regular
or applicable copyright law.

basis to “problem-solve” particular concerns and challenges in the institution,

the following additional people could be brought into some of the ILSTs’ meet-
ings and processes to assist with particular challenges:
56
• Other relevant stakeholders could be knowledgeable and/or skilled par-
ents/caregivers at early childhood centres, schools and/or communal levels.
• Qualiﬁed speciﬁc members of the district-based support team (DBST).

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3.4.2.3 Functions of the ILST

Functions of the ILST:
• Study the report provided by the educator on barriers identiﬁed and sup-
port provided/implemented up to that point, and the impact of that support
• Assess the additional support needed and develop a programme for both
the educator and parents
• Train on process and procedures to be implemented in the classroom if nec-
essary
• Monitor and record consistently on an implemented programme for a peri-
od agreed upon by the ILST, educator and parents. The kind of support will
determine the duration of a formal report which should be compiled by the
ILST
• Identify further institutional-based support assets and mobilise these
where possible
• Encourage collegial support/peer support
• Determine the level of support needed

3.4.2.4 District-based support teams (DBST)

For the purpose of this book, only an overview is provided of the DBST. One of
the aims of an inclusive education policy is to provide support to all learners
in an educational setting as close as possible to their homes. It is intended to
support the learner, rather than take the learner to the support.
Any decision taken, which would result in the outplacement of a learner to
a full-service or special school must be rigorous. It needs to consider the indi-
vidual impairment or psychosocial condition of the learner and all the contex-
tual factors that might hinder or enhance his or her capacity to learn, to
develop and to participate. Furthermore, there must be evidence that the
school has taken all possible measures to support a learner at the ordinary
school before an outplacement can be approved by the DBST.
The staff of the district-based support team (DBST) has to
• discuss and evaluate the request by the school for additional support in
consultation with the parents/caregivers, teachers and institution-level
support team members
or applicable copyright law.

• plan support provision to schools, teachers and learners

• monitor support provision in a mentoring and consultative way.
57
The Screening, Identiﬁcation, Assessment and Support (SIAS) Strategy is one
of the core functions of the district-based support team. The district senior
manager authorises the ﬁnal approval of decisions.

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3.4.2.5 The key functions and roles of the ILST and the DBST
The primary aim of these ILSTs and DBSTs is to support the teaching and
learning process. Some of the key functions that relate to teaching and learn-
ing include:
• Linking the ILST to other school-based management structures and
processes so as to facilitate the coordination of all learner, educator, cur-
riculum and institution development support in an institution and avoid
duplication
• Collectively identifying institutional needs and learner, educator, curricu-
lum and institutional-level barriers to learning
• Developing strategies to address all the needs and barriers to learning col-
lectively by also focusing on educator development and parent consultation
and support
• Consulting and using outside resources to address these challenges
• Monitoring and evaluating the work of the team within an “action-reﬂec-
tion” framework

THE ROLES OF THE ILST AND DBST

• The ILST should always involve and inform the parent about decisions
taken to support the learner who needs this support.
• The ILST should provide the DBST with evidence of support provided to
the learner at institutional level.
• The DBST is the next level to provide additional support where high-level
support cannot be organised in any practical and cost-effective way at insti-
tutional level.
• The DBST should ﬁnd out the kind of support needed by the ILST so as to
support the learner. The strength of the ILST has to be established in order
to explore ways in which additional support can be obtained, and also
assist the ILST to recognise further community-based support and facili-
tate collaboration.

3.4.3 Intensity of support needed

White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001: 15) refers to an inclusive education and training
system where the educational support services will be created in line with
learners who need low-intensive support in ordinary schools, learners who
or applicable copyright law.

need moderate support in full-service schools and learners who need high-
intensive educational support in special schools as resource centres. Further
to this, the document, Guidelines for Full-Service/Inclusive Schools (DoE,
58 2009: 26) outlines how support should be organised.
In the previous paragraphs the support systems that must be in place have
been discussed, but the purpose of this chapter is to address learning support
in the general classroom. In this chapter, support on Level 1 will be the focus.

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Table 3.1 Guidelines for full-service/inclusive schools

Institution where support Degree and nature of

Levels Levels of support
will be provided support by DBSS

1–2 Low levels of support Ordinary and full-service Educator capacity building
schools and ILSTs. Short-term/once-
off consultative support for
individual cases
3 Moderate levels of Ordinary and full-service More speciﬁc support for
support schools individual cases

4–5 High intensive and Full-service and special Intensive, frequent, speciﬁc
very high intensive schools and consultative support for
support individual cases

Source: Adapted from DoE (2009: 26)

3.4.4 Classroom support

Lerner and Kline (2006: 39) suggest the following strategies for learning dis-
abilities (LD) in the general classroom:
• Each lesson should begin with a review of what the learner has learned.
• The learners should be told what the goal of the lesson is.
• Learners should be placed near the teacher.
• Learners should receive positive support.
• All learners should be taught study skills.
• Learners must have adequate opportunities to practise concepts and skills.
• Teachers should collaborate with learning support teachers.
• Differentiated instruction should be used taking into account the learners’
learning styles and needs.
• At the end of each lesson, a summary of what has been learned should be
provided.

3.4.4.1 Teaching methods and learning styles

In a classroom with a diversity of learning needs, one cannot employ only one
or two different teaching methods addressing a limited number of learning
styles. Teaching methods need to vary so that all learners’ learning styles can
be included and a diversity of learning needs can be addressed. In Chapter 2
these issues were discussed in detail.
or applicable copyright law.

3.4.4.2 Differentiation (see also Chapter 5)

To provide quality teaching and learning addressing individual learner needs,
Tomlinson et al. (Smith, 2008: 2) suggest that differentiation is the answer. 59
According to Wormeli (2007: 11) differentiation is more a way of thinking, as
well as a professional and responsive mindset. An effective teacher has a ped-
agogical attitude and is willing to change classroom environments to ensure a

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more welcoming and warmer atmosphere. In this type of classroom, the

organisation, implementation and modiﬁcation of teaching contexts are
adapted to address individual learner needs.
Curriculum differentiation entails the adjustment of the curriculum, learn-
ing activities, content demands, modes of assessment, and the classroom envi-
ronment addressing different learning needs. Differentiation does not require
less or more work from the learner, but rather it focuses on changing the
nature of the work, doing whatever it takes so that learners learn (Wormeli,
2007: 9–11; Thousand, Villa & Nevin, 2007: 9).
Differentiated instruction intends to address a variety of teaching methods
that do not only focus on transferring facts, but instead ensure that learners
take part actively in their learning to make sure that they understand and
are able to apply what they have learned. By using differentiated instruction,
the teacher develops teaching and learning methods for learners with differ-
ent abilities (on their level of learning) in the same general-education class-
room. Colleagues such as speech therapists, school psychologists, occupation-
al therapists and so on can assist in developing differentiated instruction
lessons for learners experiencing more severe barriers to learning, such as
visual and hearing impairments or cerebral palsy.
The content, process and/or product also need to be differentiated. In many
classrooms, teachers are so focused on getting the content across that they
neglect the process (Donald, Lazarus & Lolwana, 2010: 84). The what as well
as the how of teaching is equally important. The outcome of teaching should
not just centre on the end product. Content needs to be relevant as well as
challenging for learners. In the process, while different learning and teaching
strategies are employed, a multiplicity of skills can be developed. The prod-
ucts that learners have to deliver can differ from learner to learner as long as
the learner achieves the planned outcomes.

3.4.4.3 Universal design for learning (UDL) (see also Chapter 5)

Universal design for learning (UDL) refers to the creation of differentiated
learning experiences that will minimise the need to make modifications for
individuals. Three access points need to be considered, namely content,
process and product. The UDL approach starts with facts about the learn-
ers and then content, product and process are designed to ﬁt the learners’
characteristics. To ensure access to subject matter, learners’ abilities and
strengths are used (Thousand et al., 2007: 9–12).
Kennedy and Fisher (2001: 54) describe modiﬁcations as changes to that
which the learner is expected to learn and demonstrate. It is only the learning
or applicable copyright law.

content that is modiﬁed, with the subject area remaining the same. For exam-
ple, fewer items may be included in a task (“same only less”), only key points
in the tasks are underlined (“streamlining the curriculum”), more components
60 are added to the task (“same activity/infused objective”), and tasks not com-
pleted in one class may be completed in another (“curriculum overlapping”).
Westwood’s (2001: 6–8) list of modiﬁcations in teaching and learning process-
es includes the following:

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• The teacher assists where the learner is in need.

• Reteaching takes place using simple language and more examples.
• The questions posed to the learner vary from simple to more complex.
• The rate of work to be completed is varied, allowing for extra time and
practice.
• The teacher places learners in groups according to their abilities and inter-
ests.
• The teacher involves learners in learner-centred activities.

3.4.4.4 Accommodations and adaptations

Janney and Snell (2000: 16–17) describe accommodations as modifications
made to a learner’s individualised education programme. The changes made
to assist the learners to access the curriculum are referred to as accommoda-
tions. Byrnes (2000: 24–25) states that an accommodation should not alter
the essential purpose of the assignment. Things should not be made easier,
only possible, because learners are still expected to demonstrate their knowl-
edge and skills. Accommodations, therefore, are different ways of teaching,
assessment or testing. Situations change, but the content of the teaching,
where adjustments are made to remove the barrier of the disability, remains
the same.
Adaptations are “changes to the learning task requirements”. Changes to
teaching methods used, the teaching materials used, and the teaching and
learning environment are necessary. Curricular adaptations involve adapting
what is taught, and instructional adaptations involve adapting how a subject
is taught and how learning is demonstrated. Ecological adaptations involve
adapting the educational setting, for example the place, the time and the per-
sons involved in the learning process (Janney & Snell, 2000: 16–17).
Before teachers can implement the necessary adaptations, accommodations
or modifications, they should first identify their learners’ learning styles to
ensure that they cater to the needs of each learner. Teachers should also
know what the learning outcomes of the activity are and what aids and sup-
port are needed. They should know what adaptations, accommodations or
modifications to content, methodology and the way the instruction is deliv-
ered are required, and whether it is necessary to differentiate or prepare an
individual education plan (IEP) for individual students.
The following are examples of accommodations and adaptations (please
remember that these accommodations will depend on each learner’s specific
or applicable copyright law.

needs).

• Allowing extra time to complete tests or examinations. Teachers will ask

how much extra time can be allowed. It will depend on the learner’s speciﬁc 61
needs. Usually 10–15 minutes on the hour are allowed in the ﬁnal Grade
12 exams. However, in formative assessments, the teacher needs to make
sure that a learner is able to execute a task to the fullest of his or her

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potential before moving on to the next one. This may require the teacher to
restructure the instructions or explain the task differently, without com-
promising standards. Extra time can be continued after school or the next
day. Sometimes the learner needs to stop a task, clear his mind and contin-
ue at a later time.
• With expanded opportunities, the teacher needs to make sure that the
learners understand the instructions and criteria. It will not help if the
learner just repeats the same task.
• Giving some learners, especially those who have attention problems,
breaks during assessment tasks. The duration does not have to be long,
sometimes five minutes are enough.
• Allowing learners who struggle to read or write to do more oral or practi-
cal assignments as an alternative.
• In formal assessments, allowing someone not related to the learner to read
the test or exam paper. The learner answers orally and the same person
writes down the answer. This is called amanuensis.
• Audio-taping learners’ answers or letting learners use computers with
voice synthesisers.
• Allowing a learner to sit closer to the blackboard or to study in a separate
place.
• Offering the learner an opportunity to use a calculator instead of using
pencil and paper to do calculations.
• Rephrasing questions and instructions for learners without compromising
the level that must be achieved.
• Enlarging or changing fonts of typed material.
• Changing the background colour of papers (light yellow works well mostly).
• Making sure that the lighting in the classroom is enough for learners with
visual problems or that shadows don’t hide the teacher’s face for learners
with hearing problems who need to see their teacher’s face.
• Ensuring that you look at your learners when teaching, especially when
learners have hearing problems.
• Remembering that flickering lights can ignite epileptic seizures.
• Many learners with learning difficulties are disorganised. Keeping with
routines supports these learners to be more organised and consequently to
concentrate better.
or applicable copyright law.

This is not an exhaustive list of instructional adaptations, accommodations

and modifications. Studying different books and scientific journals as well as
using one’s own experience and collaborating with colleagues or experts can
62 add to this list. Many resources are available to assist the teacher in select-
ing, providing – and evaluating the effectiveness of – a particular adaptation,
accommodation or modification. This will provide specially designed instruc-
tion to a learner to assist him or her attain the specific content required.

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Moreover, while it may be important to distinguish between the terms adap-

tation, accommodation and modiﬁcation, it is more important to identify the
preferred content, determine the instructional objective, and match the adap-
tation to the speciﬁc learning and behavioural needs of learners.
In a learning support process, learners must be supported and guided until
they can perform and succeed independently. Scaffolding as a strategy can be
successfully employed to ensure this.

3.4.4.5 Scaffolding (see Chapter 2)

Donald et al. (2010: 87) state that scaffolding is closely related to Vygotsky’s
notion of mediation, since appropriate structures and strategies are mediated
in a particular area of knowledge. A scaffold is a temporary structure that is
erected around a building to support the building process until it is completed
(Donald et al., 2010: 87). Depending on what the learners are able to do on
their own, they may need the assistance of an experienced person who will
scaffold their instruction. This is done by providing a substantial amount of
support and assistance during the early stages of teaching a new concept and
then slowly withdrawing the support as the learners gain experience by
means of a great deal of practice. Scaffolds can include opportunities for guid-
ed instruction and practice, reteaching, providing study guides, graphic
organisers and making use of more modelling and structure (Rief & Heim-
burge, 2006: 4).
As an example of scaffolding, consider the curriculum differentiation lad-
der, as indicated in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Scaffolding

Ask … Example

Can he or she do the same as peers? Spelling

If not, can … He or she do the same activity but with Fewer words
adapted expectations?
If not, can … He or she do the same activity but with Matching the words to pictures
adapted expectations and materials?
If not, can … He or she do a similar activity but with Functional words in their daily envi-
adapted expectations? ronment
If not, can … He or she do a similar activity but with Computer spelling program?
adapted materials?
or applicable copyright law.

If not, can … He or she do a different, parallel Learn a computer-typing program,

activity? learn word processing with a spell
checker, write or put pictures in a
journal
63
If not, can … He or she do a practical and functional Play/work with a word puzzle, game,
activity with assistance? ﬂash cards etc. assisted by a peer

Source: Adapted from SIAS (DoE, 2008: 121)

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Reid and Lienemann (2006: 164–165) offers an example of a scaffolding

question–answer relationship (QAR). During scaffolding, gradual trans-
ference of the strategy from the teacher to the learner takes place. It is neces-
sary for the learner to have ample time and support to master the strategy,
which in this case is the question–answer relationship.
In content scaffolding, the learner is given a simple text. The teacher
and learners read the text and the comprehension question. Together, they
decide what type of QAR each question represents and answers those ques-
tions on the relevant line. The teacher directs the process and the learners
answer the teacher-directed questions, for example, the teacher asks: “What
type of QAR does this question represent? Explain your answer.
In task scaffolding, one question–answer relationship is taught at a time.
Learners are firstly taught to find information in the text to answer “right
there” questions, then how to find information in the text to answer “think
and search” questions. Lastly learners will be taught how to use the informa-
tion to answer “on my own” questions. While practising collaboratively, the
teacher prompts the learners to use QAR categories to answer comprehension
questions. The teacher demonstrates (through modelling) how QAR categories
are used. In the next lessons learners are asked to fill in the QAR categories
and to explain how they know which category the question represents.
Lastly the learners are provided with comprehension questions and QAR
categories and they need to determine the category and answer the questions.
During material scaffolding the learners receive a QAR prompt card which
they use to answer the comprehension question. It serves to remind the learn-
er of the question–answer relationships and how they can help to answer the
comprehension questions.

An example of a QAR scaffolding

QAR helper
What type of question is this?

Right there
Can the information be found in one sentence of the text?

Think and search

Can the information be found in two or more sentences/paragraphs in the
or applicable copyright law.

text?
Do I need to put the information together?

64 On my own
Does the question require me to use my background knowledge of the subject?
Source: Adapted from Reid and Lienemann (2006: 165)

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Thousand et al. (2007: 85) look at using formative assessment and scaffolding
to differentiate assessment. During scaffolding, teachers use their knowledge
of the learner’s levels of understanding to change their instructions to suit the
needs of the learner. Scaffolding and formative assessment are used as part of
differentiated instruction and UDL. According to Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocul-
tural theory, the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the space between
the learner’s ability to solve problems independently and to solve problems
through guidance (collaboration with capable adults or peers). During scaf-
folding (which is a teaching strategy) a ZPD is created by the teacher, control-
ling certain parts of the task to ensure successful completion through hints,
reminders, encouragement and modelling. In formative assessment, the
learner must grasp a concept similar to the teacher’s and must be able to com-
pare his or her performance with the standard and to take action to close the
gap. Formative assessment and scaffolding can result in increased learner
achievement as the teacher elicits prior knowledge, gives positive feedback,
and teaches transfer of learning and self-assessment. Frequent monitoring of
progress helps learners to develop goals for improvement.

An example of scaffolding in a lesson

Your topic is the water cycle
At ﬁrst you will explain the cycle, most probably with pictures or by drawing
the cycle on the blackboard, continuously observing and asking questions to
ensure that the learners gain knowledge and understand the topic. Then
learners will be expected to practise their gained knowledge by drawing the
cycle on their own, adding written descriptions. During this activity, the
teacher will walk between the learners, providing suggestions and advice.
After the teacher feels comfortable that the learners can now work independ-
ently, he or she will provide them with a more formal task, which they must
carry out on their own without support. However, it is still important that the
teacher provides feedback.

3.4.4.6 Cognitive complexity

It has been mentioned in this chapter that teaching methods need to vary, dif-
ferent learning styles should be addressed and assessment must deal with
diverse learning needs. In this same context, cognitive complexity also needs
to be considered. Assessment tasks must have a variety of cognitive chal-
or applicable copyright law.

lenges. There should be some balance between lower- and higher cognitive
order thinking (Lombard, 2010: 42). Bloom’s Taxonomy divides cognitive
skills into categories of six levels that ascend from the easier executions to the
more difﬁcult. 65
Thousand et al. (2007: 83), as well as Lombard (2010: 43–44), use Bloom’s
Taxonomy to differentiate products of learning as tabulated (adapted) on the
following pages:

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Table 3.3 Differentiating products of learning

Low cognitive Level of Description Samples of Possible verbs

demand. Not Bloom’s different
much thinking Taxonomy/ products to
required. Cognitive demonstrate
Learning skill learning
remains in
isolation. Knowledge The ability to Flash cards, Write, label, recall,
remember previously scrapbooks, list, recognise,
learned material and drawing, memorise, select,
recall information. For puzzles, tape name, reproduce,
example, knowledge recordings, order, state, relate,
of general terms, mobiles, arrange, repeat,
speciﬁc facts, cartoon strips. deﬁne, match,
methods and duplicate.
procedures, basic
concepts and
principles.
Compre- The ability to grasp Picture Identify, discuss,
hension the meaning of dictionary, illustrate, express,
learning material. It is pamphlets, represent, indicate,
more than a verbatim news story, formulate, locate,
recall of learning diagram explain, recognise,
material. Learners diary. contrast, report,
can draw conclusions classify, restate,
and make describe, review,
deductions. tell, select,
translate, sort.

Application The ability to apply Charts, Predict, apply,

learned information graphs, select, choose, ﬁnd,
to new and concrete models, demonstrate, show,
situations. displays, dramatise, use,
interviews, employ, construct,
experiments. illustrate, compute,
interpret, prepare,
operate, schedule,
practise, sketch,
solve.

Analysis The ability to break Oral reports, Select, categorise,

down learned PowerPoint compare, criticise,
information into its presentations, separate, diagram,
constituent collections. differentiate,
components so as to discriminate,
emphasise more contrast,
clearly the nature of distinguish, break
the total structure. down, examine,
For example, identify analyse,
or applicable copyright law.

elements of a theory, experiment,

indicate the appraise, inventory,
relationship between calculate, question,
66 the elements and test.
recognise the
principles in terms of
which the elements
are organised.

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Table 3.3 Continued

Level of Description Samples of Possible verbs

Bloom’s different
Taxonomy/ products to
Cognitive demonstrate
skill learning

Synthesis The ability to produce Creating Summarise,

an original poems, construct, argue,
communication. On songs, create, relate,
the basis of their games, plays. design, formulate,
analysis of organise, manage,
fundamental generalise, plan,
concepts and prepare, conclude,
theories, learners propose, arrange,
should be able to set up, assemble,
identify the relations synthesise, collect,
between concepts write, compose.
and theories and
integrate these into a
new logical whole.

High cogni- Evaluation The ability to assess Written Judge, assess,

tive demand. learned information in reports, book evaluate, choose,
Learner must terms of speciﬁc reviews, support, compare,
demonstrate a criteria. The ability to photo essays, attack, estimate,
thinking judge the logical adverts, avoid, predict,
effort; make consistency of debates. select, rate, argue,
sense of learning material, to recognise, score,
material; determine the pros criticise, value,
relate some- and cons of a theory, appraise.
thing to exist- and to establish to
ing knowl- what extent a theory
edge/learning. meets the
requirements of good
theory.

Bloom believed that there are learners in every classroom who are at each
step of this process and therefore teachers can use Bloom’s Taxonomy to reach
all the learners in their classes by using multiple instructional methods (dif-
ferentiated instruction) (Langa & Yost, 2007: 13–14, 61–62; Lacy, 2002: 77).
Multiple intelligences can be blended with Bloom’s Taxonomy (see Chapter 2,
section 2.5 on multiple intelligences). Teachers also need to understand how
learners learn and that there is no right or wrong way to learn (Rief & Heim-
burge, 2006: 11). Thousand et al. (2007: 83–84) offers an example (using
reciprocal teaching) of how learners can be assessed on various levels of
or applicable copyright law.

Bloom’s Taxonomy. During reciprocal teaching, learners work in pairs in

order to complete four steps:
• For step one, the knowledge skill, the learners ask each other a question 67
about the main idea of a text.
• During step two, the comprehension skill, the learners take turns to sum-
marise the main idea.

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• During step three, the analysis skill, the learners clarify and identify
words/concepts which need deﬁning.
• During step four, the evaluation skill, the learners make predictions based
on the information they have read and then ask each other what will hap-
pen next.

These four steps can be done in one lesson.

3.5 Individual education plan (IeP)

Note: This is the internationally used term. However, in South Africa the SIAS
document refers to the ISP – Individual Support Plan. (See 3.6 as well as Chapter
5.)

Although learners with barriers to learning can have learning needs that can
be addressed by universal designs of learning (UDL) (see 3.4.4.3 and Chapter
5), they still have their individual learning needs that must be dealt with
through an Individual Education Plan (IEP). Inclusive education provides for
the unique development of each learner’s potential, including learners experi-
encing barriers to learning.
Giangreco et al. (as referenced in Kleinert & Kearns, 2001: 18–19) defines
an individual education plan (IEP) as a “prioritised subset of skills that the
learner’s family and his or her instructional team believe must be accom-
plished.” Lerner (2003: 64) describes the IEP as a written plan for a particu-
lar learner that prescribes specific educational objectives for that learner.
According to Lerner (2003: 64), it is a management tool for the entire assess-
ment-teaching process, which involves all assessment and teaching proce-
dures. Some learners will need an IEP for only a short period of time and oth-
ers for a longer period. For example, some learners who experience some
reading and spelling difficulties may only need a bit of additional support and
an alternative instruction method. Other learners with more serious barriers
to learning will need a more intensive, prolonged plan. An IEP must be a col-
laborative effort, involving the teacher, the learner, the parents/caregivers,
the ILST, the DBST as well as other health professionals as needed. Lands-
berg (2005: 75) asserts that the IEP must be planned in advance, but it
should also be flexible. Hence there must always be a process of assessing,
or applicable copyright law.

teaching, supporting, assessing and adapting. The IEP, however, incorporates

the general curriculum content and must be implemented within the class-
room routine and activities.
68 According to Lerner and Kline (2006: 47–52), the IEP follows a sequence of
three stages namely: referral, assessment and instruction.
The referral stage consists of prereferral activities, referral and initial
planning. Prereferral activities are preventative measures provided by collab-

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oration between a peer group of colleagues and the institutional-level support

team. During this collaboration, the learner’s academic and behaviour prob-
lems are evaluated, and interventions, accommodations and adaptations are
recommended. The classroom teacher implements these measures to meet the
needs of the learner. If these measures are successful, then a formal referral
is not necessary. Referral for a formal evaluation can be done by the
parent/caregivers, teacher, and other professionals who work with the learner
or the learners themselves. When a formal referral is made by individuals
other than the parents/caregivers, the ILST needs to get the parents’ or care-
givers’ permission for further assessments and support.
The assessment stages include a collaborative approach, involving the
learner, parents/caregivers, the ILST, the DBST and other professional spe-
cialists related to the barrier to learning, such as speech therapists, occupa-
tional therapists, social workers, medical doctors and psychologists. Assess-
ment does not only refer to formal and standardised testing but it must also
be a holistic process, including the following aspects (Landsberg, 2005: 76):
• The environment in which the learner lives, e.g. socioeconomic and socio-
cultural circumstances must be investigated.
• Previous and current teachers’ experience of the learner’s progress must be
gathered.
• All the learner’s class work, homework, and assessment tasks must be
studied to identify his or her strengths and needs.
• Curriculum-based tests need to be conducted to determine current per-
formance.

Note: Remember the assessment for learning cyclic process described in section
3.3.

After the assessment stage has been conducted, an IEP meeting must be set
up where all the role players in the collaboration team get together. These
role players can include the parents/caregivers of the particular learner, the
teacher, the learning support teacher, a representative of the ILST as well as
the DBST, the professional specialists and possibly the learner. At this meet-
ing, the contents of the learner’s IEP is discussed and written. If other spe-
cialist therapy (such as speech, occupational and/or psychology) is needed, the
incorporation thereof must also be planned during this meeting. The contents
or applicable copyright law.

of the IEP must include the following components (adapted from Lerner,
2003: 69):
• A description of the learner’s present levels of academic achievement. 69
• A description of short-term objectives that the learner must be able to
achieve. These objectives must be revisited regularly through reﬂection
and continuous informal, and some formal, assessments.

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• Measureable annual goals which include academic and functional goals for
the learner.
• A collaboration agreed between all the role players regarding:
– regular interactions
– how the different specialist interventions will be incorporated into the
learners’ general learning
– the accommodations, adaptations and modifications necessary for the
learner’s specific learning needs
– how and when feedback will be given to the parents/caregivers as well as
the learner.
• A description of what type of accommodations, adaptations and modifica-
tions will need to be planned for in the general teaching and learning
process.
• An explanation of the extent to which the learner might not participate in
the regular class, e.g. a learner with physical disabilities will not always be
able to participate in physical activities.

This IEP must be reﬂected on regularly to ensure that it still addresses the
learner’s speciﬁc needs. Continuous formal recording of the learner’s progress
must be done by all role players to be able to report back at IEP meetings and
for future decisions.

The referral stage

consists of prereferral
activities, referral and initial
planning.

Continuous reflec-
tion, assessment
and adaptation.
The assesment
After the assess-
stages include a
ment stage has
collaborative
been conducted, an
approach. Assess-
IEP meeting must
ment does not only
or applicable copyright law.

be set up where all

refer to formal and
the role players in
standardised testing
the collaboration
but it must also be a
team get together.
70 holistic process.

Figure 3.3 Steps for creating an IEP

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An example of an IEP follows.

INDIVIDUALISED EDUCATION PROGRAM (IEP)

Name of learner: Misch Ledwaba
Grade: 2
Date of birth: 5 August 2002
Age: 8 yrs 5 mths
Barrier: LD

PEOPLE INVOLVED
Name of person: Position
Mr and Mrs John and Mary Ledwaba – Parents
Mrs Nomaliso Maseko – Deputy Principal
Ms Sue Nel – Grade 2 teacher
Members of the ILST:
Representative of the DBST:
Professional specialist/s if needed:

Present level of performance

Misch is in Grade 2 and he has a Learning Disability, which inhibits his read-
ing and writing ability at grade level. He is able to perform at grade level in
social sciences when the learning materials are read to him. He does not need
any modiﬁcations for mathematics which is his favourite subject. He needs
intensive reading and written language instruction. His parents feel that he
does not have any friends and needs to socialise with his classmates.

Assessment information and instructional needs

Misch passed Grade 1 by achieving the minimum requirements only. Howev-
er, his reading was below Grade 1 level. His sight vocabulary was also only at
a Grade 1 to six-months level at the end of Grade 1. On a recent reading test,
he still performed below average in reading skills, particularly in decoding,
fluency and comprehension, which causes difficulties in class when he is
expected to read independently.
Misch also has difficulty with fine motor skills, particularly in handwriting.
He responds well to taped readings of learning materials, computer-based
books and programs for decoding and comprehension, repeated readings and
intensive reading instruction. His teacher says he needs to be reminded fre-
quently about what is expected of him. He responds better to routines which
allow him to track his own progress for example a computer reading program.
He likes to talk to his teacher and parents about his classmates and prefers
structured social interactions with his classmates, for example group projects.
He needs to be encouraged to join in physical education activities.
or applicable copyright law.

Measurable annual goals

1. Annual goal: Misch will increase his reading ﬂuency to Grade 2 to ﬁve 71
months (2.5) level by September 2010.
2. Annual goal: Misch will increase reading comprehension to the Grade 3
level by September 2010.

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How will progress toward annual goals be measured?

• Classroom participation
• Observation
• Criterion-referenced test (developed by teacher)
• Checklist
• Norm-referenced test (done by speech and occupational therapists)
• Classwork
• Class tests
• Fluency evaluation
• Homework

Short-term objective/benchmarks
Annual goal 1
Objectives:
1. Misch will be given a Grade 1 level story and he will read the story in 2
minutes with 40 or more words correct.
2. Misch will read a Grade 1 story in 2 minutes with 50 or more words cor-
rect.
3. Misch will read a Grade 2 story in 2 minutes with 55 or more words cor-
rect.

Annual goal 2
Objectives:
1. Misch will read a Grade 1 story independently and answer 10 inferential
questions with 80% accuracy.
2. Misch will read a Grade 2 story independently and answer 10 factual ques-
tions with 90% accuracy.
3. Misch will read social sciences and language arts at Grade 2 level – he will
read the material using the POSSE strategy (predict, organise, summarise
and evaluate) at least 50% of the time.

Services
Misch will receive more than 90% of his education in the general education
classroom. It will be modiﬁed to support his below-grade reading and written
language skills.
Services will be provided:
• In general education class
• After formal school
or applicable copyright law.

Consultation with the ILST will take place ……….. (frequency, e.g. weekly,
monthly – 15:00 – 16:00); (duration, e.g. January–March).
72 Assessment
Continuous observation, curriculum-based tests to reﬂect on successful imple-
mentation of IEP.

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Accommodations/Modifications

Accommodation(s)/ Frequency Location Duration

Modifications(s)
Classroom
• Taped instructions before
lesson
• Instructions re-read
• Assignments will be given
ahead to parents so that
they can help to prepare
learner
• Additional time for in-class
tests
• Appropriate books and
assignments
• Written assignments may be
taken home to complete if
unﬁnished at school
• Graphic organisers for social
sciences

District assessments
• Instructions to be read to
learner
• Double time allowed for all
reading-related sections
• Answers written directly in
test book
• Reading comprehension sec-
tions will be read to learner

Source: Adapted from http://www.education.com/reference/article/individualized-educa-

tion-program-IEP/2010/10/15

3.6 screening, identiﬁcation, assessment and support (sIas)

(Doe, 2008)
The Department of Education has designed a strategy to structure the learn-
ing support process more formally. This is called the SIAS (Screening, Identi-
or applicable copyright law.

ﬁcation, Assessment and Support) strategy and is part of the implementation

of White Paper 6. This process acknowledges the central role played by educa-
tors and parents. According to the DoE (2008: 3): 73
The Strategy has been developed over a period of four years through a
rigorous process of consultation with all stakeholders including schools,
districts, provincial ofﬁces, higher education institutions and profession-

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al bodies. The inputs of organizations, including those for and of disabled

people, were incorporated in this strategy so as to ensure that it would
respond to the needs of all learners whose lives will be affected by its
implementation.

The purpose of this strategy is to allow large numbers of children of school-

going age who experience barriers to learning, including those who are dis-
abled, to exercise their right to basic education and to access the necessary
support in their local schools as far as possible. However, at the same time, the
roles and responsibilities for the education support system including the dis-
trict-based support teams, special school resource centres, full-service schools
and the institution-level support teams are emphasised (DoE, 2008).
The DoE (2008) asserts that the SIAS will provide clarity regarding which
learners should be admitted to particular special schools and how their educa-
tional needs should be supported. The strategy should ensure that no one is
refused admission to a special school because of the severity of his or her dis-
ability but it should also ensure that ordinary schools will acquire policies,
cultures and practices which are welcoming to all learners (DoE, 2008: 4).
The SIAS process consists of four stages namely (DoE, 2008: 13–14):

• Stage 1: The learner profile. The educator gains background informa-

tion on the learner in order to determine his or her basic needs and
strengths. This stage applies to learners entering school in particular in
Grade R and Grade 1. The learners’ strengths, weaknesses, interests, home
circumstances and the need for additional support are identiﬁed by inter-
viewing the parents/caregivers. A diagnostic profile is compiled by other
professionals to gain an overall picture of the learner.

• Stage 2: Identifying the barriers to learning and development. This

stage involves teacher reflection; parent consultation and involvement;
identification of learner support needs; identification of contextual barriers;
review of teaching and classroom practices, whole school changes and sup-
port strategies; identification of community resources and tracking sup-
port. Initial identification of learner needs is gleaned from the curriculum
assessment process (observation, learner’s portfolio, workbooks, informa-
tion from other teachers and parents/caregivers). In this stage, the teacher
will have enough information to know how to support the learner effective-
ly. An Individual Support Plan (ISP) (also called the IEP) will be drawn up,
which will outline the support that will be provided and how it will be mon-
or applicable copyright law.

itored. The learner, parents, other teachers, the ILST, the learner support
educator and other support specialists can also assist the teacher in draw-
74 ing up an ISP.

• Stage 3: Assessment of support requirements and determination of

level and nature of support needed. The DBST, ILST, teachers and
parents collaboratively review the impact of the school and the teacher’s

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work; analyse the school’s capacity to meet the learner’s needs; identify
community resources; assess the learner’s support needs in depth; deter-
mine the support needed and apply additional resources; determine acces-
sibility of alternative specialised programmes and make inputs to the
action plan.
• Stage 4: The action plan, provisioning and monitoring of additional sup-
port is carried out by the DBST.

3.7 conclusion
It is important for learners with barriers to learning to be identified and
assessed as early as possible in order to plan and implement appropriate sup-
port interventions as soon as is feasible. A collaborative approach including
all role players is required.
Assessment is a process where information about the learner is gathered,
interpreted, recorded and used in order to plan for learner support. The
assessment should take place on a continuous basis as the intensity of sup-
port required needs to be determined. This could be a: low level of support;
moderate level of support; high-intensive level of support and very high-inten-
sive support. Assessment can take place on a formal or informal basis and
includes different methods such as a baseline assessment. For the purpose of
this book, diagnostic assessment is emphasised with the purpose of planning
learner support in literacy and mathematics. It is important not to separate
assessment from the learning support process and therefore this chapter
looks at Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS) as a whole.
Learning support is thus a cyclic process, which includes the identification of
barriers as well as the assessment process and learner support (which varies
according to the learners’ needs).
Support structures such as the ILST and DBST play an important role in
supporting learners, teachers and parents and thus their roles and functions
need to be understood and clarified. For the purpose of this book, classroom
support underpins the practical part of this book, namely literacy and mathe-
matics learner support and includes important aspects such as teaching
methods; learning styles; differentiation; universal design; accommodations
and adaptations; scaffolding, Bloom’s Taxonomy and IEPs.

Questions
1. What role does assessment play in the identification of learners who experience
barriers to learning and in determining their support needs?
or applicable copyright law.

2. Sketch a scenario of a learner who experiences barriers to learning (in language or

mathematics), and by means of the assessment cycle, determine his or her support
needs. 75
3. Based on the above scenario, decide what role the ILST will play and eventually
which learner support strategy you will use to alleviate/overcome the identified bar-
riers.

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4. Give an example of: differentiation; scaffolding using the curriculum differentiation

ladder.
5. Explain how you would prepare an IEP for the learner in the above scenario (see
question 2).

GLOSSARY

Accommodations and adaptations are dif- Identification is when teachers identify

ferent ways of teaching and assessing to strengths, weaknesses, contextual barriers
make it possible for learners to demon- and support needed for the learner experi-
strate their knowledge and skills, e.g. extra encing barriers to learning.
time in the examinations. ILST (Institutional-level support teams) are
Assessment is a cyclic process where learner made up role players in the school, e.g.
information is gathered from parents/care- teachers and the school management team
givers and interpreted, recorded and used and they problem solve concerns and chal-
to support learners experiencing barriers to lenges regarding barriers to learning.
learning. An Individual Education Plan (IEP) is a
Cognitive complexity is associated with written plan for a learner with specific edu-
Bloom’s Taxonomy in which cognitive skills cational objectives.
are divided into six levels – ascending from Learning support involves assessing knowl-
easy to more difficult executions. edge and skills regarding learner barriers;
DBST: District-based support teams are focusing on weaknesses and strengths and
based at District Offices and assist ILST’s differentiating, accommodating and address-
with outplacement of learners in full-serving learning needs.
ice schools and special schools. Scaffolding is when teacher support is pro-
Differentiation is when the organisation, vided during the early teaching stage of a
implementation and modification of teach- new concept and then slowly withdrawn.
ing contexts are adapted to cater for indi- Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
vidual learners, for example, by changing involves differentiating learning experiences
the nature of the work. to fit the learners’ characteristics in order to
minimise the need for modifications.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bouwer, C. 2005. Identiﬁcation and assess- Department of Education (DoE). 2005. Guide-
ment of barriers to learning. In Landsberg, lines for inclusive learning programmes
E., Kruger, D. & Nel, N. (Eds), Addressing (Draft). Pretoria: Department of Education.
barriers to learning. Pretoria: Van Schaik, Department of Education (DoE). 2008. Nation-
45–60. al Strategy on Screening, Identiﬁcation,
Byrnes, M. 2000. Accommodations for stu- Assessment and Support. Pretoria: Depart-
or applicable copyright law.

dents with disabilities: removing barriers ment of Education.

to learning. NASSP Bulletin, 84: 21–27. Department of Education (DoE). 2009. Guide-
Department of Education (DoE). 2001. White lines for Full-Service/Inclusive Schools. Pre-
76 Paper 6 on Special Needs Education: Build- toria: Department of Education. Available
ing an Inclusive Education and training at: http://www.education.com/reference/arti-
system. Pretoria: Government Printers. cle/ individualized-education-program-
Available at: http://www.polity.org.za/gov- IEP/2010/10/15
docs/.

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Donald, D., Lazarus, S. & Lolwana, P. 2010. (Eds), Outcomes-Based assessment for South
Educational psychology in social context. African teachers. Pretoria: Van Schaik,
Oxford: Oxford University Press. 31–62.
Dreyer, L.M. 2008. An evaluation of a learning Polloway, E.A., Patton, J.R. & Serna, L. 2005.
support model in primary schools in the Strategies for teaching learners with special
West Coast/Winelands area. Doctoral thesis. needs, 8th ed. Ohio: Pearson Merrill Pren-
Stellenbosch University. tice Hall.
Frederickson, N. & Cline, T. 2002. Special edu- Reid, R. & Lienemann, T.O. 2006. Strategy
cational needs, inclusion and diversity: a instruction for students with learning dis-
textbook. Buckingham: Open University abilities. New York: Guilford.
Press. Rief, S.F. & Heimburge, J.A. 2006. How to
Grisham-Brown, J., Hemmeter, M.L. & Pretti- reach and teach all children in the inclusive
Frontczak, K. 2005. Blended practices for classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
teaching young children in inclusive settings. Sapon-Shevin, M. 2007. Widening the circle.
Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Boston: Beacon Press.
Individualized Education Program. 2010. Smith, S. 2008. MoDD: An ecological frame-
Available at: http://www.education.com/ref- work for dynamically and inclusively differ-
erence/article/individualized-education-pro- entiating the curriculum. One Voice Interna-
gram-IEP/2010/10/15 (accessed on 20 July tional Conference, The Institute of Elemental
2011). Ethics and Education. Westin St. Francis,
Janney, R. & Snell, M.E. 2000. Modifying San Francisco, US. July 5–9.
schoolwork. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. South African Department of National Educa-
Kennedy, C.H. & Fisher, D. 2001. Inclusive tion (DNE). 2002, November. Guidelines for
middle schools. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. inclusive education in general education and
Kleinert, H.L. & Kearns, J.F. 2001. Alternate training (Grades R–9). Draft.
Assessment. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Thousand, J.S., Villa, R.A. & Nevin, A.I. 2007.
Lacy, L.E. 2002. Creative planning resource for Differentiating instruction. London: Corwin.
interconnected teaching and learning. New Vygotsky, L. 1978. Mind in society: the devel-
York: Peter Lang. opment of higher mental processes. Cam-
Landsberg, E. 2005. Learning support. In bridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Landsberg, E., Kruger, D. & Nel, N. (Eds). Westwood, P. 2001. “Differentiation” as a
Addressing barriers to learning. Pretoria: strategy for inclusive classroom practice.
Van Schaik, 61–77. Australian Journal of Learning Disabilities,
Langa, M.A. & Yost, J.L. 2007. Curriculum 6: 5–11.
mapping for differentiated instruction, K-8. Williams, J.M. 2001. Adaptations and accom-
California: Corwin. modations for students with disabilities.
Lerner, J.W. 2003. Learning disabilities, 9th Washington, DC: National Information Cen-
ed. Boston: Houghton Mifﬂin Company. ter for Children and Youth with Disabilities.
Lerner, J. & Kline, F. 2006. Learning disabili- Available at:
ties and related disorders: characteristics http://www.nichcy.org/pubs/bibliog/bib15txt.
and teaching strategies. Boston: Houghton htm
Mifﬂin Company. Winkler, G. 2004. All children can learn. Cape
Lombard, B.J.J. 2010. Outcomes-based assess- Town: Francolin Publishers.
ment: exploring the territory. In Meyer, L., Wormeli, R. 2007. Differentiation. Portland:
Lombard, B.J.J., Warnich, P. & Wolhuter, C. Stenhouse.
or applicable copyright law.

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4
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English language
NormA NEL
mIrNA NEL

OBJECTIVES
4.1 What is language?
When you have read this chapter
Language, the words that we speak and understand, you should be able to
is the central thing that distinguishes us from ani- • understand what language is all
mals. Over the ages, many definitions of language about in order to support
learners experiencing barriers to
have emerged such as: “Language is an arbitrary set
learning in the English language
of symbols, systematic in nature, agreed upon by a • understand that language
community of users, which are designed to explain encompasses listening,
experiences and thoughts” (Lapp, Flood, Brock & speaking, reading and writing, as
Fisher, 2007). Let us break this down for the context well as how language develops
• use the tips offered in teaching
of this chapter.
English listening, speaking,
Language is symbolic. It consists of sounds, words reading and writing
and sentences, which have an “infinity of possible • describe the difficulties English
meanings and intentions” (Lust, 2006: 9). Browne second-language learners
(2007: 19) adds that language has a rules system, experience
• know the aims of teaching
which governs how language works. These rules,
language and a differentiated
which can also be referred to as grammar, regulate approach of teaching the English
word structure (when to use talk instead of walk), language.
word choice (when to use which instead of that) and
word order. By using grammar, one can combine
words which produce meaningful utterances/oral
texts, which can contain a few words or many sen-
or applicable copyright law.

tences.
We use language to communicate. Being able to
understand and produce a language through listen-
ing and speaking enables us to communicate with 79
others. When we are adept at using language to com-
municate, we learn to explore, narrate and reﬂect on
experiences and knowledge with other people. When

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aeiou oi ou ea ai eo

bcdef gh ck
ghijk
qrstu lmnop
vwxyz ng ch
I like cats
The dog is barking

Figure 4.1 Word structure, word choice and word order

we can produce, understand and think in a language, we can make a bound-

less number of possible statements and ask a variety of questions. We use
language to interact with people in order to construct meaning, which is the
main purpose of language (Lapp et al., 2007). Polloway, Patton and Serna
(2005: 185–186) explain that communication takes place by means of a verbal
and non-verbal (e.g. speaking, signing, reading, music, codes) interchange of
ideas, beliefs, thoughts, feelings and emotions but most people use speech as a
primary way of communicating.
“All learning is based on a language system” (Choate, 2004: 152). Knowl-
edge is presented through language (Raymond, 2008: 252). Think about any
subject, even mathematics and science that use many mathematical and sci-
entiﬁc symbols. You need language to deﬁne, describe and explain. Conse-
quently, if a learner does not have adequate language or experiences lan-
guage problems, this may cause learning problems.

4.1.1 The forms of language

Language has different forms, namely oral language (listening and speaking),
reading and writing (Lerner, 2003: 351). All of these forms make up part of an
integrated language system: “what the child learns about the language sys-
tem through the oral language provides a knowledge base for reading and
writing and what the child learns about language through writing improves
reading and oral language” (Lerner, 2003: 351).
Listening and reading are classiﬁed under the receptive (input) language
mode (Lerner, 2003: 353). Receptive language can be auditory (listening) or
visual (reading). This is when you listen to a language, decode the auditory or
visual stimuli and organise them into meaningful word units (Ormrod as ref-
erenced in Dednam, 2005: 120). Speaking and writing falls under the expres-
or applicable copyright law.

sive (output) language mode (Lerner, 2003: 353). Expressive language refers
to conveying a message using speech or print. Ormrod (Dednam, 2005: 120)
also refers to an inner language, which includes a symbolic thought system
80 that constructs the message that must be conveyed to someone else. It is
important to note that learners cannot be expected to produce (give an out-
put) if they have not been provided with sufﬁcient input experiences (discus-
sions, reading, excursions, etc.) (Lerner, 2003: 354).

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Input or receptive skills: Output or expressive skills:

Integrative
Listening Speaking
process
Reading Writing

Figure 4.2 Integrative process of language

Source: Lerner (2003: 354)

Language also consists of different elements.

4.1.2 Elements of language

Raymond (2008: 253–258) describes language in terms of:

4.1.2.1 Language form

Form is the “how” of language and is governed by rules, which include phonol-
ogy, morphology and syntax (Raymond, 2008: 253).
Phonology is about the speech sounds of a language. It consists of a set of
rules where speaking sounds are pronounced and combined to elicit meaning.
There are basic sounds that all languages have, however, different languages
also have their own distinct sound systems (Dednam, 2005: 121). A sound,
also called a phoneme, is the smallest linguistic unit of a language that can be
pronounced, but does not have meaning on its own. The building blocks of the
English language consist of a set of 44 phonemes. These phonemes include
vowels and consonants that can be used individually as well as in different
combinations. Recognising phonemes is important for learning to read as well
as for oral language. Phonics refers to the recognition, analysis and synthesis
of phoneme elements in written words (Lerner, 2003: 360). The symbols that
represent the sounds/phonemes are called phonograms or graphemes (26 in
the English language, i.e. the ABC). Phonological awareness (or phonemic
awareness) is the ability to focus on and manipulate phonemes in spoken
words (Lerner, 2003: 362). The child needs to be able to analyse phonemes in
a word and be sensitive to the sound structure of language (Raymond, 2008:
254–255). For example, if you take the word “hat”, you can take the word
apart and identify that there are three sounds in the word “hat”, meaning
nothing individually. However, when you combine the three sounds, the
process makes a word and provides meaning.
Morphology consists of a set of rules, which combines phonemes into big-
ger units such as syllables and words to convey meaning. They are the small-
or applicable copyright law.

est grammatical units to convey meaning, e.g. “dog” is one morpheme or

meaning unit, and “dogs” have two morphemes (dog plus plurality). The same
applies to pronouns and possession. Morphemes, cannot be divided whilst
they still have meaning. They refer to an object, action or idea e.g. “he” refers 81
to a male. There are free morphemes, which have meaning and can stand by
themselves and then bound morphemes have meaning but cannot stand by
themselves. For instance preﬁxes and sufﬁxes need to be attached to free

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morphemes, e.g. “turn” – “return” (Raymond, 2008: 256). Remember there are
exceptions to morphemic rules and if children are not aware of these rules
they can overgeneralise, e.g. children can formulate the past tense of ﬁght
and go into “ﬁghted” and “goed” (Lerner, 2003: 360).
When it comes to syntax, syntactic rules involve how morphemes are
organised in phrases and sentences and refer to the grammar of the particu-
lar language. It is a set of rules on how phrases and sentences need to be con-
structed to convey meaning such as word order, e.g. “The cat drank the milk”
(Raymond, 2008: 257).

4.1.2.2 Language content (semantics)

Semantics is vocabulary or word meaning in a language. Content is the
meaning component of a language and refers to the what we read, listen to,
talk and write about (Raymond, 2008: 253). Semantics can be described as
“linguistic representations of ideas, feelings, events, relationships, processes
and things”. It involves learning on how the word relates to the thing, idea,
concept, etc. and that the relationship between the word and the thing, idea,
concept, etc. is arbitrary and symbolic. Semantics forms the basis for reading
comprehension as it is the meaning of the whole communication act and
involves decoding of vocabulary in a syntactic context. Semantic structures
such as word categories, synonyms, antonyms and ﬁgurative language need to
be processed with understanding (Raymond, 2008: 258).

Note: In section 4.5, the applicability of language form and language content to
reading will be discussed in more detail. Thus keep the above-mentioned in mind
when we discuss reading as part of language development.

4.1.2.3 Language use (pragmatics)

Language use includes the reason, purpose and “why” of language and refers
to pragmatics and discourse (Raymond, 2008: 253).
Pragmatics is the social role that language plays. It is also how people use
language and how they change it to meet the requirements of the conversa-
tion within different societies. This is done by taking into account the rela-
tionship between the speaker and the listener; the speaker’s assessment of
or applicable copyright law.

the listener’s degree of knowledge; behaviours such as taking turns in conver-

sation, staying on topic and asking pertinent questions; and other factors,
such as general appearance, involvement in the conversation and eye contact
82 (Lerner, 2003: 361). In pragmatics, competence (knowledge) and performance
(use) are combined. All levels of language are integrated, but the person must
have the knowledge to use the rules, which governs the use of language in
context (Raymond, 2008: 259). It means, therefore that phonology, morpholo-

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gy, syntax and semantics need to work together in order to support pragmat-
ics/functional language use (Raymond, 2008: 254). Pragmatics can also
include non-verbal behaviour, such as body language and facial expressions.
It also includes the literal (concrete) and ﬁgurative (abstract) aspects of lan-
guage. Literal language means that the concrete, primary meaning of the
word or phrase is conveyed, e.g. “The boy ran slowly.” Figurative language
means that the abstract, secondary meaning is conveyed by saying one thing
and meaning another, e.g. “The girl was building castles in the sky”, meaning
she was fantasising. Other examples of ﬁgurative language include similes,
idioms, metaphors, satire, irony, puns, riddles, etc. Discourse as part of prag-
matics is bigger than a sentence, usually in the form of a conversation, narra-
tive, poems, drama (e.g. playacting a story), classroom discourse or expository
discourse such as descriptives.
In order to have a comprehensive understanding of when language is
developed adequately to be able to learn in it you need to know and under-
stand the different language developmental stages.

4.2 language development

According to Paul (Polloway et al., 2005: 192), language development occurs
in stages. For the purpose of this book, the stages will be discussed up to the
language for learning stage, which is on the primary school level.

4.2.1 Prelinguistic stage

Lerner (2003: 351) asserts that early experiences in listening, talking and
learning about the world are essential as the foundation for the development
of adequate reading and writing skills. In order for this to happen, children
must be exposed to oral as well as written language. When oral language is
stimulated, children learn sounds, vocabulary and linguistic structures. This
occurs through verbal interaction, hearing stories, songs and rhymes, etc.
Babies ﬁrst go through different phases of vocalisation before they start using
single word sentences and then full sentences from about one year old (Louw
& Louw, 2007: 106):
• Undifferentiated crying (birth to one month): use crying as a signal of their
needs.
• Differentiated crying (from about two months): various crying for different
needs.
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• Cooing and babbling (two to ﬁve months): squealing-gurgling sounds and

repetition of sounds.
• Lallation (seven to eight months); repeat sounds and words they have 83
heard.
• Echolalia (nine to 10 months): more correct and deliberate repetition of
words and sounds.

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Note: Also remember that understanding language precedes the ability to speak.

4.2.2 Emerging language stage (12–18 months)

At this very early stage, children use only single word utterances, but start
making great progress in learning semantics, syntax, phonology, discourse
and pragmatics by 26 months.
Semantics: approximately 20 words at the end of their first year and 200
words at the end of their second year.
Syntax: at the end of this stage they are able to use two-word utterances,
e.g. “Mommy eat” and “No milk”.
Phonology: by age three, they acquire the following phonemes viz. /m/, /b/,
/n/, /w/, /d/, /p/, /h/. They also start acquiring words that adults understand.
Pragmatics and discourse: in this early stage, children start learning to use
language for conversation. When they want to request something, their into-
nation will rise and words beginning with wh can be used. They will answer
when they understand something by nodding or imitating the adult’s intona-
tion. By the end of this stage they can respond to wh-questions (such as what,
who, where). They are able to clarify something and provide more information
when the adult asks for this. Taking turns with their conversational partners
happens, however they find it more difficult when there are more than one or
two partners.

4.2.3 Developing language stage (27–46 months)

This stage begins at 27 months and ends at 46 months. During this stage,
children acquire most of the basic language structures, pragmatics of conver-
sational as well as narrative discourse. They also become more aware of lan-
guage on a figurative level.
Semantics: expressive vocabulary consists of about 200 words and by age
four about 1800 words. It includes nouns, verbs, prepositions (e.g. behind, on
top of), adjectives (e.g. ugly), temporal words (e.g. first), personal pronouns
(e.g. him), inflections (e.g. dogs), tense makers (e.g. jumping), regular and
irregular verb forms (e.g. sit/sat), word contraction (e.g. I’m), possessive pro-
nouns (e.g. mine).
Syntax and morphology: children progress from two-word sentences to 10-
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word sentences. They are able to add modiﬁers or auxiliary verbs and include
phrases in clauses or combine two clauses in one, e.g. “She’s sleeping on the
bed”. Later they are capable of combining clauses into compound sentences,
84 e.g. “I’m eating and he’s sleeping.” The earliest morphemes used are the plu-
ral, e.g. “The cats drink”. The possessive is very strong in this phase (“It’s
mine”). They tend to generalise the syntactic and morphological rules, e.g.
“eated, mouses”.

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Phonology: most of the phonemes are acquired. After age three they can
string consonants together, e.g. “spin”.
Pragmatics and discourse: children are capable of maintaining a topic dur-
ing a conversation, taking turns and understanding the need to provide back-
ground information. They are also able to repair, clarify, repeat and revise
their language. They can move from more direct requests, e.g. “I want more
food” to more indirect requests (polite forms) such as “I need more food”. At
the end of this stage, they are able to tell stories and construct retelling of
their experiences, especially those in literate families. By ages three to four,
they can act out and their dramatic plays are more realistic, e.g. playing doc-
tor.
Figurative language: their language is on a more literal level. Slowly they
realise that words can sound the same but have different meanings, e.g.
“pear/pair”. They are also able to talk about talking such as “My brother said
I can’t say ain’t”. They start becoming aware of idiomatic expressions and
humour.

4.2.4 Language for learning stage

By the time children enter school, their language development moves into the
more formal language learning and literate aspects such as reading, writing,
ﬁgurative language and abstract discourse. Hulit and Howard (Polloway et
al., 2005: 196) explain that at this stage, children’s vocabulary includes most
of the basic words, their phonological system is almost the same as that of
adults, their syntactic skills include direct forms and transformations, e.g.
negative and interrogatives and their conversational abilities include
requests, taking turns and understanding their listeners’ needs for more
information. Children from literate homes usually know how stories work,
how to talk about language and can relate what they know and have experi-
enced. They are also familiar with pens, paper, computers and books. (Coming
from literate homes mean that there is a lot of interaction between
parents/caregivers and their children and that they expose them to the writ-
ten word often.)
Semantic development: children continue to expand their vocabulary and
reﬁne its usage. They use the most relevant word/s, and the same word for
different meanings, e.g. “a great lake” / “a great idea”, they know the differ-
ence between “tap” and “faucet” and can classify words into categories such as
“man, mammal, carnivore”. The English pronoun system is also elaborated
during this stage.
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Syntax and morphology: the use of noun and verb phrases is expanded, e.g.
“small, green ball” and not “green small ball”. They use passive sentences, e.g.
“The horseshoe was made by an ironsmith” and not “The ironsmith was made 85
by the horseshoe”. Exceptions to the rules are being made, e.g. “mice, men”.
They use more complicated structures such as “He has a book I know you’ll
love” and join sentences with conjunctions such as “The cat was thirsty but we

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gave him water”. In this stage, the children acquire the ability to make nouns
from verbs using -ing, e.g. “sleep/sleeping”. The can also add -er to verbs to
make agents, e.g. “play/player” and add -ly to adjectives to make adverbs, e.g.
“sincere/sincerely”.
Pragmatics and discourse: in school, the learners become more proficient in
conversational discourse and maintaining topics. They are able to use indirect
requests, which are very important for their interactions with their peers.
They also become more literate requiring narrative (telling stories with a cen-
tral theme, plot, characters, setting), classroom (the language of teaching and
learning) and expository (explanation and description) discourses.
Figurative language: various forms of humour, such as riddles and
metaphors, are understood. Their metalinguistic proficiency develops as they
are able to define words, identify homonyms, synonyms and antonyms; sort
out semantic ambiguities, identify sounds and their corresponding letters in
words and identify syntactic and morphological characteristics of oral and
printed language. Phonological awareness is critical during this stage as it
enables the learner to make the correspondence between sounds and letters
(decoding). Hence the learner will start comprehending what he or she is
reading and subsequently is able to decode and comprehend well enough to
use reading for learning in Grade 4. At this stage, they also learn metaprag-
matic aspects such as what is the degree of formality needed during conversa-
tion, who has the most authority as well as cultural differences, how to inter-
pret what is said and written and how to cope with interruptions. Learners
also develop a metacognitive ability, which enables them to “reflect on and
manage their own thinking and learning processes” (Polloway et al., 2005:
192–199). Their abilities include comprehension monitoring (understanding
or not understanding something) and organisational (to process new informa-
tion through analysis and inference) as well as learning strategies (Polloway
et al., 2005: 192–199).
According to Teele (2004: 3), it is important that learners must learn to lis-
ten, speak, read, write and compute in order to be able to function in society.
At the same time, they must learn to analyse and reflect on what they have
learnt and how it can be applied to them. Literacy must be integrated into all
subjects, thereby empowering learners to be creative and decisive, to be able
to solve problems and come up with new ideas, to understand how others
learn and to apply the knowledge they have acquired.
In the next section, the more formal aspects of oral language, reading, writ-
ing and spelling will be discussed as needed for formal learning.
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4.3 oral language

86 Oral language refers to the ability to speak understandably in order for those
who are listening to understand what a person wants to express. Choate
(2004: 130) categorises speech skills into articulation, voice and ﬂuency skills.
Articulation is when speech sounds are produced through coordinated and

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integrated movements of the lips, the tongue and the jaws. Through the voice
(vocal production), thoughts and language are expressed. The pitch, loudness
and quality of voice add to carrying over the meaning of what is being said
accurately and will contribute to how listeners then react. Fluency of speech
can be interrupted by emotional, psychological problems, neurological dys-
functions, illness or environmental inﬂuences. Stuttering is an example of ﬂu-
ency problems (Choate, 2004: 131–132).
Oral and written language is considered to be a continuum. Literacy devel-
ops from
• oral language abilities that are well developed
• learners being exposed to written language where he or she understands
how text works (emergent literacy)
• the learner’s cognitive maturation where metalinguistic awareness allows
the learner to see language as an entity
• a good quality of instruction.

Reading is a language-based skill, which is dependent on oral language abili-

ties. To understand oral language, one needs to have knowledge of the form,
content and use of the language. This includes recognising word patterns,
word structure, sentence forms, the meaning of words and how they relate to
each other and their position in a sentence and to interpret what the speaker
intends in the context. To understand written text, one should have the same
linguistic knowledge needed to understand spoken language. Where there are
deﬁcits in oral language, in syntax, in morphology, in semantics, in pragmat-
ics and narrative structure it will impact negatively on reading comprehen-
sion (Birsch, 2005: 44–47).
Oral literacy is the foundation for developing reading and writing. It is
through oral exchanges that oral literacy is developed, vocabulary is expand-
ed and learners are able to participate in group discussions, resolve conﬂicts
and communicate their ideas, feelings and experiences. Vygotsky (1978)
explains that children’s literacies (listening, speaking, reading, writing and
viewing) are developed while they are engaged in purposeful and meaningful
literacy activities. Therefore, it is important that teachers model oral commu-
nication, which will enable learners to solve problems and participate in dis-
cussions such as talking about certain content, etc. This includes giving clear
instructions so that learners can understand and apply correctly (Lapp et al.,
2007: 107–108).
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According to Lapp et al. (2007: 110, 115–116), ﬁrst- and second-language

acquisition is an active and individual process. Through verbal dialogues,
children start constructing and creating a language full of errors. Oral lan-
guage forms part of almost all the child’s activities. Two crucial elements to 87
consider when teaching the English language is that the language acquisition
of every learner is an individual process and will include making errors. It is
important to concentrate on the learner’s language development and not only

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on the curriculum requirements. Listening takes up the major part of a child’s

time in class. It is thus important that teachers teach listening skills in a safe
environment where they are easily learnt. They need to be taught to listen
with comprehension. Giving attention is a necessity in the process of compre-
hension of auditory cues be they from the teacher or any other person. It is
consequently important for the teacher to determine whether the learner has
hearing disabilities or poor listening skills. Hearing-related impairments can
be detected by observing the following and if detected should be referred to a
speech-and-hearing specialist or other medical professionals. The child
• is abnormally inattentive
• attends to gestures rather than speech
• has slow speech development
• strains to hear
• answers questions inappropriately
• ignores the speaker if there is no eye contact
• finds it difficult to relate sequences and repeat long, detailed sentences
• has difficulty producing consonant phonemes
• has difficulties with voice production (pitch, stress or rhythm).

The teacher also needs to be aware of medical complaints such as frequent

colds or ear infections, allergies, measles, mumps or rubella. Except from
causing attention problems and possible learning disabilities, these medical
conditions can cause a type of hearing problem, where learners will struggle
to
• hear in an environment where there is a lot of noise
• discriminate between different sounds, especially sounds like “m” and “n”,
“b” and “d”, etc.
• hear the soft sounds, such as “p”, “t”, “f”, “s”.

The teacher’s role in developing children’s oral language

According to Wyse and Jones (2008: 187), children’s interaction with adults (in
this case teachers) is extremely important in the acquisition of language, since
adults are competent language users and must therefore provide children
opportunities to talk as well as respond to them as competent language users.
• Teachers must plan and provide for opportunities to talk (have discussions
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and discourse) (Browne, 2007: 34).

• Teachers need to model vocabulary and speech habits, which they want the
88 learners to learn (Browne, 2007: 34).
• They need to respond to, and to develop, the learners’ effort in an encourag-
ing way (Browne, 2007: 34).

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• Different uses and forms of oral language, such as asking for information,
describing something, can be demonstrated.
• Wyse and Jones (2008: 187–192) encourage teachers to emphasise
exploratory talk during the learner’s early years of formal learning. During
exploratory talk, the learners exchange ideas actively with one another,
becoming active participants in conversation. They should be encouraged to
question, hypothesise, imagine, wonder, project, think aloud, listen to
stories and tell stories.
• Speaking and listening skills are the foundations for literacy, where the
child makes sense of visual and verbal signs, as well as for reading and writ-
ing. It is therefore important that the teacher creates opportunities for
learners to use their language skills in activities such as role plays where
they learn to take turns and work out when and how to vent emotions. In
these types of activities, it is also essential that the teacher encourages the
learners to use language to think.
• Visual cues, tone of voice and words play an important role for effective com-
munication. Teachers should talk to learners with respect, show interest
and indicate that they value their ideas, listen to them attentively, encour-
age learners to talk in different contexts and praise them where appropri-
ate.
• Teachers need to be models for vocabulary and speech habits in their every-
day use of language in the classroom. They can do this by asking for infor-
mation, describing something, retelling an experience and supplying a rea-
son for their opinions.
• Good speech habits call for good listening: attending to the learners when
they speak; listening until they have ﬁnished; and respecting their contribu-
tions.
• Teachers should be careful not to ask too many questions requiring one-
word or right/wrong answers.
• Teachers should encourage their learners’ parents to engage in real conver-
sations with their children. Children should be allowed to lead conversa-
tions and to sustain them in order to develop ideas (Browne, 2007: 33–35).

Since being able to read is a vital aspect of achieving one’s learning potential,
reading as part of language development will be discussed next.

4.4 Reading
4.4.1 What is reading?
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Being a proﬁcient reader is a fundamental requirement to succeed in life.

Since reading is the basic skill for all academic subjects, failure in school can
be traced to inadequate reading skills (Lerner, 2003: 397). Lerner (2003: 397) 89
asserts that reading is not a natural process and therefore requires careful
instruction. Manzo and Manzo (1995: 10) deﬁne reading as follows: “Reading
is comprehending, interpreting, and applying textual material.” This means

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that the reader brings information and experience to the printed pages
extending the comprehension beyond what is on the printed page. Reading is
a language-based skill and there is a reciprocal relationship between oral lan-
guage and reading, the one inﬂuencing the other (Birsch, 2005: 44). When
learners read and listen to English, they are required to recognise and under-
stand the language they read and listen to; this is referred to as receptive
skills (Baker & Westrup, 2000: 30) (see section 4.1.2).
The following aspects with relation to becoming an adequate reader will be
discussed next: phonemic awareness, phonics, word recognition, ﬂuency,
vocabulary and comprehension.

4.4.1.1 Phonemic or phonological awareness (refer to section 4.4.1.2)

It is important that in English the child understands and become aware of the
smallest sounds (phonemes), which make up the spoken words. “Phonemic
awareness is the specific understanding that spoken words are comprised of
sequenced phonemes (speech sounds that influence meaning) blended togeth-
er” (Choate, 2004: 66). Walpole and McKenna (2007: 31–32) affirm that
“phoneme awareness is the ability to hear, identify, and manipulate the indi-
vidual sounds in spoken words”. The learner is able to segment words into
component sounds/phonemes and also able to blend phonemes to make new
words. Phonemic awareness is necessary to use phonics. The most useful
phonic generalisations (there are over 300) are short and long vowels and the
different sounds of the c and g. Direct instruction in whole-word context is
needed for phonic analysis (which facilitates the pronunciation of words)
(Choate, 2004: 66). The words “m-a-t” and “b-ea-t” are made up of three
phonemes and when they are sequenced and blended they produce the spoken
words. Phonemic awareness is necessary to be able to read words and text
with understanding and to be able to spell. By building on early auditory
skills, the teacher starts off with whole syllables and then proceeds to single
sounds. The teacher then goes on to rhyming and proceeds to blending, seg-
menting and manipulating sounds. Blending (b-ea-d = bead) and segmenting
(read = r-ea-d) are the most essential skills for the reading process. Through
phonemic awareness, the learner understands the alphabetic principle: the
awareness that the letters represent the sounds in words, which is fundamen-
tal to emergent literacy (Choate, 2004: 66).
The positive long-term effects of teaching phonemic awareness are that it
improves decoding, spelling and comprehension. Blending and segmenting
are the most powerful tasks of phonemic awareness instruction. Blending
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sounds is necessary to decode new words and segmenting sounds is necessary

to spell these words. The most important phonemic awareness interventions
90 are when letters are included where speech sounds are connected with letters
that represent them. This should be done in small groups. It is necessary that
teachers know the order in which learners acquire phonological awareness.
Working with syllables is easier than working with onset and rhyme and

onset and rhyme is easier than working with individual phonemes. Words
with fewer units are easier to segment/blend, for example, go is easier to seg-
ment than sat, etc. (Walpole & McKenna, 2007: 31–32).
Walpole and McKenna (2007: 35) present Simmons and Kame’enui’s (1999)
development of phonemic awareness skills as follows:
• Can tell whether the words and sounds are the same/different.
• Can identify whether words rhyme.
• Can clap words in sentences.
• Can identify which word in a set is different.
• Can produce a word that rhymes.
• Can clap syllables in words.
• Can identify speech sounds that are different in a set of sounds.
• Can blend syllables orally.
• Can segment syllables.
• Can identify the ﬁrst sound in a word ﬁrst.
• Can blend individual phonemes orally.
• Can segment individual sounds in a word.
• Can blend three to four phonemes in a word.
• Can segment three to four phoneme words.
• Can identify medial sounds in a one-syllable word.

It is important to note that not all phonemes can be represented by one letter.
The 44 phonemes in English can be represented by many graphemes, for
example the word “though” has many letters but only two phonemes – the
digraph /th/ and the long vowel sound /o/.

4.4.1.2 Phonics
According to Lapp et al. (2007: 135) phonics (refer to section 4.1) is needed to
be able to read ﬂuently i.e. automaticity with sound-letter associations. In
order for teachers to include phonics in their instructional reading pro-
gramme, they need to know about phonics and how it relates to other aspects
of literacy instruction. Combley (2001, as referenced in Lapp et al., 2007)
explains that reading requires the learners to see the symbols, their shapes
(distinguish between similar and dissimilar shapes) and their visual
sequences. The learner must also be able to hear and identify symbol-sound
correspondences, distinguish between sounds that are similar and hear their
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correct sequences. It is also important for the learner to say the words, under-
stand the meaning of the words and the ideas in their sequences.
“Phonics involves associating the speech sounds of letters with their writ-
ten symbols” (Choate, 2004: 70). Browne (2007: 52) refers to phonics knowl- 91
edge as “the ability to use the association between letter sounds and letter
shapes to read words that are not recognised on sight”. Twenty-six letters rep-
resent 44 phonemes in the English language. All spoken English words use

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combinations of the 44 phonemes, and all English written words use combina-
tions of the 26 letters. It is important to know that different groups of letters
represent the same sound, e.g. /ie/ (long sound I), e.g. tried, light. The /ie/
sound in the spoken word is represented in the written word by letters “ie”.
Learners should be taught the 26 letters of the alphabet as well as their
sounds, to write and form each letter, then move on to learn blending CVC
(consonant, vowel, consonant) words and to adapt them to CCVC and CVCC
words (e.g. spit to mint) and then to complex words (e.g. split to crust). Next
sounds that are represented by letter-groups (digraphs), for example “sh”,
“ch”, “th” “ng”, “ee”, “ay”, “ie”, “oa”, “oo” “or” “er” “ow” “oy”, “air” “ear”, should
be taught. Thereafter teach alternative sounds for spellings already taught,
for example /s/ sound for “c” (city), /j/ sound of “g” (gem) and the /o/ sound of
“a”. This can be done when teaching high frequency words such as “was” to
illustrate the /o/ sound. Also teach alternative spelling for the sound that has
already been taught, for example “ea” for /ee/ already taught. As soon as the
learner can blend CVC words, high frequency words not following the letter-
sound correspondences can be taught (Wyse & Jones, 2008: 78–82).
Phonics is a method of teaching children to read. Synthetic phonics pro-
grammes teach learners to convert letters (graphemes) into sounds
(phonemes), then to blend the sounds to form words. In analytic phonics pro-
grammes, whole words are introduced before learners are taught to analyse
them as component parts. The larger subparts of the words and phonemes are
emphasised (onsets, rimes, phonograms, spelling patterns). Some children
develop general knowledge of sounds (phonological awareness) before they
enter school. Onsets and rhymes (beginnings and ends of syllables) are signiﬁ-
cant and reading by analogy is important. It involves using a spelling-sound
pattern of one word, for example “beak”, to work out the spelling-sound corre-
spondence of a new word, for example “peak”. The development of phonologi-
cal understanding proceeds from being able to identify syllables, to onsets and
rhymes and eventually to segment phonemes. Using analogies draws on early
recognition of onsets and rhymes. By learning nursery rhymes and simple
songs, the learners’ awareness of sounds is raised. Therefore it is necessary to
teach onset and rhyme especially if linked to the way that onsets and rhymes
are written down. Part of a child’s development is understanding rhyme, but
to segment phonemes is not so easy (Wyse & Jones, 2008: 78–80).
Browne (2007: 52–55) explains that phonics skills in the Foundation stage
include letter identiﬁcation, segmenting and blending, which involves activi-
ties such as playing with vocal sounds (e.g. distinguish one sound from anoth-
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er, e.g. using voices in different ways such as to whisper, sing and growl);
rhyme (e.g. act and say nursery rhymes); rhythm and alliteration (e.g. sort
names and name cards by uniting initial letters); recognise rhythm in spoken
92 words (e.g. clap out the syllables in a friend’s name); continue a rhyming
string; hear and say the initial sound in words and know which letters repre-
sent the sounds. All this develops the phonemic awareness necessary to learn
to read and spell. In the later Foundation stage, phonics skills include under-

standing that a word consists of phonemes; that phonemes represent

graphemes; that phonemes can be represented by one or more letters; that
there are more ways to represent a phoneme; phoneme-grapheme correspon-
dences; segmentation (helps with spelling) and blending (helps with reading).

4.4.1.3 Word recognition

“Word recognition is the process by which readers match written representa-
tions of words with their sound and spelling in memory” (Walpole & McKen-
na, 2007: 49). Reading entails the ability to recognise words. Word recognition
requires skills such as visual and auditory discrimination, memory and
phonemic awareness, all of which are involved in identifying words. Part of
word recognition is discriminating shapes, sizes, letters and words. Visual
memory is important when learning letter names and words and to remember
their visual appearance. Auditory memory and discrimination facilitates
auditory skills. When instructing auditory discrimination, the teacher begins
with initial sounds and then with ending sounds and moves on to medial
sounds. Auditory memory includes encoding (that is hearing accurately),
retention (that is storing sounds) and retrieval (to get the sounds out of the
storage). It is important that the learners are able to remember the sounds of
letters, letter combinations, words and phrases (Choate, 2004: 64).
First a single word is recognised and this leads to recognising and under-
standing a group of words, which in turn leads to comprehension/reading.
Word-recognition skills include sight vocabulary (look for Dolch or Oxford
word lists), phonic analysis, structural analysis and contextual analysis (all of
these are known as word-analysis skills). Sight vocabulary, phonic analysis
and structural analysis skills focus on analysing words to decode them and
also rely on appropriate pronunciation for correct identification. There are
three types of sight vocabulary that letter and sight word recognition focuses
on, namely: letters, high-image words (mostly nouns and verbs) and low-
image words (mostly connecting words). These words are encountered regu-
larly and learners are expected to recognise them immediately, otherwise
their reading rate and comprehension will be affected. Phonetic analysis
skills are sounding-out strategies that are used particularly for pronouncing
words. As soon as the words are spoken, the learners must then make sure
that they understand the meaning of the words. In structural analysis (a pro-
nunciation skill), meaningful elements of words (prefixes, affixes, root words,
word structures including the syllable, compound words and contractions) are
used and this is important for word recognition, spelling and vocabulary
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development. Contextual analysis (a word-and-meaning analysis skill) makes

use of the text around the unknown words as decoding clues. Contextual
analysis links word recognition and comprehension. In order to decode words
efﬁciently and effectively, the readers need to integrate and apply their word- 93
recognition skills, as it facilitates comprehension (Choate, 2004: 56–57).
Readers in their ﬁrst school years recognise words through visual clues
such as names of products in logos. When they have learnt letter names and

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their sounds they are able to recognise words by seeing the initial letters (par-
tial alphabetic reading). When alphabet knowledge is more developed, the
learner is in the full alphabetic phase. Here the learner can process each let-
ter and sound in sequence and sound out all regular consonant-vowel-conso-
nant words – they are able to process patterns. The order of instruction is to
teach the most useful letters and their patterns ﬁrst as the learners can then
use letter-sound knowledge to read and spell words. It is effective to teach the
ﬁve most frequent phonemes in words namely short i, a, e, r-controlled sound,
e.g. “her”, and long o. For consonant graphemes the most important are r, t, n,
s, l. Short vowel patterns should be taught before long vowel patterns – teach
the vowel-consonant-e at an early stage and teach long vowels in the open-syl-
lable pattern as well as the r-controlled vowels. It is not advisable to teach the
letter sounds in alphabetical order. It is important that teachers should pro-
vide learners with opportunities to read material that includes words with the
phonics that they have learnt. It is also important that learners have auto-
matic word recognition for high-frequency words that should be recognised
automatically. After Grade 1, word lists should represent high-frequency
spelling patterns. The main aim of teaching phonics is to develop an automat-
ic reading vocabulary. It is, however, important that during reading acquisi-
tion, learners have the teacher’s support to apply phonics strategies when
they come across unknown words to develop automaticity and independence.
This needs to be done in small groups and we call this support coaching and it
must be immediate. The learner must understand and it must promote decod-
ing. What happens in these small groups, is that the learners read texts that
enable them to integrate their automatic word-recognition skills and their
phonetic-analysis skills in the real text (Walpole & McKenna, 2007: 49–56).

4.4.1.4 Fluency
Dednam (2005: 127) describe reading as fluent when learners phrase correct-
ly, use correct pronunciation without any omissions, repetitions, substitutions,
inversions or reversals, insertions, word guessing or voicing, lip movements,
finger pointing and/or head movements. A fluent reader is able to apply phonic
strategies, word recognition, grammatical knowledge, meaning and their own
knowledge while they are reading for pleasure as well as when gaining infor-
mation. Fluent readers can read different types of texts and can apply their
knowledge on how to read flexibly: they are able to skim through the text to
get an overall idea and scan for key words getting an idea whether or not to
read more carefully for important information. Where words are unfamiliar,
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they draw on their phonic knowledge and sound out the words and then gain
understanding from the text. They are able to recognise sight words and also
whole words. They understand how sentences are constructed and skip parts
94 of text that are not important to meet their needs (Browne, 2007: 46–47).
Automaticity in basic skills such as word recognition is necessary for read-
ing ﬂuency (the ability to read with rate, accuracy and prosody). It has been
found that guided oral reading is an excellent way to practice ﬂuency. When

teachers and peers model fluent reading it also has a very positive effect.
While the learner is reading, the teacher needs to correct mistakes. This must
however be done in an encouraging and motivational manner. A learner does
not want to hear the whole time how bad a reader he or she is. Also mention
his or her strengths.
The aim of fluency is not only to read fluently but also to increase compre-
hension. However, fluency-building strategies are not the same as compre-
hension-building strategies. When teaching fluency, start with texts that are
easy for the learner and that the learner understands. Oral fluency is partly
dependent on automaticity with word-level skills. If the learners do not know
the words on sight or their decoding skills are weak, it is no use doing fluency
practice. As the learner’s fluency improves, increase the difficulty of the text.
Scaffolding in guiding the learner’s reading development towards fluency can
happen in the following way:
• Echo reading – the learner needs the most support – here the teacher reads
and the group rereads aloud.
• Choral reading – the teacher leads the group while they are reading aloud.
• Partner reading – learners read in pairs during which time they alternate
reading aloud.
• Whisper reading – the learner needs the least support – each learner reads
aloud in a quiet voice.

Fluency activities must provide repeated reading practice and transfer to new
text should also take place. Progress can be charted, e.g. how many words per
minute are read, which is useful as there are different goals to be met during
the year – learners need to increase their words read per minute and to read
increasingly more difﬁcult texts (Walpole & McKenna, 2007: 70–73).

4.4.1.5 Vocabulary
Children have listening, spoken, reading and writing vocabulary of which the
listening vocabulary is acquired ﬁrst and then the spoken vocabulary. Read-
ing and writing vocabulary need to develop concurrently. Most English-speak-
ing children acquire the basic understanding of syntax/structure by age four
and by the time they receive formal reading instruction they have substantial
listening and speaking vocabularies. Then transition can be made to reading
and writing vocabulary where the teacher needs to help the learner to decode
the written symbols of the language they know. This means they can say,
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hear and understand written words they have never seen. It is thus impor-
tant that the teacher knows each learner’s word knowledge and developmen-
tal process as they acquire word knowledge.
It is very important that when teaching word-recognition strategies, this 95
must be done with words in the learner’s meaning vocabulary, i.e. words that
the learner can match with meaning. Phonics cannot be taught without
vocabulary knowledge. The more words the learners know, the more they are

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able to learn. The more learners read, the more words they come to know and
understand. Direct instruction in word meanings is also necessary. By teach-
ing vocabulary directly, learners’ vocabulary and comprehension as well as
teaching word meanings will improve before reading will improve comprehen-
sion. Contextual information and repetition is also necessary. The learners
should be provided with many opportunities for incidental reading and expo-
sure to language, such as recognising the names of products in a shop.
When teaching learners with learning disabilities, using keywords or
mnemonic strategies creates visual and auditory links for them. Semantic
maps and feature analysis to categorise similarities and differences in words
in meaning are very effective as well. The deeper the instruction, the greater
the size of the vocabulary gained. Storybook reading is also very effective in
building vocabulary, since it provides a context within which words can be
explained. Word meanings need to be explained during simple read alouds,
which is also an effective way to build vocabulary.
When teaching word meanings, ﬁrst teach words that are the easiest for
the learner to learn, for example words on labels, or words that are frequently
used in the learner’s environment. Where the learner already knows the spo-
ken form of the word and its concept, but does not recognise the word in writ-
ten form, it is easy to teach the written form. Where the learner knows the
concept and the related concepts but does not know the spoken word, for
example the learner knows the word “happy”, then it is easy to learn the word
“delighted”. The most difﬁcult words to teach are words of which the learner
has no prior knowledge (neither the spoken word nor the concept it repre-
sents). Another way to teach vocabulary is based on the words’ relative utili-
ty, their usefulness. First teach the most familiar words (8000 word families,
e.g. park, birthday) used frequently in oral language and that are learnt inci-
dentally (in school or informally). The second type of words are more colourful
(7000 word families, e.g. fortunate, greedy) and are needed for academic suc-
cess. They are read across texts and contexts. The third type of words are rare
words (73 500 word families, e.g. isotope) which are used in a content area
context (Walpole & McKenna, 2007: 85–90).
Vocabulary instruction should be ongoing throughout the day. Beck in
Lapp et al. (2007: 39) describes vocabulary instruction as teaching about
words and their uses; providing learners time to think about what they are
learning as well as using complex words and enhancing language production
and output. The aim of teaching vocabulary is for these words to support the
learners in their thinking and to articulate their thinking to other people. So
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when the learners read more complex texts, they need to learn to use context
to make meaning of the new words.
96
4.4.1.6 Comprehension
Reading will not be successful for learning if there is no comprehension. Ded-
nam (2005: 127) divides reading comprehension into the following:

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• Literal meaning and comprehension: the understanding of words and infor-

mation as they are stated in the text.
• Inference: information not explicitly stated in the text but that can be
related to the text. Through inference, the learner uses the information in
the text to make decisions that are not stated in the text (Choate, 2004:
92).
• Evaluation: to establish the correctness, usefulness, applicability and value
of information in the text. The learner needs to attend to details and to dis-
tinguish between important and unimportant information. This implies
that learners need to be taught the skill of critical reading (Choate, 2004:
92).
• Appreciation is an emotional experience: a sense of excitement, fear, sad-
ness, and/or pleasure when reading the text.

When teaching reading comprehension, the responsibility of comprehending

must move slowly from the teacher to the learner. Comprehension is the most
difﬁcult part to teach in the primary school and therefore the teachers need to
use a “gradual-release-of-responsibility” approach. A very effective way to
support and to assess comprehension is by asking questions. However these
questions need to be designed properly keeping Bloom’s Taxonomy in mind.
This implies that not only “yes” and “no” questions must be asked. Start by
asking text-based questions to lead the learners to the ability to summarise
and infer. In text-based questions, the learner needs to search his or her
memory or the text. To summarise the learner needs to construct meaning
from memory or from reviewing the text and when making inferences, the
learner needs to construct connections between ideas and construct analogies
and then apply text ideas to new situations.
An example of a summary question in an information text: what is the
most important information you have read so far? Give me a summary of the
most important part. In a narrative: what are the most important events?
How did the story end?
An example of an inference question in an information text: describe exam-
ples of a particular idea. Explain why some things are the same. In a narra-
tive: describe how the characters felt and why (Walpole & McKenna, 2007:
104–107).

4.4.2 The reading process

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When learners have to read, they have the time to think about the meaning of
the language. When they read they need to recognise and understand the lan-
guage (Baker & Westrup, 2000: 30). We go through four cycles, namely: visu- 97
al, perceptual, syntactic and semantic to get the visual input through our eyes
to the brain where meaning is constructed (Goodman, 1996: 90–110). Howev-
er when we bring our own information to the text and make our own sense of

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what we read, we become good guessers and hardly need to make a perceptu-
al image.

4.4.2.1 The visual cycle

The eye has a lens and light passes through it, which activates sensors that
transport impulses to the brain thereby forming perceptions. Rays are
reversed and images appear upside down. The brain turns things back
upright. When we read, light bounces off the printed page to our eyes. The
quality of our eyes, the print size, light intensity and our expectation of what
we see are all factors inﬂuencing the visual cycle when we read. Our eyes scan
the print from left to right (reading English) and stops, ﬁxating at a point
along the line sending visual input to the brain via the eye. Our knowledge of
the text structure and meaning allows us to predict what we will see. What
we know of English orthography, fonts and so on assists us to know what
forms the features we look for will take and to adjust our expectations before-
hand. Visual input becomes perceptual images immediately (Goodman, 1996:
90–110).

4.4.2.2 The visual perceptual cycle

Once visual input has taken place, the perceptual image is formed in a very
short time by the brain (as new images keep on coming in) hence value is
assigned to the image in a short time. Speed is therefore of utmost importance
and prediction thus makes perception possible immediately. Perceptual
images are constructed from what we see, which makes us use our sense of
meaning of the printed word as well as the syntactic and semantic structures.
Expectations inﬂuence our perceptions and we then sense that we saw some-
thing different from what we actually saw. Once our brain realises that what
we perceive does not ﬁt with what we understood previously, we have two
options namely to reevaluate what we perceived and form an alternative per-
ception.

4.4.2.3 The syntactic cycle

Perceptual images employ a surface structure that serves as a structural
schema for what we expect when reading. When we begin to read a sentence,
we need to decide whether it will be a question, a command or a statement.
We then assign a deep structure, which enables us to unpack the clauses in
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order to get meaning and construct meaning from the way the clauses relate
to each other. A new surface structure and wording is then generated and it
98 may or it may not match the text. Our predictions can be so strong that we
can miscue (especially on punctuation), for example: “He heard a faint tap-
ping and a voice calling, somewhere above” may be read “He heard a faint
tapping and a voice calling, ‘Somewhere above’.” Here the wording remains

the same even though the syntactic structure and the meaning changed, how-
ever as the surface structure is regenerated, the wording also changes. Where
the syntax or wording does not work out, alternatives are tried out or the
reader regresses to gain more input.

4.4.2.4 The semantic cycle

As we move from visual to perceptual to syntactic structure and wording we
build a meaning for the text providing the meaning is coherent and consistent
with what we have understood from the text and also with our expectations,
thus continuing to move forward in the text. As soon as we cannot make sense
or there is a miscue, which interrupts our sense making, we either rethink
and give new meaning, syntax, wording, perceptions or we regress to where
things went wrong, taking us to the beginning of a structure/sentence/clause.
Additional visual and perceptual information is then assigned to new struc-
tures and meaning. If this is not effective, then we can stop moving to mean-
ing and read further while looking for cues to make meaning.

4.4.3 reading development

It is necessary to understand the development of reading to be able to deter-

mine when a learner is experiencing a reading challenge. Knowing what the
reading level of the learners is enables teachers to match appropriate texts,
as texts that are too difficult to read result in poor comprehension. The first
four stages of reading acquisition (for the purpose of this book) are described
in Table 4.1 by Manzo and Manzo (1995: 12–14).
According to Browne (2007: 61), beginning readers (the reception year)
begin to use more reading strategies as they are able to focus more on the text
and to rely less on their memory and pictures. They can match a printed word
with its spoken equivalent. They can also use their finger to read. Beginning
readers draw on their knowledge of patterns of oral language; memory of
words; support from pictures; knowledge of sounds (phonics); patterns in
words (graphic knowledge); knowledge of context; concepts about print (how
books work); and their desire to make sense of what they are reading. They
make increasing use of contextual, grammatical and graphic and phonic
strategies. Their syntactic knowledge helps them to determine what word fits
into the sentence and their graphic and phonic knowledge allows them to use
their knowledge of letters and sounds to produce a “best fit for the unknown
word”. At this stage, the learners are beginning to read independently as they
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have developed an extensive sight vocabulary, are able to use a variety of

reading strategies, can reread phrases or sentences when they are stuck and
can self-correct. They will also begin to read silently. 99
It is extremely important that English learners need to be immersed in
print and have many opportunities to read (in their home language if they are
English second-language learners and in English).

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Table 4.1 Phases of development as English learners learn to read words

Early childhood Preschool to pri-

Middle grades
(prenatal to age mary grades (ages Ages 13 to 16
(ages nine to 12)
three) four to eight)

The child’s Most children Fundamental word-attack Reading patterns

home environ- understand that strategies, recognising high- and behaviours
ment plays an print has meaning. frequency words and basic mostly meet the
important role in They learn speech language patterns are mas- school text materi-
reading develop- sounds/phonemes tered by most children. als’ requirements.
ment, e.g. expo- and decode letters Thinking moves from con- The inﬂuence of
sure to books, into sounds and crete to forms of categorisa- peers may distract
words, letters sounds into words. tion, generalisation and the learner from
and seeing peo- They are able to abstraction. Primitive school and home.
ple reading, a master concepts abstract thinking (conserva- Thinking becomes
parent reading such as small, tion – realising that things sharper; however,
to the child i.e. medium and large can change in form but not in critical-evaluative
positive experi- and they learn substance, e.g. verbally one thinking is still
ences. vocabulary at a fast can say something in differ- rather primitive as
rate. Their thinking ent ways and have the same it lacks knowledge
is egocentric (self meaning). Children focus on gained from experi-
and home). the real world around them. ence and may be
On a social level the child distorted by the
sticks to the adult rules; how- desire to become a
ever, peers become more rule maker instead
inﬂuential in terms of values, of a rule abider.
self-image and behaviour.
Metacognition begins here
(awareness of own thinking)
and the learner becomes
able to self-monitor and self-
correct reading.

Source: Manzo & Manzo (1995: 12–14)

4.4.4 reading in the class

In the reading class, the most important goal should be to encourage a love for
reading. This means that no insulting, destructive remarks by the teacher or
peers must be made when learners make mistakes. Correct in a constructive,
motivating manner and also applaud when the learner reads well, even if it is
just something small the learner gets correct.

4.4.4.1 Possible ways to read in the classroom

Read aloud. This is a whole-class instructional activity. Every learner gets a
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chance to read aloud. The advantages of reading aloud are that learners are
able to hear models of ﬂuent reading. They can expand their vocabulary and
learn more about things when the text is discussed after the reading takes
100 place. Teachers never stop supporting here in a positive, motivational man-
ner. Reading aloud in the classroom must be dealt with constructively. Class
rules are also important: no laughing or teasing when learners make mis-
takes. From reading aloud, the class progresses to shared reading.

Shared reading. During shared reading, interaction is crucial. Learners

join the reading of the book with the teacher while the teacher guides and
supports. Learners are taught strategies to solve words and problems and to
think about reading through whole-class/small-group instruction. It enables
learners to take risks and get the support of their teacher and peers. During
shared reading, the learners are asked to take more responsibility for reading
and making sense of what they have read. In the beginning, to teach lan-
guage, teachers can introduce songs orally, then they can give learners a
printed text and work on meaning-making strategies and skills by means of
shared reading (focusing on parts of the text). We teach shared reading as a
whole-to-part-to-whole activity, which means that meaning of the text is
always developed (to create a meaningful whole) and then to part as a way of
getting to the whole and thereafter the whole is rethought. An example of this
– learners are taught to use pictures to make meaning and to problem solve
the text. The first day the whole text is read and meaning is built as they
read. The next day the text is revisited moving from the meaningful whole to
parts that need to be focused on for instruction. Shared reading is also used to
practise fluency as learners match their voices with others (phrasing and
expressiveness) and then on their own. A good idea is to do fluency warm-ups
and use books on tape with learners before instructional shared reading.
Small-group instruction. Four to six learners with similar instructional
needs use one instructional text (guided reading/shared reading). Learners are
grouped based on their assessments and needs and this should be ongoing.
Learners who struggle the most should be met on a daily basis in small groups.
Before learners do independent reading, they need first to do guided reading
where the text used is slightly above the learners’ independent reading level
and then choose a focus, which is the learner’s greatest need and then design
lessons that will support the learner in print and meaning making.
Independent reading. During independent reading, learners practise
strategies for independence in a text on their independence level. Learners
can gradually read more independently before they read in partnership where
they read more interactively and converse. For independent reading, the
learners should select their own texts. As learners read independently, the
teacher confers with them, talking reader to reader. By chatting with the
learner, the teacher can determine whether the learner is making sense by
asking questions (Lapp et al., 2007: 40–51).

4.4.5 How to determine the learner’s reading level

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Lapp et al. (2007: 81–83) explain that the number and types of errors a learn-
er makes during oral reading is an indication of the learners’ reading level: in
order to administer the oral reading test, the teacher selects a 100-word pas- 101
sage, asks the learner to read the passage orally and records the types of
errors such as mispronunciation, substitutions, omissions, insertions, hesita-
tions and repetitions.

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Lerner (2003) maintains that learners read on an independent level when

they make one error in a 100-word text (during oral reading), which is a 99 to
100 per cent score. At this level, the learner is able to read without the sup-
port of the teacher (Dednam, 2005: 132).
When learners make two to five errors (95 to 98 per cent) they are reading
on an instructional reading level. According to Dednam (2005: 133), the learn-
er finds word identification and comprehension not too difficult at this level.
However, the teacher still needs to help with vocabulary and guidance
throughout the reading session.
Not mastering at least 94 per cent of the text they are reading, is described
as frustrational reading level. Pronunciation of words and understanding of
the content is difficult at this level. Dednam (2005: 133) mention the following
symptoms on this level:
• Oral reading is too loud or too soft.
• Reading is arrhythmic and word by word.
• Reading intonation is inadequate.
• Subvocalisation, lip-reading and head movements occur, as well as finger
pointing.
• The learner often asks for help.
• There is little indication of interest in the text and the story.
• The learner refuses to read any further.

On a silent reading test, the learners are reading on an independent reading

level if they can answer 90 per cent to 100 per cent of the questions correctly.
If they can answer 70 to 90 per cent of the questions correctly they are read-
ing on an instructional level. If they can only answer 70 per cent of the ques-
tions they are reading on a frustrational level. To administer a silent reading
test, the teacher needs to prepare questions that determine the learner’s abili-
ty to use different parts of the text, for example “On what page will you find
information about dinosaurs?” The questions need to measure both vocabu-
lary and comprehension of what the learner has read.
According to research, the most common reason for learners to drop out of
school, be retained or land up in special education is their inability to read
proficiently. If effective language and literacy development are provided in
preschool as well as effective reading instruction in primary school grades,
approximately 50 per cent of reading difficulties can be prevented (Rief &
Heimburge, 2006: 76).
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4.5 Written language

102 When learners have to speak or write to produce language, it is referred to as
productive or expressive language (Baker & Westrup, 2000: 30). Writing is a
complex process where the writer must be able to formulate ideas, organise
and put ideas in logical order, use the correct vocabulary and spelling, be

grammatically correct, use punctuation and write in a legible way. Attention,

language, memory, motor skills higher-order thinking and metacognition
need to be integrated.
Dednam (2005: 127) states that writing appeals to one’s visual sense. Visu-
al perceptual skills (see Chapter 1) are used to convert perceptual stimuli of
the graphic symbols into spoken language. The written text is interpreted in
thoughts and then the thoughts are converted to ideas and messages embed-
ded in the words and sentences.
To be able to develop formal proﬁcient writing skills, the following develop-
mental stages are essential.

4.5.1 Stages of writing development

• Children use drawing to record information.
• Actions of writing are imitated through scribbling.
• Scribbling comes closer to the shape of letters (invented). At this stage, the
learner is generally aware of left-to-right directionality. They are able to
write across the page and from top to bottom.
• The learner is able to write strings of letters, e.g. their own names (prepho-
netic).
• Learners are encouraged to record information in sentences. Phonemic
awareness and knowing that letters represent speech sounds in words are
both very important in this phonetic stage during which it is necessary to
spell words.
• Using strategies (generating ideas, planning, evaluating, revising and cor-
recting) in writing where the sentences are more complex, containing wider
vocabulary and grammatical constructions. They are also able to modify
their work. In this stage, learners are able to spell almost all the words
they need and have a deeper understanding of word structure and analysis.
Gradually children realise that they can create a message and that they
can read it back. They understand that writing communicates meaning
and that it has a number of functions, e.g. labelling pictures.
• Independent writing. In this stage, learners are able to self-monitor man-
agement of structure, genre, audience and text. They are able to use a wide
range of spelling and self-correcting strategies. Their spelling is on a com-
plex grapho-phonic level.
(See Westwood, 2004: 101–102.)
or applicable copyright law.

Browne (2007: 84–88) explains that children learn to write by having access
to writing materials and seeing models of writing as well as by observing peo-
ple writing. Written language is learned later in life, but it is just as natural 103
as oral language in the personal and social development of humans. The
process for written language development is also the same as for oral develop-
ment. They both develop from the need to think symbolically, to communicate

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in contexts and function as individuals and societies. Written language is an

extension of language development and occurs when it is necessary (when
one-on-one and here-and-now language is not enough). Children learn to read
and write continuously while being taught in school as well as when they are
with others such as parents (Goodman, 1996: 118–119). The written form of
the language needs to be taught and not all learners learn it easily (Birsch,
2005: 44).
An important note when discussing writing is to remember that spelling
and handwriting should support and enhance writing (Choate, 2004:
179–200). However, let us first discuss how writing works.
Although writing is a skill that must be purposefully taught, it should be
addressed in every aspect of the curriculum and by every teacher to ensure
that the academic writing requirements of every subject is achieved.
At first it is necessary that teachers provide a conceptual and experiential
base to generate meaningful language. Language must first be generated and
then the skill in how to express it must be taught. When learners have the
skills to organise the language in their thoughts (metalinguistic skills), which
can be referred to as the cognitive component, they will be able to write their
message logically (expressive skills) so that the reader can understand it
(Dednam, 2005: 128).
Once learners can get their thoughts onto paper, the linguistic component
must be focused on. Syntactic and semantic conventions (grammar) of a lan-
guage are addressed here while writing (Dednam, 2005: 128). According to
Dednam (2005: 128) pragmatics is only involved in the choice of words and in
the way the words and sentence are written down. Consequently in this
phase, more didactic instruction can take place. Punctuation may start get-
ting attention; however, it should be more specifically addressed in the next
stylistic phase. Where sentences are constructed, the process is based on the
use of complete sentences in oral language, which requires thinking in idea
units, vocabulary and the skill to record oral language as written language.
When teaching sentence production, the teacher begins with an oral base and
then proceeds to writing short sentences, and then from simple sentences to
longer more complex sentences. Beginner writers need to have knowledge
regarding semantics, the meaning of words, syntax and the logical order of
words in a sentence. As writing skills progress, learners are taught to com-
bine sentences by joining two or more sentences to make one meaningful sen-
tence. Knowledge about nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjective and adverbs is also
necessary. Noun markers, verb markers, negatives and question markers are
the most important structure words needed for learners to use when writing.
or applicable copyright law.

The stylistic component includes the use of punctuation and capitalisation

to language-specific rules (Dednam, 2005: 128). By using punctuation (such as
104 periods, question marks, commas and quotation marks), the readers are able
to understand the written material. Capital letters are used, for example, to
capitalise the first letter of names, the word I, for the first word in a sentence,
in personal titles, place names, days, holidays and months.

Creative writing includes expressing personal ideas, experiences, interpre-

tations and so on. Writing must be a meaning-making process. Generating
ideas, through prewriting, drafting, editing and rewriting is emphasised dur-
ing the writing process. Once ideas are generated, then grammar, spelling
and handwriting are attended to directly. Written expression includes
expressing ideas in many different ways (notes, reports, stories, etc.), that is,
through writing ﬂexibility.
As young learners learn to write they say what their writing is saying,
which means their speech and writing is strongly related. The more they are
exposed to conventions of writing and written texts, the more they are able to
use standard vocabulary and grammar in their own writing as well as in their
spelling and use of punctuation (Browne, 2007: 28).

A few ideas for teaching writing

Interactive writing. Oral language is used as a bridge to written language. By
talking to partners, learners use their oral language to rehearse their ideas and in
this way they are able to gain language needed to articulate, encode and think.
They can:
• Structure their ideas and can then begin the writing process
• Reread what they have written and discuss their work with their partner thus
developing ﬂexibility with the written word
• Get clarity through feedback

It is important that learners strengthen their understanding of spelling and writing

conventions to be able to write their ideas down. Interactive writing and word
study is necessary to build spelling knowledge (by using an enquiry process) and
to develop an understanding of spelling strategies. Composing and constructing
a text is the responsibility of the teacher and the learner. Based on the needs and
goals of the learners, they become involved in the construction process, e.g. the
instruction of letter formation, sound-letter correspondence, spelling patterns,
using the knowledge of other words, punctuation, etc. Learners ﬁrst engage in
conversation about developing a message for the group and the teacher accepts
it or tries to raise the level of the language and vocabulary. The teacher writes the
words (which are used by the learners ﬂuently) on a chart/board. If the word has
an instructional focus, the teacher gets the group to problem solve, e.g. to put
sounds, words, and sentences on paper. During interactive writing, the learners
can also practise letter formation, and teach spelling and conventions, e.g. punc-
tuation. In encoding, for example, as the learners know what should be done, the
or applicable copyright law.

group then strategise aloud and each person tries out the letter/word on their
white/black boards while one learner writes it on the big chart/board. The learn-
ers hold up their boards and the teacher can check who has it right/wrong. The
teacher gives speciﬁc feedback about the part of the word that needs to be
105
worked on and can offer a tool for the learners to help them remember (Lapp et
al., 2005: 60, 64, 68).

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Modelled writing. This is one of the instructional approaches that are the
most supportive and involves the teacher as the composer and encoder (i.e. the
modeller). The teacher thinks aloud during modelled writing. While the teacher
writes, for example, on the blackboard, he or she talks about the choice of the
topic, word choices, and the structure of the text as well as memories, thoughts,
happenings and finding the right words to write, struggling to write words, confu-
sions and joys of our language. The teacher will then reread and rethink ideas
and consequently model how flexible written words are when we change our
minds about the words. During this the learner needs to listen attentively and
make notes about what he or she hears, and then practise the same strategy
(Lapp et al., 2005: 77).
Shared writing. During shared writing, part of the support received during
modelled writing is withdrawn and the learners enter the composing process.
Both the teacher and the learner are involved composing messages in shared
writing. The teacher controls the pen and supports the encoding and the learn-
ers’ efforts are concentrated on composing the message. The teacher asks the
learners how they want to express their thoughts on paper. Shared writing also
helps to model the flexibility of the written word. While the text is being com-
posed and encoded, the teacher and learners reread and listen how the message
flows and how the meaning is built. The learners see their writing as a process
and not a product and they develop an understanding of how important reread-
ing is for continual revision. Texts developed in shared writing can be used for
extended learning opportunities (Lapp et al., 2005: 78).
Independent writing. This should take place on a daily, predictable basis.
The learner should be able to develop a writer’s identity, enjoy the process and
refine his or her understanding of the encoding process. Independent writing
should be a social experience as learners enjoy the support of their peers (to
work out spelling difficulties, word choice and ideas) and to develop their ability
to write independently. During this time, the teacher can assess progress by
moving from one learner to the next, talking to them about their writing. It is
important to teach the writer and not the writing by teaching the learners strate-
gies to write (Lapp et al., 2005: 78–79).
Guided writing. There are learners in a classroom who have common needs
when it comes to developing an idea, making decisions and writing conventions.
These learners are grouped and during independent writing time, they focus on
their needs for a few lessons. Extra modelling/shared time can also be done with
learners in need of more support (Lapp et al., 2005: 79–80).

4.6 spelling
or applicable copyright law.

According to Mercer (1992: 463–464), “spelling is the forming of words

through the traditional arrangement of letters”. Lerner (2003: 473) asserts
that spelling is the one curriculum area in which neither creativity nor diver-
106 gent thinking is encouraged. There is only one pattern or arrangement of let-
ters that is accepted as correct. The difﬁculty in the English language is that
the written form has an inconsistent pattern: “there is no dependable one-to-
one correspondence between the spoken sounds of English and the written

form of the language” (Lerner, 2003: 473). In order for learners to be able to
spell they must be able to read the word, have skills in relationships of phon-
ics and structural analysis, apply phonics generalisations, be able to visualise
the word and have the motor skills to write the word. Spelling problems may
stem from poor visual and auditory memory, auditory and visual discrimina-
tion and motor skills. Learners who have difﬁculty recognising words when
reading generally have spelling problems as well. There are learners, howev-
er, who can read words but are not able to spell them. Where reading is a
decoding process as the reader receives clues for word recognition, spelling is
an encoding process and here the learner needs to respond without visual
stimulus, i.e. fewer clues. In spelling, the learner needs to concentrate on each
letter of the word but in reading this is not the case. Often learners make the
same errors in reading and spelling, e.g. a phonetic speller mispronounces
phonetic irregular words whilst reading and a learner who has limited pho-
netic word-attack skills in reading may not be able to spell words due to poor
phonetic skills.
Spelling readiness skills include being able to name and write the letters of
the alphabet, to copy words, write one’s name, enunciate words, demonstrate
phonemic awareness and phonics and write some words from memory
(Choate, 2004: 214). Phonics is “the set of relationships between someone’s
oral language sound system (phonology) and the spelling and punctuation of
the language (orthography)” (Reid & Lienemann, 2006: 111). In the process of
learning to read and write, learners also develop their personal phonics sys-
tem which relates to their speech system of English spelling. Beginner writers
invent rules as they write and this produces possible spellings as the writer
hears the words. However it takes a long time to move from invented
spellings to standard conventional spellings. Seeing that reading and writing
are the main routes to conventional spelling, it is necessary for children to
start writing as early as they start reading. As writers read, they get to use
the conventional spellings and the more they read and write, the more they
move to conventional spelling when writing. This helps store correct spellings
in long-term memory (Reid & Lienemann, 2006: 111).
Reid and Lienemann (2006: 111) suggest the following strategies as effec-
tive ways to improve the spelling performance of the class:
• Look at the word.
• Say the word.
• Cover the word.
• Write the word three times.
or applicable copyright law.

• Check for correct spelling (if not, repeat the previous steps).

The steps just mentioned are written on the board. Then they are modelled to
the learners and selected learners are asked to model the steps aloud for the 107
class. The class is then told that they will be practising spelling for 10 min-
utes every day and on Friday they will write a spelling test. After each prac-
tice, the learners have to self-monitor by ﬁlling in a graph.

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4.6.1 Spelling development

Wyse and Jones (2008: 141–142) describe ﬁve stages of development of
spelling.

4.6.1.1 Precommunicative stage

Writing contains a mixture of actual letters, numerals and invented symbols,
therefore it is unreadable. Letters may also be written from right to left or left
to right. The letters that are written do not correspond with the correct
spelling of the word.

4.6.1.2 Semi-phonetic stage

Learners are beginning to understand that letters represent sounds. They
may use letter names and letter sounds to denote what they hear. Learners
may represent a few consonants in the word but may omit the vowel sounds
for example mt for mat. They have knowledge of the alphabet and letter for-
mation. Some of the words are abbreviated whilst others have an initial letter
to represent the whole word. One letter may represent a whole word, for
example p for pea (Browne, 2007: 106).

4.6.1.3 Phonetic stage

Sound-symbol correspondences are concentrated on and the words are more
complete. Learners are able to cope with simple letter strings, for example
-nd, -ing; however, they have trouble with less regular strings, for example
-er, -ll, -gh.

4.6.1.4 Transitional stage

The learners are less dependent on sound–symbol strategies and are more
aware of visual aspects of words. They are aware of accepted letter strings
and basic writing conventions and are able to spell words correctly and to
draw on the visual aspects of words.

4.6.1.5 The correct stage

Here the learner can use visual strategies and knowledge of word structure
effectively and spell almost all words correctly. They understand basic rules
and patterns of English and spelling vocabulary. They can distinguish homo-
graphs such as “tear” and “tear” and homophones such as “pear” and “pair”,
and they can cope with uncommon and irregular spellings.
or applicable copyright law.

4.6.2 Tips for teaching spelling

108 For most learners a phonetic spelling strategy is used. Learners need to
analyse the sounds they hear in the words and then they need to think how to
represent them. The development of awareness of sounds heard in words is
pivotal in developing semi-phonetic and phonetic strategies. This can be done

by ﬁrst developing the learner’s phonological awareness: the awareness of the

sound of the language; an ability to identify and to categorise the sounds
heard in the words. There are essentially three stages of phonological aware-
ness that are associated with hearing a sound in a word (Lerner, 2003):
1. Children first need to be aware and able to segment words into syllables
(rhythm of words helps the child to listen to and recognise the sounds in
the word). Once learners can recognise syllables they can learn to split the
syllable into onsets and rhymes and this helps them to analyse the sounds
in words. Onset leads to learning initial phonemes. Rhymes help the
learner to write medial vowel sounds – it draws attention to the vowels in
the words. Rhymes also help the learner to make connections between
words, e.g. the learner’s name Jack can help him to spell sack, lack, back.
2. An awareness of the part of the syllable before the first vowel, rhyme the
part of the syllable from the first vowel and onwards.
3. An awareness of phonemes/the smallest unit of sounds in words. After
phonological awareness has been developed, phonemic awareness needs to
be developed. Syllabification, onset, rhyme, phoneme awareness, making
analogies, developing visual strategies (the learner looks carefully at the
word, makes collections of words with the same onsets and collections of
words with the same rhymes) are introduced in the Foundation Phase.

It is extremely important that learners have opportunities to learn about

grapho-phonemic relationships by way of demonstrations, games and activi-
ties. They also need opportunities to do their own writing and to get feedback
on their writing and to discuss their words and see correct spelling models
(Browne, 2007: 108–110).

4.7 Handwriting
The skill of handwriting includes: muscle coordination; writing hand prefer-
ence; gross motor, fine motor and eye-hand coordination; visual discrimina-
tion; and understanding left-to-right progression. Instruction in handwriting
must emphasise writing legibly, the proper grasp of the pen, forming the let-
ters and number correctly, body posture, correct position of the paper, spacing
and alignment. Writing fluently is also important and this involves rhythm,
smoothness, even flow. As soon as the learners can write legibly, then they
need to concentrate on fluency and flexibility. Adjustments need to be made
for left-handers, such as the position of the paper and proper grasp of the pen
or applicable copyright law.

(Choate, 2004: 214–215).

Note: Do not force a learner with a left-hand dominance to write with his or her
109
right hand. This will cause dominance confusion and most probably learning dis-
abilities.

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Handwriting involves a complex perceptual-motor skill forming the letters of

the alphabet and also the skill of writing legibly at a certain speed. The goal
of teaching handwriting is thus to enable the learner to write legibly and flu-
ently. Legibility fluctuates depending on the task at hand, for example in
exams the learners’ handwriting may be less neat as they need to complete
the question paper within a limited time. A good grip, seating and body pos-
ture is necessary to acquire a comfortable style to write legibly. It is impor-
tant that a right-handed learner tilts the paper at 45 degrees anticlockwise,
with a relaxed grip on the pen/pencil. It is also essential to keep the left-hand-
ed learners’ needs in mind and to encourage them to position the paper clock-
wise, to hold the pen/pencil not too near to the point, to sit high enough to see
and to sit on the left side of a right-handed peer (with enough space for their
elbows).
Concepts that need to be considered in handwriting are direction, move-
ment and height, left to right, top to bottom, starting and exit points of let-
ters, upper and lower case letters with height differences (ascenders, i.e. ver-
tical lines rising above the midline such as the “d” and descenders, i.e. vertical
lines below the baseline such as the “g”) and correct spacing. It is important
for teachers to keep in mind that certain letters have mirror images such as
“b-d”, “m-w” which can cause confusion (Wyse & Jones, 2008: 147–148).
Authors such as Bearne and Peters (as referenced in Wyse & Jones, 2008:
149) emphasise the connection between handwriting and spelling as it relates
to kinaesthetic memory. By means of repeated movements, be it in the sand,
in the air, or with painting the kinaesthetic memory is enhanced. Swift, care-
ful handwriting influences learners’ spelling ability, for example, writing let-
ter strings such as -ing, -ous fluently will enable learners to remember to spell
words containing these strings.

4.7.1 English second-language (ESL) learners

Learners whose mother tongue is not English, but are learning through the
medium of English as it is the Language of Learning and Teaching (LoLT) at
the particular school, are referred to as English second-language (ESL) learn-
ers.
ESL learners whose mother tongue is well established, that is, achieved
the normal linguistic developmental milestones, can easily transfer their aca-
demic and linguistic skills to the second language, in this case English. They
read well in their mother tongue and this enables them to “generalize their
reading abilities across languages” (Rost as referenced in Nel, 2005: 152).
or applicable copyright law.

However it should be stressed that learners should not neglect their mother
tongue in lieu of English as it may stifle mother-tongue development or at
110 worst cause some of it to be lost.
What does it mean to be proficient in another language? Rothenberg and
Fisher (2007: 35–36) refer to Cummins’ two levels of language proficiency
namely Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive

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Academic Language Proﬁciency (CALP). BICS includes the ability to commu-

nicate about everyday things and to express needs; to use language to talk
with friends, the teacher, in the shop, etc. It also includes learned language
where many clues, for example facial expressions and pictures to assist in
comprehension, are used in “highly contextualised situations” and the speak-
er is not reliant on language alone to construct meaning. Children first arrive
at school with a relative established BICS in their mother tongue/primary
language, which is used at home and in social situations. When learners enter
school, BICS knowledge is expanded but the main focus is on developing
CALP, which is the academic part of language necessary to be successful at
school. CALP is used in the classroom for discussions, reading and writing.
Little context or clues are provided in these tasks and in general involve
abstract concepts. In this case, the learners rely on language in order to make
meaning. For a learner to be socially and academically successful in language,
BICS and CALP need to be well developed.
However, learning in a second language can create barriers to learning.
Cummins (1996: 36–60) declares that learners learning in their first language
gain more sophisticated vocabulary and grammatical knowledge and increase
their literacy skills more easily than a second-language learner. Second-lan-
guage learners must always catch up with a moving target. According to Col-
lier (as referenced in Dong, 2006: 22), second-language learners take five-to-
seven years longer than first-language learners to develop proficiency in
CALP and consequently fall behind in the Cognitive Academic Language Pro-
ficiency (CALP) required to carry out higher cognitive operations in the lan-
guage of learning.
ESL learners experience difficulty listening to the phonological system,
phonotacic rules and tone melodies (high, low, rising and falling tones) of the
English language as it differs from their mother tongue and thus has implica-
tions for their English speaking and reading. These can include:

• A discrepancy developing between the ESL learner’s phonological system of

English and received pronunciation, which is based on phonic practice.
• Where graphophonic, syntactic and semantic cues are used, the ESL learn-
er may skip insigniﬁcant words and guess others, using contextual clues.
• Poor comprehension caused by ESL learners often using different ways of
decoding words as well as breaking words up into syllables, seeing that
sound/letter relations and letter combinations in their mother tongue differ
vastly from English.
or applicable copyright law.

• A limited English vocabulary making it difﬁcult for the ESL learner to

guess the meanings of unfamiliar English words.
• Mispronunciation of words, for example “bag” is pronounced “beg”. 111
• ESL learners making the same errors as English ﬁrst-language learners in
written work such as spelling and composition. These include reversals,
difﬁculty with vowel and consonant combinations and sight vocabulary

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(and – as there are no spelling rules) as well as applying spelling rules and
understanding the exceptions to the rules. Their mother-tongue pronuncia-
tion inﬂuences the way they spell many words in English, for example
“werd” instead of “word” (Dednam as referenced in Nel, 2005: 152).
• Often teachers are not knowledgeable about the interference of the mother
tongue and how to teach learners who learn in their second, third or even
fourth language.
• Factors such as parents who are always moving from place to place and
parents and others who are negative about learning English have a detri-
mental effect on the learners’ acquisition of English and consequently inﬂu-
ence their learning negatively (Adler & Reed as referenced in Nel, 2005:
151–153).

According to Genesee (1994: 8–9), there is an assumption that learners must

ﬁrst gain full proﬁciency of the language of learning and teaching before they
are able to access the curriculum. However, language instruction should not
take place in isolation. It should be learned together with “meaningful con-
tent and purposive communication.” The language used in a mathematics
classroom will differ from that used in a history class as specialised vocabu-
lary and forms of expression are required for every subject. It is therefore
important that every teacher uses meaningful content (academic content as
outlined in the curriculum), together with second-language instructional
strategies in their planning for teaching ESL learners.
or applicable copyright law.

4.8 aims of teaching language

112 Echevarria, Vogt and Short (2004: 120) emphasise the importance of the
interrelatedness and “integratedness” of listening, speaking, reading and
writing when teaching language. All these components must be mutually sup-
portive and should be developed holistically. Reading and writing proﬁciency,

however, is achieved much later depending on the learners’ level of compe-

tence. Academic language is needed for use in school. It is possible that Eng-
lish learners may become competent in written language before oral language
and ESL learners may be able to read and write before becoming proﬁcient
English speakers. Teachers are encouraged to offer opportunities where their
learners can practise and use all four of these language processes in an inte-
grated way.

4.8.1 Differentiated approach to teaching English language

Since English-language learners have different levels of English proﬁciency,
background knowledge and learning styles, a differentiated approach of
instruction is needed. This means that good teaching strategies are taken and
differentiated to match the learners’ needs and learning styles (Rothenberg &
Fisher, 2007: vii–viii). General guidelines for differentiated instruction
include:
• Linking assessment with instruction (to plan for whole groups, small
groups or individual learners)
• Clarifying key concepts and generalisations so that learners know what is
essential and how it can be used later on
• Emphasising critical and creative thinking (learners think about what they
are learning)
• Including teacher- and learner-selected tasks (at some point the teacher
needs to teach and assign learning activities and at others learners should
have choices on how to work with the content) (Rothenberg & Fisher, 2007:
61; 64–65)

4.9 summary
In order to offer learning support to learners who experience language diffi-
culties, one needs to understand what language is comprised of and how the
child’s language develops. In this chapter, the authors have discussed oral
language, reading and written language in depth with particular emphasis on
reading. Seeing that handwriting is also part of written language, a short dis-
cussion was offered. The difficulties that English second-language learners
experience were highlighted. Tips were offered on how to address and support
learners experiencing difficulties in all of the aforementioned areas. (See
chapters 7 and 8 for additional practical support ideas.)
or applicable copyright law.

Questions
1. Why do you think it is necessary to understand firstly what language is comprised 113
of and how the learners’ language develops in order to offer learner support?
2. Why is it important that one needs to determine the learners’ reading readiness and
their reading level?

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3. Can you think of a learner in your class who has reading difficulties, draw up an
error analysis and decide on the support this learner will need?
4. How can you assist learners to develop as creative writers?
5. What strategies will you employ to assist learners with spelling challenges? (Identify
the specific spelling concern and match the strategy.)
6. How can English second-language learners be supported in the general classroom?

GLOSSARY

BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communication Learning and Teaching (LoLT) at the

Skills) include the ability to communicate particular school, are referred to as English
about everyday things and to express second-language (ESL) learners.
needs; to use language to talk with friends, Metalinguistic skills are when learners have
the teacher, in the shop, etc. the skills to organise the language in their
CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Profi- thoughts.
ciency) is the academic part of language Morphology consists of a set of rules that
required for success in school. combines phonemes into bigger units such
Emerging language is the process whereby as syllables and words to convey meaning.
children at first use only single word utter- Oral language refers to the ability to speak
ances, but start making great progress in understandably in order for those who are
learning semantics, syntax, phonology, dis- listening to understand what a person wants
course and pragmatics by 26 months. to express.
Learners whose mother tongue is not Eng- A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of a
lish, but are learning through the medium language that can be pronounced, but does
of English as this is the Language of Learn- not have meaning on its own.
ing and Teaching (LoLT) at the particular
Phonics refers to the recognition, analysis
school, are referred to as English second-
and synthesis of phoneme elements in writ-
language (ESL) learners.
ten words.
Expressive language refers to conveying a
Phonological awareness (or phonemic aware-
message using speech or print.
ness) is the ability to focus on and manipu-
The skill of handwriting includes muscle late phonemes in spoken words.
coordination, writing-hand preference,
gross motor, fine motor and eye-hand coor- Phonology is about the speech sounds of a
dination, visual discrimination and under- language.
standing left-to-right progression. Pragmatics is the social role that language
Inner language, which includes a symbolic plays.
thought system that constructs the mes- Prelinguistic refers to early experiences in
sage that must be conveyed to someone listening, talking and learning about the
else. world.
“Language is an arbitrary set of symbols, “Reading is comprehending, interpreting, and
systematic in nature, agreed upon by a applying textual material” (Manzo & Manzo,
community of users, which are designed to 1995: 10).
explain experiences and thoughts” (Lapp et Dednam (2005: 127) describes reading flu-
or applicable copyright law.

al., 2007). ently as when learners phrase correctly, use

Language form is the “how” of language correct pronunciation without any omis-
and is governed by rules, which include sions, repetitions, substitutions, inversions
114 phonology, morphology and syntax (Ray- or reversals, insertions, word guessing or
mond, 2008: 253). voicing, lip movements, ﬁnger pointing
Learners whose mother tongue is not Eng- and/or head movements.
lish, but are learning through the medium Receptive language can be auditory (listen-
of English as this is the Language of ing) or visual (reading). This is when you lis-

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Glossary115 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 4
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ten to a language, decode the auditory or Syntax refers to syntactic rules concerning
visual stimuli and organise them into mean- how morphemes are organised in phrases
ingful word units (Ormrod as referenced in and sentences and refers to the grammar of
Dednam, 2005: 120). the particular language.
Semantics is vocabulary or word meaning in “Word recognition is the process by which
a language. readers match written representations of
“Spelling is the forming of words through the words with their sound and spelling in mem-
traditional arrangement of letters” (Mercer, ory” (Walpole & McKenna, 2007: 49).
1992: 463–464).
The stylistic component includes the use of
punctuation and capitalisation to language-
speciﬁc rules.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, J. & Westrup, H. 2000. The English Lust, B. 2006. Child language: acquisition and
language teacher’s handbook. London: Con- growth. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Univer-
tinuum. sity Press.
Birsch, J.R. 2005. Multisensory teaching of Manzo, A.V. & Manzo, U.C. 1995. Teaching
basic language skills. Maryland: Brookes. children to be literate. New York: Harcourt
Browne, A. 2007. Teaching and learning com- Brace College Publishers.
munication, language and literacy. London: Mercer, C.D. 1992. Students with learning dis-
Paul Chapman. abilities. New York: Macmillan.
Choate, J. 2004. Successful inclusive teach- Nel, N.M. 2005. Second language difﬁculties in
ing. Boston: Pearson. a South African context. In Landsberg, E.,
Cummins, J. 1996. Negotiating identities: Kruger D. & Nel, N. (Eds). Addressing barri-
education for empowerment in a diverse ers to learning: a South African perspective.
society. Ontario, California: Association for Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Bilingual Education. Polloway, E.A., Patton, J.R. & Serna, L. 2005.
Dednam, A. 2005. Learning impairment. In Strategies for teaching learners with special
Landsberg, E., Kruger, D. & Nel, N. (Eds). needs, 8th ed. Ohio: Pearson Merrill Pren-
Addressing barriers to learning: a South tice Hall.
African perspective. Pretoria: Van Schaik. Raymond, E.B. 2008. Learners with mild dis-
Dong, Y.R. 2006. Learning to think in Eng- abilities: a characteristics approach, 3rd ed.
lish. Educational Leadership, 64(2): 22–26. Boston: Pearson.
Echevarria, J., Vogt, M., & Short, D.J. 2004. Reid, R. & Lienemann, T.O. 2006. Strategy
Making content comprehensible. Boston: instruction for students with learning dis-
Pearson. abilities. New York: Guilford.
Genesee, F. 1994. Educating second language Rief, S.F. & Heimburge, J.A. 2006. How to
children: the whole child, the whole curricu- reach and teach all children in the inclusive
lum, the whole community. Cambridge, classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
MA: Cambridge University Press. Rothenberg, C. & Fisher, D. 2007. Teaching
Goodman, K. 1996. Ken Goodman on reading. English language learners. New Jersey:
Portsmouth: Heinemann. Pearson.
Lapp, D., Flood, J., Brock, C. & Fisher, D. Teele, S. 2004. Overcoming barricades to read-
or applicable copyright law.

2007. Teaching reading to every child, 4th ing: a multiple intelligences approach. Cali-
ed. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. fornia: Corwin.
Lerner, J. 2003. Learning disabilities. Boston: Vygotsky, L.S. 1978. Mind in society: the devel-
Houghton Mifﬂin Company. opment of higher psychological processes. 115
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Louw, D. & Louw, A. 2007. Child and adoles-
cent development. Bloemfontein: University Walpole, S. & McKenna, M.C. 2007. Differenti-
of the Free State. ated reading instruction. New York: The
Guilford Press.

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Westwood, P. 2004. Learning and learning Wyse, D. & Jones, R. 2008. Teaching English,
difficulties. London: David Fulton. language and literacy, 2nd ed. London:
Routledge.
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116

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Learner support
through
differentiated
teaching and
learning
ELIzABETH WALToN

OBJECTIVES

5.1 Introduction When you have read this chapter

you should be able to
Mrs Maake’s Grade 4 class of 34 boys and girls is
• describe what differentiation is
lively and responsive. She is an innovative teacher and provide reasons for
with many years’ experience. As Mrs Maake gets to differentiating teaching and
know her class, she becomes aware that although her learning
• understand the cautions and
learners have a lot in common, they are also different
concerns associated with
in many ways. There is some age range, with a few differentiation
learners two or three years older than the rest, hav- • identify a teacher’s
ing started school later. Some are quite proficient in responsibilities in preparing for
English, the language of teaching and learning, and differentiation
• differentiate instruction, learner
there are a few recent immigrants from the DRC
activities and assessment
(Democratic Republic of the Congo) who have only • respond to common questions
started learning English. There is a range of skills in about differentiation.
mathematics: some learners find maths very diffi-
cult, and have yet to master some of the Foundation
Phase skills, while others are doing very well. As she
would expect, there are a variety of interests and tal-
ents among the learners: Nosipho has provincial
colours for netball and Raymond plays the violin in a
youth orchestra. Tshepo, who loves reading, has spe-
cific support requirements as he has cerebral palsy
or applicable copyright law.

and Lethabo, who is top of the class in maths, has

low vision as a result of an accident. Mrs Maake
knows that to teach effectively, she has to take these 117
individual differences into account as she plans,
teaches and assesses her class. This is known as “dif-
ferentiation”.

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Differentiation is a broad term that is used to encompass a variety of

instructional and assessment strategies that ensure that the curriculum can
be accessed by all learners. It assumes that learners come to class with differ-
ent levels of readiness, interest and learning proﬁles and that to maximise
learning, teachers need to modify the curriculum, their teaching methods,
teaching and learning resources and activities, and assessment to be individ-
ually relevant (Tomlinson, Brighton, Hertberg, Callahan, Moon, Brimijoin,
Conover and Reynolds, 2003: 212). This chapter seeks to explore the rationale
for differentiation, and also describes the conceptual and practical limitations
of the practice before suggesting practical ways of implementing differentia-
tion in the classroom.

5.2 Rationale for differentiation

5.2.1 Education policy mandates differentiation
The importance of addressing individual learning and support needs in school
is noted in a variety of influential and binding documents. The Salamanca
Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education was adopt-
ed by the World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality
in Salamanca, Spain in 1994. This comprehensive document, known as the
Salamanca Statement, recognises in its preface the need to work towards
“schools for all – institutions which include everybody, celebrate differences,
support learning and respond to individual needs” (United Nations Educa-
tional, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (Unesco), 1994: 3). The Frame-
work for Action in the Salamanca Statement describes the fundamental prin-
ciple of inclusive schools, which is that all children should learn together
while their individual differences and learning needs are accommodated and
appropriate support is provided (Unesco, 1994: 11–12). Many of the principles
and guidelines of the Salamanca Statement have been incorporated into
South Africa’s Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education (2001). The
White Paper accepts that there will be a broad range of learning needs in the
learner population and states that if these needs are not met, learners will
fail to learn effectively or will be excluded. This range of learning needs arise
from a number of factors, which could be intrinsic to learners (for example,
physical, mental, sensory or developmental impairments) or extrinsic to
learners (for example, an inflexible curriculum or inaccessible environments)
(Department of Education (DoE), 2001: 17–18).
Teachers, according to the South African Council for Educators (SACE)’s
or applicable copyright law.

Code of Professional Ethics, acknowledge “the uniqueness, individuality, and

speciﬁc needs of each learner, guiding and encouraging each to realise his or
her potentialities” (SACE, 2006: 2). Differentiation is explicitly recognised as
118 a way to meet individual needs in South African inclusive schools. The White
Paper notes that a priority for classroom teachers is “multilevel classroom
instruction” for teachers to “prepare main lessons with variations that are
responsive to individual learner needs” (DoE, 2001: 18). The Curriculum and

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Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) says that “To address barriers in the
classroom, teachers should use various curriculum differentiation strategies”
(DoE, 2010a: 7) and refers teachers to the guidelines for inclusive teaching
and learning (DoE, 2010b: 10) where differentiation is described as a “key
strategy to cater for the different levels of ability, and to mitigate the effects
of various barriers to learning”. The Guidelines for Full-service/Inclusive
Schools (DoE, 2009) states that full-service or inclusive schools know how to
differentiate the curriculum and ensure that learners receive individualised
instruction and support. Instruction in inclusive schools should be charac-
terised by, among other things, individualisation and multiple options for
acquiring, storing and demonstrating learning (DoE, 2009: 24, 25, 27).

5.2.2 Differentiation is a means to make inclusion a reality

Inclusion in education is a complex and multifaceted construct, deﬁned with

various emphases and differences in different contexts. However, many would
agree that inclusive education implies that all learners are taught together in
the general or mainstream and not separated or excluded based on the need
for additional support or enrichment. Inclusive classrooms are therefore char-
acterised by diversity and learners with different learning needs. Differentia-
tion can be seen as a way of making inclusion a reality by welcoming all
learners to participate and learn together in a classroom, albeit at different
levels. Differentiated instruction is described by Ferguson (2008: 114) as a
practice that is “fundamentally more inclusive of much more human diversi-
ty” as content, processes and products are changed to meet individual needs.
Likewise, Sapon-Shevin (2007: 185, 189) suggests that rather than assuming
that all learners will be engaged in the same learning experiences and
assessed according to the same criteria, multilevel teaching can be used as a
strategy for “engaging students in more inclusive ways”.

5.2.3 Differentiation enables learners to experience success

Experiencing academic success is important for the development of self-

esteem in children and young adults. Differentiation is one way of enabling
learners to experience and show what they can do, rather than what they can-
not do. Learners who experience success are more likely to be motivated to
learn as it is discouraging and frustrating when the pace of work is too fast, or
the work is too difﬁcult (Walton, 2010: 32).
or applicable copyright law.

Linah started her new high school in Grade 8. She had been relocated
across town to a new foster family, had made no friends and her assessment
results were poor. She said to her foster mother one day, “You don’t under-
stand what it is like to spend the whole day being reminded of what you can’t 119
do. I can’t read as fast as the others and I can’t do maths. At break I can’t
seem to make friends and in PE (Physical Education) I can’t keep up with the
games because I am not ﬁt.”

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Linah was only experiencing failure and her self-esteem, already fragile
because of her difﬁcult family situation, was affected. She had given up try-
ing; everything was just too challenging. A differentiated teaching approach
would have allowed Linah to experience success at a level appropriate to her
current abilities, resulting in improved self-esteem and the conﬁdence to keep
trying.

5.2.4 Differentiation prevents learning gaps from occurring

Although the curriculum speciﬁes the knowledge and skills that learners
should acquire and be able to demonstrate each year, some learners progress
to the following grade not having fully done so. If teachers in the subsequent
grade do not ﬁnd a way to ensure that the knowledge and skills of the previ-
ous year are acquired, learning gaps can occur. These learning gaps widen
year after year if foundational concepts are not fully mastered. Differentiation
ensures that as learners progress, they are given the opportunity, if neces-
sary, to consolidate the learning of previous grades. A teacher committed to
differentiation would never say, “I don’t teach that section (like division of
three-digit by one-digit numbers), it was the job of the previous grade’s
teacher. I must move on with the curriculum requirements of my grade (divi-
sion of three-digit by two-digit numbers) and the learner must just catch that
section up.” Instead, he or she would say, “Some learners have not fully
grasped division of three-digit by one-digit numbers. I must make a plan to
help them master that concept while continuing to teach the curriculum
requirements of this grade to the rest. If I do not, these learners could end up
not being able to divide three-digit numbers by either one or two digits!”

5.2.5 Differentiation provides opportunities for cognitive

development
Effective teaching, according to Vygotsky, occurs just ahead of a learner’s
development. Vygotsky described a Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD),
which is the distance between a child’s actual development as seen in his or
her ability to solve problems independently, and his or her ability to solve
problems with the guidance of an adult or collaboration with a capable peer
(Vygotsky, 1986: 187). Instruction thus needs to be planned to engage each
child at the upper edges of his or her ZPD – anything easier or more difﬁcult
will not result in optimal cognitive development. Because children are differ-
ent, their Zones of Proximal Development will be different too. Differentiation
or applicable copyright law.

increases the likelihood that learners will engage in learning tasks appropri-
ate to their cognitive development.
120
5.2.6 Differentiation reduces challenging behaviour in classrooms
When learners are engaged in interesting and relevant learning activities,
there is little time, opportunity or incentive for disruptive behaviour. By con-

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trast, if learners are bored because they have ﬁnished an activity long before
their peers, they will occupy themselves in a way that can disrupt others.
Similarly, if the activity is too difﬁcult, learners can become frustrated and
give up, and also then become disruptive. Learning activities should be rele-
vant to the life world of learners, be meaningful and at the appropriate level
to prevent learners from displaying unacceptable classroom behaviours
(Prinsloo, 2005: 447).
Having described the compelling policy and practical reasons for differenti-
ated teaching and learning, we may be tempted to move directly to the ways
to implement differentiation. This would deny the problematic aspects of dif-
ferentiation and the need to approach practices of differentiation critically.

5.3 The problems of differentiation

5.3.1 Preoccupation with difference
Differentiation as a teaching strategy focuses on individual difference and
designing instruction and assessment according to these individual differ-
ences. The preoccupation with individual difference in the classroom may be
problematic for a number of reasons:
• It obscures the many ways in which children are the same, since what they
have in common is likely to be more significant than how they are different.
• A focus on difference leads to fragmentation and works against the estab-
lishment of a collective identity among learners (Thompson (1990) as refer-
enced in Janks, 2010: 38, 110).
• “Different” often signifies deficit or deviance, because being the same, or
average is often regarded as “normal” and desirable. Robison (2008: 30), in
his autobiography about his life with Asperger’s syndrome said, “For much
of my life, being different equated to being bad, even though I have never
thought of myself that way”.
• Emphasising difference leads to othering – there are “them” who are differ-
ent, and “us” who are the same. Othering practices in schools include teas-
ing, joking, stereotyping (Janks, 2010: 13) and other forms of bullying.
• Finding differences is often the precursor of separation, segregation and
exclusion (Loreman, Deppeler & Harvey, 2005: 22).
• Problems become individualised, requiring individual intervention or cur-
riculum modification and any need for systemic change escapes scrutiny.
or applicable copyright law.

• The liturgy of “individual difference” obscures the way that difference is

constructed, rather than identiﬁed or described (Ainscow, Conteh, Dyson &
Gallanaugh, 2007: 2).
121

5.3.2 The reiﬁcation of differentiation

In making differentiation a noun, and thus a thing, we risk accepting it as

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given or fact without challenging the processes and agents involved. As an

educational practice, differentiation is a human construct built on beliefs, the-
ories, assumptions and values about teaching and learning. We must ask, and
answer, questions like, who decides what counts as difference for the purpose
of differentiation? It could be policies like the White Paper which lists various
factors that give rise to different learning needs; teachers who decide who is
in which group and what work each will be doing; learners who create in-
groups and hierarchies of social acceptability; or therapists who assess, diag-
nose and treat. By insisting on answers to these questions, we are forced to
recognise the human agency involved in the process of dividing learners for
the purposes of individually relevant instruction. This then should lead us to
ask whose interests this construction of difference serves and how power is
exerted in the process. Teachers who consign learners to streams or sets may
be serving themselves to avoid teaching a very heterogeneous class. Thera-
pists may have a vested interest in identifying learning differences as this
provides the opportunity for “professionals to study, intervene, and gain
employment” (Brantlinger, 1997: 441).
We can further interrogate the basis on which difference is constructed,
query its validity and challenge its outcomes. This is particularly important if
we are to use differentiation in the classroom. If a class is to be divided into
different ability groups for multilevel teaching, teachers must be able to
answer questions like: how were learners assigned to groups? Was it on the
basis of assessment? If so, was the assessment fair? Will learners in some
groups get a more interesting or engaging task? Will some learners be disad-
vantaged because of the groups they are in, perhaps by receiving less atten-
tion from the teacher, or working with material or tasks that positions them
for marginalisation? Can learners move between groups? Are groupings the
same across all subjects? Research has shown that when differentiation is
practised by ability-group instruction, the groups tend to be rigid with learn-
ers not moving between groups, that teachers spend less time with low-ability
groups and that the questions asked of learners in low-ability groups tend to
emphasise factual recall rather than higher-order thinking skills. There is an
indication that learners in low-ability groups may even be disadvantaged by
differentiated learning (Wilkinson & Fung, 2002: 430, 432).

5.3.3 Differentiation and social justice

The preamble of The South African Schools Act 84 (Republic of South Africa,
or applicable copyright law.

1996) provides an important context for any venture in differentiation in

schools. It says that, “the achievement of democracy in South Africa has con-
signed to history the past system of education, which was based on racial
122 inequality and segregation”. South Africa’s past experiences of inequality and
segregation should make us very wary in the implementation of any practice
that differentiates learning experiences among learners. Notions of difference
and inferiority resulted in the iniquitous system of Bantu Education, which

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was designed to prepare black children for lives in servitude. The preamble
continues to say that the country requires
a new national system for schools which will redress past injustices in
educational provision, provide an education of progressively high quality
for all learners and in so doing lay a strong foundation for the develop-
ment of all our people’s talents and capabilities.

This emphasis on social justice and high standards for all is carried through
to the curriculum, the designers of which are concerned to address the disem-
powerment of certain sections of the population that occurred through segre-
gation and exclusion. To this end, the curriculum is based on the principle of
“high knowledge and high skills: the minimum standards of knowledge and
skills to be achieved at each grade are speciﬁed and … high, achievable stan-
dards in all subjects” (DoE, 2010a: 6). Clearly, a common, central, rigorous
and standardised curriculum for all learners is envisaged as part of the quest
for social justice and equality. (Under apartheid, there was a separate cur-
riculum for different race groups, for learners in special education, and in dif-
ferent provinces.) We risk initiating or perpetuating social inequality when
we start delivering the curriculum differently for different learners particu-
larly if we limit access to “educational goods” (Pendlebury & Enslin, 2004: 31),
on the basis that the content or skills required are deemed too difﬁcult. Sys-
tematic exclusion from an enriched or rigorous education experience in a dif-
ferentiated classroom, compounded over time, is potentially disempowering.

5.3.4 The dilemma of difference

We thus face a dilemma as we approach differentiation. It has been called the
dilemma of difference (Ferguson & Ferguson, 1998: 304; Lunt & Norwich,
1999: 39; Dyson & Howes, 2009: 156) as it expresses two seemingly valid, but
contradictory emphases. The ﬁrst emphasis is that of individually relevant
education that acknowledges that for optimal learning, learners should learn
at a pace, level and style appropriate to their individual needs. The provision
of appropriate learning support requires the acknowledgement of, and
response to individual differences. Differentiation, according to this emphasis
is an imperative. The second emphasis is that of the need to provide a com-
mon education experience to all learners in the pursuit of social justice and
equality. With this emphasis, differentiation should be shunned.
Dyson and Howes (2009: 156), express the dilemma as, “how to respond
or applicable copyright law.

simultaneously to differences and commonalities between learners”, and I

have put it that, “too much saying that everyone is the same will result in
some learners not receiving the support they need to overcome the very real
barriers that they experience. Too much saying that everyone is different will 123
result in a focus on what separates rather than on what unites and fragmen-
tation and exclusion is the result” (Walton, 2006: 66).
A full discussion of this dilemma is beyond the scope of this chapter, and it

124p
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is evident that the dilemma cannot be solved, but that both sides of the dilem-
ma must be held in tension. As we move now to discuss ways of implementing
differentiation, we should have a sense of both its possibilities and its limita-
tions, its advantages and its disadvantages.

5.4 Implementing differentiation in the classroom

Teaching and learning is a complex and dynamic human activity that
involves intricately interwoven beliefs, activities and relationships. It is some-
what artiﬁcial to isolate its component parts because these do not operate
apart from each other. However, for ease of focus, this discussion is divided
into two sections – ﬁrst, the teacher’s responsibilities and aspects of instruc-
tion relevant to differentiation, and second, differentiated learner activities
and assessment.

5.4.1 The role of the teacher in differentiating teaching and learning

5.4.1.1 Developing a classroom culture that supports differentiation
Classroom culture can be regarded as the way things are done in that class-
room and the values, beliefs and attitudes that inform and sustain a particu-
lar way of doing things. Teachers need to foster the following beliefs as they
are important for the effective implementation of differentiation:
• It is normal to be good at some things and not so good at other things. This
should make no difference as to how we are valued as people.
• There are many different ways to be intelligent or smart.
• Everyone is interdependent and can support one another. This means that
we all need to be able to give help at times and receive help at times.
• Difference is a positive resource in the classroom that gives us additional
perspectives and ways to understand the world.
• Cooperation, rather than competition, is a better way to work together.
• Success is not a scarce commodity, narrowly deﬁned and only available to a
few.

5.4.1.2 What teachers need to know in order to differentiate

KNOW LEARNERS

In order to differentiate successfully, teachers have to become students of

or applicable copyright law.

their learners. These are some of the ways teachers can get to know learners:
Baseline assessment should take place before beginning a new section or
introducing a new concept. The purpose of baseline assessment is to identify
124 the learners’ current level of skill or knowledge and any gaps in their learning
and plan to provide support to those who need it. Baseline assessment should
tell us: which learners are ready to proceed with the current learning
programme; which learners will need additional support before and as they

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proceed with the current learning programme; and which learners already
have some of the knowledge and skills in the current learning programme.
Observation of learners will provide much information about how learn-
ers learn and how they prefer to give evidence of their learning. Wise teachers
note which learners prefer to work on their own, and which prefer group
work; which learners are quiet and write well; which learners do much better
when they can speak about what they have learnt and which learners love to
make things. They see when learners get bored and frustrated, and when
they are engaged in their learning. Teachers also learn more about their
learners beyond the classroom as they observe break-time behaviour and
become involved with extra-mural activities. They learn which learners are
musical or good at sport, or artistic. Some teachers have found it helpful to
keep a notebook where they record their observations for future reference in
their teaching.
Interaction with learners will provide further information as teachers
take the time to ask learners about their interests, likes and dislikes. Learn-
ers may also be able to tell teachers what makes learning easier or more difﬁ-
cult for them. Teachers should not neglect the useful information that parents
and caregivers can give about the learner, his or her attitude to school and
learning and previous interventions, if any.
Learner profiles should contain valuable documents that teachers can
consult to learn more about their learners. Personal information about family
background and circumstance, medical information and schooling history
should be kept conﬁdential, but should be used to inform classroom practice.
Records of support needs and interventions should help teachers to under-
stand more of how previous teachers and members of support teams have
addressed barriers to learning.
As teachers try to get to know their learners, they must be very careful not
to label or categorise learners. Learners are different and each one represents
a unique and dynamic combination of characteristics and qualities. Learners
also change and grow throughout the year and as the years go by. It is unac-
ceptable in an inclusive classroom to call some learners “slow” or to make
assumptions about any learners based on what has been observed or written
about them.

KNOW THE CURRICULUM

Successful differentiation will depend on teachers’ thorough knowledge of

their subjects. This knowledge does not only refer to the content knowledge of
or applicable copyright law.

that subject, but also to the key structures, concepts and ideas of the disci-
pline and the academic genres and discourses associated with the subject.
This is important to build authentic and increasingly complex understandings
of the subject for all learners (Tomlinson, Brimijoin & Narvaez, 2008: 69). 125
Then it is also important to know well the knowledge and skills that should
be attained in the grade concerned. While some learners may be able to meet
the requirements as they are described, others will require the teacher to

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break the content knowledge or skills into their component parts and work
systematically and progressively towards comprehension and mastery. Some
learners may need to work on the curriculum requirements of the previous or
following grade, depending on their level of learning, so teachers need to
know these too.

5.4.1.3 Using the principle of universal design

Universal design is a concept ﬁrst used in architecture. In the context of
building, it refers to the practice of designing from the beginning to provide
access to everyone, rather than modifying the building later to provide access.
When the term is used in education, it refers to the need to plan lessons with
teaching and learning activities, which are accessible to, and enable the par-
ticipation of all learners right from the beginning. This is preferable to plan-
ning teaching and learning activities and then afterwards trying to modify
them to ensure that all learners can be included. Thus differentiation is
planned for the lesson at its inception, not added on afterwards.

5.4.2 Differentiated instruction

There are many ways in which teachers acknowledge differences among
learners and meet their individual support needs as they teach. Teachers will
be well acquainted with strategies like providing extra assistance outside of
classroom hours, providing choices of projects or essay topics, giving individ-
ual feedback and encouragement on classroom and assessment performance
and using cooperative learning. Based on Kluth, Biklen and Straut’s (2003:
18) statement, “If they can’t learn the way we teach them, let’s teach them the
way they learn”, teachers have learnt to be responsive to the many ways in
which learners prefer to learn. Many learners enjoy learning success because
their teachers teach using auditory, visual and kinaesthetic modalities; they
teach from whole-to-part, and part-to-whole; they recognise and accommodate
different cognitive processing styles; they are ﬂexible in their use of whole-
class, small-group and individual instruction and activities; they use the mul-
tilingual resources of the classroom and vary conversation styles according to
the cultural preferences of learners; and they are ﬂexible and creative in
arranging the classroom environment and seating. As South African class-
rooms become increasingly inclusive of learners with diverse learning and
support needs, teachers need to add multilevel teaching and scaffolding to
their repertoire of teaching strategies.
or applicable copyright law.

5.4.2.1 Multilevel teaching

Multilevel teaching is one strategy that can be used for differentiation. It
126 refers to the practice of teaching one concept or topic at different levels of com-
plexity within the same classroom. An obvious way of teaching at more than
one level is to divide the learners in a class into groups according to their per-
formance, abilities or readiness to learn and then to design teaching and learn-

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ing activities according to the different groups. These groups, sometimes called
“ability groups” are a recognised way to ensure that learners are appropriately
supported and challenged (Wilkinson & Fung, 2002: 425). Before discussing
ways to work with ability groups, we need to sound some cautionary notes
about this type of grouping to avoid the pitfalls mentioned in section 5.3 above.
Ability grouping should be very flexible. Learners should not be grouped for
the year, or even the term, depending on how teachers think they will learn.
A teacher may, however, divide the maths class into groups on Monday
depending on how they performed on Friday’s class test, now knowing that
some learners need the concept explained again, some learners need more
practice and some learners have fully grasped the concept and need to be
challenged with something new. The groups would not be labelled the “tor-
toises”, the “goats” and the “cheetahs” to show who needs more help and who
can move ahead. In fact, the groups would not be labelled at all, because by
the following class test, different learners would be needing support. Groups
should also be different across different subjects to reflect individual
strengths. Ability grouping should also not be the only way that learners
work together; in fact, heterogeneous groupings for cooperative learning have
been shown to be highly successful in promoting learner achievement (Put-
nam, 2009).
With due recognition of the limits and potential misuses of ability group-
ings, these are ways in which teachers have worked successfully with ability
groups:
Classroom rotations are useful for introducing a new concept at different
levels of complexity, but they take very careful planning. This example is
from a teacher who wanted to introduce the concept “greater than and less
than”, but knew from a baseline assessment that the 35 learners in her Grade
2 class were at different levels in their readiness to learn this concept. She
wanted to teach them in small groups at a time to ensure that each learner
would understand the concept and be able to transfer his or her learning
across contexts. She allocated a week of maths lessons (five lessons) and
divided the learners into five ability groups based on their assessment per-
formance. She then designed a number of work stations using games and
work cards that reinforced previous work like tables and bonds. The week of
maths lessons progressed as follows:

Table 5.1 Example of a classroom rotation

or applicable copyright law.

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Group 1 Activity A Activity B Activity E Activity C Activity D
Group 2 Activity B Activity A Activity D Activity E Activity C
127
Group 3 Activity C Activity E Activity B Activity D Activity A
Group 4 Activity D Activity C Activity A Activity B Activity E
Group 5 Activity E Activity D Activity C Activity A Activity B

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ACTIVITIES

Activity A: Instructed by the teacher in the new concept – greater than and less
than. The teacher differentiates according to the different groups, by using more
concrete apparatus with some, spending more time on the core concept with
some and introducing the notations ‘< and >’ with those who are ready.
Activity B: Practise times tables using a bean chart. Each group is given a piece
of paper divided into halves and a number of beans. Learners throw the beans
onto the paper and multiply the number of beans that fall on the one half by the
number of beans that fall on the other half. Increasing or decreasing the total
number of beans given makes the activity more or less difﬁcult.
Activity C: A modiﬁed game of snakes and ladders. The learners pick a card
when landing on a ladder and correctly answer a maths question before pro-
ceeding. Different sets of cards made for different groups keeps the activity
accessible and challenging.
Activity D: Work cards on two-dimensional shapes, requiring tracing, drawing
and combining shapes and making patterns.
Activity E: Differentiated work cards for individual work to practise bonds.

This example of a week’s numeracy rotation addresses different numeracy

skills. Throughout the course of the week, each group rotated to a different
activity which was adjusted to suit the different learning needs. The teacher
worked with one group and this was where the introduction of the new con-
cept (greater than and less than) took place according to the level of the
group. By the end of the week, all ﬁve groups had been introduced to the same
concept, but at different levels.
Whole-class teaching, then activities in groups is a multilevel teach-
ing strategy that entails presenting the core content of the lesson to the whole
class and then setting different learning activities for different groups to do in
the remaining part of the lesson. The teacher then purposefully divides his or
her time among the groups providing additional instruction and support. A
lesson executed in this way would be designed and executed in a Grade 2
class as follows:
The teacher who taught this lesson was working in a class of diverse learn-
ers, many of whom were not learning in their mother tongue and were ﬁnding
or applicable copyright law.

English as the language of teaching and learning difﬁcult to access. These

learners were, for this particular lesson, placed in Group 1. There were a few
learners who were highly competent in English and had beneﬁtted from an
128 enriching preschool programme. These learners were, for this lesson, placed
in Group 3. The rest were placed in Group 2. By structuring the lesson in this
way, the teacher ensured that learners engaged with the lesson content at a
level appropriate to their current learning needs.

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Table 5.2 Whole-class teaching, then group activities example

Time 15 minutes 10 minutes 10 minutes 10 minutes

Teacher Introduce the con- Spend time with Spend time with Spend time with
activity cept of healthy and Group 1, reinforc- Group 3, check- Group 2, dis-
unhealthy food by ing the concepts ing that they have cussing reasons
giving examples and taught and check- understood the for learners’
showing pictures. ing for under- concept. Then selections and
standing. Focus introduce and dis- exploring what
on vocabulary cuss different makes food
building and draw ways of cate- healthy or
on the multilin- gorising food: by unhealthy.
gual resources colour, by source,
within the group. by main ingredi-
Explain the activi- ent, etc.
ty carefully.
Learner Whole Group 1 Work with the Sorts pictures provided by the teacher
activity class teacher into healthy and unhealthy food.
listen and
contribute Group 2 Scan magazines and cut out pictures Work with the
to that represent healthy and unhealthy teacher.
discussion food. Stick onto poster-sized paper.
Where possible, write the name of the
food under the picture.
Group 3 Brainstorm and Work with the Recategorise the
write down as teacher. food items written
many examples down in new cat-
as possible of egories as dis-
healthy and cussed with the
unhealthy food. teacher.

Peer tutoring is a way of providing individual instruction to learners

since their peers who have already mastered a concept or skill help to teach
them. It is often very beneficial for learners to teach each other. Sometimes
the explanation of a peer will be particularly relevant or helpful, enabling a
learner to grasp the lesson content, and learners may feel more comfortable
asking their peers for repeated explanations, rather than a teacher. The peer
tutors benefit from the consolidation of their learning that is required to teach
others and experience improved self-esteem (Mitchell, 2008: 53). While peer
tutoring is a valuable strategy, it should not be used without caution. Peer
tutors are not teachers and teachers cannot abdicate their responsibilities to
peer tutors. Learners who quickly master a concept and finish the required
or applicable copyright law.

learning tasks quickly should not always be expected to assist their peers;
they should be engaged with enrichment activities themselves. Ideally, peer
tutoring should be a reciprocal activity, so that learners can learn from each
other – sometimes being the tutor and sometimes being tutored. In this way, 129
learners can recognise each other’s strengths in different areas.
Some ways that teachers and schools have used peer tutoring effectively
include:

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• Cross-age tutoring where older learners work with younger learners, by

coming into the classroom and listening to reading, or providing individual
assistance with numeracy or literacy.
• Learners ﬂuent in a required language acquire a “buddy” to assist in
developing linguistic competence. Learners can be rewarded for the
progress that their buddies make so they have a vested interest in the
achievements of their buddies.
• Set up a homework centre before or after school. Find learners who show
academic ability and the potential to teach others and who will commit
time as “mentors” to help others with homework and revision for tests and
exams. The mentors work under the supervision of a teacher and acquire
points towards a certiﬁcate in community service (Maree, 2009).

Teacher assistants, facilitators, learning support teachers and parents can be

used in the classroom to help meet individual learning and support needs.
Differentiated instruction can be difﬁcult to achieve with one teacher in a
classroom. Where it is possible to add more adults to the classroom, it can
be easier to provide individually relevant instruction. Depending on the
resources that schools have, the following strategies can be implemented:

• Teaching assistants can sometimes be found among university students

looking to do community service or people from gap-year volunteer pro-
grammes. A wise teacher will use this assistance to support learners work-
ing individually or in groups to achieve curriculum requirements.
• Some learners, because of the barriers to learning that they experience,
require classroom facilitators to enable them to access the facilities and
curriculum and participate meaningfully in teaching and learning activi-
ties. Teachers need to work cooperatively with facilitators for the maxi-
mum beneﬁt of the learners concerned.
• Using learning support teachers for in-class support, rather than
removing certain learners from the classroom for assistance promotes
inclusion and belonging. The addition of a qualiﬁed teacher with the knowl-
edge and skills required for learning support in the classroom can enhance
instructional effectiveness. The learning support teacher can assist with
teaching small groups or the whole class, and can move among learners,
assisting them and promoting concentration and motivation. He or she can
help with differentiated assessment, for example by assessing a learner
or applicable copyright law.

orally while others write a test and can facilitate practical activities like
experiments (Walton & Nel, 2004).
130 • Parents, grandparents and community members who are able to give
time to the school can, depending on their skills and interests, assist in
classrooms. They may be able to listen to groups of children reading, or
read or tell stories or teach a craft to one group while the teacher is teach-

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ing another group. They may be able to assist with outings, sports coaching
or simply be another pair of hands to make an art activity possible.

5.4.2.2 Enabling learning through scaffolding

When constructing a building, builders need to use temporary frameworks or
platforms to hold them while they erect the permanent building. These tem-
porary structures are called scaffolds or scaffolding. Scaffolding is a useful
metaphor for enabling learning as teachers provide supports and frameworks
that allow learners to access the curriculum, construct their own knowledge
and master academic skills. Clay and Cazden (1992: 212) usefully describe
scaffolding as,
… [T]he teacher creates a lesson format, a scaffold, within which she
promotes an emerging skill, allows for the child to work with the famil-
iar, introduces the unfamiliar in a measured way, and deals construc-
tively with slips and errors. The teacher calls for the comprehension of
texts and for the detection and repair of mismatches when they occur.
She passes more and more control to the child and pushes the child, gen-
tly but consistently, into independent, constructive activity.

Different learners will require different scaffolding, depending on their cur-

rent readiness to learn and all learners need scaffolding to support them in
moving from their current skill to a more difficult level. Scaffolding can take a
number of instructional forms, including explanations, modelling, demon-
strating and questioning (Donald, Lazarus & Lolwana, 2002: 112). Scaffolding
can also be embedded into tasks, like providing opening sentences for para-
graphs, structures for essays and steps in maths problems. Vocabulary banks,
illustrations and clues to where answers can be found can scaffold access to
comprehension tasks. Allowing learners to use dictionaries and calculators
can also build confidence and enable success. As learners become proficient in
the given skill, the scaffolds can be removed, only to be replaced with the scaf-
folds required to master the next skill.

5.4.3 Differentiated learning activities and assessment

Learner activities are integral to teaching and learning and can be designed
to promote differentiated learning experiences. Assessment should reﬂect dif-
ferentiated and multilevel instruction. Formal and informal assessment tasks
should be designed to give learners the opportunity to demonstrate what they
or applicable copyright law.

do know and what they can do, not only expose what they do not know and
cannot do. Learning activities and assessment tasks should be both accessi-
ble and challenging to all our learners. Differentiation in these learning and
assessment tasks can, for ease of discussion, be divided into two categories: 131
that of differentiation that does not alter the conceptual difﬁculty of a task,
and differentiation that allows learners to work at different levels of concep-
tual difﬁculty.

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5.4.3.1 Differentiation with no adjustment to conceptual difﬁculty

The following examples reflect ways in which teachers can differentiate for
individual learners without changing the conceptual difficulty of a task:
Individualising the way learners express their knowledge can provide
learners the opportunity to harness their strengths. To show an understand-
ing of the structure and workings of a volcano, for example, learners could
have a choice between presenting an essay, a speech, a working model, a
poster or a presentation with multimedia. This acknowledges different learn-
ing styles and promotes authentic assessment. Orally assessing learners who
experience difficulty with writing and/or spelling in tests or examinations can
contribute to their success. Some learners may benefit from using a computer
rather than writing by hand in tests or examinations. Assistive devices are
available for use by learners with sensory or motor impairments (Alant &
Casey, 2005: 186).
Altering the conditions under which a task is performed may assist cer-
tain learners to experience success and compensate for barriers to learning.
The provision of extra time for the completion of a task is often used and is an
assessment concession that has been well documented as being of assistance
to learners who experience barriers to learning (Elliot & Marquart, 2004:
350–351, 365; Walton et al., 2009: 120). Teachers can also differentiate by
reducing the volume of a task and changing the venue of an examination to
reduce distractibility or provide necessary furniture, movement or breaks.
Delaying a learner’s requirement to complete a task can accommodate tempo-
rary physical or emotional difficulties and reflects a teacher’s sensitivity to
individual differences. Giving learners the choice as to whether they work
individually or in pairs is another way to optimise learning according to indi-
vidual preferences.
Altering the way a task is presented can promote learners’ access to
the task and its requirements. Learners with low vision may require tests or
exams to be presented with larger and bolded font, if not Braille, and teachers
need to ensure that maps, diagrams and cartoons are accessible. Some learn-
ers require that a task is read to them. Glossing certain words and introduc-
ing vocabulary in advance of a task can promote access without necessarily
compromising the complexity of the task.
Marking concessions may be granted to individual learners to prevent
their being penalised for untidy handwriting or incorrect spelling that occurs
because of barriers to learning they experience. Assessment rubrics can be
modified for individual learners so that although they have done the same
task as their peers, they may be assessed differently, with different criteria
or applicable copyright law.

weighted differently.

132 5.4.3.2 Differentiation by varying the complexity of the learner activity or

assessment task
Warnings have already been sounded about the potential dangers of setting
some learners on a course of learning which, because it is more accessible or

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less rigorous, may limit their educational options. Thus teachers who need to
differentiate by varying the complexity of tasks should collaborate with school
support and assessment teams and parents/caregivers.
This can be achieved in the following ways:
Provide enrichment learning activities for those who accurately finish
the class work. A Grade 4 teacher taught the whole class about turns and
angles in maths with a link to social sciences. She devised a worksheet that
assessed learners’ ability to indicate four main directions (north, east, south,
west), and required them to identify quarter turns and directionality (clock-
wise and anti-clockwise). Those who correctly completed this worksheet were
given another which required the use of a pair of compasses to draw turns and
circles. A further worksheet was available for those who finished the second
worksheet. This one introduced the eight main directions (north-east, south-
west, etc.) and explored the differences between the two types of compasses.
The extension worksheets meant that those learners who quickly grasped the
concept taught and who could demonstrate their understanding were given
additional tasks to do. These additional worksheets provided more challenging
activities; they were not simply more of the same-level activities. They kept
learners busy while the rest of the class finished the first worksheet.
Differentiate within a task. This approach to differentiated learning
activities is indebted to Nunley’s “layered curriculum” (www.help4teachers.
com). It involves constructing a task that includes a number of sections with
increasing levels of difficulty. For example, Section 1 would have built-in scaf-
folding and would require lower-order thinking skills – if the learner can do
this section, he or she gets a mark that indicates “partial competence”. The
teacher may use content knowledge or skills from the previous grade in this
section. Section 2 would then meet the curriculum requirements at a grade-
appropriate level and use some higher- and some lower-order thinking skills –
if the learner can do this section, he or she gets a mark that indicates “compe-
tence”. Section 3 would add more higher-order thinking skills – if the learner
can do this section, he or she gets a mark that indicates “more than compe-
tent”. The teacher may use content knowledge or skills from the curriculum
for the following grade.
Here is how a differentiated activity could be generated on a poem (Walton,
2009):

DIFFERENTIATED ACTIVITY USING POETRY

or applicable copyright law.

Sick Fish by Kenn Nesbitt1

The ﬁsh in our aquarium
are looking rather ill,
and most of them are turning 133
kind of green around the gill.
1 “Sick Fish” copyright © 2001 Kenn Nesbitt. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission of the
author.

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I might have fed them too much food,

forgot to clean their tank,
or maybe they’re allergic to
the toys and junk I sank.
Perhaps I broke the thermostat.
I could have cut their air.
What’s certain is they’re sickly
from my downright lack of care.
But even though they’re looking ill
I still have cause to gloat;
they’re obviously talented –
they’re learning how to ﬂoat!

Poem set for Grade 5 learners (Sick Fish by Ken Nesbitt)

Description Section 1 (Scaffolded). Section 2. Successful Section 3. Successful

of sections Successful completion of completion of learner completion of learner
learner activities in this activities in this sec- activities in this section
section results in a mark tion results in a mark results in a mark that
that indicates partial that indicates compe- indicates that the learner
competence in knowl- tence in knowledge is more than competent in
edge and skill require- and skill requirements the knowledge and skill
ments at grade level (or at grade level. requirements at grade
competence at a previ- Emphasis on middle- level (or competence at a
ous grade level). order thinking skills following grade level).
Emphasis on lower-order from Bloom’s Taxon- Emphasis on higher-order
thinking skills from omy. thinking skills from
Bloom’s Taxonomy. Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Possible Match words in poem to List all the possible If you were a fish, how
learner a bank of meanings. causes of the fish would you feel about this
activities Draw a picture of the being sick. poem?
for each sick fish in the poet’s How does the poet Should the poet be given
section tank using clues from feel about his sick new fish in a new tank?
the poem. fish? Explain your answer.
Questions for under- How do you know? Who is this poem written
standing: Explain the humour of for?
How does the poet know the last two lines. How do you know? Is the
his fish are sick? (lines 3 How do you feel style and content appro-
and 4) towards the poet? priate for this audience?
What may have caused Prepare to read the Read/listen to another
them to be sick? poem aloud with poem (e.g. “Hey little ant”
expression and by Philip Hoose) – what
emphasis. Using ref- do the poems have in
erence material, common?
or applicable copyright law.

investigate the topic Write a letter to the

of keeping fish in a NSPCA voicing your con-
fish tank: Design a cerns about cruelty to fish
134 poster for display at a in tanks.
pet shop where fish
are sold.

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This way of managing a multilevel task avoids the danger of lowered expecta-
tions. It ensures that foundation skills are mastered before learners proceed
to more difficult work. A teacher can further individualise an activity like this
by selecting tasks out of the three sections that specific learners would be
expected to do. Alternatively, the teacher can design a number of options at
each level and allow learners to choose which to do.
Differentiated content or materials in a lesson may be necessary to meet
individual interests and levels. Ideally, learners in a class should be working
in the same subject with the same content knowledge and towards mastery of
the same skills with the learning content or materials adjusted. This may be
particularly appropriate in the Foundation Phase where learners need to read
from readers appropriate to their reading skill level and so within one class,
different learners may be reading at different levels. Where learners transfer
to a school and have to learn a new language, there may be a time when their
reading content may need to be simpler than that of their peers. Similarly, a
learner already fluent in an additional language may read more challenging
material. Learners may learn about scientific investigations and data collec-
tion using more or less complex topics and experiments, according to their
interests, knowledge and abilities (Walton, 2010: 34). Teachers should be par-
ticularly sensitive to the age ranges in their classroom and select reading and
other learning and teaching support material that is not only appropriate to
learners’ current abilities, but also their ages.

5.4.4 Individual support plans (see section 3.5)

Some learners’ speciﬁc learning needs may mean that they need more struc-
tured and individualised interventions and support. In these cases, an indi-
vidualised support plan (ISP) would be drawn up in consultation with the
school support team, district support personnel, parents and, if appropriate,
the learner. The ISP describes the actions that need to be taken to address a
learner’s additional support needs and sets targets to be achieved, the strate-
gies and resources required to meet these targets, the criteria by which
achievement will be measured, the person(s) responsible and the date for
review. It is possible that within a class, there may be learners working on
their ISP targets within a learning area, and not doing what the majority of
their classmates are doing. If this is the case, teachers will need to plan ways
to be able to give assistance and instruction relevant to the ISP learning tar-
gets. The advantage of ISPs is that learners with higher support needs can
or applicable copyright law.

follow learning programmes that are speciﬁcally designed to meet their learn-
ing needs. The disadvantage of ISPs is that because they require some learn-
ers to do activities apart from their classmates, ISPs can reinforce negative
stereotypes about learning and cognitive differences. The National Strategy 135
on Screening, Identiﬁcation, Assessment and Support (DoE, 2008) guides
schools and teachers in the compilation and implementation of ISPs and
Chapter 3 in this book offers examples of completed ISPs.

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An additional principle to bear in mind is that of “partial participation” for

learners who cannot participate fully in an activity. Rather than excluding
learners because of an impairment that prevents full participation, teachers
should look for opportunities for meaningful participation in a part of an
activity. For example, a learner with a motor impairment who is not able to
manipulate the equipment in a science experiment may be assigned the task
of reading the results to the group.

5.5 conclusion: common questions about differentiation

5.5.1 What about standardised external assessments, like matric?
Differentiation obviously has implications for standardised external assess-
ments, especially at matric level. Teachers worry that if they apply the princi-
ples of differentiation, their learners will be disadvantaged when the time
comes for these examinations. They fear that they may have supported some
learners in ways that have enabled them to succeed and then when the time
comes to do an external exam, they will not be able to meet the expectations.
These concerns are valid, but should be addressed on an individual basis in
consultation with the school support team and the school assessment team. In
fact, supported access to the curriculum through differentiation in the early
years may increase, rather than decrease, a learner’s potential ultimately to
succeed in school-leaving exams.

5.5.2 How do reports reﬂect differentiation?

A standardised report is unlikely to be adequate to reflect differentiated
assessment tasks. Reports to parents may have to be modified to communi-
cate a learner’s level of knowledge and skill. This can be achieved by indicat-
ing learners’ competence at another grade level, rather than lack of compe-
tence at their current grade level. For example, a report could reveal that a
Grade 4 learner is competent in terms of the Grade 2 curriculum require-
ments, rather than not yet competent in terms of the Grade 4 curriculum
requirements. Other ways schools reflect differentiated assessment in reports
include changing the weighting of the tasks that make up the report mark for
some learners, providing work samples with feedback to go home to parents,
and reflecting modified assessment criteria in the reports. In these ways, par-
ents can see the alterations that have been made to the curriculum that have
enabled the learner to experience success.
or applicable copyright law.

5.5.3 How do we respond to complaints that differentiation is not

136 fair?
This question arises from a belief that fairness means that everyone gets the
same thing. Learners complain, “It’s not fair that Sarah gets easier sums than
us!” or “Bukhosi only has to do ﬁve spelling words – it’s not fair!” Parents may

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even feel that some learners are being advantaged by being given extra time
or more assistance. In fact, what is not fair is expecting all learners to learn
at the same pace and in the same way and show their learning in the same
manner. Because inclusion celebrates human diversity and expects learners
to be different, multilevel teaching and differentiation represents a way to be
fair to all our learners.

5.5.4 How is differentiation different from streaming?

Streaming is a practice whereby learners in a particular grade are sorted,

usually on the basis of their results, into different classes. The learners then
stay in that class for the year or phase. The motivation is that those learners
in the upper stream would move through the curriculum at a faster pace and
given more challenge, and those in the lower streams would work more slowly
with more accessible material. This might sound like a way of implementing
multilevel teaching, but there are many problems associated with streaming.
Sometimes very able learners underachieve so their results do not display
their ability and potential. When these learners are placed in classes where
the pace is slower and the material less challenging, they can become bored
and exhibit challenging behaviours. Streaming reduces the opportunities for
learners to learn about one another’s strengths and weaknesses, using their
strengths to assist others and depending on others in areas where they are
weak. It is often true that learners live up to the expectations that their
teachers have of them. The lowered expectations of teachers teaching learners
in lower streams can result in lowered performances. Those who ﬁnd them-
selves in the upper streams beneﬁt from the higher expectations of their
teachers who provide challenging and enriching learning opportunities.
Differentiation, by contrast, expects that classes will represent diverse
abilities and learning needs. Teachers plan to teach in a way that all learners
will learn at an appropriate pace and level within the same classroom. In this
way, learners come to appreciate diversity among people, realising that every-
one has strengths and ways of being intelligent and that everyone needs help
at some time. Inclusive schools will lead to an inclusive society if learners
work together, support one another’s learning and learn from each other.

5.6 summary
Differentiation, which refers to teaching and assessment strategies that
or applicable copyright law.

enable all learners to access the curriculum, is necessary to achieve the goal
of inclusive education. Because learners are different in their readiness to
learn, their interests and the ways in which they learn, individually relevant
teaching and learning strategies are necessary for optimum learning success. 137
With due recognition that differentiation should be used cautiously, and
never in a way that lowers expectations of any learners, teachers can use var-
ious strategies that acknowledge different learning needs. These include

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instructional techniques like classroom rotations, a mixture of whole-class

and small-group instruction, peer tutoring and harnessing the help of other
adults. Learner activities and assessment tasks can be differentiated in ways
that do not change the conceptual demands of the task but allow learners the
time or environment they need to experience success. Learner activities may
also be differentiated by adjusting the materials and/or thinking skills. At all
times, it is important to adhere to the principle of universal design, that is, to
plan in advance to ensure access and participation for all learners. In addi-
tion, some learners may need Individual Support Plans or very speciﬁc access
arrangements. Effective differentiation means that diverse learners can learn
together in the same classroom, thereby reducing marginalisation and exclu-
sion from and within schools.

Questions
1. How would you respond to a colleague who says that differentiation is too much
extra work?
2. How could teachers collaborate to prepare differentiated teaching and learning
activities?
3. How would you explain to a parent why his or her child was doing different work
from others in the class?
4. How does your school or classroom culture need to change for differentiation to
succeed?

GLOSSARY

Ability groups may be formed by dividing Cognitive processing styles are the ways
the learners in a class into groups accord- that learners prefer to work with knowledge
ing to their performance, abilities or readi- or solve problems – it seems that some
ness to learn. learners prefer to work in a linear, step-by-
Auditory, visual and kinaesthetic modal- step manner (sequentially) while others pre-
ities refer to hearing, seeing and fer to work with the “big picture” and
doing/moving – it seems that different process the content knowledge simultane-
learners prefer to learn by hearing, or see- ously.
ing, or by doing and moving. Differentiation is a broad term that is used
Baseline assessment is formal or informal to encompass a variety of instructional and
assessment that a teacher conducts to assessment strategies that ensure that the
establish what knowledge and skills a curriculum can be accessed by all learners.
learner can demonstrate in order to plan It assumes that learners come to class with
effective instruction. different levels of readiness, interest and
or applicable copyright law.

Bloom’s Taxonomy refers to the classifica- learning profiles and that to maximise
tion into a hierarchy that reflects an learning, teachers need to modify the cur-
increasing complexity of thinking skills or riculum, their teaching methods, teaching
138 ways of using knowledge. Lower-order and learning resources and activities, and
thinking skills are remembering and assessment to be individually relevant.
understanding, middle-order skills are Dilemma of difference is the challenge of
applying and analysing, and higher-order meeting learners’ individual support needs
skills are evaluating and creating. without labelling or marginalisation.

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Full-service/inclusive schools are schools social goods (including health care and edu-
which have the capacity to meet a wide cation). It requires the recognition and
range of support needs among learners. resistance of various forms of oppression.
Heterogeneous groups in a class are made Streaming is a practice whereby learners in a
up of diverse learners with different particular grade are sorted, usually on the
strengths, weaknesses, abilities and talents. basis of their results, into different classes.
Multilevel teaching is one strategy that can Universal design in education is the practice
be used for differentiation. It refers to the of designing teaching and learning to ensure
practice of teaching one concept or topic at the access and participation of all learners.
different levels of complexity within the Vocabulary banks are lists of words that
same classroom. may assist learners with the terminology of
Othering refers to the things we think, say or content subjects, or new/difﬁcult words in a
do that demeans others. text.
Reification is the process whereby something Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is
(usually a verb) becomes a noun or a thing. the distance between a child’s actual devel-
Scaffolding provides temporary supports to opment as seen in his or her ability to solve
learners to enable them to comprehend problems independently, and his or her abil-
knowledge and acquire skills. ity to solve problems with the guidance of an
adult or collaboration with a peer who has
Social justice is a broad term that refers to
already mastered the concept or task.
the equal participation of all people in a
society and the equitable distribution of

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Ferguson, P. & Ferguson, D. 1998. Construc- Tomlinson, C., Brighton, C., Hertberg, H.,
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Putnam, J.W. 2009. Co-operative learning for diversity by developing in-class support.
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Town: Government Printer. 2009. The extent and practice of inclusion in
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&article_id=4 (accessed on 8 January 2010). 425–447.
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Sapon-Shevin, M. 2007. Widening the circle:

the power of inclusive classrooms. Boston:
Beacon.
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Perceptual skills
ANNA Hugo
NormA NEL
mIrNA NEL

6.1 Introduction OBJECTIVES

When you have read this chapter

When it comes to dealing with perceptual difficulties
you should be able to
and how best to approach them, generally people
• define perception and
tend to be divided into two opposing schools of
perceptual difficulties
thought. The first school of thought is that perceptu- • explain the theoretical
al difficulties should be addressed by providing some background to perceptual
form of support, training or what was formerly development
known as “remediation”. The other school of thought • describe the different visual and
auditory perceptual skills
is that there should not be any specific training for
• describe different perceptual
perceptual difficulties. Based on this, and after long skills related to motor abilities
discussions, the editors and the publisher of this • understand the identification and
book decided to include this chapter. They do not support of perceptual difficulties.
take a stance on whether support and training for
perceptual difficulties should be done, but leave it to
the reader and the user of this book to decide on
whether or not to apply this knowledge.
or applicable copyright law.

141

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CASE STUDY

Mrs Lee sat at the table in her classroom looking at Billy’s writing exercise that
he had done that morning. Billy was one of the learners in the Grade 1 class that
she taught. The learners had to draw circles on four lines and then they had to
practise writing the number “2” on the other lines of the page. The circles that
Billy drew were all skew. Although the class had been practising writing a 2 for
the whole week, the 2s that Billy wrote looked like strange “s”s. Billy also only
wrote to the middle of the line before starting to write in the next line.
Mrs Lee was concerned about Billy because he seemed to be a loveable boy
but nevertheless he was not coping with the Grade 1 class work. Sometimes
some of the other learners giggled when he could not hear the difference
between words and sounds or when he was clumsy and could not catch a ball.
Mrs Lee opened the book in which she kept a record of her learners’ progress
and any problems that they may have had. She was surprised to see how many
times she had written about Billy. She’d recorded the following in her book:
At the beginning of the year he did not know how to hold a pencil.
• Cannot cut with a pair of scissors.
• Cannot colour in a picture – goes over the black outside line.
• Doesn’t know where the top of the page is and where the bottom is.
• Only writes or draws halfway across the page.
• Cannot hear or perhaps say a “p” and a “b” for instance in the words pear
and bear.
• Handwriting – very untidy and cannot draw zigzag and circle patterns
between the lines.
• Doesn’t know which is his right and which is his left hand.
• Outside play: doesn’t have balance.
• Cannot jump on his left or his right foot.
• Cannot catch a ball properly.

Mrs Lee had a long discussion with Billy’s mother. Billy’s birth was normal but
he was slow to sit, crawl, walk and speak. Billy often had ear and throat infec-
tions. His younger sister was born when Billy was only one year old and his
mother said that it was difﬁcult to cope with two babies. She admitted that Billy
was often neglected because she had to attend to the younger baby. Both
Billy’s father and mother had to work and he and his younger sister and an older
brother stayed with a nanny. The family could not afford to send the children to
a preschool. The nanny spoke a different home language from the one that
Billy’s parents spoke to him. Billy’s mother said that she never read stories to
or applicable copyright law.

her children because she was not brought up reading stories aloud. Mrs Lee
asked Billy’s mother to have his ears and eyes tested. His mother brought Mrs
Lee the results of the tests, which showed that Billy had no visual or hearing
142
problems.
Mrs Lee realised that she would need to assess Billy’s progress continuously.
She needed to attend to the perceptual problems that Billy experienced in order

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to help him master what was academically required of him in a Grade 1 class.
She would need to make use of differentiated teaching to help Billy access and
master the Grade 1 curriculum.

Please note: This is one case study and that every learner presents with different
backgrounds that can cause perceptual and motoric difficulties. The case study
is only to make you aware that there is a bigger picture with regard to these diffi-
culties.
It cannot be denied that some learners and especially young learners experience
learning difficulties as a result of perceptual difficulties (Winkler, 2005: 64).

As can be seen from the above case study, perceptual skills must be developed
from very early in a child’s life. To ensure that these skills are optimally
developed for a child to achieve academically at school level, the child must be
stimulated and the skills must be practised in an informal way before school.
At this early stage of a child’s life, the parents are the primary persons
responsible for this, however, many of them do not have the necessary infor-
mation or knowledge. Consequently many children arrive at formal schooling
lacking some of these essential skills and then experience spelling, reading,
writing and mathematical difﬁculties.

6.2 Deﬁning perception and perceptual difﬁculties

Perception is the ability to become aware of information or of something
through the five senses: hearing, seeing, touching, smelling and taste. Since
we all learn differently, it is important to incorporate all five senses whenever
possible in our teaching. However, the two senses that we use the most when
learning are hearing and seeing (Winkler, 2005: 71). In this chapter, the focus
will be on visual and auditory perception as well as motoric skills. As such,
various types of difficulties related to auditory, visual and motor perceptual
problems will be discussed.
Auditory perception. This is the ability to interpret sensory data that is
received through the ears. A person with an auditory perception problem can
hear the sounds, but has a problem interpreting them. They do not experience
or applicable copyright law.

actual hearing challenges.

Visual perception. This is the ability to interpret sensory data that is
received through the eyes. If learners have visual perceptual difﬁculties, they
have no problems with their vision or their eyes, but they cannot gain the cor- 143
rect meaning from pictures of objects, from written letters or from written
words. A person with a visual perception problem can see well, but has a
problem interpreting, identifying and organising what he or she sees.

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Perception related to motor abilities. Young learners should know

what the body can do, how it is organised and what its relation to objects
around it is. If learners have perceptual-motor difﬁculties, they have no prob-
lems with their ears, their eyes or the general movement of their bodies. The
perceptual difﬁculties they have, deal predominantly with the orientation of
the body.

Hardly any learning takes place where perceptual skills do not play a role.
People receive information through their senses, but they have to interpret
the information using various forms of perceptual abilities. Perceptual diffi-
culties can affect the ability to recognise stimuli being received through sight,
hearing or touch and then to discriminate between, and interpret, the sensa-
tion or the information appropriately. Learners with learning difficulties may
not have problems in any of the perceptual areas or they may have deficits in
all of them (Smith, Polloway, Patton & Dowdy, 2006: 169). However reading
difficulties, difficulties with letter formation, spelling difficulties, writing diffi-
culties and eventually difficulties with mathematics may arise as a result of
perceptual difficulties.

6.3 Theoretical background

During the 1970s and 1980s, and even during the 1990s, the identification
and assessment of deficits in the perceptual processes were done as part of
the diagnostic process when a learner had a learning problem. These deficits
in the perceptual processes were then “remediated”. This was, however, usu-
ally done in isolation, for example, working with pictures and shapes to
improve only visual discrimination, but the remediation was not transferred
to the classroom and learning situation. The link between what was remedi-
ated and what the learner had to achieve in the classroom, such as being able
to read or write better, was usually not made. Therefore this type of remedia-
tion is now regarded as behaviouristic. According to the behaviouristic view,
children had to undergo a reading-readiness programme at school before they
were allowed to learn to read. During this period, the training of various per-
ceptual skills was thus used as part of reading-readiness programmes. Choate
(2004) looks at the behaviouristic approach especially with LD as these diffi-
culties need direct instruction.
The teaching of language and of reading is now seen from a psycholinguis-
tic view. Psycholinguistics is an area of linguistics that is concerned with lin-
or applicable copyright law.

guistic performance. It deals with the ways in which people use their knowl-
edge of language in speech production and comprehension. Comprehension is
actively involved in the language skills of listening, speaking, reading and
144 writing. Reading readiness, according to the psycholinguistic view, should
entail children being exposed to a variety of reading materials as early as pos-
sible. They should also handle books. In this way, children are introduced to
the world of written text.

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Joubert, Bester and Meyer (2008) state that the development of perceptual
abilities should not be seen as a reading-readiness process, but as a pro-
gramme that should run simultaneously to develop learners’ general skills.
“The development of perceptual skills entails guiding learners to use their
senses optimally to ensure that they can interpret the messages going to their
brains via their senses correctly” (Joubert, Bester & Meyer, 2008: 119).
In the following section, the identification of perceptual difficulties will be
discussed and some ideas on how to support a learner who experiences these
difficulties will be provided.

6.4 Identiﬁcation and support of perceptual difﬁculties

6.4.1 Auditory perception
For the purpose of this book, the following forms of auditory perceptual difﬁ-
culties will be addressed:
• Auditory discrimination
• Auditory analysis
• Auditory synthesis
• Auditory blending
• Auditory memory
• Auditory ﬁgure-ground

Auditory discrimination is the ability to recognise a difference between

phoneme sounds and to identify words that sound the same and words that
sound different (Lerner, 2003: 258; Winkler, 2005: 68). Learners with audito-
ry discrimination problems do not have hearing problems, but they find it dif-
ficult to discriminate between certain sounds especially sounds that sound
similar. Examples are “b” and “p”; “b” and “d”; “f” and “v”; as well as “m” and
“n”. These perceptual problems relate strongly to difficulties with spelling and
reading because if the learner cannot hear the sounds or words correctly, they
will pronounce and spell them incorrectly, which will also influence their
understanding of the meaning of the words or text.
Auditory analysis is the ability to break up a word into its sounds or let-
ters. The word “fat” consists of the sounds “f-a-t”. Auditory synthesis works
the other way around. After a learner has said the letters “f-a-t”, he or she
must be able to blend the sounds to form the word “fat”. Both auditory analy-
sis and auditory synthesis are important for reading and spelling. If a learner
or applicable copyright law.

wants to write a word, he or she must be able to hear that it consists of cer-
tain sounds that have to be written in a certain order. The words “pen” and
“pencil” consist of the following sounds: /p/, /e/, /n/ and /p/, /e/, /n/, /s/, /i/, /l/. A
learner must be able to hear the sounds and the order in which the sounds 145
appear in a word before synthesising the sounds to form the word. Auditory
analysis and auditory synthesis relate to auditory blending discussed in the
following section.

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Auditory blending deals with the phonemes of a language. As mentioned

before in Chapter 4, phonemes are the smallest sound units in a language.
English uses the alphabet consisting of 26 letters but there are 44 phonemes
in spoken English. Examples of phonemes are “sh”, “th” and “ng”. Auditory
blending is the ability to synthesise the phonemes or the smallest sound units
of a word if the phonemes are pronounced with separation between
phonemes. One of the best known words that is used for auditory blending in
English is “cat”. It is pronounced “c-a-t” and the listener has to blend it audi-
torily to form the word “cat”. For most people this seems easy to do, but for a
learner with an auditory blending difficulty this might be problematic.
Auditory memory is very important because one has to remember what is
said and taught in a classroom. Lately it seems as if many learners in our
schools have problems with auditory memory because they are not attending
and listening when a teacher speaks in the class. A poor auditory memory
might be the result of a concentration problem or even as a result of boredom.
Auditory figure-ground is the ability to hear sounds against background
noise and then to identify it correctly (Lerner, 2003: 258). A learner strug-
gling with this will experience difficulty concentrating when there is a noisy
environment and gets easily distracted. Learners who have a history of mid-
dle-ear infections often have problems with auditory figure-ground skills.

6.4.1.1 Identification
A method to identify auditory discrimination difficulties is described in detail
below.
To find out if a learner has an auditory discrimination problem, compile
three lists of more-or-less ten pairs of short words each. The list should con-
sist of the following types of words: words starting with different letters,
words with different middle sounds and words ending with different letters.
Let the learner stand/sit in front of you. Keep your lips covered. Read a
pair of sounds (same and different) slowly and clearly (but naturally, do not
over pronounce). Then the learner must tell you if what they are listening to
sounds the same or different. Make sure that the learner understands the
instructions and the meaning of “same” and “different”. A good way to explain
this concept to them is to use same and differently coloured Smarties or stick-
ers. Practise first with the Smarties (only once or twice) before you formally
“test” them to ascertain that they know what is expected of them. You can use
the Smarties as a reward when they get their answers right. (Do make sure
that the learner is not sugar intolerant – then you would need to use colour
or applicable copyright law.

pencils or something else). Now do the same with words.

A list of English words could, for instance, look as it does in Table 6.1.
146
6.4.1.2 Support
First start by letting the learners identify different sounds. They must close
their eyes and listen to different sounds in their environment and tell you

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Table 6.1 A list of English words to test for auditory discrimination

problems

Do the following words sound the yes/no

same or different? Say yes or no.

bad – bad
sin – sing
cat – fat
play – play
speak – spoke
speak – speed
wool – wool
fry – ﬂy
him – ham
box – fox
dog – god
bring – bring

Table 6.2 Examples of words in three of our official languages

Beginning sounds (perhaps you can underline them)

English Afrikaans Setswana

cat mat kat mat bala kala

tin bin bus lus dila pila
bat pat bad pad fola kola
box fox kap tap gama rama
Ben den vet wet kala bala
win ﬁn voor boor mola bola
sip ship gaap aap sega jega
box ox bos pos roka poka
vest west saal sjaal rema lema
tap cap duur muur lala bala
Middle sounds

English Afrikaans Setswana

or applicable copyright law.

sit sat rus ras rema roma

pet put mat mot loma lema
147
sang song blok blik bula bola
fry ﬂy stem stom kika kuka
ring rang skiet skoot lala lela

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Table 6.2 Continued

Middle sounds
English Afrikaans Setswana

ﬂop ﬂip mag maag bela bala

slip sleep dun duin
shell shall dik dek
him ham muur meer
ran run deur duur
End sounds
English Afrikaans Setswana

beg bet bog bok pitsa pitse

sin sing rat rak sega sego
bad bag pryk prys seba sebi
doll dog skip skil bola bolo
shoes shoot rok rof
job jog duif duik
man ma’am rand rank
whisk whiz skeel skeef
speak speed skuif skuil
tide tile teem teen

what they hear. You can also play a CD with different environmental sounds.
Then they must tell you which sounds are more-or-less the same and why. Do
the same with differences.
To provide support for auditory discrimination difﬁculties, make use of
visual and tactile abilities. Pronounce, for instance, two different letters that
sound almost the same such as “k” and “t” and let them look at your mouth
and ask the learner or learners: in what position are the lips? Where is the
tongue? Let the learners tell you what they see when you make the letter. Let
them look in a mirror when they say “k” and “t”. What do they see? Let them
tell you what they “feel” in their mouths when they say “k” and “t”. Where is
the tongue when one says “k”? The tongue is ﬂat, but when one says “t” the
tongue presses softly behind the upper front teeth. Later you can do the same
with “b”, “p” and “d”, with other letters, with long and short sounds, with
or applicable copyright law.

phonemes that the learners find difficult or with whatever sounds or letters
with which the learners have difficulties.
Slowly start to use words in which the sounds appear working with one
148 sound at a time. Later the learners can start with discrimination. Let them
tell you if there is a difference in how the lips “feel” and “look” if, for instance,
one says: “teen” and “keen”? Is there a difference in the sound when one says:
“teen” and “keen”?

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Start to use visual aids by showing the learners the letters that you are
working with once the learners have mastered the sound system just by lis-
tening to it.
In the section on auditory blending, there is a short discussion about some
sounds and phonemes that are typical of the South African ofﬁcial languages.
These typical sounds and phonemes can also be used when dealing with audi-
tory discrimination. Examples are “se” and “sê” in Afrikaans and “ntsa” and
“ntša” in Sepedi.
Phonological awareness is strongly linked to auditory discrimination and
the use of the typical sounds of a language as discussed above. Phonological
awareness is included in the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statements
(CAPS) for languages and it can be described as an awareness of the sound
system of a language. One should know that there are certain sounds in the
home language that you speak that are typical of this language. English has,
for instance, words with a “th” and this phoneme can be pronounced as []
(e.g. this) and [⍜] (e.g. thin), but there are no words with an “ht” sound. In
Afrikaans and English there are words ending with “ng” [ŋ] (e.g. sing), but no
words starting with “ng”. The Nguni and Sotho languages of South Africa
have, however, many words starting with “ng”, for example, “ngulube”,
“ngalo” and “ngako”.
Phonological awareness is used in the classroom by letting the learners
“play” with the sounds and the sound system of a language. This is done oral-
ly so that the learners can hear the different sounds and how they can be
changed. The beginning, middle and end sound of a word could for instance be
changed.

Table 6.3 Changing the beginning, middle or end sound of a word

Beginning sound
Middle sound End sound
(can be called rhyme words)

man man man

can men map
fan moon mass
tan mean mat

The sound of words can also be altered by changing the word into the plu-
ral form for instance: “book” to “books”; “ship” to “ships”; “tree” to “trees”.
Another idea is to change the masculine form into a feminine form by adding
a sufﬁx: “prince” to “princess”; “lion” to “lioness”.
or applicable copyright law.

Once the learners have grasped the basics of phonological awareness, more
advanced exercises could be done by adding preﬁxes, sufﬁxes and even an
extra word: 149
• “paint” – “repaint”, “pre-paint”
• “paint” – “painted”, “painting”, “painter”
• “paint” – “paintwork”, “paint-box”, “paintball”, “house-paint”, “gloss-paint”

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You are also referred to Chapter 4 in which the relationship between phono-
logical awareness and reading is discussed.
In many of our schools, phonics is the only approach to the teaching of
reading that is used and phonics relies heavily on a young reader’s auditory
blending abilities and visual memory. Phonics involves the teaching of the
connection between the sounds of a spoken language with letters or groups of
letters. Readers are required to learn individual letters and letter features
ﬁrst, followed by digraphs and other multi-letter units before single words are
read. Readers are taught to blend the sounds of letters together to produce
approximate pronunciation of unknown words. Learners are taught what
sounds the letters “d”, “g” and “o” stand for. Eventually the sounds are blend-
ed together to form the word dog.
The phonics approach regards reading as a “bottom-up” approach, which
requires the reader to learn individual letters and letter features ﬁrst, fol-
lowed by digraphs and other multi-letter units before single words are read.
The relationship between sounds and symbols in text is therefore important.
In this approach there is a strong link between phonemic awareness, the abil-
ity to process words automatically and fast, and reading achievement (Wal-
lace, 2001: 23).
Support for auditory blending could be provided by starting with short
words consisting of a single vowel sound and a single consonant sound. Say
the two sounds and then slowly blend the two sounds: “m” – “a” becomes “ma”
(Sepedi, Setswana “mmê”). Ask the learners what they hear when you say
“ma”? Listen well, there is an “m” and an “a”. If I put the two sounds together
they become “ma”. Do the same with “b” and “a”, which becomes “ba” (the
sound made by a small lamb or goat) and with “p” and “a”. “Ma” can eventual-
ly become “mama” in isiZulu and “ba” can become “baba” in isiZulu and
Afrikaans. Think about the home language of the learners if you are teaching
them in their home language and make a list of short words consisting of two
sounds and three sounds. Also include words that start with a vowel so that
learners can learn the importance of the vowel sound.

Table 6.4 Examples of words starting with a vowel

English Afrikaans Setswana

up os oka
in ek aba
ox in iba
or applicable copyright law.

egg af una
of aap eke
150
Do the same with other short sounds, always trying to use words that
mean something in whichever language you are working. When the learners
have mastered these types of words, slowly introduce words with three dis-

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tinctive sounds, such as “bed”, “cat”, “dog”, “him”, “bus”. After this, start to
use phonemes, which are the short sound in the spoken language for example
“sh-”, “th-”, “bl-” and “-ng”.
Also introduce the learners to other phonemes, for example short and long
vowel sounds in English: “ship” and “sheep”; “chin” and “chain”. Think about
sounds that are typical for the language that you are working in. Sepedi has,
for instance, typical sounds that are unique to the language and these sounds
are not found in English and Afrikaans. Examples are words starting with
“ng-” such as “ngaka” and “ngopê”. Sometimes more consonants are added to
the “ng-” for instance in words such as “ngwala” and “nngêlê”. Afrikaans also
has typical sounds such as “ui”, “aai”, “eu” and “eeu” that do not appear in the
other languages. Also think about the use of circumflexes and clicking sounds
in the various official languages in South Africa. These typical sounds and
phonemes of the various South African languages should be used as you make
progress with auditory blending, but could also be used well for auditory dis-
crimination once the learners have grasped easy straightforward sounds.
Only use visual cues during auditory blending exercises once the learners
have mastered them well and you want to relate what the learners have mas-
tered to reading, spelling and writing.
The following “Give Me Five” listening strategy comes from a book by
Friend and Bursuck (2006: 372–373). It can be used when working with a
learner or learners with auditory memory difficulties, problems or attention
and concentration, but it can also be used in a big class when you want all the
learners to concentrate and attend. The “Give Me Five” strategy focuses on a
learner’s five body parts in order to improve their listening skills (Friend &
Bursuck, 2006: 372–373):
• Eyes should be on the speaker or the teacher.
• Mouth should be quiet.
• Body should be still.
• Ears should be listening.
• Hands should be free.

Use a drawing of a hand with a body part and action on the fingers starting
with the little finger with two eyes and written above it “eyes on the speaker”.
Before a teacher starts to speak and especially if he or she wants the learners
to sit still and concentrate, he or she can tell them: “Give me five.” Then the
learners have to “give five” and as the teacher shows each finger, they have to
say the body part and the action.
or applicable copyright law.

Most of the teaching that happens in our schools is done orally and it relies
heavily on learners’ auditory memory. But many children are visual learners
who learn and remember better when they experience what is taught visual-
ly. Their auditory memories are not their strong modalities. (You are referred 151
to Chapter 2 in which types of learning are discussed.)
When you work with auditory memory, relate it as soon as you can to what
the learners have to study at school and what they have to learn to be able to

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read, write, spell or do mathematics well. Tell the learners, for instance, “If I
say 6, which number comes before the 6 and which two numbers come after
the 6?” Or, “If I have to write the word ship I first hear the / /? sound. But I
hear the /s/ sound first and then I have to add the /h/ to make the / / ? sound
that I hear.”
Auditory memory can be enhanced by first letting the learners do activities
that are presented to them orally. Get the learners’ attention and tell them to
listen well because you are going to say something only once. Start with let-
ters, words and numbers that they have to repeat in the same order:
• “b-d-l; f-t-m-p; a-t-s-p-b; t-l-o-g-m-n”
• “table – window – fridge; carpet – door – bed – chairs; apple – pear – orange
– banana – pawpaw”
• “7 – 2 – 9; 3 – 8 – 2 – 6; 10 – 5 – 3 – 6 – 9”

Start with two or three letters, words or numbers and slowly increase the
number used. Play memory games examples. Do a few of these exercises
daily. But most importantly, relate these exercises to improve auditory memo-
ry to what you are actually teaching in the class or to what the learner who
has a learning problem has to master. Plan auditory memory exercises well
and do these types of activities only if you have a reason to do them. Every-
thing you do should also eventually relate to reading, writing, spelling or
mathematics.
If you use phonics to teach reading, a learner has to remember that the let-
ter “d” stands for the /d/ sound and the letter “m” stand for the /m/ sound. This
requires both auditory and visual memory abilities.
Instead of repeating what has been said, a learner can also write or draw
instructions that are given orally. Try to include what the learner is expected
to learn in the class in some of these exercises.

• When the learner knows colours, he or she can be requested to arrange

coloured pens in a certain order. Initially the exercise can be done with two
or three colours and then the number of pens can be increased.
• When shapes have been introduced in the class, the instruction could be:
“Draw a square in the first block, a circle in the second block and a triangle
in the third block.” Later on this exercise can be made more difficult by
adding colours: draw a red square in the first block and a yellow triangle in
the second block.”
or applicable copyright law.

The same can be done with activities. Start by doing two activities and slowly
increase the number of activities. The words and objects used in these activi-
152 ties could relate to what the learners are learning at school, for instance,
domestic animals or wild animals, plants, vegetables, fruit and countries. You
can use pictures or toys. Prepositions can also be brought into these activities
for auditory memory. Instructions such as the following could be used: “Place

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the cow inside the box, the lion behind the box and the elephant left of the
box.” Prepositions will also be discussed in the next section on perception in
relation to motor abilities (section 6.5).
Games can also be played during which the teacher and the learner add
one word to a list at a time:
• “We are going on holiday and I am packing the following into my bag:
shoes, a face cloth, shorts …”
• “I am having a party for my birthday and we will have the following at the
party: ice-cream, a cake, balloons …”
• “We are going to the shop and we must buy: bread, jam, soap, fruit …”

Learners also enjoy acting out instructions that are given to them orally. For
example:
• Touch your right foot with your left hand.
• Put your left hand behind your head.
• Put your right arm in the air and stand on your left foot.
• Jump on your left foot, jump with both feet and jump on your right foot.
• Put your bag under the table, open the door and close the window.

These instructions can slowly be made longer to include three, four or even
five instructions. If a learner finds it difficult, do only one or two instructions
at a time until the learner has mastered them. The learner should enjoy the
activities and should feel that he or she is successful in doing them. These
activities also relate strongly to laterality, lateral dominance and spatial per-
ception, all of which will be discussed in the section on perception related to
motor abilities (section 6.5).
The most effective way to keep a learner’s auditory attention is to use a
story. Keep the following in mind when reading a story:
• The story must be on the level of the learners.
• It must be relevant to their interests.
• There must be an interesting plot.
• Do not read it in a monotonous way, change your voice and use your face.
• Do not keep on reading for too long at a time. Stop and ask questions or
read the story in a sequence (read a part every day). Ask the learners what
they think is going to happen next.
or applicable copyright law.

• Let the learners retell the story.

• Teach social conventions when discussing the story and asking questions.
• Turn taking. Give the speaker the opportunity to ﬁnish what he or she is 153
saying during this discussion.
• Respect the learners’ opinions.
• Eye contact (keep cultural issues in mind).

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A few ideas to include in your support programme for auditory ﬁgure-ground

skills are to play background noise while you are talking or reading a story.
The learner must then tell you what he or she heard or you can ask him or
her questions about what was said or read. Another idea is to blindfold him or
her and make sounds in different places while there is a background noise.
The child must then point to where he or she has heard it.

6.4.2 Visual perception

Always make sure that learners do not have a health issue with their eyes
when you suspect that there is a problem with visual perception. Also remem-
ber that eye movement and the convergence of the two eyes are important for
visual perception and eventually for reading. Refer the learner to an eye spe-
cialist, ophthalmologist or to the clinic should you think there is a problem
with the eyes. You can also discuss the matter with a sister from the clinic
who should be able to refer the learner.
The following forms of visual perceptual difﬁculties will be addressed:
• Visual discrimination
• Visual memory
• Visual sequential memory
• Visual closure

Visual discrimination refers to the ability to see similarities and differences

between pictures, geometric shapes, letters, numbers and words. A learner
should, for instance, see that there is a difference between the letters “b” and
“d” or between the words “dog” and “god”, “though” and “through”. To be able
to read, young learners need to be able to make careful distinctions between
letters and patterns of letters and also spaces between words. This is an
extremely difﬁcult task, but it is built on simpler tasks such as the ability to
see the differences between shapes and patterns. A learner must also be able
to discriminate between the relationship between shapes, patterns and even-
tually letters and numbers.
Support for a learner with a visual discrimination perceptual problem can
therefore start by working with shapes and patterns. Later letters, numbers,
letter and number patterns and eventually words could be used. In this sec-
tion are just a few examples that can be used. Extend on these examples and
eventually also use examples of words in the home language of the learners.
or applicable copyright law.

It is stressed again that if a learner has severe problems with visual discrimi-
nation, one should start by using pictures. However, one should move away
from the picture level as soon as the learner has mastered it, otherwise it
154 serves no purpose. The activities that you use, should also relate to what is
expected of the learner in the classroom academically. Use letter shapes and
words as soon as the learners have mastered visual discrimination using pic-
tures. Then only use letters, words and numbers. Do not use any words that

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do not exist in a language because by using nonsense words such as “grod”

and “gord” for visual discrimination you are just putting the “shape” of words
spelled incorrectly in the learners’ memories.
• Two pictures of the same object, but in the second picture there are slight
differences. The learner has to look for the differences and also describe
what is different. A few typical South African pictures – no castles and
fairies!
• Row of triangles – one triangle is smaller. Which triangle looks different
from the others? Why is it different? Discuss with the learner. Alternative-
ly a triangle can be drawn in a box and the learner has to choose from a
row of triangles next to it and identify which one looks like the triangle in
the box.
• Row of triangles – one triangle in a different position.
• Patterns of triangles and squares – which pattern is different from the oth-
ers?
• Draw a circle around the letter that looks the same as the ﬁrst letter:
k h k b t k k h l k h b b k h l k b k
• Draw a circle around all the letter “d’s” in the following line:
b p d t d k d p d b d p p b a d b
• Draw a circle around the word that looks the same as the ﬁrst word in the
block.
pan ban nap nan pan ban pan pap nan ban nap pan

6.4.2.1 Reversals
Many learners in the Foundation Phase have problems with reversals. This
means that they reverse letters and numbers such as “b” and “d”, “b” and “p”,
“m” and “w” and “6” and “9” when reading, writing and spelling. They do not
see the difference between the various letters and numbers. It is quite normal
for young learners to do this, but if it continues by the second or third term in
Grade 2, special attention should be given to it. The authors of this book
learned from teachers that there are some learners in our schools who are in
Grade 4 and beyond who still make these reversals. This can have a serious
impact on a learner’s academic progress at school. When a teacher provides
support to a learner with reversal problems, the activities should simultane-
or applicable copyright law.

ously include reading, writing and spelling activities.

Reversals of letters and numbers can occur because of visual discrimina-
tion problems, but it can also be related to position in space, lateral domi- 155
nance and directionality, which will be discussed in section 6.5.
When a teacher deals with reversals such as “b” and “d”, it is best to work
with one letter at a time. Provide different activities with, for instance, the

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letter “b” until a learner has mastered it and is able to write it correctly.
Make up a story of how the letter “b” is formed – first the “stick” and then the
“ball”. Discuss this with the learner and every time he or she has to write it,
the story must be told.
If one looks in a mirror and you say a “b” this story is repeated. Let the
learner look in a mirror how a b is formed with the lips. The lips are closed
forming a line like a “stick” and then the lips open forming a “ball”. Let the
learner write a “b” in the air, on the desk, on sand or feel a “b” made out of
sand paper. After a couple of sessions with a “b”, and if you, the teacher, are
sure the learner has mastered it, start with the letter “d”. Only after the
learner has really mastered the letter “d”, the two letters are presented simul-
taneously.
An idea to teach the letters “b” and “d” is to print the word “bed” on a card
and then to draw a bed over the word. The letters can only face inward if the
bed is drawn at the top and therefore the first letter with which the word
starts, has to be a “b”. If learners continue to have a problem with a “b” and a
“d” they can be told to draw a bed with the word “bed” written as part of it
before they write. The word “bed” starts with a “b” and therefore a “b” always
looks like the first letter on the card. It ends with a “d” and therefore a “d” has
a “stick” or the style of the bed at the end.
It is important for a learner to have well-developed visual memory abilities
to be able to learn to read and write. Visual memory is important right from
the beginning when letters are introduced to a young learner. A learner
should remember that the letter “j” represents the “j”-sound and the letter
“m” represents the “m”-sound in words. A learner should also remember the
sequence in which letters are written to form a sound. In the “ai”-sound as in
the word rain, the “a” comes before the “i” or in the word “beauty”, first comes
the “e”, then the “a” and lastly the “u”.
In the written English language, there are 120 graphemes that have to be
remembered and this can be an enormous task for a learner to master. A
grapheme is a written language symbol that represents an oral language
code. In English, each letter represents an oral code or sound but combina-
tions of letters also represent different oral codes. A “ph” in English repre-
sents for instance the [f] sound and an “ea” represents a [i] sound. In English,
one sound is sometimes represented by a variety of letter combinations such
as the [e] sound in the words “eight”, “great”, “reign”, “ray”, “they”, “bait”,
“gauge”. To remember all these letter combinations and the sounds they rep-
resent, calls for a well-developed visual memory.
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A method to teach reading that is used by many teachers is the look-and-

say approach and this method relies heavily on visual memory. At ﬁrst, learn-
ers are provided with a picture when, for instance, the word “car” and the
156 word “house” is taught, but eventually the learners have to remember the
“shape” of the words “car” and “house” and read the words without the aid of a
picture. They have to rely on their visual memory to remember the words.
Well-developed visual memory is therefore important for reading and eventu-

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ally also for spelling and writing. If a teacher plays visual memory games
with a learner or group of learners, the activities should relate to reading and
writing as soon as the learners have mastered playing with pictures. The aim
of visual memory is the same as with any other perceptual activity used to
provide support to a learner with perceptual difficulties: it should be relevant
to what is being learnt in the classroom.
Many games can be played to improve visual memory. Place five or six
objects on the table, let the learner look at them for thirty seconds and then
cover the objects. The learner has to name the objects. Slowly increase the
number of objects used in the activity. This game can also be changed by tak-
ing an object away and the learner has to say which object was removed. The
same game can be played with pictures, letters and later with short words. If
the learners are able to read, the same can be done as was discussed with ver-
bal instructions in the section on auditory memory. (See section 6.4.1 Audito-
ry perception.) The instructions are given in a written form. The number of
instructions is increased slowly.
Visual sequencing memory is important to writing and spelling words cor-
rectly. For example, in the word “beauty” one has to remember the sequence in
which the letters “e”, “a” and “u” are written. Many words in English are spelt
non-phonetically and therefore visual memory and visual sequencing memory
have to be used in order to remember the sequence in which the letters are
written. Luckily the spelling of the other 10 South African languages is more
phonetic, but there are also combinations of letters to form certain sounds that
have to be remembered. For example, in the Sotho languages there are letter
combinations such as “tlh-”, “tlw-”, “nth-” and “ntlh-”. Afrikaans has specific
combination vowels to form certain sounds such as “eu-”, “ui-”, “eeu-”, “oei-”
that learners find confusing and difficult.
Games in which first pictures and later letters and words are used, can be
played with learners to try and improve their visual sequencing memory. This
time the sequence in which the pictures, letters or eventually words are pre-
sented, is the main issue. Arrange four or five picture cards on the table. A
learner can look at the cards for a few seconds. The cards are shuffled and the
learner then has to put the cards in the same sequence. Alternatively the pic-
tures can be turned upside down. The learner gets the same cards and he or
she has to place the same card on top of each card that has been turned
upside down. The learner can do a self-check to see if there are two of the
same cards on top of each other.
In order for learners to be able to remember the order in which letters are
or applicable copyright law.

used in a sound, a “silly” line of words could be put together. To remember the
words that are, for instance, spelt with an “ough-” in English, “ough-” can be
placed in a list and these words are called the “old uncle gets hungry” words. 157
It is advised that when working with the visual sequencing of letters such
as clear consonants and graphemes, this process should be tied with the artic-
ulation of the sound blending. Blended sounds such as “br-” or “sl-” should be

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articulated clearly so that the learners hear the two letters in each blend.
Consequently, the learners do not only see the sequence of the letters, but
they also hear it.
Difficulties with figure-ground perception refers to the inability to focus on
one object itself or one visual aspect of the visual field while seeing it in rela-
tion to the rest of the field. This means that a learner should be able to distin-
guish between the important and the unimportant aspects of what is being
observed visually. Learners who have visual figure-ground difficulties stick
with one thing, and then lose their place while reading. They also have diffi-
culties finding a word or sentence between other words or sentences when
their attention is suddenly drawn from their reading. Many also struggle to
find something if their desks are cluttered, they cannot copy from the black-
board and also cannot catch a ball. A good activity to improve this skill is to
ask the learner to identify certain things from a picture. The first pictures
used must not have too much detail in them and as the learner progresses,
the level of detail can increase.
Visual closure refers to the ability to visualise a complete whole when
incomplete information of a partial picture is provided. Thus a complete fea-
ture such as a picture of an animal could be recognised from fragmented
information say, for instance, when parts of the outline of an animal is left
out. Children with visual closure problems have difficulty visualising the
whole object.
For instance, they find it difficult to visualise the missing parts of a poorly
photocopied page of print or of a picture. They also cannot see an object when
it is partially hidden by other objects in front of it, for example an animal that
is partially hidden by grass. Children with visual closure problems find it dif-
ficult to visualise images, to put parts together to form a whole. This can
occur, for instance, when building a jigsaw puzzle or trying to see spelling
patterns. They also find it difficult to put letters together to form a word or to
“close” the word although they are able to read the individual letters. These
children are seldom able to recognise a dot-to-dot picture before it is finished
or to blend letters into a word visually. Children with poor visual closure abil-
ities may have difficulty completing a thought. The skill of visual closure
might help children to recognise inferences or to predict outcomes.
Visual closure plays an important role in helping children to read and com-
prehend quickly. The number of fixations in a line influences the speed at
which a person reads. When visual closure is well developed, people’s eyes do
not need to process every letter in every word for them to be able to recognise
or applicable copyright law.

the word quickly by sight. Visual closure also helps to recognise sight words
with more speed and thus the person’s reading speed is increased.
Activities that can help to enhance and develop visual closure include:
158 building jigsaw puzzles, doing dot-to-dot pictures and completing word
searches. But once a child is in formal schooling it is advisable to develop
visual closure activities around letters, words and phrases as school tasks
might require well developed visual closure abilities.

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6.5 Perception related to motor abilities

The following forms of perceptual-motor difﬁculties will be addressed in this
chapter:
• Gross motor skills
• Fine motor skills
• Eye-hand coordination
• Spatial perception or position in space
• Laterality
• Lateral dominance
• Directionality

Like visual perceptual and auditory perceptual difﬁculties, perceptual-motor

difficulties should be addressed as part of a support programme and should
only be included if the problem continues and if the teacher is convinced that
the learner’s progress in the class is hampered by it. Kirk, Gallagher, Anasta-
siow and Coleman (2006: 123) state in this regard: “Modern concern, however,
tends to focus on techniques for remediating specific deficits – such as read-
ing, spelling, or mathematical disorders – rather than on activities to increase
proposed lacks in body integration.”
Gross motor skills deal with the use and control of the large muscles of the
body. It is common for learners with learning disabilities to display problems
in gross motor areas. They often cannot throw and catch a ball and may have
a clumsy gait (Smith, Polloway, Patton & Dowdy, 2006: 170). Gross motor
skills entail sitting, balance and control of the trunk, head and neck. Gross
motor development is the main reason it is so important for preschoolers to
run around, to jump, to learn to balance themselves and to climb in order to
develop all their gross muscles. When a young learner comes to school for the
first time, he or she must be able to sit upright for a long period in the school.
To be able to do this, the gross muscles should be well developed.
When starting to help learners catch a ball, make it easy for them in the
beginning in order to get practice and to master the activity. Make the dis-
tance between the “thrower” and “catcher” short and use a bigger ball or a
bean bag. Teach the learners to keep their eyes on the ball and to pull the ball
towards the body when catching it. The distance could slowly be made bigger
and later on a smaller ball could be used. Learners’ balance could be improved
by letting them walk on a rope and later on something that is a bit higher,
such as bricks or even old car tyres that have been planted into the soil.
or applicable copyright law.

Fine motor skills deal with the smaller muscles of the body such as the
hands and fingers as well as the tongue and speech muscles (Lerner, 2003:
250). Common fine motor problems include buttoning clothing, tying shoe-
strings, using scissors and eventually writing. Young learners could be helped 159
with fine motor skills by letting them practise buttoning bigger buttons and
tying the shoestrings of a big shoe, which could be cut out of cardboard. Using
scissors can be enhanced by letting learners cut on a clear straight line on a

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piece of paper at first. Slowly make the cutting exercises more intricate. Make
sure that learners who are left handed use the correct scissors for a left-hand-
ed person. Pencil grip for right-handed and left-handed learners should be
taught well.
Fine motor abilities of the muscles in the hands and fingers can also be
developed. The learners “pretend” to play piano and place their hands on
their tables as if they are going to play. They now have to practise lifting each
finger separately: first on the one hand and then the other hand. The fine
muscles of the eyelids can, for instance, be developed by letting the learners
open one eye and close the other eye. Then the closed eye is opened and the
open eye is closed. They practise doing this at a faster pace.
Eye-hand coordination is the ability to make the hands carry out instruc-
tions from the brain that have been related through the eyes. This is impor-
tant to copy from the black- or whiteboard or a book. Catching a ball is also a
very good exercise for eye-hand coordination. Eye-hand coordination could
also be practised by letting the learners draw big forms on the blackboard or
on a big piece of paper. Start with a circle and then a square, a triangle, a big
cross, a diamond or any appropriate form that they will learn in school. The
learners could also be helped to draw a “lazy eight” on a big piece of paper or
on the blackboard. A “lazy eight” is the number eight that is lying on its side.
Let the learners draw the eight over and over again. At a given moment, the
learners have to reverse the direction in which they are drawing the eight.
Spatial perception also known as “position in space” refers to the way in
which people perceive objects in relation to themselves before they can per-
ceive the objects in relation to each other. Activities to promote spatial per-
ception and awareness of the body are done at preschool level so that young
learners learn to know if objects are close or far away, big or small in relation
to themselves and to other objects. If learners have problems with this they
cannot understand concepts such as front, behind, under, over, first, middle
and last and they also find it difficult to estimate depth, time or distance.
This, in turn, has an impact on reading, writing, spelling and mathematics.
These learners struggle, for example, with sequencing letters in a word, long
division and multiplication, map reading or graphs, writing between the lines,
putting spaces between words and they also tend to mix letters, numbers and
words vertically and horizontally (e.g. “d” for “p”).
Laterality is the inner awareness of the right and the left side of one’s
body. It is not a learnt skill, but it develops within people themselves. Only
once children have mastered the awareness of left and right in themselves,
are they able to recognise left and right outside their bodies. Learners with
or applicable copyright law.

laterality difﬁculties sometimes have problems crossing the imaginary middle

line of their bodies (that is why it is so important for a child to have crawled).
These learners might not be able to cross their arms over their chests or touch
160 their left foot with their right hand. They also find it difficult to draw a hori-
zontal line from one side of a piece of paper to the other with the same hand.
They will draw the line with their left hand up to the middle of the page, then
take the pen or pencil in their right hand and finish the line.

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The preference of a specific side of the body to take the lead when doing
activities is known as lateral dominance. Lateral dominance develops from
laterality. This is part of a person’s natural development and progress. If
learners go to school without having established their lateral dominance, they
might have problems with concepts of left and right outside their bodies. This
might be the reason for reversals such as “b” and “d” or similar problems with
spelling and mathematics.
To establish whether learners are left or right handed, it is a good idea to
give them a broom and let them sweep the floor. The dominant hand is usual-
ly held at the top of the broom stick.
Directionality is also a consequence of laterality and it can influence a
learner’s academic progress at school. Learners must know their bodies so
that they can have a stable spatial awareness of the world around them. This
will enable them to know where in space objects around them are. Learners
who cannot do this might find it difficult to see that a certain object is not fac-
ing in the same direction as other objects. At school, they might experience
difficulties with the order in which symbols, letters and numbers are
arranged leading to problems with “6” and “9”, “b” or “d”, “b” and “p”, and
words such as “dog” and “god”.
To enhance body awareness and body orientation, activities such as the fol-
lowing can be done with the learners:

• Touch your right knee; put your chin on your left hand; put your left hand
behind your back; kick the ball with your right foot.
• Show me your friend’s left arm; show me my right foot; put your right hand
on my left knee.
• Put the book under the table; put the cup on top of the chair; put the chair
behind the table; put the book next to the box.
• On a big piece of paper draw stick men holding their hands and feet in var-
ious positions. Let the learner act each of the positions and each time he or
she has to say what they are doing, for example: “I put my right arm in the
air”, “I stretch with both my arms”, “I kick with my left foot”.
• Play a game to show which of your learner’s hands is the “cleverest”. Place
a big piece of paper in front of the learner. The learner is requested to hold
one hand behind her back. With the other hand she must pack cards in a
row across the piece of paper as fast as she can. Then she must do the same
with the other hand. Let her decide which hand could do the activity the
best. An alternative is to ask the learner to draw a line across the paper
or applicable copyright law.

with one hand, keeping the other hand behind his back. Then he must do
the same with the other hand. Let the learner decide which hand could do
it the best. 161
• Use a piece of paper with small blocks on it. Ask the learner to draw a cer-
tain pattern by giving instructions such as: “Colour the two blocks in the
left corner red; colour the block right of the red block yellow; colour the

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block beneath the yellow block green”. Instead of colouring in blocks, the
learner can arrange the pattern with small blocks or with marbles on a
board with holes in it. Alternatively, the teacher can pack a pattern and
ask the learner to pack the same pattern. If the learner knows letters and
numbers, patterns consisting of letters or numbers can be used later.

6.6 General guidelines in dealing with perceptual difﬁculties

When you provide some form of support for a learner with a perceptual prob-
lem, keep the following general guidelines in mind. Learners with learning
difficulties are usually intelligent, but have different ways of learning. Morti-
more (2008: 6) mentions that any person has a cognitive style and learning
styles in the process of learning. A cognitive style “is the spontaneous almost
automatic way in which an individual processes incoming stimuli” and learn-
ing styles are “the strategies a student adopts to cope with learning tasks and
situations”. Although it is not possible for you to identify every learner’s cog-
nitive and learning style in a classroom situation, your teaching strategies
need to be varied in such a way that different cognitive and learning styles
are addressed. However, when supporting a learner with learning difficulties
you should be aware of his or her preferred styles to plan a support pro-
gramme that is the most appropriate for that learner individually as well as
for transferring the programme into the classroom. For example, rote learn-
ing is usually not a good way to help these learners. (See Chapter 2 for more
information on different intelligences and learning styles.)
Do not do drill work when you work on perceptual skills or overdo any
activity because the learners might get bored. You do not want them to resent
perceptual training. Therefore keep it interesting (with a variety of activities
and maybe a story as a starting point) and do it in short units of time.
Bring in as much language as you can when you provide perceptual sup-
port. Discuss what is different or what is typical about aspects that a learner
might find difficult to understand or to remember. Remember these learners
do not have intellectual disabilities. Therefore, explain to, and discuss with,
them what you are doing and why you are doing the activities. Allow them to
ask questions or give suggestions. Since these learners usually feel left out in
a classroom, it is important that they must feel involved in their support pro-
gramme. This will help with their self-confidence.
Provide types of help or “crutches” to a learner and assist the learner to
remember aspects that he or she might find difficult. Many learners with
or applicable copyright law.

learning difﬁculties’ preferred learning style is visual and they also like to do
something physically. Therefore, the following are some good ideas to use as
“crutches”: use pictures to explain something; let the learners use their bodies
162 to make the shapes of letters; let them draw on sand or make up small stories
or funny expressions to help them to remember.
Do not use nonsense items or words that do not mean anything when you
do perceptual support. Try to relate items and words to the themes you are

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addressing in your lessons. Therefore, whatever you do should help the learn-
er to hear, speak, read, write or spell better in all his or her schoolwork and
not just in the activities with which you are busy.
Do one item at a time. If, for instance, a learner has difficulty seeing or
hearing the difference between “b” and “d”, only work on one of the letters or
the sounds at a time. Make sure that the learner knows how a “b” looks (visu-
al discrimination) and in the case of auditory discrimination how a “b”
sounds, before the “d” is introduced. Make sure that the learner knows the “d”
well before both the “b” and “d” are used in the same exercises and eventually
in words containing “b” and “d”.
Keep the learner motivated by making sure that you start with activities
that the learner with perceptual difficulties can complete. Always begin with
items that he or she can already do so that the learner gains confidence con-
tinuing with more difficult items. As you make the activities and items more
difficult, keep on supporting and encouraging them. Remind them continu-
ously of the things that they got correct. If the learner cannot manage, go
back to the easier items and reteach trying to use other methods. Bring in the
learner’s preferred learning styles such as visual or tactile abilities if you
have been using, for instance, only the auditory modality.
Do not think that by addressing the perceptual difficulties in a planned
way, these difficulties will disappear all of a sudden. As stated before,
addressing perceptual difficulties should form part of a bigger support pro-
gramme, which means that you need to assess continually if what you are
doing is still applicable to the learner’s needs and whether it can be trans-
ferred to the classroom learning situation.
Many of the perceptual skills overlap and when, for instance, you are doing
one type of skill it might enhance other skills as well. If, for example, you tell
a learner to touch his left leg with his right arm, you plan to enhance the
learner’s auditory memory, but at the same time you will be attending to lat-
erality and dominance.
Do not use “baby stuff” with a learner who is already in school. The interest
level of the activity should relate to the age of the learner or learners. Also
remember to use examples that suit the gender of the learner or learners.
Therefore do not use too many “girly” things when you work with boys or vice
versa. If you work with an individual learner, try to bring in examples of
things that interest this young learner specifically, such as music, sport
heroes, pets or a hobby such as collecting certain items.
If a perceptual difficulty persists or is very severe, the help of a profession-
or applicable copyright law.

al person should be sought. An occupational therapist is trained to deal with

visual perceptual difficulties, as well as visual motor difficulties. A speech
therapist deals with auditory difficulties and speech problems. You could 163
approach physiotherapists about motor difficulties and remember that some
optometrists are trained to do certain eye exercises that could help with visu-
al perceptual difficulties.

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6.7 conclusion
In this chapter you have been introduced to perceptual and motoric skills,
which are important skills necessary for a learner to be able to read, write
and do mathematics. In the next chapters (7 and 8) you will be provided with
practical ideas and activities to include in your general teaching as well as
when a learner needs support regarding these skills.

ACTIVITY

Now go back to the case study at the beginning of this chapter. You should, at
this point, be able to identify some of the perceptual difﬁculties that Billy was
experiencing. Identify the visual, auditory and motor perceptual problems that he
had and design a support programme that will help him to overcome these per-
ceptual problems allowing him to make progress in Grade 1.

GLOSSARY

Auditory analysis is the ability to break up Figure-ground perception refers to the abili-
a word into its sounds or letters. ty to distinguish between the important and
Auditory blending is the ability to synthe- the unimportant aspects of what is being
sise the phonemes or the smallest sound visually observed.
units of a word if the phonemes are pro- Fine motor skills deal with the smaller mus-
nounced with separation between them. cles of the body such as the hands and ﬁn-
Auditory discrimination is the ability to gers as well as the tongue and speech mus-
recognise a difference between phoneme cles (Lerner, 2003: 250).
sounds and to identify words that sound Gross motor skills deal with the use and
the same and words that sound different control of the large muscles of the body.
(Lerner, 2003: 258; Winkler, 2005: 68). Laterality is the inner awareness of the right
Auditory figure-ground is the ability to and the left side of one’s body. It is not a
hear sounds against background noise and learnt skill, but it develops within people
then to identify them correctly (Lerner, themselves.
2003: 258). Perception related to motor abilities is
Auditory memory is very important the ability to know what one’s body can do,
because one has to remember what is said how it is organised and what its relation to
and taught in a classroom. objects around it is.
Auditory perception is the ability to inter- Spatial perception also known as “position
pret sensory data that is received through in space” refers to the way in which people
or applicable copyright law.

the ears. perceive objects in relationship to them-

Directionality is also a consequence of later- selves before they can perceive the objects in
ality and it can inﬂuence a learner’s aca- relation to each other.
164 demic progress at school. Visual closure requires the individual to
Eye-hand coordination is the ability to recognise, or complete an object when parts
make the hands carry out instructions from are missing or hidden (Lerner, 2003: 259).
the brain that have been related through Visual discrimination refers to the ability to
the eyes. see similarities and differences between pic-

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tures, geometric shapes, letters, numbers Visual perception is the ability to interpret
and words. sensory data that is received through the
Visual memory and visual sequencing memo- eyes.
ry have to be used in order to remember the
sequence in which the letters are written.

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Company. nesota Press.
Klein, M.D., Cook, R.E. & Richardson-Gibbs, Winkler, G. 2005. All children can learn. Cape
A.M. 2001. Strategies for including children Town: Francolin Publishers.
or applicable copyright law.

165

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PAR T 2
Practice
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7
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Language and
literacy assessment
and support
SHAroN mooNSAmy
FLEur DurBACH

7.1 Introduction OBJECTIVES

The ideas and suggestions provided in this chapter When you have read this chapter
are based on the theoretical background of language you should be able to
and its development, as presented in the previous • develop the learner’s language
chapters. It is important for teachers to continually abilities as an integrated whole,
listening (receptive), speaking
evaluate their aims and the materials used in their
(expressive), reading (receptive),
lesson preparation, so that learning is meaningful writing (expressive) and
and relevant to the learner. It’s also vital to under- cognition (thinking)
stand how the learner processes language to learn. • understand what narrative text is
Therefore receptive language tasks must precede • create an observation portfolio
expressive language tasks, as this follows natural • record and analyse the learner’s
reading behaviour, and make
developmental trends. This chapter presents lan- appropriate adjustments, where
guage in an integrated manner so that the philoso- relevant
phy of whole language is developed, as language • assess the learner’s written
skills are not learnt in fragmented units. Each aspect performance and assist in
development, where necessary
of language, for example, semantics (meaning of lan-
• understand how to use and
guage) influences the structure of a sentence (syn- create a running record
tax), so that the statement expressed, makes sense. • adapt a lesson based on the
For example: The “box sat down on the floor” versus learner’s difficulties.
“the boy sat down on the floor”.
The tasks provided in this chapter suggest a pro-
cedure for learning, which can be applied to different
or applicable copyright law.

classroom activities. All lessons prepared by a

teacher must be interesting, providing an avenue for
the learner to think, engage with the material and
learn. To develop language abilities as an integrated 169
whole, listening (receptive), speaking (expressive),
reading (receptive), writing (expressive) and cogni-
tion (thinking) aspects must be included. This sup-

170p
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ports the framework of the curriculum presented in the CAPS language docu-
ments (DBE, 2010). Narrative text is also explained in this chapter and used
in the examples, as it is an essential type (genre) of text, which learners begin
with before they proceed to expository text in higher grades. Teacher tips for
assessment and intervention are also provided.

Case history: Lesedi Zuma, 12-year-old male in Grade 6

Early history: Development was unremarkable. Joined a nursery school and
was reported to be somewhat different from his peers. It was suspected that
his language may have been delayed for his age. 5 years: Lesedi had poor
command of language when compared with his classmates, but he was not
referred for an assessment despite being at risk. 6 years: Referred for an
assessment as he was beginning to show signs of difficulty with reading/litera-
cy. Language assessment focused on linguistic skills, rules of language, word-
finding difficulties and auditory memory. Expressive language was delayed in
comparison to typically developing children. From the language and psychoed-
ucational assessment Lesedi was identified with language learning difficul-
ties/disability (LLD). Lesedi was referred for therapy. Intervention focused on
auditory memory, use of morphology and syntax. After 1½ years of interven-
tion, Lesedi’s sessions were terminated as a retest showed that he was within
the norm.

6 years later
12 years: Lesedi’s grades were declining. Teachers and parents were con-
cerned and needed to look at the reasons this was happening again.
Emotionally: Lesedi was beginning to feel isolated, lonely and displayed poor
self-concept. He didn’t interact easily with others, lost motivation and played
truant. He felt frustrated, misjudged, underestimated and he didn’t believe he
could cope with school.
Assessment indicated that Lesedi’s non-verbal (NV) IQ was above average
but verbal (V) IQ was below the norm.
Language assessment: indicated difﬁculties with receptive skills and expres-
sive skills.
Difﬁculties with the following:
• Morphology
• Linguistic rule learning
• Higher-order abstract concepts
• Figurative language
• Vocabulary
or applicable copyright law.

• Comprehension
• Rule knowledge for complex sentence structure
• Processing of more abstract information/content
170 • Organising language for written tasks
• Planning and organisation
• Problem solving and reasoning

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Educational assessments
Listening comprehension
A series of graded reading passages are read to the learner to obtain a listen-
ing comprehension level. Following each passage, a group of questions are
asked to measure whether the learner is able to:
• Understand the main idea
• Note details
• Summarise the cause-and-effect relationships
• Sequence events
• Grasp age-appropriate vocabulary
• Infer information.

Written language
Analysis of spelling skills
Spelling tests comprise a single set of words ordered in increasing difﬁculty.
Assessments using this scale involve learners having to spell words that are
illustrated in a short sentence. The test includes phonetically regular words,
which are encoded using knowledge of phonetic rules as well as irregular
words, which are encoded using visual memory.
An analysis of errors revealed mainly phonetically plausible errors. For
example, he wrote:
condishin for condition
seround for surround
ocation for occasion

Written expression
The test of written language assesses various aspects of written language
namely:
• Conventional, linguistic and conceptual aspects of writing
• Vocabulary
• Thematic maturity – the ability to write in a logical, organised fashion in a
manner that will easily and efﬁciently convey meaning
• Word usage – the ability to form tenses and plurals and the ability to apply
the rules of grammar in context
• The style – use of punctuation and capitalisation rules in context
• Spelling, paragraphing and handwriting.

Conclusions and recommendations

Receptive and expressive language, auditory processing, reading, spelling and
written expressive languages are areas that require continued support.
or applicable copyright law.

7.2 section a: assessment and intervention

The teacher needs to do an analysis of the learner so that the programme to
assist the learner is appropriate. Evaluation or assessment is continuous or 171
ongoing so that relevant support is provided (see Chapter 3). The teacher may
use an observation portfolio (see 7.2.1), the learner’s class portfolio and class
assessment to assess language and literacy performance.

172p
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The following structure would help in effective teaching and support

• Create a profile of the learner’s strengths (i.e. what he or she is good at,
able to understand and achieve) and his or her areas of difficulty (i.e. what
the learner does not understand and has not achieved for his or her grade
level)
• Language of the learner: listening; speaking; reading; writing and think-
ing/reasoning (cognition)
• Note other factors that influence the learner’s progress, i.e. behaviour of
the learner, home environment, family and friends.

7.2.1 observation portfolio

Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

Behaviour
Learners in the classroom may display behaviours that inﬂuence their learning negatively. It
is important to identify the problematic behaviours, understand their possible causes and pro-
vide strategies for the individual or the group so that effective learning can be encouraged.
Provide incentives such as points or stars or ticks (✓) so that the learner wants to behave to
win these rewards.

a. Inattentive – May not under- – Provide incentives, e.g. points for the team to
(i.e. does stand the con- keep the learner interested.
not pay cepts in the les- – Rephrase the sentences and give examples to
effective son. explain the difﬁcult concepts.
attention in – Low self-esteem. – Provide a slightly more challenging activity (gift-
the lesson) – Bored (the task is ed learners get bored easily if they are not chal-
not sufﬁciently lenged).
challenging). – Motivate parents to let their children eat healthily
– Poor nutrition (e.g. to help concentration.
too many sweets, – Ask if learners are feeling alright (do not assume
colourants, etc.). that they are simply behaving badly).
– Emotional prob- – Ask parents to get their children’s hearing and
lems. sight tested.
– Hearing problems.
– Visual problems.

b. Does not – Poor vocabulary – Explain new vocabulary (e.g. using a story
follow or understanding and/or visual aids). Learners learn new vocabu-
instructions. language. lary easier when it is explained in a certain con-
– Poor attention. text.
– Poor memory. – Break instruction into smaller sections, or;
– Difﬁculty with – Give one instruction ﬁrst, make sure the learner
or applicable copyright law.

sequencing. understood it and then continue to the next one.

c. Memory – Concepts or – Use synonyms for the new vocabulary that the
172 vocabulary may learner may already know. This is called associa-
be unfamiliar. tive memory. When something is taught within a
– Sentences may be context it is usually easier to make associations
too long. and remember.
– Use pictures to help recall.

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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

– Give a clue or give a description

and learner needs to guess, e.g.
we get water from it – what is it?
(tap)
– Give the beginning sound of
the word and ask the learner
to guess the word (e.g. the
word = “tap”, say to the learner, “The
word begins with a /t/ sound – what is it?”

d. Poor turn- – May not under- – Use a wooden spoon with a face drawn onto it.
taking skills stand social rules When the learner holds the spoon, it’s his or her
of language (prag- turn to talk. The spoon is then moved to the next
matics). speaker, when the learner has had a turn.
– Tell learner when he or she did well to listen.

e. Interrupts – May not under- – Teacher to set class rules for good conversation.
the teacher stand social rules – Place hand on the shoulder of the learner, and
or other of language (prag- continue talking and turn to the learner when the
learners matics). teacher can attend to him or her.
when they – May be an atten- – Explain turn-taking skills.
are talking. tion-seeking learn-
er.
– Lacks understand-
ing of turn taking
in conversation.

f. Impulsive – May be an atten- – Have a system of colour coding for each class
responses tion-seeking learn- row or team and choose a colour for each
er. response you need, e.g. When I ask this ques-
– Has poor self- tion, I want a learner from the red row to answer.
control (regula- – Teach learners to use the wait-before-you
tion) of thoughts answer-method, i.e. to count up to three before
and actions. they answer.
– See additional strategies in section on cognition.

g. Poor moti- – Lacks interest in – Create incentives – such as points or stars for
vation the lesson. groups or individuals.
– Low self-esteem. – Praise successes.
– A multisensory lesson where different senses are
incorporated is usually a lesson that will keep
learners’ interest and address different learning
styles.
or applicable copyright law.

h. Poor time – Disorganised – Learner to be introduced to time concepts, e.g.

manage- learning pattern. calendars, dates, weeks.
ment – Poor planning. – Draw up subject/day planner on the board.
173
– Does not under- – Use a visual schedule showing the number of
stand space and activities to be done and use a checking system.
time concept. – Use a small bell ﬁve minutes before the activity
ends to remind the class or individual.

174p
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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

i. Does not – May not under- – Ask the learners to repeat what they need to do,
finish the stand what to do. i.e. a strategy of reauditorisation.
activity. – Has difficulty with – Motivate learner to ask if he or she does not
spelling or understand the question or instruction.
expressing his or – Learners must know that it is okay to make a
her answer in writ- mistake, but the teacher and the learners need to
ing. think together of strategies to fix the mistake.
– Easily distracted. – Explain what and how a task has to be done.
(You may need to explain repeatedly. Try differ-
ent ways, incorporating different senses and dif-
ferent aids.)
– Give the learner the opportunity to respond orally
if he or she has spelling or writing difficulties.
– Use different spelling and writing support strate-
gies.
– Reward the learner for staying on the task. This
includes verbal rewards, such as: “Thank you for
trying so hard. I can see you are trying your best.
Look at the things you got right already”.
– Remove “objects” and other noise that could dis-
tract the learner from the task.

j. Disorgan- – Poor attention and – Draw up a checklist – so that the learner can see
ised learner concentration. what the task requires, in sequence.
with work – Poor planning.
area and – Haphazard
school bag approach to learn-
untidy and ing.
disorgan-
ised

Language (also see Chapter 4 for the theoretical background)

The learner requires good receptive (understanding) and expressive (speaking) language in
order to learn. Vocabulary and sentence structure are important for oral language use, and
develop before written language use.

Receptive language

a. Poor vocab- – Does not know the – Teach new words related to a theme so that the
ulary meaning of certain learner can link or associate words in the context
words. of a theme.
– Unable to use – Teach learners to use the sentence to help
contextual clues. understand a new word.
– Teach associative skills, i.e. words/items that go
together, e.g.
or applicable copyright law.

foot – shoe
cup – saucer
pen – paper
174
table – chair
spoon – fork
– Let the learners start their own dictionary.

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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

b. Does not – Difficulty with sequence – Write sentences on flash cards and indicate
understand of words. good word order or correct sequence of
sentence – Difficulty with word words in sentence, e.g.
structure. order.
The boy ran down the hill

– Cut short sentences up and ask the learner

to sequence words to make sense or have
meaning.

The boy

the hill

down

ran

c. Does not – May not be familiar – Read and discuss stories – related to the
understand with listening to narra- theme in the curriculum.
narrative tives read/told. – Point out that stories have a beginning, mid-
structure – May not know that nar- dle and an end.
(such as ratives have a begin- – Introduce concepts ﬁrst, next, order, before
stories). ning, middle and end. and after.
– May have difﬁculty with
temporal concepts
such as before, after.
d. Does not – May have poor memo- – When reading stories, draw pictures of the
understand ry. characters, the setting (where the story is
literal ques- – Cannot recall the taking place) and what was happening in
tions, e.g. details of the story or the story.
what, sentences.
where, who Characters
questions
when they
hear a story. (who the people or animals in the story are)

Setting

(where the story is taking place)

Problem
or applicable copyright law.

(what the problem in the story is)

175
Solution

(answer to the problem)

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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

e. Cannot – Does not under- – Provide a sentence on a card, e.g.

make infer- stand e.g. how and
ences. why questions. The girl tripped
– Cannot link to prior over a stone and
knowledge or expe- fell on the
rience. ground.

Question = Why did the girl fall?

a. Did the girl slip on a stone?
b. Did the girl trip over a stone?

The learner to choose/write/highlight the correct

answer.
– After several practices with such activities, where
alternatives are given, the learner can be given
the question without the alternative answers.
– Ask the learners if they have heard about the
topic before (the teacher is accessing prior
knowledge), link their reactions to how the char-
acter reacted in the story/sentence.

f. Cannot – May not understand – Teach “feeling” words such as –

identify “feeling” words, e.g.
affect (emo- happy, sad, fright- Happy; sad;
tions). ened. angry;
– May not have the frightened
vocabulary to
describe emotions.
– May not understand – Role play – drama to act out emotions described
the emotions expe- by another child or teacher.
rienced by the char-
– Can use hand puppets to show emotions.
acters in the story
or sentence. – Can draw faces to express emotions. 

Expressive language

g. Has difﬁcul- – Limited vocabulary. – Teach criteria used for describing an item: e.g.
ty describing – Does not under- “chair”
items or stand the criteria or Colour = brown
objects. categories that are Function = to sit on
used to describe Structure (what is it made from) = wood
the item.
Size = small
Cost/price R50.00
Quantity = how many
Texture (how does it feel, when
or applicable copyright law.

you touch it) = smooth

Animate (alive) = no
Inanimate = yes
176 Edible (can be eaten) = no
Taste = none
Inedible = yes
Movable = yes

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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

h. Has difﬁcul- – Limited vocabu- – Teach verbs related to theme or incidental verbs
ty with parts lary. that arise, e.g. physical verbs = write, sing, sleep;
of speech, mental verbs = think, dream, hope
e.g. verbs
(doing/
action
words).

i. Has difﬁcul- – Limited vocabu- – Teach adjective in relation to nouns, e.g. table =
ty with parts lary. round, wooden
of speech,
e.g. adjec-
tives
(describing
words).

Apple = red, juicy, rotten

j. Has difﬁcul- – Limited vocabu- – Introduce the conjunctions on ﬂash cards.

ty with parts lary.
of speech, – Only aware of because
e.g. con- simple sentences.
junctions
(joining – Make learners aware of these words when you
words). read sentences to them.
– Can they identify these conjunctions in a sen-
tence provided: underline the word that joins the
two sentences.

The girl ate the

apple because
she was hungry.

k. Has difﬁcul- – Does not know – Teach conjunctions, begin with:

ty with com- conjunctions (join- and, then, but, because, as, even though, when,
plex sen- ing words) e.g. etc.
tences. “and”, “because”.

Reading
Reading is a process of making meaning from text. This relates to understanding or receptive
language. Learners who experience difﬁculty with reading have not yet developed an efﬁcient
thinking process, which enables them to make sense of the marks made on the paper. Chil-
dren who can read have developed a thinking process and a reading system that enables
or applicable copyright law.

them to:
• Think about what they are reading.
• Take note when their reading doesn’t make sense.
• Stop when something doesn’t seem right. 177
• Think of, and use, a strategy to correct the mistake or confusion.
• This table offers some possible strategies to assist learners who are experiencing reading
difﬁculties.

178p
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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

Factors which may affect reading accuracy:

In order to read, the brain has to assimilate information from a variety of different areas.
Reading involves the integration of many different skills some of which are: language acquisi-
tion, cognitive functioning, attention, phonological awareness, phonological memory, process-
ing speed, visual memory. It is a complex process and relies on development on the part of
the learner and careful instruction on behalf of the teacher. Teaching reading is both reward-
ing and fulfilling.
For the purpose of understanding the different aspects of reading, the table below is divided
into categories, in an attempt to isolate and correct reading difficulties. It is important to realise
that reading is a multimodal process that requires both sequential and simultaneous process-
ing. Working explicitly on isolated skills or areas of difficulty may assist in improving the read-
ing process. These activities can be used to develop and enhance specific skills, thus con-
tributing to the reading process as a whole.

Difficulties in phonological awareness

A.1. Does not – May not have – Reteach and assess all individual letters and
recognise the consolidated sounds ensuring that letter sounds and names
letters or sound/symbol are identiﬁed automatically on presentation of
words accu- relationship. each individual letter.
rately.

Auditory processing difficulties

A.2. Auditory dis- – Hearing difﬁ- – Referral to:

crimination culties. Ear, nose and throat specialist
– Difficulty discrim- – Delayed audi- Audiologist
inating sounds. tory develop- Speech therapist
ment.
– Elicit rhyming words: bell, tell, well, sell, fell.
– Hearing loss
due to allergies – Play games “I can hear with my little ear some-
or infection. thing beginning with ‘m’” (mug, mat, mate ...).
– Use musical instruments and ask learners to
close their eyes and point to the direction where
sound is coming from.
– Discriminate between soft and loud sounds.
– Identify differences between short and long
sounds: a/a-e/ai
o/oo/oa/o_e
A.3. Reads – Auditory dis- – Role model sounds correctly. Ask learner to look
“f” for “th” crimination dif- at your mouth and notice the position of the
“v” for “w” ficulties. tongue between the teeth with an open mouth,
“sh” for “ch”. when pronouncing “th”.
– Difficulty discrim- – To pronounce “f” place front teeth over lower lip.
inating between
sounds that are
or applicable copyright law.

similar.

A.4. Cannot dis- – Difﬁculty in iso- – Analysis and synthesis of words, e.g. Say post-
criminate lating sounds box, say it again but don’t say box. Repeat using
178 beginning, within words. other examples:
middle or end “bedroom” without “bed”
sounds in “morning” without “ing”
words.
“small” without “sm”

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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

A.5. Auditory – Event of a story – Use comic strips and story board as visual
sequential incorrectly prompts while stories are being told or read.
difﬁculties sequenced. – Use cut-up sentences to rebuild sentences in the
– Incorrect word correct order.
order in sen- – Use letters and sound out syllables while con-
tences. structing words.
– Syllables within – Use repetition with rhythm or music.
word confused, – Clapping patterns to be repeated by learners.
e.g. “Hos-tal-pil”
for “hospital”. – Clap number of syllables in names of learners in
the group.
– Difﬁculty recalling
rhymes and – Play auditory memory games – “I went to market
songs. ...” adding on items for each learner in the group.
– Recall order of sound on a tape recorder. First,
cat = “meows”; second dog = “barks”; third
mouse = “squeaks”.

A.6. Auditory – Difficulty with – Use picture cue card to explain: series of instruc-
memory auditory memory tions, for following routines, or recipes.
– Difficulty recall or “working Use pictures with matching sentences to show
recalling memory”. series of events, e.g. fike cycle of butterfly; grow-
directions or ing beans; mining gold. Break story sums into
instructions. short sentences or sections.
– Difficulty – Promote the use of a highlighter to focus on criti-
remembering cal information in text.
complex
instructions.

A.7. Auditory – Difﬁculty with – Activities in analysis of letters and words

memory phonological Examples include: m-a-n; a-n-t; t-i-p; tr i-p; trip-
awareness or ping; tripped. Bl-end, bl-end-ing, bl-end-ed.
memory as a Say “meat”. Say it again without “t”.
result of poor
auditory memory. Say “cat”. Say it again without “c”.
Say “postman”. Say it again without “man”.
Say “stake” say it again without “s”.

A.8. Auditory – Difﬁculty attending – Play classical music without vocals while written
ﬁgure to sounds when work is completed.
ground there is interfering – Encourage reading while background music is
noise. played.
– Emphasise the importance of “whole-body listen-
ing”.
– Develop good listening behaviour while others
are speaking.
or applicable copyright law.

– Teach learners to modulate their voices, accord-

ing to place and function. Play-ground calling
and classroom communication.
– Promote quite working climate. 179
– Role model voice modulation – projection of
voice to whole class and soft voice for speaking
to individual learners.

180p
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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

A.9. Confuses – Sequencing difﬁ- – Emphasise syllabiﬁcation – learner to place hand

syllables culties. on lower jaw to feel the movements of the jaw
within – Auditory memory when saying the word in syllables.
words: difﬁculties. – Clapping out syllables:
hostipal/ – Difﬁculty under- “Bas-ket”.
hospital. standing words or
discriminating
between sounds
in words.

A.10. Does not – Difﬁculty grasping – Use individual letters to build words by putting
blend how sounds are them together to make a word.
sounds synthesised to
in words make words. b o x
together,
e.g. c-a-
p. – Use a sound slider to reinforce word endings.

s + ing = sing

w + ing = wing

k + ing = king

r + ing = ring

– Jumble letters up to form new words: “t-a-p” to

“p-a-t”.

t a p p a t

– For more information on auditory processing

activities refer to Rosner (1979).

A.11. Cannot – Difﬁculty identify- – Read rhymes and ask the learners to identify the
identify ing and associat- rhyming pattern at the end of a word such as:
or make ing same sounds “-at”; “-ack”, e.g. -at = cat, mat, fat; -ack = Jack,
up words at the end of pack, black.
that words. – Play a rhyming game. Choose a letter of the
rhyme or alphabet and generate words for rhymes that
sound end with, e.g. -ot = cot, lot, pot, dot.
or applicable copyright law.

the
same,
such as
180 “at”,
“cat”,
“mat”,
“pat”,
“hat”.

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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

Visual memory difficulties

B.1. Misreads – May not have – Use individual letters to make up words which
or revers- developed visual have not been correctly read.
es individ- memory for indi-
ual letters vidual letters.
b/d, p/q, – Visual-spatial ori-
e/i, m/n. entation difﬁcul-
ties.
– Difﬁculties with
directionality.

B.2. Visual – Arrange letters in alphabetical order to form an

memory arch.
– Use an L-shaped marker to read from left to right
covering up words read so that no regression
occurs.

B.3. Visual dif- – Visual tracking. – Refer to paediatric behavioural optometrist for
ﬁculties – Irregular or jumpy complete visual assessment.
eye movements.

– Use ﬁnger as a place marker on the left-hand

side of the page.
– Move ﬁnger from left to right under print and
swoop quickly back to left side of the page scan-
ning text.

B.4. Misreads – Visual-sequential – Use colour to code difficult words giving a strate-
or revers- memory difficulties gy to take cognisance of first letter. (For exam-
es order or insufficient ple, draw water in the w and place a flower in the
of letters exposure to sight- water, w in was begins with the water sound.)
within word vocabulary.
words:
saw/was
gril/girl.

– Make a bingo game with high-frequency sight

words.

– win dog
or applicable copyright law.

sun fat –

cat – boy

– bat jam 181

– See addendum for instructions to make the bingo
game.

000p
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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

B.5. Does not – Visual closure. – Draw attention to the different endings of words.
read to the end – Difﬁculty decoding – Teach sufﬁxes as word endings.
of words. The sounds in the mid- Adding “-s” for plural: boy = boys
learner may dle or end of the
guess at read- Adding “-ing”: playing
word.
ing the word Adding “-ed”: played
using the initial
sound or letter.
May omit let-
ters in the mid-
dle of words.

B.6. Skips – Visual tracking dif- – Check eye movements by moving a pencil in
lines or ﬁculties. front of the eyes. Use a word/sentence marker to
loses – Eye movements keep the place while reading.
place are not regular as
when the eyes move text
reading. from left to right
across the page;
the movement
needs to be ﬂuid – Do timed visual tracking exercises regularly. Try
and not jumpy. to improve tracking speed.

b pbq

– Select material that has a larger font size.

B.7. Eye strain – Visual stress. – Use computer software programme, iPad, audio
or water- book, or Kindle, cd player or cassette recorder to
ing read text to learner while cursor or shadow
keeps place in text.
– Download audiobooks for learners to listen to
and follow if technology is available.
Spatial difficulties

C.1. Reverses – Laterality not fully – Exercises to assist in crossing mid-line:

letters. consolidated. Trace around each other’s bodies and paint life-
– Dominance not size self-portraits.
yet established. Trace around hands on coloured paper and label
left or right.
Play “Simon Says” game looking in mirror.
Identify left and right on others.

C.2. Reversing – Difﬁculty grasping – Illustrate the difference between a square and a
or invert- the concept of diamond. Show that a square is still a square
ing letters constancy. even if it is turned sideways.
and
or applicable copyright law.

– Show strategies for remembering difference

words. between “b” and “d” by making a bed with ﬁsts
and thumbs up to form bed posts.
182

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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

C.3. Direction- – Difﬁculty grasping – Illustrate the difference between a square and a
ality the concept of diamond. Show that a square is still a square
constancy. even if it is turned sideways.
– Show strategies for remembering difference
between “b” and “d” by making a bed with ﬁsts
and thumbs up to form bed posts (as in C.2.)
Reading comprehension difficulties

1. Does not – Difﬁculty or lack of – Always spend time thinking ahead and dis-
understand exposure to cussing new vocabulary or difﬁcult words that
words in vocabulary. may appear in the reading.
reading
book.

2. Does not – May have difﬁcul- – Encourage prediction before reading.

understand ties with memory. – Remind learners to visualise while reading.
factual Has difﬁculty
questions. recalling details of
the story read.

3. Cannot – Difﬁculty decoding – Practise making up headings for short passages

identify the text. read.
main idea in – Reading material – Play the guessing game, “What am I?”
a paragraph. may be too difﬁ-
cult.

4. Does not – Cannot make con- – Spend time describing how

infer mean- nections to real- we need to infer information
ing from the life situations or that is not always obvious,
text. prior knowledge. e.g. “If he smiled we can infer
– Difﬁculty under- that he was happy.”
standing “how” Find interesting pictures and
and “why” ques- ask learners to make infer-
tions. ences by looking at the pic-
tures, e.g. someone standing
with a large suitcase may be
going on a journey and
someone carrying a small
bag may be going to school
or work.

Writing
Like speaking, writing is an expression of our thoughts and
ideas.
Writing is the process of using language to demonstrate mean-
ing and communicate our experiences. Written ideas can take
a variety of different forms such as essays, letters, poems,
emails, reports and stories to express different thoughts.
or applicable copyright law.

Writing should always have a purpose, be meaningful and

connected to real life. Important questions to ask are:
• Why are you writing?
183
• Who is going to read your writing?

The following strategies are about: learning to use words and sentences to create meaning;
generating ideas; and discovering the art of writing.

184p
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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

a. Uses incorrect – Difﬁculty under- – Provide examples of sentences. Emphasise cor-

word order in standing sentence rect word order.
a sentence. construction.
b. Events in the – Difﬁculty with – Use numbering of pictures, comic strips or pic-
writing incor- sequencing. ture sequencing to organise events in a story.
rectly
sequenced.
c. Cannot get – Difﬁculty initiating – Use mind mapping or brainstorming before writ-
started. a writing task. ing.

Sound
Thunder
Lightning

Look Feel
Gloomy Storm Wet
Dark Afraid

– Assist learners in writing down key words, or

drawing pictures to illustrate their ideas and then
to write a paragraph to describe each picture.
– Cue learners by starting sentences for them to
complete.
I really enjoyed ...
I felt sad when ...
My favourite ...

d. Writes very – Difﬁculty elaborat- – As a group generate descriptive words and

brief sen- ing with written phrases in the discussion before writing. Write
tences. language. these up on a board for learners to refer to while
– Delayed or limited writing their own sentences.
vocabulary. e.g. Theme – the sea

e. Written work – Difﬁculty with – Provide an index book where the teacher can
contains many visual memory or write the correct spelling of words.
spelling analysis of words. – Encourage learners to edit each other’s work and
errors. give constructive assistance.
– Promote opportunities to reread their own writing
and improve on it once comments have been
provided by the teacher.
or applicable copyright law.

– Remind learners to sound out words while writ-

ing.
– Encourage use of syllabiﬁcation.
184
Hip po pot a mus

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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

f. Writing disor- – Difﬁculty with – Provide paper with lines. Give learner a starting
ganised on motor planning or point to illustrate where each new line should
the page. mid-line crossing. begin.
Letters and
words are
not in lines.

g. Illegible writ- – Fine-motor difﬁcul- – Encourage writing in groups where one learner is
ing ties. the scribe while others work on ideas and illus-
– Difﬁculty forming trations.
letters correctly. – Encourage learners to say what they wish to
write. This can be recorded and typed or tran-
scribed later.

h. Ideas are – Delayed or imma- – Provide opportunities to discuss new vocabulary

not elaborat- ture vocabulary. related to the theme. Make new vocabulary avail-
ed on. able visually on the
board or ﬂip chart.
Example: butterﬂy colourful,
wings patterned, faded,
shiny, iridescent,
delicate

i. Meaning is – Difﬁculty writing – Motivate learners to write by providing a struc-

not clear; the fluently. ture of what each sentence should contain.
sentences do – Does not have a – Explain how the sentence has been constructed
not flow. clear understand- using different parts of speech, e.g.
ing of sentence The bright yellow butterfly landed gracefully on
fluency. the petals of the daisy.
adjective-adjective-noun-verb-adverb-preposi-
tion-noun-noun
j. Does not use – Difficulty under- – Always remind learners about punctuation prior
correct gram- standing and to writing. Make sure that the rules are visible on
mar, punctu- recalling conven- a chart.
or applicable copyright law.

ation and tions of speech. – Allow learners opportunities to edit their written
capitalisa- work with a speciﬁc focus on punctuation.
tion. – Pretest punctuation to see how much learners 185
know.
– Use highlighters to mark punctuation in reading
text to develop an awareness of when and where
it is used.

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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

Spelling
Difficulties in spelling are common, remediating spelling can be challenging particularly for
learners who have dyslexia or developmental language difficulties. As in the previous sec-
tions on reading and writing, spelling is an integral part of learning to write. Learning to spell
requires a variety of different skills. Some of these are: an understanding of sound/symbol
relationships, phonological memory, phonological awareness, visual sequential memory and
auditory memory to name but a few. Examining the error patterns can indicate whether the
difficulty is primarily visual or auditory hence the two columns. Phonological awareness and
phonological memory are dependent on multisensory input and development in certain areas
that may not yet be established.
The table below indicates some ideas for identifying spelling errors.

Auditory difficulties Strategies

1. Auditory discrimination – Complete exercises with letters that are often

Substitutes /t/ for /d/, /f/ for /v/, /sh/ confused.
for /ch/. – Ask learners to hold up the correct letter when
you say the word “worked”. What does it end
with, a “d” or a “t”?

2. Auditory acuity/discrimination – Reinforce sound-symbol correspondence by writ-

Does not hear subtle differences in ing letters in sand, jelly, finger paint or other mul-
or between sounds, e.g. “fist” for tisensory materials such as clay.
“first”.

3. Hears and spells the beginning and – Use coloured counters to show different sound in
ends of words but omits sounds in words. So, three colours for “c”, “a” “tch”.
the medial position, e.g. ctch for
catch.

4. Auditory discrimination – Match pictures to words.

Confuses medial vowels: e.g. “fast” – Enunciate words carefully to accentuate the
and “ﬁst”. medial vowels.
– Use a mirror to show position of tongue.

5. Omits second letter in blends: “tip” – Practise blends “t+r” make “tr”.
for “trip”. – Use individual letters in each hand and show
how they combine to make new sounds.

6. Auditory/visual association – Draw attention to visual details within words: “ou”

Substitutes with a synonym: House in “house”, “o-e” in “home”.
for home.
7. Omits suffixes, word endings, such – Auditory closure: show syllabification of words by
as “ing”, “ed” or “s”. using the word without the suffix in context.
– Learner has to add the correct suffix.

Visual difficulties Strategies

or applicable copyright law.

1. Visual-sequential memory – Use individual letters to build words while sound-

Gives correct letters in incorrect ing out syllables.
order: “hepl” for “help”. – Use multisensory materials such as shaving
186 foam to write words.

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Visual difficulties Strategies

2. Reverses letters of words – Use multisensory approach.

Writes “b” for “d”, “on” for “no”, – Make the letter “d” with dots on a page.
“was” for “saw”. – Stick beans to make the letter “b” in the shape of
“b”.

3. Inverts letters: “n” for “u”, “m” for “w”. – Give cues to remind learners which way letters
(Possible visual-spatial difficulties.) are formed, e.g. upside-down umbrella, for “u”.
4. Visual memory difficulties: recalls – Teach the double-trouble rule for consonants in
initial letters and ends of words but the medial position.
omits medial letters: e.g. “cuting” for – Double consonant before adding suffix.
“cutting”.

5. Confuses capital letters and lower- – Reinforce the proper nouns with an emphasis on
case. Letter formation not estab- using capital letters for days and months.
lished.
e.g. MonDay.

Visual memory Strategies

– Spell “sight” words phonetically: e.g. – Use a multisensory approach to teach and rein-
“ruf” for “rough”. force sight words.
– Use clay, shaving foam, ﬁnger paint to make
sight words.
– Play bingo or snap.
– Incorrect use of sufﬁx “ed”: e.g. “jumpt” for
“jumped”.

– Use coloured pencils to highlight suf- – Complete exercises in visual memory of sight
ﬁxes. words.
– Phonetic spelling of sight words: e.g. – Expose words for short period of time and ask
“sed” for “said”. learners to recall letter sequence.
– Do daily dictation from reading book.
– A list of sight words for games and revision is
provided in the appendix.

Thinking and reasoning

The learner needs to use language to think and
reason, while processing information when learn-
ing. This area helps the learner to problem solve
and develops higher-order learning.
or applicable copyright law.

187

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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

a. Cannot – Does not under- – Teach strategies for comparison. Use hoops or
identify or stand “same” and string on the ﬂoor to show sets with same attrib-
express “different” con- utes, i.e. all items belong to food go into one
comparison. cepts. hoop.
Food

Bread;
apple

– Use a continuum

cold cool mild

– Use a comparison table

Similaraties Differences

• ab •a •b
• cd •c •d

Overlapping circles

ball wheel

b. Unable to – Does not under- – Discuss superordinate labels, e.g. milk, butter,
identify or stand groups or cream and cheese are dairy products.
express cat- classification. – Cue the learner to identify accurate terminology
egorisation. – Cannot see items for inclusive sets: “I have the following words:
that belong to the ‘apple’, ‘orange’, ‘banana’. Are they ‘fruit or
same group. clothes’?”
– Poor association – Provide pictures for classification under specific
skills. headings.
– Poor convergent – Play general-knowledge game.
thinking.
Country Car Food

France Ford fish

Botswana BMW banana

or applicable copyright law.

188

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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

c. Unable to – Poor vocabulary. – Build vocabulary by matching words and pic-

describe. – May not know the tures.
criteria, e.g.
colour, shape, tex-
ture, etc. to bug
describe an item.
– Poor knowledge of
adjective or attrib-
utes.
– Use a feely bag; allow learners to describe what
they are feeling in the bag while another tries to
guess.
– Teach the following criteria/attributes of an
object, e.g. colour, shape, size, etc.
– See list on adjectives.
d. Unable to – Does not under- – Ask learners to give a title to the story.
identify the stand what the – Remind learners to visualise the story or draw
main idea story is about. pictures while listening.
from the – Cannot see the – Show pictures and ask learners to point out simi-
details. key features of the lar elements or features in the pictures.
story.
– Unable to pick up
the theme of the
story.

e. Cannot see – Cannot identify – Demonstrate cause and effect; “If I roll this pencil
cause- relationships along the table what will happen?”
effect. between events “What will happen if I don’t do my homework?”
and their causes. “What will happen if I leave my ice cream in the
sun?”

f. Self-moni- – Learner has difﬁ- – Teach learners to use the wait-

toring culty monitoring before-you-answer method, i.e.
his/her learning. to count up to three before they
– Learner may be answer.
impulsive. – Learner to use a checking
method to make sure they
have covered all the steps
before they hand their work in.

g. Feeling of – Learner becomes – Discuss feelings that learners experience when a

challenge overwhelmed with novel task is introduced.
or applicable copyright law.

fear and cannot – Acknowledge that both negative and positive

do the tasks. feelings are experienced.
– It’s important to indicate that the positive feelings
energise our learning and learners need to focus 189
on these.
– Learners to look at the tasks and break the tasks
into smaller, more manageable sections, e.g. to
write a story:

190p
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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

Step 1: Identify characters.

Step 2: Choose where is the story taking place
(setting)?
Step 3: Decide what the problem is or the event
that has happened?
Step 4: Determine what happens at the end?
Plan this on rough paper before writing. (Drafting
is an important step in the writing process.)

h. Selective – Has difﬁculty – Learners to identify the goal or aim of the activity
attention focusing on what to select the information that is relevant to
is relevant to com- achieving the aim.
plete the task. – Learners must learn to ignore what does not
achieve the aim, e.g.
Aim: To learn my spelling words.
Learner to focus on the list of words. Read,
cover, write and check to see if correct. Ignore
distractions such as another child talking to them
when they study, or turn off the radio/TV or move
to a quiet space.
i. Identifying a – Does not under- – Show learners two pictures and ask them to
problem stand why an identify what is different in the pictures (compari-
activity is incor- son).
rect. Ask learners to identify what is wrong in this sen-
– Impulsive behav- tence card:
iour.
– Cannot see what The table ran home
belongs, i.e. the
main idea.
The learner has to identify the incorrect word and
say why they think that word is wrong.
The teacher could ask questions to help the
learner select the word, e.g. “Can the table run?”,
“Who can run?”

j. Working – Difﬁculty attending – Use visual or auditory patterns to help retain

memory to information. information while recalling, e.g. recall instruction:
(Poor short- – Difﬁculty analysing the learner repeats the instruction so that he or
term memo- the problem and she remembers it in order to carry it out; visu-
ry) processing the alise a picture so that it can help the learner with
information. understanding.

7.3 section b: record and analyse reading behaviour

or applicable copyright law.

The teacher may use the following guidelines to assist in recording and analysing
190 individual learner’s reading performance.

Reading is a process of gaining meaning from print. A number of different

strategies have to occur simultaneously for meaning to be constructed. The

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reader is required to problem solve actively and check all sources of informa-
tion at the same time. While trying to read, a number of different thinking
processes come into play. The reader may be:
• Gathering information about the sounds/symbols
• Self-monitoring (keeping eyes on the page)
• Making connections
• Visualising (imaginary pictures)
• Checking for accuracy or meaning
• Inferring
• Predicting what will happen next
• Synthesising letters together to form words
• Questioning
• Evaluating

An interplay between all these aspects results in meaningful and ﬂuent read-
ing.

Teachers of reading need to have a good understanding of the reading process

and be aware that the reader constructs his or her own meaning. Positive
feedback and PRAISE! PRAISE! PRAISE! is very important.
Marie Clay developed an intervention programme known as Reading
Recovery to support readers who may be experiencing difﬁculty in mastering
the reading process. She outlines some strategies for monitoring, assessing
and identifying reading difﬁculties. While listening to a child read, Marie
Clay suggests we record the child’s reading using a “Running Record”. The
“Running Record” informs the teacher if the reading material is at the correct
level for the child to read and analyses the errors made by the child while
reading (Clay, 1993).

7.3.1 Analysing the record of reading behaviour

The child’s performance can be evaluated using the following scoring system.
Count only the running words in a text. Running words do not included
titles and subtitles, and so on. Self-corrections are not counted as errors.
Count as one error:
• miscues
or applicable copyright law.

• omissions
• insertions
• told words (words supplied for the reader) 191
• no response
• each word in a skipped line
• substitution

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Table 7.1 Error identification

Text Learner’s behaviour Response

✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Reads word accurately, teacher ticks each Correct

Can you see my face? word
✓ ✓ ✓ the ✓ Misreads word incorrectly. Write incorrect Misreads
Can you see my face? word above the word (miscue)
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ big ✓ Child inserts a word while reading. Insertion
Can you see my ^ face? Teacher marks inserted word with a ^

✓ ✓ ✓ __ ✓ Child leaves out a word while reading. Omission

Can you see my face? Teacher places a line above the word left out.
✓ ✓ ✓ R ✓✓ Child repeats, word(s). Repetition
Can you see my face? Teacher underlines repeated words and
writes R
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ f-a-c Child attempts to sound out word. Attempt
Can you see my face? Teacher writes attempt above word.
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ sc Child misreads but then self corrects. Self-correction
Can you see my fat- Teacher marks self-correction sc.
✓
face?

Source: Hill (2006)

• mispronounciation
• hesitation
• reversal

There are two reasons for using the running record:

1. To determine the strategies being used by the child while reading.
2. To assess whether or not the child is reading material at the correct level.

Marie Clay (1993) developed three levels of reading described as: independ-
ent, instructional and frustration. Learners should only be given reading
material that is at an independent level to read at home. Material that has an
accuracy level above 90% can be used for instruction with the teacher.
The teacher selects a passage of 100 words, and, by doing a running record,
the teacher can determine the percentage of words accurately read by the
child.
or applicable copyright law.

Table 7.2 Reading levels

192 Independent level (easy text) 95–100% accuracy
Instructional level 90–94% accuracy and 70% comprehension
Frustration level Less than 89% accuracy

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7.4 section c: learner’s written proﬁles

The teacher may use these guidelines to assess the learner’s individual written
work, in terms of its strengths and weaknesses. This template may be kept as a
record so that comparisons can be made each term. Highlight either the strength
or difﬁculty.

Name of learner: ________________________ Date:

Area Strength Weakness

Motor planning

a. Crossing the midline Can cross the midline, Cannot write across the centre of
writes across the page from the page. Turns or shifts body or
left to right margin. Is able to page to avoid crossing the midline.
integrate X. Does not integrate X. (Sees lines as
separate / \.)

b. Writing on the line Accurate motor planning Difﬁculty with spatial relations and
and mid-line crossing. planning work on the page.

c. Starting position Good spatial orientation and Poor spatial orientation. Directional-
directionality. Correct letter ity not yet established. (Highlight
formation. margins or give cues for starting.)

d. Legibility of writing Directionality established. Difﬁculty with visual-motor integra-

Revisualisation of letter tion and/or ﬁne-motor coordination.
forms established. Poor motor planning.

e. Quality of writing Visual-motor control and Poor muscle tone. (Needs strength-
deteriorates with endurance good. ening exercises, playdough, pegs
time. and tearing activities.)

f. Layout of work Good spatial orientation and Difﬁculty with motor planning and
motor planning. spatial orientation.

g. Illustrations Good motor planning and Difﬁculty with planning and integra-
visual-motor integration, tion shows lack of attention to
shows attention to detail detail. May experience difﬁculty with
good orientation and direc- directionality and spatial orientation.
tionality.

Content of writing

a. Sequence of words Has correct word order. Does not have correct word order.
in sentences – word
or applicable copyright law.

order

b. Sequence of ideas Ideas have a meaningful Ideas are muddled or mixed up –

sequence. lack sequence. 193
c. Cohesion – written Paragraph reads well – with Poor integration of ideas – para-
work has meaning. good sequence of graph does not read well.
ideas/sentences.

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Area Strength Weakness

d. Topic maintenance Has a main topic in the story Has a main topic but sentences that
and can keep the ideas follow sometimes do not relate to
related. the topic or they may be unrelated.

e. Sentence introduc- Introduces the paragraph Does not begin with a main idea.
tion with a main idea or topic
– Provides main sentence. Then followed by
idea and support- sentences providing the
ing details. details.

f. Complexity of sen- Uses conjunctions to make Sentences are simple. Does not
tences sentences more complex. use conjunctions to increase com-
plexity of sentences.
g. Grammar use Has good word order and Poor use of grammar.
grammar.

h. Relevant details Includes relevant sentences. Includes sentences that do not

included relate to the topic.

i. Descriptive language Knows how to use adjec- Does not use adjectives. Poor
use tives to describe nouns. descriptive language.

j. Answers the ques- Correct answers to ques- Incorrect answers to questions.

tions. tions.

k. Punctuation Obeys punctuation rules. Poor use of punctuation.

l. Spelling Average-to-good spelling. Poor spelling.

7.5 section D: assessment and intervention in context

7.5.1 Lesson 1: listening comprehension

Instruction: The teacher reads the story to the learner and evaluates the listening
comprehension of the learner (understanding of text heard).
or applicable copyright law.

194

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MULUNGU PAINTS THE BIRDS

(AFRICAN FOLK TALE)

Adapted from Childcraft (1993)

At the beginning of time, the gods made the earth, the land and the seas, and all
the creatures that swim, fly and walk. But something was not quite right. “I
know!” said the god Mulungu. “What we need is some colour.” Mulungu had a
bag of paints and soon the leaping firelight was red, and the juicy fruit
were glossy orange. The sun was a burning yellow, and the grasses a
dappled shade of green. The sky and water were a hundred blues
and the flowers, violet and purple. All the creatures were painted,
from the great grey elephant to the scuttling black beetle.
But Mulungu could not catch the birds as they flew above the heav-
ens. After a time the birds noticed the brilliant colours of the but-
terflies and the stripped jungle beasts. So the birds decided to
ask Mulungu if they too could be painted bright colours. The
dove flew off to meet the great god Mulungu and whispered in
his ears.
“All right” said Mulungu. “I’ll paint you. But you will
have to be patient and queue up quietly.” So Mulungu
came back to earth with his bag full of paints and set
to work on the birds. All around him was a mass of
white feathers as the birds waited quietly to be painted.
All except for one bird. This bird, Che Mlanda, hopped
impatiently from foot to foot crying, “Paint me next!
Paint me next!”
The great eagle which stood before Mulungu, was
being painted a fabulous golden colour.
“Oh, I love it!” cried Che Mlanda. “Paint me gold,
just like that.” Mulungu picked up a tiny humming-
bird and dipped his paint stick in a little pot of bril-
liant blue. “Oh!”
shrieked Che
Mlanda, “I want
to be blue too.
Paint me next!”
Mulungu turned
to the parrot and
or applicable copyright law.

carefully ﬁlled her

in with red and
yellow and blue. 195
“I’ve changed my
mind. I want to be
all the colours.

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Paint me next, do!” insisted Che Mlanda. The dove was

next in the queue, but Mulungu had heard enough of Che
Mlanda’s chatter (noise). “Come here,” said Mulungu qui-
etly. He picked up his brush. “Which colour would you
like to be?” he asked Che Mlanda. “Yellow,” said Che
Mlanda. Mulungu dipped his brush in the yellow paint.
“No, blue,” shrieked Che Mlanda. Mulungu dipped his
brush in the blue paint. “No, no red!” Che Mlanda
screeched. Mulungu sighed and dipped his brush in the
red paint. Mulungu painted Che Mlanda from head to
foot. “Off you go,” said Mulungu to Che Mlanda when he
had finished. “I hope you’re satisfied.”
Che Mlanda stared down at his feathers and for
the first time in his life, he was at a loss for
words. His feathers were
a dull muddy brown, a
mixture of yellow, blue
and red. So he flew back
to find Mulungu, crying,
“Paint me next, paint me
next.” But the god
Mulungu had packed up
his paints and gone
home. And the poor
dove, which had lost his
turn, is still white to this
day. If you travel to Lake
Nyasa in Malawi, Africa,
listen carefully. Some people say that you can still hear Che Mlan-
da calling, “Paint me next, paint me next.”

Instruction: The following questions demonstrate different levels of complexity.

It is important for teachers therefore to select questions that are appropriate for
their learners.

QUESTIONS:

a. Literal questions (all levels)

• Where is this story taking place?
or applicable copyright law.

• What are the names of the birds mentioned in the story?

• Who was the god that created the land and the animals in this story?
196 • What colour was the juicy fruit painted?
• What are some of the creatures mentioned in this story? Name any two.
b. Inferential questions
• Why did Mulungu want to paint the animals and the birds?

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• What do you know of that is (muddy) brown in colour?

• Why was Che Mlanda impatient?
• What season do you think it was when this story took place? Explain
your answer.
c. Vocabulary
Using contextual clues (learner to guess what it means).
• “Create” – the gods created the earth, land and the sea.
• “Impatient” – Che Mlanda hopped impatiently from one foot to the
other foot, crying “Paint me next” and did not want to wait his turn in
the queue.
d. Sequence
• What happened after god Mulungu painted Che Mlanda yellow?
• What happened after he painted him blue and then red?
• What did god Mulungu do next?
e. Main idea
• What is this story about?
• Give another title for this story?
f. Cause–effect:
• How did Che Mlanda get to be a muddy brown colour?
• How did the birds get their bright colours?
g. Affect
• How do you think the eagle felt with his golden colour?
• Describe Che Mlanda’s feelings when he saw his muddy brown feath-
ers.
h. Comparatives
• In what way are the feathers of the birds and the clothes we wear simi-
lar (the same)?
• In what way are the eagle and the dove similar?
• In what way are the eagle and the dove different?
• In what way are you and the birds different?
i. Categorisation
Given the items – name the category.
• What group do the following items belong to: dove, eagle, mina, pigeon,
sparrow = birds
• What group do the following items belong to: man, boy, girl, woman =
people
or applicable copyright law.

Given a category – name the items.

• Name as many birds that you can remember mentioned in this story.
• Name all the insects mentioned in this story. 197
j. Describe
• Describe the eagle.
• Describe the forest.

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ERROR ANALYSIS

Area: Listening comprehension

Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

a. Does not know – May have difficulty – Read the title and talk about the title first
what the story with comprehension. before reading the story: comprehension
is about. builds with prior knowledge.
– Can show pictures and words as the story
is read to aid recall.
b. Doesn’t – May have difficulty – Read two to three lines of the story, talk
remember with memory. about it and then ask a question.
details of the – Can use flow map with the key ideas to
story. assist with recall.

The birds flew

into the sky

c. Doesn’t under- – Insufﬁcient word – Teach auditory association, e.g. Class-

stand the knowledge. room goes with teacher.
vocabulary in Feathers go with ... (birds, man, tree).
the story. Fruit goes with tree as paintbrush goes
with ... (grass, paint, table).
– Find another word that means the same
as ... in the story.
jump (hop, skip)
big (large, huge)

d. The learner – Difﬁculty with memory – Use pictures or drawing to depict the char-
does not recall retention or under- acters in the story read.
the characters standing.
in the story.

e. The learner – May not understand – Use drawings to illustrate the setting in the
does not know narrative (story) struc- story.
where the story ture, i.e. story setting
is taking place. or difﬁculty with mem-
ory or understanding.
f. The learner – May not be able to Teach cause and effect.
does not make inferences, i.e. – Discuss the story and relate to the learn-
understand “read between the ers’ experiences, i.e. building comprehen-
“why” and lines” or relate under- sion through accessing prior knowledge.
“how” ques- standing to own expe-
tions. riences.
or applicable copyright law.

g. The learner – Poor or limited vocab- Teach deﬁnitions of words.

does not ulary.
– Use contextual clues.
198 understand the
– Ask learners to use their dictionary.
words, e.g.
“impatient;
dappled;
created”.

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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

h. The learner – May not know Teach temporal concepts.

cannot temporal con- – Teach parts of a story as having a beginning, a
answer infor- cepts (e.g. before, middle and an end.
mation after, next, begin- – Could use a drawing of a fish to show:
regarding the ning) or Head (beginning)
sequence of – may not have Body (middle)
information. identified Tail (end)
serial/sequence/
order in presenta-
tion of information
or
– may have difficul-
ty with memory
recall.

i. The learner – Does not under- – Given three titles, one correct and two incorrect,
has difficulty stand main idea the learner has to choose the title that best fits
providing the or unable to pick the story.
overall up the theme of
idea/gist of the story.
the story.
j. The learner – May not under- – Demonstrate the “effect”, by rolling the pencil
has difficulty stand cause and across the table. Ask the learner what caused
with identify- effect in events. the pencil to roll.
ing the caus- – Discuss a few such examples: what effect would
es and the you get if you do the following: strike a match;
effects in the switch on the light; or kick a ball.
story.

k. The learner – May not have the Teach “feeling” words such as happy, sad, disap-
cannot identi- vocabulary to pointed. The teacher can use pictures to show the
fy “feeling” describe emotions different feelings. Ask the children daily to match
words in the or may not under- their feelings with the picture and then to describe
story. stand the emo- their emotions using the new words learnt.
tions experienced  = Happy
by the characters
in the story.
l. The learner – May not under- Teacher can show the learners, using pictures, that
has difﬁculty stand “same and “happy” and “glad” are good feelings but that “sad”
with making different” con- is not good – the learners will then compare these
compar- cepts. feelings.
isons.

m. The learner – Cannot categorise – The learner can be asked to put items from the
is unable to or see items that following list into a basket if they are food:
provide belong to the apple, bread, book, cat, sweets, rice, bus.
or applicable copyright law.

items for a same group. – If the learner selects an incorrect word, such as
given cate- “bus”, the teacher can ask, “Can we eat this?”
gory or – This type of question will help the learner to
unable to focus on the group or category. 199
provide the
category
name for the
items given.

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Difficulty Possible causes Strategies

n. The learner – The learner may not Teach criteria, i.e. adjectives or attributes.
is unable to know the criteria for
provide a describing items,
clear e.g. colour, size,
description shape, or has limit-
of objects. ed knowledge of
criteria.

TEACHER TIPS

Teacher tip 1: Literal questions assess the memory and the content of the story.
Inferential questions link with abstract thinking. The learners use their experience
(prior knowledge) to understand and bring meaning to the story.

Teacher tip 2: When reading, learners must attend and concentrate so that they
they are not distracted and focus on the information for better understanding.

Teacher tip 3: Select stories that are of interest to that particular age and grade
level. Link listening comprehension to the themes used in class whenever possi-
ble.

Teacher tip 4: Discuss the title (heading) ﬁrst; it helps the learner to bring his or
her experiences/prior knowledge to assist in understanding the story.

Teacher tip 5: Read smaller sections of the story at a time and talk about the
story so that the learner builds correct understanding.
or applicable copyright law.

7.5.2 Lesson 2: oral or silent reading

200 Information for the teacher: Reﬂect on the “Mulungu” story that the learners
have listened to, and ask them to think of colours in that story. Also can they
identify colours in their environment?

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Teacher tip 6: Many interesting meanings

Discuss the many different meanings (homophones – words that sound the
same but have different meanings) of the words blue and blew: they sound the
same but look different and have different meanings.

Instruction: The teacher engages the class in a discussion of the colours “blue”
and “yellow” before doing the reading task and this may include:
• Blue
– Describe things that are blue.
– What does a blue light represent?
– Is “blew” a verb or action word, e.g. I blew out the candles?
– Discuss how the wind blew the sails to move the boat forward.
– Discuss what this means: the boy blew his trumpet.
– When are you feeling blue?
– Who are the boys in blue?
– Name a precious stone that is blue.
or applicable copyright law.

• Yellow
– Yellow can also have different meanings: sometimes if someone feels ill, we
say someone looks yellow. 201
– There is a disease called yellow fever.
– In wartime someone who is called yellow is considered a coward.

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PHONEMIC AWARENESS

Instruction: Before reading ask learners to look at the word “blue”.

• Can they think of words that rhyme with “blue”?
• Which words look and sound the same as “blue”? (true, avenue, statue)

Instruction: Look at the word “yellow”; it ends in “ow” but sounds like “oh”!
• Can you think of words that rhyme with “yellow”? (fellow, mellow)
• Some words sound like yellow but end with “oe”. (toe, potato)

Instruction: Before asking the learners to read, discuss the concept of primary
and secondary colours brieﬂy with them. Discuss the fact that different colours
can have different meanings depending on our culture or belief system. In some
cultures, red is a symbol of good luck and prosperity. In other cultures, white is a
symbol of purity.
Explain to the learners that in this story the colours are characters; explain
what we mean by a character (a person in the story). Remind the learners that if
they come to a difﬁcult word they should try to guess the word by looking at the
surrounding words (using contextual clues) or by breaking the word up into
smaller parts (analyses). While reading, the learners should try to visualise the
story (get a picture in their mind as they read).

Instruction: The learner reads this passage and answers the questions. The
teacher notes the errors, using the checklist below.

Instruction to the learners: Carefully read the story. Remember to use your
imagination and paint a picture in your mind while you are reading.
Pictures are coloured blobs with facial expressions (fingerprint faces in blue and
yellow).

LITTLE BLUE AND LITTLE YELLOW

BY LEO LIONNI
or applicable copyright law.

This is Little Blue.

202 Here he is at home with Papa and Mama Blue.
Little Blue has many friends
But his best friend is Little Yellow, who lives across the street.
How they love to play Hide-and-Seek and Ring-a-Ring- O’ Roses!

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In school they sit still in neat rows.

After school they run and jump.
One day Mama Blue went shopping.
“You stay at home,” she said to Little Blue.
But Little Blue went out to look for Little Yellow.
Oh Dear! The house across the street was empty.
He looked here
and there
and everywhere ... until suddenly, around a corner
there was Little Yellow!
Happily they hugged each other
And hugged each other
Until they were green.

Then they went to play in the park.

They ran through a tunnel.
They chased Little Orange.
They climbed a mountain.
When they were tired
They went home.

But Papa and Mama Blue said:

“You are not our Little Blue – you are green.”
And Papa and Mama Yellow said:
“You are not our Little Yellow – you are green”.
Little Blue and Little Yellow were very sad. They cried big blue and yellow tears.
They cried and cried until they were all tears.
When they ﬁnally pulled themselves together they said: “Will they believe us
now?”

Mama Blue and Papa Blue were very happy to see their Little Blue.
They hugged and kissed him
And they hugged Little Yellow too ... but look ... they became green!
Now they knew what had happened
And so they went across the street to share the good news.
They all hugged each other with joy
And the children played until supper time.
or applicable copyright law.

ERROR ANALYSIS AND IDEAS FOR LEARNING SUPPORT

• If the learner reads: the for this, home for house, or if they misread, or
substitute the words or incorrectly recall other sight words, then the learn- 203
er could have a poor visual memory. To correct this, they need to practise
common sight words regularly. It is a good idea to go over new sight words
before reading.

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• If the learner is adding in letters, example breast for best, make up short
little sentences and give a few choices for the learner to select words that
look similar.

breast boast best beast

• Example: Choose the correct word to complete the sentence below:

Mary was Thandi’s ... friend.
– If the learner has difﬁculty reading multisyllabic words like suddenly.
Show them how to decode words by breaking them into small parts,
sud+den+ly.
– If the learner fails to use expression or punctuation, allow them to re-
read the passage highlighting all the punctuation marks, emphasize the
pause at a full stop and demonstrate how to adjust ones voice when
speaking in direct speech.

COMPREHENSION

Discuss these questions orally with your group before they write the answers.
a. Literal questions
• Who does Little Blue live with?
• Who is his best friend?
• Where does Little Yellow live?
• What games do they love to play?
• Who did they chase?
• What colour did Mama and Papa Blue become when they hugged Little
Yellow?

b. Inferential questions
• How did Little Blue feel when the house across the street was empty?
• What happened when they went home to their parents?
• What was the good news that the Blue family went across the street to
share?
• Do you think Little Blue and Little Yellow were concerned about their
colour?
or applicable copyright law.

c. Sequencing
• Name four places in the story where they played? Try to remember
them in the correct order.
204
d. Main idea
• What is the story about?
• Give another title for this story?

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e. Cause and effect

• What happens when the colours blue and yellow mix?
• What happened when Little Blue and Little Yellow hugged each other?
f. Affect
• How does everyone feel at the end of this story? Why do they feel this
way?
• What is the lesson that Little Blue and Little Yellow taught their par-
ents?
• Should Little Blue have disobeyed his mother and gone out alone?
• What was the most important thing that Little Blue and Little Yellow
shared?
g. Comparatives
• How do the parents and the children in the story differ?
• What did Little Blue and Little Yellow have in common?
h. Categorisation
• List the primary colours?
• List the secondary colours?
i. Describe
• Describe the park where Little Blue and Yellow played?
• Describe the relationship the two little colours have?

ERROR ANALYSIS

Look back at the listening comprehension analysis checklist to see the kind of
errors made in reading comprehension that are similar to those that occurred
in the answers to the listening comprehension passage.

7.5.3 Lesson 3: speaking

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205

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NARRATIVES

Instruction: Ask the learner to tell a story about when they were most scared or
frightened.

Evaluate the story on the following elements:

1. Story grammar (macrostructure)
• Characters: people or animals in the story.
• Setting: place where the story is happening.
• Problem: is there a plot/situation or problem in the story?
• Solution: how is the problem solved?
• Title: has a title or heading for the story been provided?
2. Linguistic markers (microstructure)
• Conjunctions: joining words, used to lengthen the sentences.
• Pronouns: used to make references to the characters named earlier in
the story.
• Adjectives: used to describe the nouns, making the story interesting.
• Vocabulary (lexicon): are new words rather than the more common ones
used to express their ideas.
• Temporal markers: e.g. “before, after, next”.
3. General
• Coda: is there a beginning statement that indicates a story is starting,
e.g. “Once upon a time ...”; “In the beginning ...” etc. Is there a definite
ending word, e.g. “The end.” “In conclusion ...”?
• Sequence: is there a beginning, middle and end to the story? Do the sen-
tences flow logically?
• Emotions/affect: are there emotion/feeling words used to describe how
the characters feel?
• Moral: is there a moral to this story or a lesson to be learnt from it?
What can it teach others? Does the learner identify this and state the
moral?
• Plots: is there one or are there several plots/problems in this story?
• Main idea: is the title selected representative of the story?
• Referents: does the learner first give the characters a name before they
or applicable copyright law.

refer to them using pronouns (he, she, his, hers)?

• Listener perspective (presupposition skills): does the learner provide
206 sufﬁcient details so that the listener knows what they are talking
about, i.e. provide a context for the listener?
• Grammar (syntax): are their sentences grammatically correct?
• Interest level: is the story interesting?

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EXPRESSIVE VOCABULARY

1. Definition task

Instruction: Ask the learner to describe an item, e.g. “chair”. Evaluate the criteria
or categories that are used to describe the item, e.g. “chair”: colour, function,
structure (what is it made from), size, cost/price, quantity, texture, taste, ani-
mate/inanimate, edible/inedible, movable/immovable, etc.

2. Comparison

Comparison requires the learner to see the similarities (same) or differences

between the items/words.

Instruction: Ask the learner to select from the answers provided in what way
these two words are alike/the same and in what way are they different.

1. apple – orange

Same: _____________ (fruit, vegetable, clothes)

Different: _____________ (colour, taste, texture)
2. bed – chair
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207

Same: ___________ (furniture, stationery, fruit)

Different: ______________ (size, colour, cost)

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3. pen – pencil
Same: _______________ (vegetable, stationery, clothing)
Different: ________________ (colour, cost, structure)
4. floor brush – toothbrush
Same: _______________ (vegetable, stationery, brushes)
Different: ________________ (colour, cost, function)
5. bird – butterfly
Same: _______________ (can fly, vegetable, insects)
Different: ________________ (colour, size)
6. red – green
Same: _______________ (vegetable, colours)
Different: ________________ (different message e.g. red=stop; green=go)
7. book – newspaper
8. bird – kite
9. lion – shark
10. soup – jersey

3. Categorisation task

Instruction: Name ﬁve types of:

Item Types 2 3 4 5

Birds eagle

Fruit

Books

Instruction: Name the group/family to which these items belong:

Category Items

Furniture chair table bed cupboard couch/settee

apple orange banana pear pineapple

or applicable copyright law.

eagle dove crow sparrow pigeon

208
Teacher tip 7: It is important to build from concrete to abstract, i.e. begin with
concrete nouns: “apple” to abstract nouns: “colour”.

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ERROR ANALYSIS

Teacher to note the following:

1. Narrative:
• Structure: Does the story have the structural elements/components in
points 2 to 4 that follow?
2. Story grammar
• Difficulty: Does the learner know the different parts of the story gram-
mar (characters, setting, plot, resolution)?
3. Linguistic markers
• Difficulty: Does the learner use conjunctions (joining words used to
lengthen the sentences); pronouns (he, she, his, hers); adjectives
(describing words); vocabulary (lexicon) (does not use a variety of
words); temporal markers?
4. Elements from the general list
• Difficulty: Name the speciﬁc difﬁculty. Generally if many of these ele-
ments from this list (on p. 206) are omitted, the learner is not aware of
good narrative story structure.

Teacher tip 8: Narrative story knowledge and ability is the foundation for read-
ing, comprehending and writing text. Added to this, narrative structure is the
foundation on which expository text (the type of text used in a subject area, such
as geography, history or economic sciences) is built.

Teacher tip 9: It is important to remember that the types of narrative stories pre-
sented, are not only inﬂuenced by the learners’ levels of language skills but also
by their culture, age, gender and socioeconomic levels. Nevertheless, do not
stereotype the learners, just evaluate the story told.

4. Definition tasks
The learner is unable to deﬁne/explain what a word means.
• Difficulty: The learner may not have the vocabulary to explain or he or
she may not have the language or the metalinguistic knowledge to
deﬁne the word.
or applicable copyright law.

Teacher tip 10: The ability to deﬁne requires metalinguistic ability, i.e. the ability 209
to use language to talk about language. It is a higher-order language ability
because you’re thinking about the words you use to convey the correct meaning
to the listener.

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e.g. What does apple mean?

An apple is a fruit. (category/group)
You can eat it, cook or bake it. (function)
It grows on trees. (location)
It may be red/yellow/green in colour. (colour)

5. Categorisation task
The learner is unable to provide category or group names.
• Difficulty: The learner may not be able to group items or know the cat-
egory they belong to because they do not have the vocabulary.
6. Comparison task
The learner does not provide a comparison.
• Difficulty: The learner may not understand the concepts of “same” and
“different”.

7.5.4 Lesson 4: writing

ACTIVITIES

Think about colours. What do certain colours remind you of? Some colours,
like orange and red, are warm. Colours can have an association with our
moods or feelings.
Think about these questions:
or applicable copyright law.

• What is your favourite colour? Is it a primary or secondary colour?

• Which colours do you mix to make purple?
210 • Can you describe “things” in your environment that are green?
• Why is green an important colour in our environment?
• What does it mean to be “green”?
• What does it mean if someone has “green ﬁngers”?

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Complete the following sentences:

• I like .......................... because .......................................................................
• I don’t like .................. because ......................................................................
• My favourite colour is ..................................
• The colour ..................... makes me feel happy because
...................................................
• To be green means to
....................................................................................................
• When you mix ............... and ................ you get
.........................................................
• Colours can have many shades from .......................... to
.............................................
• The colours of the rainbow are
.....................................................................................
• Autumn colours are ............., ............., ..................,
.............................................
• A fruit named after a colour word is .........................................................
• A song that uses colour words is ......................................................................

Colour words are often used in comparisons.

• As ....................... as snow.
• As green as ............................
• As red as ................................
• As black as ............................

Objects can sometimes be used to describe the intensity of a colour.

• Ruby red
• Rose red
• Blood red
• Fire-engine red
• Emerald green
• Slime green
• Apple green
or applicable copyright law.

• Lime green
• Sky blue
• Baby blue 211
• Lemon yellow
• How many other objects can you think of that are used to describe colours?
(e.g. ivory)

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Teacher tip 11: Question words often help learners to think more laterally about
a topic or event. Motivate your learners to use question words to help them when
they are writing. This will give them ideas and help to add details to their written
work.

Write some questions. Think back to the story.

• Who ....................................................................................................................
• What ...................................................................................................................
• Where .................................................................................................................
• Why ....................................................................................................................
• When ..................................................................................................................
• How ....................................................................................................................
• Did ......................................................................................................................
• Colour words are usually used as adjectives. In this story they are
________. (Which parts of speech?)
• List three common nouns used in the passage (naming words).
___________, ______________, _______________.
• Name three verbs used in the story (action words).
____________, ____________, ________________.
• Which adjective is used to describe blue and yellow? ___________.
• Can you think of other words that could have been used to describe the
size of the little colours in the story? (Words that have similar meanings
are called synonyms).
_________________, _____________, _______________.
• Can you ﬁnd two conjunctions used in the passage? (Conjunctions are join-
ing words).
______________, ________________, _______________.
• The opposite of little is big. Can you think of other words that mean the
same as big? (Words that are opposites are called antonyms).
________________, ______________, ________________.
or applicable copyright law.

• Can you ﬁnd any compound words in the story? (Compound words are
made up of two smaller words.)
_______________________, ____________________.
212
• Pretend you are Little Blue and your friend is Little Yellow.
– What would you say to each other?
– Use speech bubbles to write your own words.

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– You may also want to add in “think” bubbles to show what you are think-
ing.
– Use an ink pad to make ﬁngerprints of the colours, you can add in facial
features.

Blue Yellow

Blue’s mom Yellow’s dad

• Now that you have written down what your characters said or thought in
the bubble, rewrite their words using the correct punctuation.
– Speech marks are used for the actual words being spoken.
– Work with a friend and try to think of as many words as you can that
mean the same as said.
• Now rewrite this story using the same basic idea, but using a different
colour or even a different animal.
• Try to include a moral or lesson so that the story has a deeper meaning.
• Draw a picture to illustrate a scene in the story.
• Work in a group and make a story using a sequence of pictures and writing
captions to explain what is happening in the story.
• Write colour poems: Blue =
– Beautiful
– Loving
or applicable copyright law.

– Unique
– Enthusiastic
213
WRITING STRATEGIES

1. Discuss the comparison of colours.

• Colour words are often used to describe things.

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2. Show the learners that similes or metaphors can be written using compar-
isons:
• The girl felt ill, her skin was as white as snow. (simile)
• It was a black time for them when Granny died. (metaphor)
3. In the second story Yellow and Blue hug and become green.
• The teacher can demonstrate this by overlapping two hoops or circles of
cellophane or mixing paint or playdough.
4. Use the diagram of overlapping circles to demonstrate how we can have a
common interest and still maintain our individuality. Maintaining inde-
pendence but sharing makes a beautiful new colour.
5. Discuss how sharing creates new ideas in the same way that mixing two
colours magically creates one new colour. What happens in the overlap?
Meeting in the green?
6. Explain to the learners that language is made up of root words with prefix-
es and suffixes added together to make new compound words.
• Root words + prefixes: a + cross = across
• Root words + suffixes: sing + ing = singing
• Compound words: post + box = postbox
7. Make a colour wheel
• Draw a circle and divide it into three parts, paint in primary colours
(red, blue, yellow) in the centre.

Red

Blue

Yellow

8. Categorisation: colours and feelings can be grouped into various cate-

gories. Show learners how to make a categorisation table by putting colour
or feeling words into positive and negative columns.
9. Sometimes when we compare, we need to use a continuum. For example:
ecstatic, elated, joyful, happy, pleased, glad, are all positive emo-
tions of varying degrees of intensity.
glad joyful ecstatic
pleased happy elated
or applicable copyright law.

Teacher tip 12: If learners experience difﬁculty writing:

214 • Place them in groups to discuss what they are going to write ﬁrst.
• Write vocabulary generated by the learners on the board in columns: adjec-
tives, nouns, verbs to help with spelling and vocabulary.

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ADDITIONAL WRITTEN ACTIVITIES

• Write a story about a bird in your garden.

• Draw a bird; paint it in your favourite colour.
• Use speech bubbles to show a conversation between the birds.
• Explain the life cycle of a bird.

7.6 conclusion
This chapter provides the teacher with suggestions for language activities
that will assist in developing the learner’s language abilities developmentally
in an integrated manner. It includes listening (receptive), speaking (expres-
sive), reading (receptive), writing (expressive) and cognition (thinking) tasks.
The chapter provides an understanding of what narrative text is and the com-
ponents that are involved. Tables to guide the identiﬁcation of difﬁculties
learners may experience when learning are outlined. For an assessment, an
observation portfolio is recommended as are checklists to record and analyse
the learner’s reading and writing behaviours. Finally, a set of questions to
gauge understanding of the concepts covered, a glossary of terms to provide
easy reference and an addendum to the chapter are included.

Questions
1. Why should language be considered to be an integrated whole rather than frag-
mented parts/units?
2. Why is it beneficial to do an assessment of the learner first before drawing up an
instruction/intervention or programme?
3. Why must positive and negative behaviours of the learners in the classroom be
observed, recorded and attended to?
4. What must the teacher do when negative behaviours are observed?
5. Which behaviours promote effective learning in the classroom?
6. What are the components (parts) of a narrative text?
7. Underline the correct answers: The process of reading includes {decoding, blinking
your eyelids, staring in space, understanding the text}.
8. Describe a strategy that a learner can use for the following reading difficulties:
or applicable copyright law.

• The learner does not read to the end of the word and guesses using the initial
sound of the word.
• The learner does not understand the words in the text. 215
9. Describe a strategy that a learner can use for the following writing difficulties:
• The learner cannot get started when asked to write a story.
• The learner’s written sentences are simple and short.

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10. Describe a strategy that a learner can use for the following thinking and reasoning
difficulties:
• The learner is unable to categorise words.
• The learner is impulsive and has difficulty self-monitoring/self-regulating his or
her behaviours.
11. Reading recovery describes three levels of reading text. Name these and give the
percentage of accuracy for each.

GLOSSARY

Adjectives describe words, for example “big”, Fluency is reading smoothly, without hesita-
“red”. They can also be referred to as attrib- tion.
utes or criteria when describing words. Following instructions shows receptive
Affect refers to emotions or feelings. (understanding) language ability.
Analysis is the ability to break a word up High-frequency words are words that
into its parts. appear often in a text.
Associative memory means to make an Higher-order learning refers to a level of
association between words to have easier abstraction in learning.
recall. Impulsivity refers to acting without thinking.
Auditory processing is the ability to listen,
Inattention is the inability to attend to infor-
hear and understand incoming information.
mation.
Auditory discrimination – to tell if the
Inferential questions are questions that
information heard is the same or different.
require you to access your prior knowledge
Categorisation means putting items that to answer.
belong together into groups.
Integrate is to put thoughts together for
Coda refers to the beginning and endings in understanding and verbal and written
narrative stories. expression.
Cognition refers to thinking. Linguistic markers as a term refers to the
Cohesion is to combine information to make parts of speech (e.g. conjunctions, adjectives,
meaning. etc.) that you use to hold your narrative
Comparison is the ability to see or tell simi- (story).
larities or differences in a word or object. Listening comprehension refers to under-
Conjunctions are joining words. standing information heard.
Continuum refers to viewing learning or Literal questions are questions that require
development along a line. information from your memory.
Convergent thinking means connecting Main idea is the most important information
thoughts or words to ﬁnd and label a cate- in a paragraph that tells you what it is
gory. about.
Directionality refers to understanding the Metalinguistics is using language to think
concept left and right. about language.
Expository text is written text that is factu- Metaphor is a ﬁgure of speech in which a
or applicable copyright law.

al, for example text on geography. comparison is made.

Expressive language means speaking or Mid-line crossing is the ability to cross the
writing the language. centre of your body when doing an activity.
216 Feeling of challenge is an overwhelming Mind mapping refers to a strategy used to
feeling when presented with a new task. brainstorm your thoughts. A mind map may
Fine-motor coordination is the small mus- also be referred to as a spider diagram.
cle movement used when writing, cutting, Motor planning means planning your action
drawing, etc. before carrying it out.

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Multisensory lesson is a lesson that uses ing characters, setting, problem and solu-
several modalities, that is visual, auditory tion.
and kinaesthetic cues. Suffix is a unit of sound added to the end of a
Narratives refer to stories that are self-gener- word, for example walking.
ated, a familiar tale or retelling an experi- Superordinate label is used when describing
ence. an inclusive category, for example “sport”.
Phonemic awareness is an awareness of the Syllabification means breaking up words
smallest unit in a word, that is, at a single into smaller units or syllables.
sound level.
Syntax refers to grammar.
Pragmatics is the social use of language.
Synthesis is the ability to blend sounds
Prefix refers to the unit of sound added to the together to form a word.
beginning of a word, for example unhappy.
Template is a model or guide.
Prior knowledge is information you learn
Temporal refers to a time concept, for exam-
through previous experiences and bring to a
ple “before” or “after”.
text when reading and listening to informa-
tion. Transcribe is to write notes.
Reauditorisation is the skill of repeating the Visual discrimination is the ability to see
instruction heard or read before you can differences.
carry it out. Visual memory is the ability to recall what
Receptive language is the understanding of was seen.
language. Visual-sequential memory is the ability to
Rhyming refers to words that end with the recall what was seen in the correct
same sound, for example pat, bat, sat. sequence.
Selective attention is the ability to focus on Visual-spatial orientation is to see how
what is relevant. something can change its position.
Self-monitoring means taking control of Visual tracking refers to the movement of
one’s own thoughts and actions. the eye when reading along a line.
Semantics refers to meaning. Vocabulary refers to the words that you
understand or use when speaking.
Simile is a ﬁgure of speech, for example: “as
busy as a bee” or “clouds like cottonwool”. Working memory refers to using information
from your short-term memory to think.
Story grammar refers to the macrostructure
of a narrative and has several parts includ-

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Childcraft. 1993. World of Color, Volume 12. Grové, M.C. & Hauptﬂeisch, H.M.A.M. 1982.
Chicago, IL: World Book International. Remedial education in the primary school.
Clay, M.M. 1993. Reading recovery: a guide- Pretoria: Haum Educational Publishers.
book for teachers in training. Portsmouth, Hill, S. 2006. Developing early literacy: assess-
NH: Heinemann. Available at: ment and teaching. Australia: Eleanor Cur-
http://www.readingrecovery.org/reading_re tain Publishing.
covery/marie_clay/index.asp (accessed on
Johnson, P. & Keier, K. 2010. Catching read-
30 September 2011).
ers before they fall. Portland, ME: Stenhouse
or applicable copyright law.

Department of Basic Education (DBE). 2010. Publishers.

Curriculum and Assessment Policy State-
ment (CAPS). Language Policy Report. Pre- Langa, M.A. & Yost, J.L. 2007. Curriculum
toria: Government Printer. mapping for differentiated instruction. 217
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Sage.
Department of Education. 2002. Revised
National Curriculum Statement Grades Lapp, D., Flood, J., Brock, C. & Fisher, D.
R–9 (Schools) Policy. Pretoria: Government 2007. Teaching reading to every child. Hills-
Printer. dale, NJ: Lawrence Elbaum Associates.

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Rief, S.F. 1998. The ADD/ADHD checklist: An VA: Association for Supervision and Cur-
easy reference for teachers and parents. San riculum Development (ASCD).
Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons. Unicef. 2004. Sara: teacher’s resource book.
Rosner, J. 1979. Helping children overcome Cape Town: Maskew Miller Longman.
learning difficulties. Canada: Thomas Allen Walker, B.J. 2005. Techniques for reading and
& Sons. instruction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pearson
Tomlinson, C.A. 2003. Fulfilling the promise of Merrill, Prentice Hall.
a differentiated classroom: strategies and
tools for responsive teaching. Alexandria,

Addendum A to Chapter 7
Teaching phonics
Language should always be viewed holistically but there are times when the
teaching of phonics as an explicit skill is necessary to enable learners to
develop an awareness of sound/symbol correspondence. Explicit teaching of
phonics uses a part-to-whole approach. The teacher isolates individual letters,
sounds or clusters of letters that make up sounds in an attempt to commit
these to the learners’ phonemic memory. This process can be repeated at any
age or stage until the learners have consolidated these and can instantly
recall the sound produced by the letter. Direct teaching of letter/sound corre-
spondence helps learners to synthesise and analyse words. In order to accom-
modate multiple learning styles the teacher should always use activities
involving as many different senses as possible (visual, auditory, tactile,
kinaesthetic).
The following procedure and strategies suggested below outlines a system-
atic approach that is graded in levels of complexity. The units may take
longer or be accelerated depending on the learners. It is essential that the
learners spend enough time building the new words. Hearing and seeing the
new sounds in context is important. Try to ﬁnd stories where new words are
repeated a number of times. Playing card games and rhyme activities will
help to reinforce and consolidate the individual sound/symbol correspondence.
Although this is intended to be for Grade 1 learners, older learners who have
not yet grasped sound/symbol correspondence need to move through this
process at an accelerated pace.

Unit – Letters/Sounds Strategies and skills to consolidate

1. Introductory pro- Recognition of initial letters/sounds of names of children in the

gramme: emphasise class:
or applicable copyright law.

auditory and visual – In order for learners to remember one another’s names, play
memory and dis- rhyming or sound association games with the initial letters, e.g.
crimination. Nellie nibbles on Niknaks.
218 Lerato licks a lollipop.
– Identify common sounds in words – use both visual and auditory
modality:
Cat, bat, mat – all end with “at”.

Unit – Letters/Sounds Strategies and skills to consolidate

2. Reinforce rhyme. Emphasise sounds and letters that rhyme that are the same at the
end of words:
– Use short poems, songs and rhymes to identify the letters that
make up the rhyme, e.g.
Jack and Jill
went up the hill

3. Syllabiﬁcation. – Identify sequences and syllables.

– Clap syllables in each child’s name.

4. Initial consonant – Play games such as “I spy”.

letter/sound s. – Generate other words that begin with the same sounds.
– Find and cut out pictures of items that begin with the same letter
and sound.
– Cut out snakes and emphasise the sss sound.

5. Initial consonant – Repeat the activities suggested above.

letter/sound h. – Show learners the shape of your mouth when you say the h. Can
you feel warm breath?

6. Introduce initial – Draw up cue cards to show a picture of something beginning

consonant with a “t”, e.g. tap.
letter/sound t. – Use coloured tape to make the letter t.

7. Introduce vowel let- The vowel “a” is introduced early in order to promote word
ter/sound a. This building and rhyme patterning.
can be placed in – Demonstrate building words using individual letters/sounds in dif-
the initial or medial ferent positions to make a variety of different words, e.g.
position. at, sat, hat, ...
– Always use a colour to show the vowel in the middle has a differ-
ent colour.
– Explain how important the vowel is as it helps us to make a
word.

8. Introduce initial – Make a large p and ﬁll it with split peas.

consonant – Ask learners to look at your mouth when you say “p” – the air
letter/sound p. explodes.
– Ask learners to say sentences where all the words begin with the
same sound, e.g.
Peter put pepper on a piece of pumpkin.
– Explain that letters can be moved and placed in different posi-
tions. For example, in pepper we hear the p in the middle of the
word as well as at the beginning.

9. Introduce the initial – Show the learners movement when forming the letter m.
consonant
or applicable copyright law.

– Draw a large m in the sand or with chalk on the paving.

sound/letter m. – Ask learners to look at your mouth and see how the top and bot-
tom lips push together when you say the m sound.

10. Introduce the initial – Read a short story or poem and ask the learners to click their ﬁn- 219
consonant gers each time they hear the sound r.
sound/letter r. – Generate sentences where all words begin with r, e.g.
Robert ripped the rags into ribbons.

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Unit – Letters/Sounds Strategies and skills to consolidate

11. Introduce initial or – Repeat some of the activities suggested above, using n in initial
ﬁnal consonant let- position.
ter/sound n. – Now use n in ﬁnal position as well, e.g.
ran, man, .... Make new rhyme pattern ending with n.
– Explain the shape of n as similar to u and m. Discuss how they
sound and look different.

12. Revise all the let- – Use new words in sentences. Group words according to the
ters/sounds learnt. same rhyme pattern, e.g. nap, tap, sap.

13. Introduce initial – Use lipstick to write l. Can also use lemon juice on coloured
consonant paper as it takes the colour out and makes it “lighter”.
letter/sound l and g. – Make new words using l at the beginning of words.
– Build new words. As new words are introduced, explain the
meanings of these words and use them in context to explain the
meaning, e.g. “lap”:
Daddy has a laptop computer.
I sit on my mom’s lap.
My dog laps water from his bowl.
Each time a new letter is introduced a multisensory activity
must be used to reinforce the grapheme/phoneme corre-
spondence, e.g.
Make popcorn – for p.

14. Introduce initial or – Discuss words and names with c and k, and how they sound the
ﬁnal consonant let- same.
ter/sound c and k – Build words using initial c and k with /a/ in medial or middle posi-
ﬁrst individually in tion, e.g. cap.
initial position. Cat, can, cap/car sounds different.
Later, once initial
consonant sound is – Illustrate ck at the end of a word, e.g. sack, pack, lack.
established, show – Talk about pack in different contexts, e.g.
that ck can be Pack your bag.
together at the end A pack of cards.
of a word.

15. Revise sounds – Play bingo or card games.

done thus far, make – Create short reading and rhyme activities.
up sentences and
build words using
all letters/sounds
taught so far.

16. Introduce initial or – Build words with b at the beginning, e.g. ban, bat, bag, back.
ﬁnal consonant let- – Use b at the end, e.g. cab.
or applicable copyright law.

ter/sound b ﬁrst – Make a string of beads and shape it into the letter b.
individually in initial
position. Later,
once initial conso-
220 nant sound is
established, show
that b can also be
used at the end.

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Unit – Letters/Sounds Strategies and skills to consolidate

17. Introduce initial or – Show how we use i in the beginning of a word, e.g. in, ink.
middle vowel – Show how ‘i’ is used in the middle of a word, e.g. bin, pin, rip,
letter/sound /i/ first sip, tip.
individually in initial – Remember to colour code the vowel “i”.
position, then in medi-
al position. – Play games using letters to show new words when you
change the order of the letters, e.g. tip, pit.
18. Introduce initial vowel – Always colour code vowels.
letter/sound /o/ first – Make new words using all sounds learnt.
individually in initial – Use individual letters to create new words. Show how chang-
position (on), then in ing positions can make the rhyme pattern different, e.g. hop,
middle (top). mop, pop; lot, got, pot.
– Show the learners the shape of your mouth when you say “o”.
19. Revise all letters and – Build new words and sentences.
sounds. Use new – Colour code vowels in the middle position.
vowels to make new – Always discuss different meanings of words, e.g.
words.
flower pot, cooking pot.
Discuss how words in English can be used differently, e.g.
Noun: top hat; Preposition: I sit on top of the table.
Verb: pop the balloon; Noun: popcorn
20. Introduce initial vowel – Always colour code vowels.
letter/sound /u/ first – Make new words using u.
individually in initial – Use individual letters to create new words. Show how chang-
position (up), then in ing positions can make the rhyme pattern different, e.g.
middle (tub).
hut, cut, gut/tuck, luck.
21. Introduce initial or – Make new words using /w/ at the beginning, e.g. win, won.
final consonant let- – Discuss different tenses of the word, e.g. win.
ter/sound /w/ first indi- – Use different consonants at the ends of words, e.g. wig, wick.
vidually in initial posi-
tion. Later, once initial – Make words using /w/ at the end, e.g. paw, saw, raw. Explain
consonant sound is how the /a/ has changed its sound.
established, show
that /w/ can also be
used at the end.
22. Introduce initial vowel – Make up words with new rhyme pattern, e.g.
letter/sound /e/ first net, get, wet, pet.
individually in initial leg, peg, Meg.
position (egg), then in
middle (net). – Explain the difference in the position of the tongue in the
mouth when you say e compared to i.

23. Introduce initial or – Build new words with d at the beginning, e.g.
ﬁnal consonant let- Dan, dog, dip, doll.
or applicable copyright law.

ter/sound /d/ ﬁrst indi- – Use d at the end of words, e.g.

vidually in initial posi-
tion. Later, once initial sad, bed, lid, mud.
consonant sound is – Show new rhyme patterns with /d/ at the end, e.g. 221
established, show mad, dad, had, bad, lad.
that /d/ can also be – Explain the difference between /b/ and /d/: use your ﬁsts
used at the end of a together to show a bed: left hand is /b/and right hand is /d/.
word.

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Unit – Letters/Sounds Strategies and skills to consolidate

24. Introduce initial – Make new words beginning with v at the beginning, e.g. vet.
consonant – Cut out pictures of products beginning with /v/, e.g. Vim, Vicks.
letter/sound /v/.
Show grapheme/
phoneme corre-
spondence.

25. Introduce new – Make new words beginning with /qu/, e.g. queen, quill.
sound /qu/. Show – Talk about nouns and verbs, e.g. queen is a noun but quick is a
the letter/sound /q/ verb.
is always followed
by /u/.

26. Introduce new let- – Make new words using /x/, e.g. box, six;
ters/sound x, y, z. /y/, e.g. yoyo, yum;
/z/, zebra, zip.

27. Revise all – Place letters in an arc and ask learners to say the letters moving
letters/sounds. around the arc from left to right.
– Play “I spy”.
– Select the vowels and make them a different colour.
– Draw up lists with rhyme patterns using the different consonants
at the end.
– Make up short rhyming sentences, e.g.
The mad man can fan the pan.

28. Revise words with – Make up cards to play snap and bingo games to revise and
different vowels in repeat letter sounds and words.
the middle and ck – Play picture/word-matching games.
at the end. – Make sound sliders so learners can practise reading different let-
ter patterns.
– Do close activities ﬁlling in missing words.
– Encourage learners to illustrate new words and make their own
dictionary.

29. The order of intro- – It may be useful to call blends “Harder Starters”, because there
ducing consonant are now two letters at the beginning but we blend them together
blends follows. to make one sound.
This should take
about seven
weeks.
br, cr, dr
fr, gr, pr, tr
bl, cl
gl, pl, sl, ﬂ
sc, sm, sk
or applicable copyright law.

sn, sp, sp, st

tw, tr
30. Introduce “magic – The use of a magic wand to explain how the /e/ changes the
222 e”, the split vowel. vowel by asking the vowel to say his name is useful.
– Start with /a/, then progress to /i, o, u/.
– Make up examples as you go along. Again encourage the use of
colours for the vowel.

Unit – Letters/Sounds Strategies and skills to consolidate

31. Introduce special – Two consonants together can make one new sound.
consonant blends, – Practise with these consonant clusters is essential for consolida-
nk, sh, th, ch, tch. tion.
32. Introduce the vowel [see CAPS document for Grade 2]
diagraphs, ee, ea,
oo.

Word lists
Adjectives

attractive awkward awesome agile

big bad beautiful bumpy
colours [red, blue] cute cunning caring
dangerous deep dark dull
easy enormous elderly efﬁcient
furry frightened fat fancy
greedy golden great gentle
hard heavy hairy huge
innocent irritating iron insigniﬁcant
jealous jolly joyful juicy
kind keen knotted knitted
lovely long loud lazy
mean moody muddy mild
naughty numbers [1–...] narrow nimble
outrageous odd old offensive
pretty polite posh petite
round rough rude ripe
square sweet shallow short
tight tasty tiny trivial
ugly useful unusual untidy
wide wasteful wilted weird
or applicable copyright law.

Nouns

Furniture Miscellaneous People Clothes

223

table clock man shirt

chair pen boy pants

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Furniture Miscellaneous People Clothes

bed basket teacher t-shirt

desk book doctor coat

couch pencil lady socks

pedestal telephone girl vest

bench camera ﬁreman underwear

cupboard plate nurse costume

bookshelf apple grandmother dress

stool bag grandfather skirt

Verbs
Physical verbs Mental verbs

run eat brush think

jump chew wait hope

skip hop pick dream

write look buy ponder

read point pay remember

draw see open consider

scribble smell close evaluate

take taste fold analyse

put lay sail synthesise

remove crawl travel compare

pack kneel listen wish

drink steal swallow imagine

sleep bake ﬁle visualise

wake–up lock paste attend

wash ﬂy cut concentrate

or applicable copyright law.

hang ride sew memorise

224 dry drive work select

talk bend play categorise

cook comb kick processing

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Prepositions

in between
on in-front
under behind
next-to top
through bottom
above inside
below outside
around across
over

Adverbs

quickly recklessly
quietly systematically
ﬂuently thoroughly
neatly untidily

Conjunctions

and in spite of
but then
although in addition to
even though also
while furthermore
nevertheless moreover
however still
except conversely
despite

Synonyms
or applicable copyright law.

big large massive huge

small tiny little miniature
225
beautiful lovely attractive handsome
happy glad delighted joyful
sad unhappy gloomy miserable

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clumsy awkward ungraceful blundering

frightened scared afraid terriﬁed
angry annoyed furious irritated
neat tidy orderly immaculate

Antonyms

big small
beautiful ugly
tidy untidy
straight crooked
angry glad
happy unhappy
happy sad

Homonyms (sounds the same, same spelling but different meanings)

bear animal
bear having nothing, e.g. the tree is bear
bed furniture you sleep on
bed riverbed
club place to dance
club heavy object used to hit something
rock movement
rock music
rock stone
ﬁne feeling okay
ﬁne to pay a penalty, e.g. for speeding when driving

Homophone (sounds the same, different spelling & different meanings)

blue colour
blew past tense of blow
or applicable copyright law.

sow female pig

so conjunction
226
sew using a needle and thread
there place/position
their belonging to (possessive pronoun)

to preposition
two number
too also
ate past tense of eat
eight number
ball toy
bawl to cry
sent went away
scent aroma/fragrance
ferry boat
fairy imaginary magical person

Template for Bingo

Bingo is a simple game that can be used to visually reinforce the phonic or
spelling rules of the week.
Type or write your words in the empty blocks. Make sure that the cards are
slightly different. Keep a record of the words put on the cards. Call out the
words. The learners use counters to cover the words called out by the teacher.
The ﬁrst learner to have his or her card covered with counters shouts BINGO!

Bingo card
or applicable copyright law.

227

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Checking system – written work

Steps to follow to guide learners to be independent and accountable when
handing in work.

Draft (initial planning and rough writing) – proofreading – hand in

final work

Step 1: COPS – check the following

C = capitals
O = order of words
P = punctuation
S = spelling

Step 2: Does my writing have a heading? (Main idea – this should tell you
what the story is about.)

Step 3: Do my sentences follow a sequence of thoughts/ideas, i.e. do the sen-

tences make sense and link to your topic?

Step 4: Do I use adjectives to describe my nouns, making my sentences better,

e.g. the small red car drove slowly.

Step 5: Do I use conjunctions to join my sentences, making them longer? E.g.

The man was sitting while the lady was standing.

Step 6: I have checked the above steps and written my ﬁnal piece of work to
hand in to the teacher.
(Developed by S. Moonsamy, 2011.)
or applicable copyright law.

228

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Addendum B to Chapter 7
full Dolch Word list – 220 words and 95 nouns

Pre-primer Primer First Second Third Nouns

a all after always about apple home

and am again around better baby horse
away are an because bring back house
big at any been carry ball kitty
blue ate as before clean bear leg
can be ask best cut bed letter
come black by both done bell man
down brown could buy draw bird men
find but every call drink birthday milk
for came fly cold eight boat money
funny did from does fall box morning
go do give don’t far boy mother
help eat going fast full bread name
here four had first got brother nest
I get has five grow cake night
in good her found hold car paper
is have him gave hot cat party
it he his goes hurt chair picture
jump into how green if chicken pig
little like just its keep children rabbit
look must know made kind Christmas rain
make new let many laugh coat ring
me no live off light corn robin
my now may or long cow Santa Claus
not on of pull much day school
one our old read myself dog seed
or applicable copyright law.

play out once right never doll sheep

red please open sing only door shoe
229
run pretty over sit own duck sister
said ran put sleep pick egg snow
see ride round tell seven eye song

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Pre-primer Primer First Second Third Nouns

the saw some their shall farm squirrel
three say stop these show farmer stick
to she take those six father street
two so thank upon small feet sun
up soon them us start fire table
we that then use ten fish thing
where there think very today floor time
yellow they walk wash together flower top
you this were which try game toy
too when why warm garden tree
under wish girl watch
want work good-bye water
was would grass way
well write ground wind
went your hand window
what head wood
white hill
who
will
with
yes
or applicable copyright law.

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Supporting learners
in acquiring the skill
of mathematisation
AzETTE ENgELBrECHT

OBJECTIVES
8.1 Introduction
This chapter will cover
We live in a mathematical world. When learners • major theories underpinning
think about soccer goals scored, the minimum tem- mathematics education
perature for a specific day, the amount of tuckshop • barriers to teaching mathematics
in South Africa
money in their pockets or the remaining number of
• preventative measures to
school days before the end of the term, mathematical counteract barriers to attaining
concepts and mathematical thinking, reasoning and mathematical outcomes
problem solving are involved. However, an increas- • understanding intrinsic barriers
ing number of South African learners are experienc- to acquiring the skill of
mathematisation
ing difficulties in acquiring and applying mathemati-
• understanding and
cal knowledge, concepts and skills. acknowledging extrinsic barriers
Yet human beings in all cultures, from all social • pinpointing the starting point of
classes and language groups, and from all ethnic intervention
groups think about, record and communicate their • designing an intervention
ideas through quantity. Mathematics is therefore not programme
• specific support strategies
only a symbolic language, but also a universal lan-
• general support strategies.
guage that has meaning for all cultures and civilisa-
tions. It calls for observation and investigation of
relationships in not only physical, but also social
phenomena as well as between mathematical objects
themselves. Through these processes we develop
or applicable copyright law.

mental processes that enhance accuracy, problem

solving as well as logical and critical thinking
(Department of Basic Education (DBE), 2011).
What are the speciﬁc aims regarding the teaching 231
and learning of mathematics as constituted in the
National Curriculum and Assessment Policy State-
ment (DBE, 2011: 8)? While reading through these

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aims, reﬂect upon your own life and mathematics education. Were these aims
realised?
The teaching and learning of Mathematics aims to develop the following
in the learner:
• a critical awareness of how mathematical relationships are used in
social, environmental, cultural and economic relations;
• confidence and competence to deal with any mathematical situation
without being hindered by a fear of Mathematics;
• an appreciation for the beauty and elegance of Mathematics; a spirit of
curiosity and a love for Mathematics; recognition that Mathematics is
a creative part of human activity; deep conceptual understandings in
order to make sense of Mathematics; and
• acquisition of specific knowledge and skills necessary for:
– the application of Mathematics to physical, social and mathematical
problems,
– the study of related subject matter (e.g. other subjects), and
– further study in Mathematics.

In order to work towards attaining these aims in our learners, we as teachers

need to take a deep and sharp look at our teaching methodologies as well as
our epistemological beliefs about the subject and the prescribed content
knowledge (concepts and skills) as contained in the National Curriculum.
Although the proverbial “many roads may lead to Rome” may be applicable,
we need to realise that not all roads will lead towards attaining the aims as
stated above. In the next sections, two major theories that inform the current
teaching of mathematics in government schools will be described brieﬂy.

8.2 Transmission of knowledge (direct instruction) versus

construction of meaning
8.2.1 The sage on the stage ... or the guide on the side?
By merely using the words “direct instruction” and “constructivism” in a sin-
gle sentence, cognitive dissonance is already caused: “direct instruction”
refers to the instructional model based on a theory of teaching whereas “con-
structivism” is a theoretical perspective of learning translated into different
theories of instructional designs. Furthermore, in educational research, this
or applicable copyright law.

topic had been the cause of much controversy (and cognitive dissonance) for
more than the past four decades.
There are numerous plausible explanations for mathematics education
232 being underpinned by the aforementioned theories: a major thrust would be
the diverging epistemological perspectives about what constitutes mathemati-
cal knowledge. For too many scholars (including mathematics teachers as life-
long learners), mathematics is a discipline that bears accurate results and is

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characterised by infallible procedures. This belief informs their direct instruc-

tion teaching practices: mathematical concepts and skills are instructed
through a one-way process with learners on the receiving end. The content
acquired via this transmissive process is then subsequently reinforced via
drill and practice (Dengate & Lerman, 1995: 28).
Constructivism, on the other hand, dominated the ﬁeld of psychology
around the turn of this century. It maintains that a person creates his or her
own understandings through involvement with content, instead of repeating
or imitating it. As an active agent, a person actively constructs and recon-
structs knowledge as he or she moves onto higher levels of understanding
(Donald et al., 2006: 84). Vygotsky, however added yet another dimension to
constructivism when he pointed out that knowledge is not only personally,
but also (and especially) socially constructed.
The subtopic, The sage on the stage ... or the guide on the side? is derived
from Sale (2006: 4) who postulates that both approaches do have certain mer-
its and that both can lay the foundations for mathematics teaching as an
“emerging science of learning”. According to Pegg and Tall, as referenced in
Chick and Vincent (2005: 191), these divergent educational theories can be
implemented successfully in the teaching of mathematics in the sense of seek-
ing to understand the meanings implicit in each broad theory and to see
where each may shed light on the other, leading to theoretical corresponden-
ces. Because mathematics education has to turn face towards theory but also
towards practice in order to provide learners with the practical wisdom about
problems practitioners in the outside world require, teachers therefore need
not only be “sages on stages” or “guides on sides”, but mediators in the middle,
drawing from the advantages of both divergent perspectives.

8.2.2 The mediator in the middle

Initial and basic concepts and skills are undoubtedly best served by
• direct instruction with predetermined learning outcomes,
• sequenced instructional interaction, and
• criterion-referenced assessment,
while the more advanced acquisition of knowledge that follows is more suit-
able to constructivist learning. From this it follows that the learning goal
and content will be the deciding factor in deciding to be the sage on the
stage or the guide on the side. Mathematics teachers will then be able to take
stances as mediators in the middle: considering the learning goal and content
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and then deciding in which direction to step and how many steps to take.
Stepping too far to the left towards pure behaviourism and rote learning can
be as detrimental to the holistic development of a learner as stepping too far 233
to the right and engaging in pure discovery learning would imply.
Following is what is envisaged by the current revision of South Africa’s
National Curriculum Statement. With the implementation of the national

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Curriculum and Assessment Policy in 2012, there will be “certainty and speci-
ﬁcations about what to teach and how to teach it. This will help to restore con-
ﬁdence and stability in the system, and enhance the learning opportunities
we provide for our learners” (Dada, Dipholo, Hoadley, Khemba, Muller &
Volmink, 2009). Contradictory to this and by merely observing the content of
a Grade 6 Annual National Assessment paper for mathematics, the manner
in which pure behaviouristic forms of assessment still prevails can easily be
spotted. In Figure 8.1 below and Figure 8.2 on the next page, examples on
patterns (mathematics content area: patterns and functions) and fractions (as
part of content area numbers, operations and relationships) from both South
African and Australian annual national assessments are presented. Do note
that the Australian example also pertains to learners of developmental age of
± 12 years.
Fig-
ure
8.1 2. Calculate and write your answer as a mixed number.
3 1 2 1 5
2.1 8 −4 2.2 5 + 3 +
5 15 3 6 12

Source: DBE, 2010: Annual National Assessment, Grade 6 Mathematics

1
13. A set of traffic lights is red for half the time, orange for of the time and
10
green for the rest of the time.
green for the rest of the time.
For what fraction of the time is the set of traffic lights green?
1 2 6 10
3 5 10 12

Source: Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority: National Assessment Program:
numeracy, Year 7 – 2010

Figure 8.1 South African (top) and Australian (bottom) examples of

assessing fractions for 12-year olds

It stands to reason that we as mathematics teachers in South Africa need

to take a deep and honest look: not at what we are offering the learners (the
learning content as stated in NCAPS is aligned to international standards),
but at how we are presenting the content as well as the way in which we
assess the acquired concepts and skills.
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8.3 barriers to teaching mathematics in south africa

A very serious problem experienced in South Africa is that there are not
234 enough learners leaving the school system with adequate mathematics
results. This causes a shortage of professionals, e.g. in the ﬁelds of medicine
and ﬁnancial management. According to the Department of Basic Education’s
Action Plan to 2014: Towards the Realisation of Schooling 2025 (Government

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Fig
ure 4. What is the sixth number in the following sequence?
8.2
1; 6; 11; 16; …

Source: DBE, 2010: Annual National Assessment, Grade 6 Mathematics

10 Lucy made 4 tree designs using sticks.

There is a pattern in the way the trees grow.

Tree 1 Tree 2 Tree 3 Tree 4

1 stick 3 sticks 7 sticks 15 sticks

Lucy continues the pattern in the same way.

How many sticks will Tree 5 have?
23 31 35 45

Source: Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority: National Assessment Program:
numeracy, Year 7 – 2010)

Figure 8.2 South African (top) and Australian (bottom) examples of

assessing number patterns for 12-year olds

Gazette, August 2010: 14) around one in seven learners leave school with a
Grade 12 pass in mathematics. The aim is to increase this to around one in
five by 2014 and one in three by 2025. In order to provide a benchmark
against which progress can be measured, the Department of Basic Education
introduced annual national assessment tests in 2009. The Grade 6 outcomes
of the 2010 test were used to illustrate the mammoth task lying ahead: the
percentages of learners performing at adequate levels were unacceptably low:
69 per cent not attaining the outcomes (less than 50%) nationwide! Neverthe-
less the official report on the 2011 assessment outcomes states that other
developing countries, including relatively wealthy ones, face similar problems
(DBE, 2011: 34). No teacher who regards the teaching of mathematics as a
fundamental human activity rather than a technical enterprise will find con-
solation in this statement!
or applicable copyright law.

Although the aforementioned visions and targets for improving the stan-
dard of maths education in South Africa are noble and worthy of praise, they
still do not spell out the reforms that need to take place at classroom level in
order to eradicate numerous teaching malpractices currently contributing 235
towards the unacceptable percentages of learners not performing at an
acceptable level. This acceptable level is set at a 50 per cent mastering of the
outcomes (DBE, 2011: 35).

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8.4 Prevention remains better than cure

We live in a society where matric results as well as unquestioned notions of
“high marks” in rather predictable assessment tasks still characterise many a
mathematics classroom. As such, it can be questioned whether our teaching
practices of grooming learners to the perfection of “distinctions” are not partly
responsible for the aforementioned low attainment of outcomes in mathemat-
ics. The “mathematical fatality rate” displayed not only in matric results, but
also in annual national assessments (ANA tests) require that we consider
other possible preventative measures alongside alleviating existing barriers.
According to Barnes (2005: 44), there is growing evidence of extrinsic factors
being the main cause of barriers to learning in mathematics. It should there-
fore make sense that preventative measures should ﬁrst and foremost take
place in supporting learners who struggle to attain outcomes in mathematics.

Within the scope of this chapter, preventative strategies of early childhood

intervention; the use of the Realistic Mathematics Education framework in
order to promote mathematical literacy; the teaching of mathematics from
and within learners’ social context; and the knowledge of what is needed for
mathematical success beyond school will be discussed.

8.4.1 mathematical literacy starts at birth

An organisation, PISA, which conducts international assessments of 15-year-
old learners, defines mathematical literacy as “an individual’s capacity to
identify and understand the role that mathematics plays in the world, to make
well-founded judgements and to use and engage with mathematics in the ways
that meet the needs of an individual’s life as a constructive, concerned and
reflective citizen.” It goes beyond acquiring mathematical concepts and skills
and emphasises the functional use of mathematics in the context of the indi-
vidual (OECD, 2003: 24).
Just as literacy in a linguistic sense starts to develop the moment that a
baby starts to react to stimuli from the outside world, mathematical literacy
also starts to develop in an integrated manner since language serves as the
medium through which we explore our mathematical world.
To be able to benefit from formal mathematics education at the age of five
to six years, a well-founded number concept should be established during
early childhood years. It is all about starting to acquire good intuition about
numbers and their relationships. It develops gradually from birth as a result
or applicable copyright law.

of exploring numbers, visualising them in a variety of contexts, and relating

them in ways that are not necessarily traditional.
What are these premaths concepts that build the foundation for mathemat-
236
ical literacy?

• Matching: before a child can even start matching objects, the concept of
“sameness” should be mastered. It cannot be stressed enough that

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parents/caregivers should guide children through the vital consequential

steps of recognising “sameness” – first in objects, then photographs, then
pictures, then line drawings and finally (if the child should be ready) sym-
bols (numbers and/or words). Matching leads to understanding the concept
of one-to-one correspondence. Matching forms the basis for our number sys-
tem. This becomes a prerequisite skill for the more difficult tasks of conser-
vation.
• Sorting: children need to look at the characteristics of different items and
find same or similar characteristics. Usually they start off by sorting
according to colour before any other attributes.
• Comparing: children look at items and compare them by understanding
difference (e.g. big/little, hot/cold, smooth/rough, tall/short, heavy/light).
Children should make comparisons of more, less and same by using visual
and not necessarily auditory attributes at first.
• Ordering: ordering is the foundation of our number system. Children have
to be able to put objects in an order so that they can be counted only once.
This ordering of objects is a prerequisite to ordering numbers. This initial
ordering leads to seriation or the ordering of objects by size, length or
height.
• When guiding a small child, ordinal words (first, next, last) should be
used.
• Subitising: denotes the instant recognition of a number pattern without
counting. This instant recognition takes place through a direct perceptual
mechanism. The pattern could consist of dots, finger patterns, domino pat-
terns up to 6. It must however be reconstructed without knowing the
amount. Subitising helps the children see collections as a single unit. This
provides an early perceptual basis for numbers. However, it must never be
regarded as number knowledge by expecting small children to state the
amount as well. If, however, this should sprout from incidental learning, it
could be regarded as true number knowledge.

Figure 8.3 Examples of patterns to be used for subitising

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• Number concept: the numerocity of numbers up to 6 follows sponta-

neously from subitising. This involves the use of number symbols, words
and demonstration of the quantities thereof by e.g., counting. 237
• Counting patterns: rote counting patterns should only be attempted once
number concept is established – unless counting was introduced by means
of a counting rhyme. Nevertheless care should be taken with counting for

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the sake of reciting sound sequences. Counting is an activity – the child

must be actively counting something: the more concrete the better. To enu-
merate sets of objects correctly a child must know the number-word
sequence, understand that each object in a set is labelled with one counting
word. He or she must also know how to keep track of counted and uncount-
ed objects so that each object is counted once and only once.

These consequential steps in preparing a child for mathematics instruction at

Grade R level can never be overemphasised as it ensures the perceptual and
cognitive basis for formal mathematics education.
In order to guide the diversity of our South African population, National
Early Learning Development Standards (NELDS) were developed by the
Department of Basic Education (DBE: 2009). The document is designed to
provide children with the best start in life by equipping their caregivers,
teachers, practitioners and parents with information on how to ensure that
their children’s early experiences are developmentally appropriate (DBE,
2009: 8). As the developmental outcomes regarding mathematics (early
numeracy) will be used to assist in formulating intervention strategies later
on in this chapter, the current discussion will be concluded by merely stating
the expected outcomes to be reached and demonstrated in different ways at
different developmental levels:
Standard 1: children begin to demonstrate an understanding of numbers.
Standard 2: children begin to demonstrate an understanding of symbols,
shapes, size and space.
It may seem that if young children are prepared through this way for for-
mal maths education, it would set them on the right track to become maths
literate. However, this is only the ﬁrst step.

8.4.2 mathematical literacy needs to be taught

The ultimate aim of being mathematically literate is to acquire the skill of
mathematisation. According to the PISA Assessment Framework (OECD,
2003: 40), it refers to the ability to translate a real-life problem into a mathe-
matical problem, then ﬁnd a mathematical solution and translate this solu-
tion back into a real-life solution. In order to master this, some prerequired
skills need to be taught. In identifying these skills, the research work of Niss
(1999) and Neubrand (2001) was utilised. The following eight skills must
therefore be actively taught to learners as a measure to prevent barriers to
mathematical learning:
or applicable copyright law.

• Thinking and reasoning: Learners need to

explore reasons for giving answers and be
238 given opportunities to verbalise this. A mathe-
matics classroom (as any other classroom) is
not a “sit still, fold your arms, listen and then
do on your own” setup. It has to allow constant

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learner–teacher as well as learner–learner interaction. It is, for example,

about posing questions like: “Is there ...?”; “If so, why ...?”; and “How would
you ﬁnd ...?”. It is not about providing answers to these questions, but
about knowing the kinds of answers that mathematics would provide to
such questions. For example: “If I tell you that there are three animals in
the picture. Would you agree? Why?/Why not?”

• Argumentation: This is all about providing mathe-

matical proof and to realise how this differs from
other types of mathematical reasoning. It is about fol-
lowing, understanding and assessing chains of mathe-
matical arguments as well as creating and expressing
mathematical arguments. Furthermore, it is also
about obtaining a feel for heuristics: “What can(not) happen? Why?” For
example: Mommy had two children. She wanted them to do their hand-
prints in the corners of some plates. This is what the prints looked like. If
Mommy had three children, would they be able to print all their hands in
the corners of a plate? Why not? Could you think about a different shape of
plate that would have made this possible?

• Communication: Mathematics education at school level is part science,

but more often also part art – the art of communicating mathematical
ideas. This means allowing learners to express their mathematical ideas in
a variety of ways, not only by expressing their own ideas verbally or in a
written format, but also by working towards understanding other learners’
ideas. These can then either be expanded upon or challenged by replacing
these ideas with something of more mathematical substance. It should
therefore be clear why teaching mathematics in large classes will almost
certainly result in failure if cooperative learning groups are not formed and
the art of group teaching not tuned to perfection. Group work will be
explored in more detail in the “Support” section of this chapter in 8.8.

• Modelling: This entails the way in which the teacher as a model is able to
translate real-life problems into mathematical structures in order for
learners to be able to understand clearly the link as well as the structures
used. With practice, learners will then be able to “return the favour” by
being able to translate realities provided into mathematical structures and
then attempt to ﬁnd solutions to the problem. Examples of this concept can
be found in section 8.4.3 (Link classroom mathematics to real-life scenar-
ios).
or applicable copyright law.

• Problem posing and solving: This involves posing a variety of mathe-

matical problems to learners – also those which might have more than one
239
solution or no solution at all. Learners must then be allowed (and lead) into
solving the problems in various ways. They need to realise that the
teacher’s way is not necessarily the only way. It is of utmost importance

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that the mathematics teacher should never

give the impression of being a know-it-all.
For example, explain the mathematical
problem in this picture in various ways.
• Representation: Learners must be able to
decode, encode, translate, distinguish and interpret various
forms of representation of mathematical objects
and situations. Moreover, they have to under-
stand the interrelationships between these repre-
sentations and switch between the representa-
tions according to the situation and purpose. For example:
one morning Grandpa’s watch showed the time as shown. Draw a picture of
your digital watch displaying the time.
• Using symbolic, formal and technical lan-
guage and operations: This involves not only
the decoding and interpretation of symbolic lan-
guage, but also understanding the relationship to
natural language. It also involves translating
natural language into formal language and sym-
bols; handling expressions containing formulae;
using variables, solving equations and undertak-
ing operations. For example: learners are to
interpret a picture (available at www.allposters.
com) as a number sentence and then have a “show and tell” about it: if a
learner states that 10 ¥ 4 = 40, he will probably be able to tell you that 10
sheep have 40 legs.
• Use of aids and tools: The learner must know about various aids and
tools (e.g. technological tools), realise their limitations, knowing when and
why to apply them in order to assist in solving mathematical problems. In
our schools, it can never be taken for granted that learners are familiar
with technology. These skills, especially those that assist in expanding the
world of mathematics, have to be modelled by the teacher. The use of tech-
nology as a form of mathematic support will be dealt with later on.

The author is well aware of the fact that all the skills mentioned are system-
atically introduced through the exposition of content and skills in NCAPS.
Sadly the author is also well aware of the fact that teachers (in general) only
or applicable copyright law.

follow textbooks, sometimes completely unaware of the exact concept and skill
they are supposed to mediate to their learners. To assist teachers, the author
compiled a scaffolded list of all the mathematical concepts and skills that,
240 according to NCAPS, need to be taught to learners from Grade R to 6.
Through this table format, teachers can at a glance familiarise themselves
with a) what their learners should have mastered previously and b) where
they are guiding them beyond their own grade. This will prevent not only

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mathematical gaps that are frequently formed but it will also ensure that
vital skills in order to progress to acquiring mathematisation skills are not
overlooked or ignored, but actively taught! This exposition of learning content
can be found in the ﬁrst addendum to this chapter.

8.4.3 Link classroom mathematics to real-life scenarios

It is a common understanding that most people would be less resistant to

learning something new if they saw the purpose of doing so. To a child, the
world of mathematics (due to the fact that it relies heavily upon symbolic and
abstract understanding) is a scary world. This “scary world” is, however,
turned by many a maths teacher into a “horriﬁc place” by their refusing to
mediate their subject as a representation of real-life problems. Instead, teach-
ing is done only on the basis of rote learning and memorisation and produces
only instrumental understanding.
This is exactly what is found in many a South African mathematics class-
room. No one can dispute what Barnes (2005: 50) states: “a traditional, formal
and authoritarian teaching approach prevailed” and (according to the
or applicable copyright law.

author’s practical experience) is continuing to prevail in many classrooms.

Mathematics lessons are conﬁned to a particular section of work, introducing
mathematical language and examples pertaining only to that section. These
examples contain the algorithm that is (according to the teacher) the most 241
suitable to solve problems pertaining to the topic of the day contained in a
preset worksheet. This process is dangerous as when the algorithm cannot be
recalled afterwards or connected to a suitable problem, more general problem-

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solving abilities don’t surface. This is also the reason you would ﬁnd many
formal mathematics assessments containing only a single application of an
algorithm, with many repetitive examples of it. This counteracts the process
of learners becoming maths literate. These teachers, for understandable rea-
sons, refrain from presenting learners with a single real-life-situation where
many problems of different topics can be solved.
The Department of Basic Education is fully aware of observed scenarios as
workbooks are currently distributed for every mathematics learner up to
Grade 9. The DBE envisages the distribution of workbooks to be extended to
Grade 12 by 2014 (Government Gazette, 2010: 30, 31). From what has been
observed, emphasis is placed on a more holistic approach after basic concepts
and skills are attained and a thematic approach towards assessing multiple
skills in a single assignment was introduced. An example of this plausible
effort can be found in Figure 8.4.
The thematic approach to the exercise portrayed in Figure 8.4 raises the
issue of context in mathematics teaching in South Africa. Although it might
not be a reality for all Grade 6 learners throughout South Africa, it would
turn mathematics into a real-life experience for most of our learners.
The thematic approach to an exercise raises the issue of context in mathe-
matics teaching in South Africa. The author believes that the context of a
“million” would be spot on. Although it may not be reality to all Grade 6 learn-
ers all over South Africa, it would turn maths into a real-life experience for
most of our learners. The reality is, however, that it would be impossible to
accommodate the entire diversity of the South African population in every
single task. In order to reinforce the reality of maths contexts, the social con-
text (reality) of all of the learners in the class needs to be taken into account
at all times.

8.4.4 Teach mathematics from and within the learners’ social context
In South Africa, our learners can only beneﬁt from contemporary world-wide
efforts to deliver more inclusive, culturally and socioeconomically relevant
mathematics lessons. Dengate and Lerman (1995: 33) acknowledge this by
emphasising that if the “teaching/learning process is dependent ultimately on
culture-based interaction via language, then equity considerations of access,
participation and empowerment for children from each societal stratum
become critical”. Barnes and Venter (2008: 3) add to this by stating that
mathematics is a product of human inventiveness and a human activity,
which turns the teaching of mathematics into a social construct.
or applicable copyright law.

When a real-life problem is posed to learners in a mathematics class, those

who can relate to it contextually can immediately proceed translating it into a
mathematical problem that can be solved by means of mathematical reason-
242 ing. If learners cannot relate to the context of the problem, theoretically they
need to convert it to a contextually appropriate problem. This can perhaps be
attained by learners of a higher developmental age/level, but especially when
learners are experiencing barriers to accessing the language of learning and

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W
VIE
Fig-
ure

RO E
TAT
8.4
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243

Figure 8.4 An example from a Grade 6 Mathematics workbook

Source: DoE (2011). Mathematics workbook 2 (Grade 6: Term 3, Week 1).

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teaching (LoLT), the mathematising process is brought to an abrupt end.

Then, instead of teachers altering the context in order for all learners to
access it, learners are perceived to have intrinsic barriers to attaining out-
comes in mathematics.
With older, more experienced learners, it is often nothing more than a mere
verbal explanation or providing a link to the learner’s own context. In the case
of younger learners, teachers should also not be experiencing difficulty in
altering a scenario in order for their learners to be able to access it. The only
requirement would actually be to know their learners really well – not only as
learners, but also as children. An example of these alterations can be found in
Figure 8.5: Not all learners in the Grade 2 class were familiar with orange
juice in 5-litre containers; some were not even familiar with fruit juice. How-
ever, these learners were familiar with sunflower oil. At the informal settle-
ment’s spaza shop, sunflower oil is kept in large containers. Clients bring
their own smaller containers, which are then filled from the large container.
So generally speaking, South African learners will therefore be comfortable
with drawings of 5-litre bottles containing sunflower oil.

Figure 8.5

Gr. 2 Measurement:

A B C D

sunflower oil
1. How many litres of orange juice can fill up one bottle?-------------------------------
sunflower oil
2. Which bottle has the least orange juice? ------------------------------------------------
sunflower oil
3. If you would fill up another can with the orange juice in bottles A, C and D,
what will happen? -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
sunflower oil
4. What will happen if you take the orange juice from bottle A and pour it into
bottle C? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
or applicable copyright law.

Figure 8.5 Example of a Grade 2 worksheet altered to be more

conducive to learners’ context
244
This subsection will be concluded in the words of Barnes and Venter (2008:
11): “... teaching in context appears to be a vehicle through which our would-
be mathematicians can express and develop themselves mathematically and

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thus enrich the South African Community in terms of ﬁnancial, economical

and scientiﬁc models for living.”
It would therefore be sensible for teachers also to consider what is needed
for mathematic success beyond school in order to adopt an even more holistic
approach when mediating the acquisition of mathematics concepts and skills
to their learners.

8.4.5 Beyond school: what are we aiming at?

If mathematics teachers do not know where they are heading, they are going
nowhere! Knowing where prevents teachers from heading nowhere. Teach-
ers usually know where they are heading within the grade or perhaps the
school phase, but who actually cares about where they are ultimately head-
ing?
Review the aims for the teaching of mathematics in South African schools
(DBE: NCAPS – Mathematics, 2011: 8) as set out on the ﬁrst page of this
chapter.
When teachers are able to realise these broader aims, they will recognise
the importance of acquiring a broader range of mathematical understanding
and abilities that can be applied beyond school level. Models and modelling
research undertaken by Lesh and English in Chick and Vincent (2005: 192)
revealed that if mathematics teachers concentrate on a broader range of
understanding and abilities, a broader range of learners often emerge as hav-
ing exceptional mathematical potential!
Yet what if learners seem to be lacking potential to attain mathematical
outcomes due to intrinsic barriers?

8.5 Understanding intrinsic barriers

Intrinsic barriers to attaining outcomes in mathematics need to be under-
stood in order to prevent environmental factors from impacting the existing
barrier by aggravating it. If a learner with intellectual impairment, for exam-
ple, was expected to adhere to curricular outcomes in exactly the same way as
chronological peers, the teaching and learning environment could be an addi-
tional extrinsic factor aggravating the existing intrinsic barrier to attaining
outcomes.

8.5.1 Identify in order to understand and support

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Identifying learners with intrinsic barriers to attaining outcomes in mathe-

matics is worthless unless this is accompanied by directions on how to sup-
port the learner as well as to identify a suitable starting point of such an
intervention. 245
In the case of a baby or toddler, diagnosis of certain genetic disorders (e.g.
Prader-Willi syndrome) would point towards delayed development – physical
as well as mental. On the other hand another genetic disorder, Russell-Silver

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syndrome, may only indicate learning difficulties, but it is, however, not guar-
anteed. By only reviewing these two examples, we can conclude that identifi-
cation only for the sake of identification could be detrimental to fulfilling the
learning potential of such a child. Can we declare a lack of potential if this
learner has not yet even been exposed to teaching of basic numeracy in the
early grades?
It would therefore be sensible and completely sufficient to observe learners
in the mathematics classroom and by mere observation identify intrinsic bar-
riers in order to understand, plan and support the learner appropriately.
Through careful observation and timeous intervention, the onset of aggravat-
ing environmental factors can be eliminated.
The aim of observing should always be to support in the most appropriate
way. The most appropriate way would be to make the national cur-
riculum accessible to the learner. Therefore we need to identify barriers
in order to gather learners into groups with similar barriers to accessing the
curriculum in order to support them in the best possible way. This way, even
an underperforming gifted learner may comfortably fit into a group where
there is also a learner with Turner syndrome and therefore experiencing
learning difficulties.
General observations that could point to intrinsic barriers to attaining out-
comes in mathematics could include some of the following:
• Memory deficits
• Slowness in grasping ideas
• Inadequate use of strategies for solving mathematical tasks
• Deficits in generalisation and transfer of learned knowledge to new and
unknown tasks
• Reading and language barriers resulting in inability to solve mathematical
problems
• Difficulty in oral expression or written work hampering progress in mathe-
matics
• Perceptual delays (especially visual discrimination, foreground/background
perception, visual and auditory analysis and synthesis, auditory discrimi-
nation, auditory sequential memory)
• Physical, sensory and/or psychosocial barriers (which could include for
example hearing and visual impairment, behavioural difficulties, anxiety,
lack of motivation, low self-esteem, emotional immaturity, illness, intoxica-
tion and other health issues)
or applicable copyright law.

• Dyscalculia
• Right-brain hemisphere dominance
246 • Giftedness (when enhanced opportunities are withheld)

A few of these aspects should be elaborated on as they are frequently misin-

terpreted, ignored or exaggerated resulting in learners not being supported

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appropriately. These are: emotional immaturity, maths anxiety, dyscalculia,

right-brain hemisphere dominance and giftedness.

8.5.2 Emotional immaturity

In younger learners emotional immaturity manifests in the observable behav-

iour of perceptual delays. If treated as perceptual delays, the pressure of
“instant” acquisition of these outstanding skills may even put more emotional
pressure on the child and development may even be further delayed. At school-
going age, a five-year-old learner may (according to policy) be enrolled in a
Grade 1 class together with a learner who has just turned seven, or (due to
various reasons) even older learners. (The five-year-old learner has to turn six
before the 1st of July of that specific year.) This frequently results in a chrono-
logical age discrepancy of at least 18 months. However, all of these learners
are exposed to the demands of a mathematics curriculum designed for seven-
year olds! Especially throughout the Foundation Phase, teachers are confront-
ed with this dilemma and when the level of emotional development is not
taken into consideration, learners are frequently wrongfully labelled as “learn-
ing disabled” or to be experiencing “learning difficulties” or to be suffering from
an attention deficit syndrome. Effective learning depends upon emotional
growth. We therefore need to better understand the relationship between emo-
tions and learning. In order for learners to display progress in terms of the
mathematics curriculum, learners need to feel safe and accepted. They also
need to develop internal strength and the capacity to symbolise, to feel secure
and be able to explore, and to have a sense of individual identity.
Understanding feelings, and taking the responsibility for understanding,
requires that teachers take account of subjective experience and synthesise
their understanding within teaching practice. But why and how do learners’
understandings differ? What one may experience as an emotionally-safe envi-
ronment may not necessarily feel safe to other learners.
Whatever the external reality of each learner’s life, we must remember
that each individual will subjectively make his or her own meanings. Howev-
er, in constructing these meanings, the experiences that follow are vital for
further development of mathematising skills. In the second column of Table
8.1 on the next page the reader will find ways that mathematics teachers
often unintentionally deprive learners of development of these skills. In the
last column suggestions on rectifying the unwanted situation are put forward.
The teacher has an important role in mediating the curriculum in order to
or applicable copyright law.

prevent manifestations of unease, which can disrupt learning. In mathemat-

ics classrooms, we constantly find ourselves confronted by opposing realities:
a. a curriculum that defines outcomes to be attained at a specific grade level 247
and therefore designed for a specific age group
b. learners representing diverse chronological age groups as well as develop-
mental levels.

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Table 8.1 How to facilitate emotional experiences vital to developing

mathematising skills

Emotional Some common actions of How to rectify the situation

experiences mathematics teachers that
vital for could unintentionally deprive
development learners of this development

• Feeling • Teacher treats learner as • Spend quality time with each learner on
safe and one of a group without any a regular basis. If one-on-one engage-
accepted positive one-on-one engagement is not always possible, do not
ment on a regular basis. refrain from engagement; engage with
learners in a small group – and not only
regarding mathematics.
• Feeling • Teacher expects learner not • Refrain from verbal and especially writ-
secure and to make mistakes. If learner ten negative remarks when learners are
able to gets scolded for making mis- making mistakes. Learners need to be
explore takes, he or she will proba- experiencing that it is okay to make mis-
bly refrain from exploring to takes as long as they are willing to try to
prevent “making mistakes” correct them with guidance from their
again. teacher.
• Feeling • To lots of learners, their • Although it is virtually impossible to love
secure in teacher could be the only and like all learners in the same way, a
their significant adult that they mathematics teacher should latch onto
attach- know. However, learners all learners, but especially onto the
ment to can easily sense when other more vulnerable ones. Extramural activi-
significant learners are liked and loved ties provide first-class opportunities for
adults over and above them. Los- bonding.
ing this attachment can
derail the learning process.

• Develop- • We tend to stress the bad • Practice a clear distinction between the
ing indi- things that learners do to learner’s personality and the observable
vidual such an extent that learners unacceptable behaviour. Then guide the
identity soon believe that they are behaviour into becoming more accept-
bad people. able while praising the character traits.
“Although you sometimes (name
observable behaviour), you are still
(praise the plausible character traits).”
Do remember that there is good inside
all of us.

• Being able • Do not expect all learners to • Follow the learner’s pace and gently
to symbol- reach this milestone simulta- nudge by, among others, granting
ise neously. ample concrete and verbal experience.
• Never push them towards • Keep on using visual teaching aids –
symbolising. through all the grades, not only during
• Do not expect learners to the Foundation Phase.
acquire mathematical sym-
or applicable copyright law.

bolising at the same pace as

language symbolising.

248 {

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Table 8.1 Continued

Emotional Some common actions of How to rectify the situation

experiences mathematics teachers that
vital for could unintentionally deprive
development learners of this development

• Establishing • Teacher reactions in the • Be consistent and sincere in your

a positive heat of the moment fre- engagement with a learner. Soar with
self-esteem quently trample the (already learners instead of sinking them.
to mediate vulnerable) self-esteem of • First feel good about yourself as a per-
the experi- many learners. Usually this son and as a professional. Letting
ences of happens through their mak- learners feel good about themselves
their inner ing negative verbal or writ- will automatically follow.
world and ten remarks before
outer experi- acquainting themselves with • When you have realised that you have
ence the facts. wronged, remember that it is easier to
build a healthy child than to repair a
broken adult.

However, if we tread carefully and provide those experiences which are neces-
sary for emotional growth and learning, all learners will be able to fulfil their
own learning potential, irrespective of their emotional developmental level –
even in big, underresourced classes.
Our learners’ thinking processes are largely made possible by the availabil-
ity of internal emotional space for this activity. Some learners enter the class
at the beginning of the school year already in possession of this space. In
other learners, this potential space is taken up initially by emotional and
social experiences. It is within every dedicated teacher’s professional capacity
to clear this space in order for learning to take place. But how? By realising
what effects emotions can have on learners’ motivation to learn and by foster-
ing a conducive learning environment by concentrating on what will motivate
each learner at his or her particular developmental level.
Table 8.2 demonstrates how learners of different age groups view their own
abilities and whether (and at what stage) they associate it with effort, difficul-
ty or luck. If we as teachers internalise this concept we would know that a
five-and-a-half-year old will never be motivated in the same way and by using
the same strategy as, for example, a seven-year old. And yet, both these learn-
ers are together in the same class and usually progress with their current
grouping throughout their entire school career. They may therefore continue
to be emotionally more vulnerable than their older peers.
Teachers often label learners according to their behaviour regarding math-
ematics – as “lazy”, “careless”, or “acting out” and even “dumb” without con-
or applicable copyright law.

sidering the possible impact of emotional readiness for the concepts and skills
with which they are confronted.
249

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Table 8.2 Developmental differences in learners’ concepts of ability ver-

sus effort/difficulty/luck

3–5 years 5–8 years 8–10 years

Ability vs. People who try hard- People who try equally People who try equally hard
effort er are smarter. hard should have the may not have the same out-
same outcome, regard- comes because of ability.
less of ability.
3–5 years 5–6 years 7+ years

Ability vs. Task difficulty is rela- Levels of difficulty of Ability and task difficulty are
difficulty tive to individual’s tasks are recognised as differentiated in terms of the
ability to succeed. independent of individ- success rate of others. Tasks
“Hard” means “hard ual’s ability to succeed. that fewer people succeed in
for me”, which also Attributions for failure, are harder and require more
means “I”m not good however, are still con- ability. “It’s hard” is different
at it, I’m stupid”. nected with low ability. from “it’s hard for me”.
3–5 years 5–8 years 8–10 years

Ability vs. Luck or chance tasks Successful skill tasks As per the previous stage,
luck are seen as easier or are more related to but individuals now compare
requiring less effort effort than to luck. stimuli on the skill task (e.g.
than skill tasks. decides whether the incen-
tive is worth the effort).

8.5.3 maths anxiety

For many learners, maths causes feelings of dread and anxiety. In the class-
room, learners fear being humiliated if they don’t know how to solve a maths
problem or if they come up with the wrong answer. Anxiety is viewed by the
Department of Basic Education in a serious light: for severe barriers due to
anxiety, special concessions of amanuensis, a planning aid or additional time
may be granted.
These learners frequently feel pressured by time constraints and their
teachers and peers. Teachers need to realise that, as with any other form of
anxiety, fear of failure regarding mathematics produces enormous anxiety –
for all learners. Older learners are just socially able to disguise or inhibit the
anxiety behaviours that younger learners will display. Gorman (1999: 74) adds
that learners with learning disabilities/difficulties have higher levels of anxi-
ety than their peers without disabilities/difficulties. Specifically, they tend to
feel more often that events beyond their control are happening to them.
Increased levels of anxiety are also reflected in their somatic complaints.
or applicable copyright law.

Anxiety has many repercussions including that it impedes learners’ abili-

ties to transfer the mathematical concepts and skills that they do have or that
it could hinder their initial learning of mathematics. Lerner and Kline (2005:
250
481) suggest the following guidelines for dealing with maths anxiety:

• Use competition carefully; or if learners prone to anxiety do compete,

make sure that they do have a good chance of, if not necessarily winning,

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then succeeding. Reward occasionally and unexpectedly, otherwise learners

will only take part for the sake of winning. By doing this, even the younger
learners will come to realise that intrinsic rewards (“Yes, I’ve succeeded!”)
can be equally rewarding. Display poster signs in your class on “It is not
about winning, it is about how you play the game” and “Fairness is not
equal treatment, it is about providing everyone with what they need.”
• Use clear instructions and grant ample opportunities to work through
examples. Do not expect everyone in the class to be able to work independ-
ently at the same time. Accept that some will need more practice and
therefore grant them the opportunities to practise in a group with you – not
on their own yet.
• Avoid unnecessary time pressures – with repetitive exercises, reduce
the number of exercises if the learner does not need that much reinforce-
ment. Accept the fact that all learners do not work at the same pace. Do we
as adults work at the same pace as our colleagues?
• Try to remove pressure from test-taking situations by teaching learners
test-taking skills.

The following test-taking skills have been adapted from http://www.testtak-

ingtips.com/test/math_test_tips.pdf. They can be modiﬁed further to ﬁt the
needs of Intermediate Phase learners and beyond.

Teach mathematics test-taking skills to relieve anxiety

• Repetition is important in maths. You learn how to solve problems by doing
them, so keep on practising problems but make a clear distinction between
practising and rote learning in recognising when and why you should use a
speciﬁc method to solve a problem.
• Sort problems by problem type – saving the more challenging problems for
last.
• When practising, try to solve the problem on your own ﬁrst then look at the
solution or ask for help if you are having trouble.
• Once you feel comfortable with all possible problem types, select examples
from different problem types, arrange them from easy to more challenging and
then attempt to solve them.
• Make up a sheet with all the formulas you need to know and memorise all the
formulas once you are comfortable in successfully applying them.
• When you receive your test, write down all the key formulas in the margin of
or applicable copyright law.

your paper just in case you forget them when you’re in the middle of the test.
• Read the directions carefully and don’t forget to answer all the parts of the
question.
251
• Important: make estimates for your answers ... e.g. if you are asked to answer
48 ¥ 12 = M, you could expect a number around 500 but if you end up with an
answer around 5000, you’ll know you did something wrong.

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• Show all your workings and write as legibly as possible.

• Even if you know the ﬁnal answer is wrong, don’t erase your entire workings
because you may get partial credit for using the correct procedure.
• Go over your test once you are done with it. If you have time, redo the prob-
lems on a separate piece of paper and see if you come up with the same
answers the second time around.
• Look for careless mistakes such as putting the decimal in the wrong place,
reading the directions incorrectly, copying numbers incorrectly, omitting a
negative sign or incorrect mental calculations.
Source: www.testtakingtips.com/test/math_test_tips.pdf

In conclusion, maths anxiety is very real and occurs among more learners
than we will ever realise. It happens in the classroom due to, among other fac-
tors, the lack of consideration of different learning styles of learners. Maths
must be looked upon in a positive light to reduce maths anxiety. Therefore,
teachers must reexamine traditional teaching methods, which often do not
match learners’ learning styles and skills needed in society.
Lessons must be presented in a variety of ways. For instance, a new con-
cept can be taught through play acting, cooperative groups, visual aids,
hands-on activities and technology. As a result, once young children see
maths as fun, they will enjoy it, and, the joy of mathematics could remain
with them throughout their lives.
The use of technology to alleviate barriers due to anxiety will be explored
in more detail in section 8.9.4.

8.5.4 Dyscalculia
“Dyscalculia” is a medical term denoting a severe disability in mathematics
and can be described as a speciﬁc disturbance caused by a neurological cen-
tral nervous system dysfunction – similar to that of severe reading disabili-
ties. Without direct intervention, the problem will persist. According to Lern-
er and Kline (2005: 477), learners who were observed and diagnosed in the
fourth grade, were still displaying the same difﬁculties three years later.
“It is very common for people surrounding the student with dyscalculia to
experience a strong sense of powerlessness. The student’s performance in
school can vary dramatically; climbing to great heights but then dropping
or applicable copyright law.

swiftly again like a rollercoaster. One moment the student has the knowledge
and ability to perform a task, and the next moment everything is gone, only to
re-appear again a couple of days later as accessible knowledge again” (Adler,
252 2001: 8). The learner may even be a top achiever with a quick mind only to be
stumped time and again with something as simple as 2+3 and having to use
his or her ﬁngers to come up with an answer. When mathematical difﬁculties
are discovered, intervention programmes of rigorous practice in the problem

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areas usually start, both in school as well as at home, often up to several hours
per day, but with no significant improvement in the mathematical ability.
Dyscalculia is characterised by specific difficulties with specific types of
mathematics, and need not be confused with other forms of mathematical dif-
ficulties. It usually consists of one of the following barriers or a combination of
them:
• Lack of logical understanding
• Lack of planning ability
• Inability to manage simple mathematical tasks (but frequently able to
solve complex tasks)

It simply takes the person with dyscalculia a much longer time to complete
different mathematical tasks. It needs to be noted that many people with
dyscalculia are able to solve complex tasks in mathematics, but they usually
have difficulties in solving the task fast. This indicates the importance of
granting learners with dyscalculia ample time to complete a task, but also
provide them with tasks at the correct level. Practice at too low a level can be
degrading and disheartening, and can diminish motivation. It can actually
contribute to the child finally giving up altogether (Adler, 2001: 11).
To explore this topic in depth would fall outside the scope of this chapter.
However, it needs to be stated clearly that in the case of dyscalculia, the
impairment should be identified as early as possible, even if this is just pre-
liminary. This is to prevent the secondary problems that could arise from
attempts to remediate the barrier at all costs. This does not imply that reme-
diation is not to be undertaken. However, the sooner the specific barrier can
be identified, the sooner a concession of the unlimited use of a calculator in
the earlier grades and choosing another subject in the place of mathematical
literacy from Grades 10 to12, if really needed, can be implemented.
We will now look into another barrier to acquiring mathematising skills
that is of neurological origin.

8.5.5 right-brain hemisphere dominance

The human brain is divided into two main sections, called “hemispheres”.
These “contain” complementary abilities – broadly referred to as “left-brain”
and “right-brain”. The way we use the abilities of these hemispheres deter-
mines much of our personality and behaviour. The most signiﬁcant determi-
nant is which hemisphere we prefer to use in responding to sensory input and
external stimuli.
or applicable copyright law.

We’ll call this preference “dominance” – someone who predominantly reacts

to life using his or her hemisphere abilities we call “left-brain dominant” or
“right-brain dominant” as the case may be. This dominance can (and does)
change from time to time throughout an individual’s life, but typically the 253
pattern is determined in childhood from birth.
Mathematical endeavours are functions of the left brain. This, however,
does not imply that a right-brain dominant learner will never be able to be

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successful at maths; to the contrary: in right-brain dominant learners, mathe-

matical successes often surface as learned behaviours and can be very suc-
cessful indeed. The ultimate aim is to switch from the dominant to the less
dominant side and vice versa depending upon the stimuli from the environ-
ment and the demands of the task. At this point, it will be useful to investi-
gate some of the different hemispheric functions that may impact the under-
standing of mathematics. This can be found in Table 8.3 – the functions of the

Table 8.3 Functions of both brain hemispheres that could impact on

mathematical functioning

Left-brain hemisphere functions Right-brain hemisphere functions

Linear vs. holistic processing

It takes pieces of information, lines them It processes from whole to part, holistically. It
up, and arranges them in a logical order; starts with the answer. It sees the big picture
then it draws conclusions. ﬁrst, not the details (e.g. consequential steps in
solving a problem).
Sequential vs. random processing
It processes in sequence. These learners If learners prefer to process from this hemi-
complete tasks in order and take pleas- sphere they may ﬂit from one task to another.
ure in ticking them off when they are They will get just as much done but perhaps
accomplished. Likewise, learning things without having addressed priorities. An assign-
in sequence is relatively easy for them. ment may be late or incomplete, not because
they weren’t working, but because they were
working on something else instead.
Symbolic vs. concrete processing
The left brain has no trouble processing The right brain, on the other hand, wants things
symbols such as mathematical notations. to be concrete. The right-brained learner wants
The left-brained learner tends to be com- to see, feel, or touch the real object. Right-
fortable with mathematical endeavours. brained learners may want to see how (and if)
They are usually better in algebra than in the formula works, before willing to apply it. They
geometry. usually fare better in geometry than in algebra.
Logical vs. intuitive processing
The left brain processes in a linear, Learners who process primarily on the right side
sequential, logical manner. Decisions are of the brain use intuition. These learners’ deci-
made on logic. These learners want sions will be based on feelings. They will proba-
proof. bly be able to rely on their gut feeling to be able
to sense a solution to a problem, but they will
struggle to explain the steps in getting to the
solution.
Reality-based vs. fantasy-oriented processing
or applicable copyright law.

The left side of the brain deals with things The right-brained learner is creative but some-
the way they are: with reality. Left-brained times completely unaware of rules – an “every-
learners want to know the rules and are thing goes attitude”. They go with the ﬂow and
254 willing to follow them. In fact, if there are often need reality checks.
no rules for situations, they will probably
make up rules to follow!

Source: Adapted from http://frank.mtsu.edu/~studskl/hd/LRBrain.html

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left brain that could promote mathematical function versus the functions of
the right brain that could hinder mathematical functioning if the teaching
approaches used do not accommodate these differences.
Throughout school the right-brain learner will get more and more accus-
tomed to switching to left-brain functions in a maths class. However, mathe-
matics teachers should be aware of the following:
In situations of neurological stress, people tend to switch back to their
inborn brain dominance for processing. What does this mean in a mathematics
class? When assessments are to be done, tests written, when time limits are
set, when learners are being put on the spot to answer questions – especially
in front of the rest of the class, right brainers will switch to processing on the
right. By doing this, they will derail all other learned mathematical processing
on the left side and they will most probably struggle to provide answers.
Teaching approaches should be accommodative of this phenomenon to prevent
it from happening. Storytelling has proved to be an invaluable tool in reaching
the right brainer. This aspect will also be explored in the additional support
section of this chapter.

8.5.6 giftedness
Identiﬁed gifted learners (as well as those who go through life and are never
identiﬁed) are frequently denied opportunities for challenging and stimulating
mathematical learning experiences. These learners and their teachers fail to
realise their potential. Some become dropouts and others develop behavioural
problems in the classrooms where they have been ignored. To prevent this, edu-
cators should be aware of some of the problems they may experience in class. In
Table 8.4 the typical classroom behaviours of gifted, but underperforming
learners in mathematics are linked with possible areas of exceptional ability.

Table 8.4 Typical classroom behaviour of the underperforming and neg-

lected gifted learner in mathematics

Learners’ areas of Classroom behaviours frequently displayed if areas of

exceptional ability strengths are ignored

Theoretical and abstract • Ignores stressed data in assignments

• Work very untidy
Independent, inventive • Resists assignments where choice is not allowed
Sensitive • Withdraws
• Strongly goal orientated (perceived as stubborn)
• Rejected by others
or applicable copyright law.

Alert and eager • Resents periods of classroom inactivity

Intuitive • Easily sees conclusions without displaying knowledge of
sequential concepts 255
Daydreaming • Indulges in concentrated periods of thinking – inattentive to
teacher’s and others learners’ comments and class discussions
(frequently wrongly labelled as attention deﬁcit)

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In order to achieve their full potential in school and adult life, gifted learn-
ers need to view and value themselves as potential achievers in life. They
should be supported to move beyond their own negative views of themselves,
often created by an exclusive focus on their so-called weaknesses instead of
their exceptional mathematical abilities. Teaching approaches that would
stimulate these learners will be highlighted in the additional support section
of this chapter.

8.6 Understanding and acknowledging extrinsic barriers

Reusser (2000) in Barnes (2005: 44) proposes that there is convincing evi-
dence that most observed low performances in mathematics are not due to
intrinsic factors, but due to insufﬁcient teaching-learning environments. This
statement will be further explored in this subsection. Not only the primary
teaching-learning environment (school and classroom), but also the secondary
teaching-learning environment (family and home) will be explored.

8.6.1 Barriers to learning within the school and classroom

environment
The author acknowledges that some barriers may not be under the direct con-
trol of the teacher, but hiding behind these barriers may not be in the best
interest of the learners either. In the typical South African underresourced
and overcrowded classroom, it would be wise to adopt an attitude of doing
what you can with what you have, right there where you have it
while you still can ... but just DO IT! This may be a cliché, but there is
still a lot of truth in the saying: you will be able to change the education
system ... one learner at a time!
What are these aforementioned barriers that could prevent learners from
fulﬁlling their mathematical potential?
• Lack of fundamental knowledge of mathematical concepts and skills
• Lack of passion for, and devotion to, the discipline of mathematics
• Lack of knowledge of why and how learners learn and therefore failure to
mediate the learning of mathematics.
• Inappropriate teaching methods (refer back to subsections 8.2.1 and 8.4.2
of this chapter)
• Failure to accommodate diversity in terms of ethnicity, gender and ability
or applicable copyright law.

to access the curriculum

• Lack of continuity due to teacher absenteeism
256 • Lack of responsiveness to learners’ barriers to attain outcomes in mathe-
matics
• Refusal to grant expanded opportunities in terms of more stimulating con-
tent for deserving candidates

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• Refusal to organise reteaching opportunities or remedial tuition

• Teachers’ lack of interest (or lack of ability) to motivate and involve learn-
ers meaningfully in the mathematics class
• Overemphasis of formal assessments (tests) over continuous assessment
procedures
• Refusal to link classroom mathematics to the solving of real-life problems

The following aspects may not be under the direct control of the school or
teacher, but still need to be acknowledged and understood.
• Lack of continuity due to frequent changes of mathematics teachers within
a single school year
• Lack of continuity due to poor service delivery of mathematics teachers in
previous grades or school phases
• Inaccessibility of the language of learning and teaching (LoLT)
• Gaps in mathematical understanding due to chronic absenteeism, often
also during previous grades and school phases
• “School-hopping”, which is when learners are frequently transferred from
one school to another
• Lack of teaching resources for teaching maths to the teacher’s full potential
• Lack of learning resources to maximise sense of teacher’s teaching

Apart from understanding, acknowledging and preventing these barriers as

far as possible, it is also beneﬁcial for any mathematics teacher to understand
the kind of support that is feasible from within the learners’ family and home
situation as the secondary teaching and learning environment.

8.6.2 Barriers to learning within the home, family and community

environment
Every mathematics teacher should be aware of exactly what kind of support
and cooperation can reasonably be expected from outside the classroom as
part of a conducive teaching-learning environment. The following broad out-
lines will point out barriers to cooperation and support regarding the acquisi-
tion of mathematic concepts and skills:
• Lack of family/caregiver and school partnership
• Lack of community and school partnership
or applicable copyright law.

• Socioeconomic status

The ﬁrst two aspects have already been explored in Chapter 1. Apart from 257
these aspects, every teacher should also know how and why socioeconomic
deprivation can negatively impact the attainment of outcomes in mathemat-
ics. This topic will therefore be explored in more detail.

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8.6.2.1 Socioeconomic status

Socioeconomic status (SES) is often measured as a combination of education,
income and occupation. Low SES and its correlates, such as lower education,
poverty and poor health, ultimately affect our society as a whole. Research
indicates that children from low-SES households and communities develop
academic skills more slowly compared to children from higher SES groups
(Morgan, Farkas, Hildemeier & Maczuga, 2009: 402). This is therefore the
reason the NELDS document referred to in subsection 8.4.1 also indicates
separate developmental standards for three groups of different socialeconomic
status. Initial academic skills are correlated with the home environment but
also with the school systems in low-SES communities, which are also often
underresourced; further negatively affecting learners’ academic progress
(Aikens & Barbarin, 2008: 241).
Families from low-SES communities are less likely to have the financial
resources or time available to provide children with mathematics support.
Research continues to link lower SES to overall lower academic achievement
and slower rates of academic progress as compared with higher-SES commu-
nities. Children with higher-SES backgrounds are more likely to be proficient
at tasks of addition, subtraction, ordinal sequencing and maths word prob-
lems than children with lower-SES backgrounds (Coley, 2002). As already
known, inadequate language development will also impact negatively on the
acquisition of mathematic concepts and skills. Children from low-SES envi-
ronments acquire language skills more slowly, exhibit delayed phonological
awareness, and are at risk of displaying reading difficulties (Aikens & Bar-
barin, 2008: 242).
Furthermore, increasing evidence supports the link between lower SES
and learning disabilities or other negative psychological outcomes that could
affect academic achievement. Children from lower-SES households are about
twice as likely as those from high-SES households to display learning-related
behavioural difficulties. A mother’s SES was also related to her child’s inat-
tention, disinterest, and lack of cooperation in school (Morgan et al., 2009:
404).
What role could the mathematics teacher fulfil in this regard? Teachers
must in the first place know their learners’ SES, not by asking or probing but
through intuitive measures because they know their learners not only as
learners, but also as human beings. Teachers need to realise that their learn-
ers do have perceptions of their family’s economic stress and financial con-
straints and affected emotional distress. Learners bring these perceptions to
or applicable copyright law.

the teaching-learning situation and although teachers may not be able to alle-
viate these barriers directly, they can bring tremendous relief by being empa-
thetic – especially when placing additional academic burdens on the shoul-
258
ders of such learners.

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8.7 Pinpointing the starting point of intervention

8.7.1 Introduction
If a learner should struggle to attain outcomes in mathematics, the only valid
method of intervention would be to determine first where the “gaps” are in
order to reteach or remediate from that specific point. Professionals in the
fields of educational psychology and remedial teaching use a variety of meth-
ods to assess mathematical competency, but very few of these “tests” are tak-
ing the unique context of the South African learner into account, nor do they
point out what the learner is able to master and hence set out the consequen-
tial steps to alleviate the relevant barrier.
All mathematics teachers – without having to turn to other professionals
for assessment – should be able to identify the starting point of a required
intervention and from there follow consecutive steps until the learner is
developmentally on par. However, this does not imply that the teacher will
always have the opportunity to do this within the time constraints of lesson
periods. Nevertheless, where there is a will, the teacher will also be able to
find his or her own way.
Our national curriculum for mathematics (NCAPS – Mathematics) pro-
vides us with this opportunity. In each of the five content areas (numbers,
operations and relationships; patterns and functions; space and shape; meas-
urement and data handling) the content is scaffolded like overlapping roof
tiles from the top of the wall (lowest grade and phase) right up to the pitch of
the roof (highest grade and phase). The following illustration will shed some
light on this concept.
or applicable copyright law.

Figure 8.6
Scaffolding of the 259
content area
“measurement”
in the Foundation
School Phase

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In the pages that follow, a tool will be proposed to enable mathematics

teachers (by understanding and implementing the curriculum as well as the
national early learning developmental standards) to determine the starting
point of intervention, and then, by following the outlined consecutive steps,
to:
• Build competency in the problematic content area(s)
• Alleviate gaps regarding knowledge (concepts and skills) that had been cre-
ated.

The proposed tool will start with final content for the Intermediate Phase and
then to scaffold it down to preschool level as far as possible. Why will content
of the Senior Phase (Grades 7 to 9) not be used? In the author’s experience,
with learners from the Senior Phase who are struggling to master outcomes
in mathematics, the starting point of intervention was seldom pinpointed in
the Senior Phase – it had always been due to backlog accumulated during the
Intermediate School Phase (Grades 4 to 6). If the learner does, however, prove
competent in all content aspects at the Grade 6 level, extrinsic contributing
factors need to be investigated first. Then a similar process of elimination
regarding Senior Phase content needs to be done.
In order to promote teachers developing their own intervention tools,
the proposed tool will only deal with the first (most extensive) content area,
“Numbers and operations” on the following topics:
• Whole numbers
• Fractions
• Financial mathematics (Grades R to 3: money; Grades 4 to 6: financial
mathematics)
• Ratio and rate (only applicable to Grades 4 to 6)
• Multiples and factors (only applicable to Grades 4 to 6)
• Properties of rational numbers (only applicable to Grades 4 to 6)

The following scenario will be used to illustrate the use of this tool:
Raﬁq is a Grade 5 learner who is falling behind in all aspects of mathemat-
ics. Since his Foundation Phase years, outcomes regarding numeracy have
always only been partially achieved. In Grade 4, there had been more than
one term during which outcomes were not attained at all. At the end of the
year, however, with tremendous effort and input from all stakeholders, he
managed to achieve partially and could progress to the next grade. Currently,
or applicable copyright law.

his teacher feels that it is due to backlog regarding “Numbers and operations”
that he struggles to master concepts and skills in the other content areas as
well. The Grade 5 teacher is also of the opinion that as it is still early in the
260 year, by reteaching and practising outstanding concepts and skills, Raﬁq will
be able to attain the minimum outcomes for the grade. To pinpoint the start-
ing point of intervention, the teacher scheduled additional contact time with
Raﬁq. They sat down and systematically worked through examples on end-of-

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Grade-3 level. Rafiq could work comfortably at this level and the success that
he experienced served as motivation to apply more effort when he started to
struggle at the next level. Rafiq’s teacher plotted his successes as indicated in
Table 8.5.
Do remember that the teacher started at the bottom (Grade 3 level) and
worked his way up towards Grade 5 (current/desired level).
It is important that teachers realise that every aspect need not be dealt
with in a separate exercise. To save time and without exhausting the learner,
more than one item can be assessed in a single exercise. Refer to Figure 8.7
for an example.
This proposed method may seem to bring nothing more to the table than
the traditional baseline assessments. However, it provides much more than a
list of what the learner is not able to comply with. It sets forth a detailed and
stepped support programme that can be followed at the pace set by the learn-
er. Figure 8.8 displays Rafiq’s support programme to alleviate barriers he is
experiencing with whole numbers.
Figure 8.7

1. Arrange the four numbers from the biggest to smallest number.

2. In each number is the digit 6. Indicate the place value of each 6.
3. Subtract the smallest number from the biggest number.
or applicable copyright law.

4. Calculate what 13 times the smallest number will be.

5. Add the two 4-digit numbers.
6. If the smallest number were to be divided by 7, what would the 261
answer be? Would there be a remainder?

Figure 8.7 Example of exercise to be used in initial observation of barriers

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Table 8.5 Determining the starting point of intervention in the case of

Rafiq

CONTENT AREA: NUMBERS, OPERATIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

NAME OF LEARNER: RAFIQ WILLIAMS GRADE 5 DATE OF BIRTH: 2000-11-11

Topic Grade Desired Description of concepts and skills to be mastered at Teacher’s

level level the indicated grade/level comments
(develop-
mentally
appropri-
ate)

Whole 5 Problem solving with whole numbers (+, –, ÷, ¥)

numbers Various techniques to perform written calculations: Level to be
Multiplication (also in columns: at least 3-digit by reached at
2-digit numbers) the end of
Subtraction (of numbers with at least 5 digits) – this term
also in columns if possible.
Addition (total not to exceed 5-digit numbers) – Rest of
also in columns class will
Recognising place value, order, comparing and still be
representing to 6-digit numbers working on
Rounding off (using up to 4-digit numbers) to these
nearest 5, 10, 100 and 1000 aspects as
well.
Doubling and halving in number range (0–999)
Building up and breaking down numbers 3–5-digit
numbers
Representing odd and even numbers to at least 1000
Count forwards and backwards in whole-number
intervals to at least 1000
Fairly
Mental calculations: accurate,
+ and – in number range 0–999 but
¥ of whole numbers to at least 10 ¥ 10 extremely
Reciprocal relationship between multiplication and slow!
division
4 Problem solving with whole numbers (+, –, ÷, ¥) Struggles
Various techniques to perform written calculations: in number
range
Multiplication (also in columns: at least 2-digit by 2-
> 10 000;
digit numbers)
accurate in
Multiples and factors: determining factors of 2-digit allocating
numbers. appropri-
Subtraction (of numbers with at least 4-digits) – also ate opera-
in columns tions, but
Addition (total not to exceed 4-digit numbers) – also not yet
or applicable copyright law.

in columns accurate in
Recognising place value, order, comparing and rep- execution.
resenting 3–4-digit numbers No notion!
262
Rounding off (using up to 4-digit numbers) to near-
est 10, 100 and 1000
Doubling and halving in number range (0–999)

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Table 8.5 Continued

Topic Grade Desired Description of concepts and skills to be mastered at the Teacher’s
level level indicated grade/level comments
(develop-
mentally
appropri-
ate)

Building up and breaking down numbers 3–5-digit Cannot yet

numbers work
Represent odd and even numbers to at least 1000 beyond
Counting forwards and backwards in 2s, 3s, 5s, 10s, 9999.
25s, 50s, 100s between 0 and at least 1000 Fairly
Mental calculations: accurate,
but
+ and – in number range 0–999
extremely
¥ of whole numbers to at least 10 ¥ 10 slow!
Reciprocal relationship between multiplication and divi-
sion
Converse relationship between addition and subtraction

3 Problem solving with whole numbers (+, –, ÷, ¥) Grasps

Explains own solutions to problems consecu-
Checks solutions to problems given by peers tive steps
in solving,
Perform written calculations:
but opera-
Division (divide 2-digit number by a 1-digit number) tions (х
Multiplication (also in columns: at least 2-digit by 1-digit and ÷) not
number) yet accu-
Subtraction (of numbers with at least 3-digits) – also in rate.
columns Did not
Addition (total not to exceed 3-digit numbers) – also in check!
columns
Recognising place value of 3-digit numbers
Ordering, describing and comparing 2- and 3-digit
whole numbers
Building up and breaking down numbers (using num-
bers lines)
Rounding off (using 2-digit numbers) to nearest 10
Doubling and halving in number range (0–99)
Representing odd and even numbers to at least 100
Mental calculations: Takes long,
but is
Division (dividend not to exceed 50)
accurate;
Multiplication (product not to exceed 50) needs
Subtraction (1- and 2-digits to at least 50) practice.
Addition (1- and 2-digits to at least 50) Did not
or applicable copyright law.

Reciprocal relationship between multiplication and divi- know ini-

sion tially, but
Converse relationship between addition and subtraction grasped
Recognising and identifying number names and sym- quickly. 263
bols between 0 and 1000
Counting forwards and backwards in 2s, 5s, 10s
between 0 and at 500; also in 20s, 25s, 50s and 100s
between 0 and 1000.

000pFigure 8.8
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Mathematics Support Programme Rafiq Williams (Grade 5) Date: April 2011

Content Numbers, operations Topic: whole numbers Examples of

area: and relationships method of
support
Target and To be able to benefit from teaching and learning regarding whole num-
time bers together with peer group by the end of the term
frame:

NATURE OF SUPPORT

Details of the stepped Grade Scheduled Date Teacher

support programme level date achieved comments

1. Mental calculations: multiplication 3 REFER TO SUB-

(product not to exceed 50) SECTION 8.2.2

2. Mental calculations: division (divi- 3 REFER TO SUB-

dend not to exceed 50) SECTION 8.2.3

3. Written calculations: multiplica- 3 REFER TO SUB-

tion (also in columns: at least 2- SECTION 8.3.1
digit by 1-digit numbers)

4. Written calculations: division 3 REFER TO SUB-

(divide 2-digit number by a 1- SECTION 8.3.1
digit number)

5. Problem solving with whole num- 3 REFER TO SUB-

bers (involving multiplication) SECTION 8.3.5

6. Problem solving with whole num- 3

bers (involving division)

7. Mental calculations: multiplication 4 REFER TO SUB-

(up to 10 ¥ 10) SECTION 8.2.2

8. Mental calculations: division: 4 REFER TO SUB-

reciprocal relationship between SECTION 8.2.3
multiplication and division

9. Building up and breaking down 4 REFER TO SUB-

numbers 3–5-digit numbers SECTION 8.1

10. Multiples and factors: determine 4 REFER TO SUB-

factors of 2-digit numbers SECTION 8.3.1

11. Multiplication (also in columns: at 4 REFER TO SUB-

least 2-digit by 2-digit numbers) SECTION 8.3.1

12. Problem solving with whole num- 4 REFER TO SUB-

bers (+, –, ÷, ¥) SECTION 8.3.5
or applicable copyright law.

13. Mental calculations: ¥ of whole 5 REFER TO SUB-

numbers to at least 10 ¥ 10: SECTION 8.2.2
increased speed and accuracy
264 14. Building up and breaking down 5 REFER TO SUB-
numbers 3–5-digit numbers: SECTION 8.1
increased skill level

Figure 8.8 Example of a support programme {

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Mathematics Support Programme Rafiq Williams (Grade 5) Date: April 2011

Content Numbers, operations Topic: whole numbers Examples of

area: and relationships method of
support
Target and To be able to benefit from teaching and learning regarding whole num-
time bers together with peer group by the end of the term
frame:

NATURE OF SUPPORT

Details of the stepped Grade Scheduled Date Teacher

support programme level date achieved comments

Following items need to be reinforced after learning it as part of the class:

15. Rounding off (using up to 4-digit 5 REFER TO SUB-

numbers) to nearest 5, 10, 100 SECTION 8.2
and 1000

16. Recognising place value, order, 5 REFER TO SUB-

compare and represent to 6-digit SECTION 8.1
numbers

17. Written calculations: addition 5 REFER TO SUB-

(total not to exceed 5-digit num- SECTION 8.3.1
bers) – also in columns

18. Written calculations: subtraction 5 REFER TO SUB-

(of numbers with at least 5-digits) SECTION 8.3.1
– also in columns

19. Written calculations: multiplica- 5 REFER TO SUB-

tion (also in columns: at least 3- SECTION 8.3.1
digit by 2-digit numbers)

General comments on learner’s progress:_________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

____________ _ _________________________________

Teacher (mathematics) Date Institution Level Support Team (ILST) coordinator

Figure 8.8 Continued

or applicable copyright law.

265

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8.7.2 Pinpointing starting point of intervention in the content area:

numbers, operations and relationships

CONTENT AREA: NUMBERS, OPERATIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS

NAME OF LEARNER: GRADE: DATE OF BIRTH:
TOPIC GRADE Is the DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS AND SKILLS TO BE Examples
LEVEL desired MASTERED AT THE INDICATED GRADE/LEVEL where
level applicable
develop-
mentally
appro-
priate?

6 Problem solving with whole numbers (+, –, ÷, There are 86

¥) sheep in a
Various techniques to perform written calcula- small camp
tions: and three times
as many in a
Long division (at least 4-digit by 3-digit num-
larger camp.
bers)
How many
Multiplication (also in columns: at least 4-digit sheep are there
by 3-digit numbers) altogether in
Subtraction the two
Addition (total not to exceed 6-digit numbers) camps?
Ordering in descending or ascending order Up to 6-digit
(up to 7-digit numbers) numbers e.g.
Rounding off (using up to 5-digit numbers) to 34 848 ÷ 132 =
nearest 5, 10, 100 and 1000 4 362 ¥ 108 =
Use of a calculator to check answers to above 47 962 –
Recognising place value up to 9 digits 23 654 =
Building up and breaking down numbers up to 67 876 +
44 976 =
1. Whole numbers

6 digits (also be aware of milliard or billion

and trillion)
Representing prime numbers up to 99
Ordering, comparing and representing num-
bers to at least 9-digit numbers
Counting forwards and backwards in decimals
Mental calculations:
+ and – in number range 0–999
¥ of whole numbers to at least 12 ¥ 12
Divisibility rules for 2, 5, 10, 100 and 1000

5 Problem solving with whole numbers (+, –, ÷, Seventy eight

¥) of the 207
Various techniques to perform written calcula- Grade 5 learn-
tions: ers play net-
ball. The num-
or applicable copyright law.

Multiplication (also in columns: at least 3-digit

ber of learners
by 2-digit numbers)
who play soc-
Subtraction (of numbers with at least 5-digits) cer is 47 more
266 – also in columns than the num-
Addition (total not to exceed 5-digit numbers) ber who play
– also in columns netball. If the
Recognising place value, order, compare and rest of the
represent 3–5-digit numbers learners play

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TOPIC GRADE Is the DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS AND SKILLS TO BE Examples

LEVEL desired MASTERED AT THE INDICATED GRADE/LEVEL where
level applicable
develop-
mentally
appro-
priate?

Rounding off (using up to 4-digit numbers) to tennis, calcu-

nearest 5, 10, 100 and 1000 late the num-
Doubling and halving in number range (0–999) ber of learn-
Building up and breaking down numbers 3–5- ers who play
digit numbers tennis.
Representing odd and even numbers to at least Insert on a
1000 given number
Counting forwards and backwards in whole- line; arrange
number intervals to at least 1000 numbers in
Performs mental calculations: ascending/
descending
+ and – in number range 0–999
order.
¥ of whole numbers to at least 10 ¥ 10
Reciprocal relationship between multiplication
and division

4 Problem solving with whole numbers (+, –, ÷, 580 apples

¥) must be
Various techniques to perform written calcula- shared equal-
tions: ly between 8
people. Calcu-
Multiplication (also in columns: at least 2-digit
late how
1. Whole numbers

by 2-digit numbers)
many apples
Multiples and factors: determining factors of 2- each person
digit numbers. will get and
Subtraction (of numbers with at least 4 digits) how many
– also in columns apples will be
Addition (total not to exceed 4-digit numbers) left?
– also in columns
To assist in
Recognising place value, order, comparing and
multiplication
representing 3–4-digit numbers
of 2-digit
Rounding off (using up to 4-digit numbers) to numbers by
nearest 10, 100 and 1000 2-digit num-
Doubling and halving in number range (0–999) bers and not
Building up and breaking down numbers 3–5- to factorise.
digit number
Insert 2–4-
Representing odd and even numbers to at least
digit numbers
1000
on a given
Counting forwards and backwards in 2s, 3s, number line;
5s, 10s, 25s, 50s, 100s between 0 and at least arrange num-
1000 bers in
or applicable copyright law.

Performs mental calculations: ascending/

+ and – in number range 0–999 descending
¥ of whole numbers to at least 10 ¥ 10 order.
Reciprocal relationship between multiplication 267
and division
Converse relationship between addition and
subtraction

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P A R T 2 PRACTICE

TOPIC GRADE Is the DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS AND SKILLS TO BE Examples

LEVEL desired MASTERED AT THE INDICATED GRADE/LEVEL where
level applicable
develop-
mentally
appro-
priate?

3 Problem solving with whole numbers (+, –, ÷, ¥) Share a packet

Explains own solutions to problems of 48 lollipops
Checks solutions to problems given by equally
peers between 12
learners. How
Performs written calculations: many lollipops
Division (divide 2-digit number by a 1-digit will each learn-
number) er get?
Multiplication (also in columns: at least 2-digit
by 1-digit number) Multiply 1-digit
numbers by 6,
Subtraction (of numbers with at least 3-digits) –
7, 8, 9 and 10.
also in columns
Addition (total not to exceed 3-digit numbers) –
also in columns
Recognising place value of 3-digit numbers
Ordering, describing and comparing 2- and 3-
digit whole numbers
Building up and breaking down numbers (using
number lines)
Rounding off (using 2-digit numbers) to nearest
10
Doubling and halving in number range (0–99)
1. Whole numbers

Represent odd and even numbers to at least 100

Performs mental calculations:
Division (dividend not to exceed 50)
Multiplication (product not to exceed 50)
Subtraction (1 and 2 digits to at least 50)
Addition (1 and 2 digits to at least 50)
Reciprocal relationship between multiplication
and division
Converse relationship between addition and sub-
traction
Recognising and identifying number names and
symbols between 0 and 1000
Counting forwards and backwards in 2s, 5s, 10s
between 0 and 500; also in 20s, 25s, 50s and
100s between 0 and 1000

2 Problem solving with whole numbers (addition, a) A farmer has

subtraction, grouping and sharing, doubling and 40 sheep.
or applicable copyright law.

halving) He bought 8
Explains own solutions to problems sheep at an
Checks solutions to problems given by auction. Five
268 peers sheep were
stolen. How
Performs written calculations: many sheep
Division (divide at least 1-digit number by a 1- does he
digit number) have now?

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TOPIC GRADE Is the DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS AND SKILLS TO BE Examples

LEVEL desired MASTERED AT THE INDICATED GRADE/LEVEL where
level applicable
develop-
mentally
appro-
priate?

Multiplication (1-digit numbers – answers to at b) How many

least 30) packets will
Subtraction (of whole numbers with answers up you need to
to 100) pack 48
Addition (of whole numbers with answers up to apricots if 4
100) apricots fit
Recognising place value of 2-digit numbers into one
Order, describe and compare 2-digit whole num- packet?
bers doubling and halving as part of problem
solving in context
Representing odd and even numbers to at least
20
Mental calculations:
Multiplication (product not to exceed 20)
Subtraction (1 and 2 digits to at least 20)
Addition (1 and 2 digits to at least 20)
Recognising and identifying number names and
symbols between 0 and 200
Counting forwards and backwards in 1s, 2s, 3s,
4s, 5s and 10s between 0 and 200
1. Whole numbers

1 Problem solving with whole numbers (addition, Mommy shares

subtraction, grouping and sharing – equal shar- a bag of 17
ing as well as with remainders marbles equally
Explains own solutions to problems (teacher between each
provides step-by-step prompts) of her 4 sons.
Checks solutions to problems given by peers How many
marbles will
Performs written calculations: each one get?
Grouping (building “groups of” up to number 20) How many
Repeated addition of same number (totals up to marbles will
at least 20) remain in
Subtraction (of whole numbers from numbers up Mommy’s bag?
to 20)
Filling of the
Addition (of whole numbers with answers up to ‘10’ is impor-
20) tant; concrete
Copying and extending number sequences to at apparatus to be
least 100 provided;
Recognising place value of 2-digit numbers learners should
between 11 and 19 also be able to
Ordering, describing and comparing whole num- use number
or applicable copyright law.

bers up to 20 lines to calcu-

Doubling and halving (even numbers only) up to late answers.
20 as part of problem solving in context
Representing odd and even numbers from 1–10
Concrete appa- 269
ratus to be pro-
Knowing and writing number names: 0 to at least vided for men-
20 tal maths if
Know and write number symbols from 0 to at needed.
least100

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P A R T 2 PRACTICE

TOPIC GRADE Is the DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS AND SKILLS TO BE Examples

LEVEL desired MASTERED AT THE INDICATED GRADE/LEVEL where
level applicable
develop-
mentally
appro-
priate?

Know and write number symbols from 0 to at least 100

Performs mental calculations:
Subtraction (of whole numbers from numbers up to 20)
Addition (of whole numbers up to 20)
Counts:
At least 50 everyday objects readily
Forwards and backwards in 1s from any number between 1 and
100
In 2s, 5s and 10s from any multiple between 0 and 100

R Verbal and informal problem solving with whole numbers (addi-

5y–6y tion and subtraction) and with answers up to at least 10.
Explains own solutions to problems (teacher provides step-
by-step prompts)
Orders and compares collections of objects using the words
“more”, “less”, “equal”
Identifies number names: 0–10
Counts:
At least 10 everyday objects readily
1. Whole numbers

Able to say number rhymes with comprehension

Forwards and backwards in 1s from 1 to 10

4y–5y Start counting 5 to 10 everyday objects readily

Enjoys and shares in when counting rhymes are told
Tells own age

3y–4y Begins to count objects in one-to-one correspon- Setting of

dence up to 5 plates for
Listens to and enjoys longer counting rhymes family
Holds up fingers to indicate age members.

18–36 Holds up fingers to indicate age – not necessarily correctly

months Understands quantity up to 2 or 3
Takes interest in counting out number (counting) rhymes with
parent/caregiver
or applicable copyright law.

0–18 Plays games with parents/caregivers: point to “one nose”

months facial /body features and say ... “two eyes”
270 Starts watching and listening to finger play and etc.
counting rhymes
Grasps objects and explores them by means of
hands and mouth

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TOPIC GRADE Is the DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS AND SKILLS TO BE Examples

LEVEL desired MASTERED AT THE INDICATED GRADE/ LEVEL where
level applicable
develop-
mentally
appro-
priate?

6 Calculates percentages of whole numbers ✓ Of the 600

Equivalent forms: learners in the
school, 6%
Recognising and using equivalent forms of
were absent
common fractions with ½-digit denominators
on Friday.
Understanding and using forms of decimal What percent-
fractions to at least 2 decimal places age of learn-
Understanding and using form of percentages ers was pres-
Decimals: ent? How
Problem solving involving decimals many learners
Addition and subtraction of positive decimals were present?
with at least 2 decimal places ✓ How many
Counting forwards and backwards in decimals ninths are
Place value of digits in numbers with at least 2 there in 2–3 ?
decimal places ✓ Subtract the
Describing and comparing decimals to at least sum of 136,5
2 decimal places. and 73,7 from
the product of
Common fractions: 0,263 and
Problem solving including common fractions 300.
Calculating fractions of whole numbers ✓ Themba spent
1
Addition and subtraction of mixed fractions ––6 of his pock-
Addition and subtraction of common fractions et money on
2. Fractions

2
(denominators must be multiples of each chips and ™ –
6
other) on a dough-
Describing and comparing common fractions nut. What
(tenths and hundredths) fraction of his
money is left?
1
5 Equivalent forms: ✓—
Ã of the
10
Recognising and using equivalent forms of length of a
decimal fractions of the form 0,5; 1,5 and 2,5 is equal
etc. in the context of measurement. to 0,1 of the
Recognising and using equivalent forms length of a
(denominators which are multiples of each
1
other) ✓ If °–9 of 54 kg =
5
Decimals: 6 kg then 3–9⁄4
Problem solving involving decimals of 54 kg =
Describing and comparing decimal fractions in 5 ¥ 6 kg =
the form 0,5; 1,5 and 2,5 etc. in the context of 30 kg.
4 2 2
measurement ✓ 3¤–7 – 1–7 = 2 –7
or applicable copyright law.

Common fractions:
Problem solving including common fractions
Recognising, describing and using the equiva-
lence of division and fractions
271
Count forwards and backwards in fractions
Fractions of whole numbers which result in
whole numbers

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P A R T 2 PRACTICE

TOPIC GRADE Is the DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS AND SKILLS TO Examples

LEVEL desired BE MASTERED AT THE INDICATED GRADE/ where
level LEVEL applicable
develop-
mentally
appro-
priate?

Addition and subtraction of mixed fractions

Addition and subtraction of common fractions with same denomina-
tor
Describing and comparing common fractions to at least 1⁄12

4 Equivalent forms: ✓ Which kitten is the

Recognising and using equivalent forms of heaviest?
decimal fractions in the form 0,5; 1,5 and
2,5 etc. in the context of measurement. 1,0 kg
Recognising and using equivalent forms
(denominators which are multiples of each
2,0 kg
other) 0,5 kg
Decimals:
(If 1⁄4 of 28 m = 7
Problem solving involving decimals then 3⁄4 of 28 m =
Describing and comparing decimal fractions 7 ¥ 3 m = 21 m
in the form 0,5; 1,5 and 2,5 etc. in the con- 1
text of measurement ✓1÷8=©
–
8

Common fractions: ✓ 5 slices of bread

Problem solving including common frac- shared by 4
tions friends?
Recognisng, describing and using the equiv-
alence of division and fractions
2. Fractions

Equal sharing with remainders

Addition of common fractions with same
denominator
Describing and comparing common frac-
tions with different denominators from 2–8
Describing and comparing common frac-
tions in diagrammatic form

3 Solves and explains solutions to practical ✓ Practical problems

problems involving equal sharing and that involve equal
grouping and that lead to solutions that also sharing and group-
include unitary and non-unitary fractions ing: Mary uses 1–2ƒm
Ordering, describing and comparing com- ribbon to tie a bow.
mon fractions including halves, quarters, How many bows
thirds, sixths and eights will she be able to
tie with 10 m of
ribbon?
or applicable copyright law.

2 Solves and explains solutions to practical Share 36 slices of

problems involving equal sharing and toast between 8 boys.
grouping and that lead to solutions that also
272 include unitary fractions
Orders, describes and compares common
fractions including halves and quarters

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TOPIC GRADE Is the DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS AND SKILLS TO Examples

LEVEL desired BE MASTERED AT THE INDICATED GRADE/ where
level LEVEL applicable
develop-
mentally
appro-
priate?

1 Solves and explains solutions to practical Share 14 candles

problems that involve equal sharing and between 4 girls
grouping with whole numbers of at least 20 
and with answers that include remainders

R Solves and explains solutions to practical Share 9 toy cars
problems that involve equal sharing and between 3 babies
grouping with whole numbers of at least 10
and with answers that include remainders


4–5y Informally solves practical problems that ✓ Practically share
2. Fractions

involve equal sharing and grouping with items in class, e.g.

whole numbers of at least 5 and with mugs, crayons, etc.
answers that include remainders

3–4y Able to share items equally between num- ✓ Hand out items of
ber of friends food equally to a few
Informal use of “remainder/number remain- friends
ing” when observing others sharing equally

18–36 Observes while parents/caregivers are sharing items and attempts to

months take charge of the sharing process (between 2 or 3 siblings/friends)

0–18 Observes while parents/caregivers are sharing, e.g. toys or food

months between 2 or more siblings/friends

6 Buying and selling ✓ Mr Dlamini has

Simple budgets R1 925,95 in his
Calculating profit and loss bank account. He
Reading and interpreting accounts withdraws R650,50
Discounts and then R225,25
the next day. How
3. Financial mathematics

much money is left

in his bank account?
✓ A cell phone costs
R952,20. William
pays a deposit of
R50,00 and then
or applicable copyright law.

agrees to pay the

rest of the amount
in four equal month-
ly payments. How 273
much will his
monthly payments
be?

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P A R T 2 PRACTICE

TOPIC GRADE Is the DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS AND SKILLS Examples

LEVEL desired TO BE MASTERED AT THE INDICATED where
level GRADE/LEVEL applicable
develop-
mentally
appro-
priate?

5 Buying and selling ✓ Judy buys 60 pencils for

Simple budgets R120,00. She sells them
Calculating profit and loss all at the market day at
R3,50 a pencil. What
profit does she make?

4 Buying and selling ✓ Modise buys 3 books at

Simple budgets R5,50 each, 2 pencils at
R2,25 each, and a ruler
for R3,75. How much
change will she get from
R30?

3 Recognising and identifying South ✓ Practical experience:

African coins and banknotes buying and selling by
Solving money problems involving means of shopping
totals and change in rands and cents, games.
including converting between rands
and cents
3. Financial mathematics

2 Recognising and identifying South ✓ Practical experience:

African coins and banknotes buying and selling by
Solving money problems involving means of shopping
totals and change in rands and cents games.

1 Recognising and identifying the South ✓ Practical experience:

African coins and banknotes buying and selling by
Solving money problems involving means of shopping
totals and change in rands and cents games.

R No formal outcomes expected. Informal outcomes may include the fol-

lowing:
Distinguishing between South African coins and banknotes
Informally recognising the monetary value of coins by discussing, for
instance, what items at the tuck shop can be bought with what
coins/notes
Using vocabulary “more money”, “less money” appropriately
Having a notion of “cheap” and “expensive” and using it fairly appro-
priately
Playing “shop” with “buyers” and “shopkeeper” – items must be
priced in rands up to R10 but no change needs to be given.
or applicable copyright law.

4–5y Sorts coins according to size and colour

Discovers that the size of the coin is not directly related to monetary
274 value
Plays “shop” with “buyers” and “shopkeeper” – items need not be
priced and “virtual” money must be handed over in order to receive a
desired “item”

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TOPIC GRADE Is the DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS AND SKILLS Examples

LEVEL desired TO BE MASTERED AT THE INDICATED where
level GRADE/LEVEL applicable
develop-
mentally
appro-
priate?

3–4y Develops an understanding of fact that money has “value”; money

can be “earned” and that money must also be “saved” for later use
3. Financial mathematics

Develops an understanding of why (and accept that) he/she cannot

always have a desired item

18–36 Accompanies parents/caregivers to shops where they observe

months exchange of money in order to receive wanted items and receiving
change
Observes and develops an understanding of having to “pay” before
he/she can “get”

0–18 Accompanies parents/caregivers to shops where they observe

months exchange of money in order to receive wanted items

6 Compares 2 or more quantities of the ✓ Write the ratio of 400 g

same kind (ratio) to 2 kg in the simplest
Compares 2 or more quantities of dif- form.
ferent kinds (rate)

5 Compares 2 or more quantities of the ✓ Tom is 5 years old and

4. Rates and ratio

same kind (ratio) his father is 25 years

Compares 2 or more quantities of dif- older than Tom. What is
ferent kinds (rate) the ratio of Tom’s age to
his father’s age?

4 Compares 2 or more quantities of the ✓ Determine the cost of

same kind (ratio) the following number of
Compares 2 or more quantities of dif- apples if one apple costs
ferent kinds (rate) R2,50:
iii) Two apples
iii) Three apples
iii) Ten apples

6 Multiples of 2- and 3-digit numbers a) Write down the first five

Factors of 2- and 3-digit whole multiples of 62.
numbers b) Find all the factors of
Prime factors of numbers to at least 256.
100 c) Write down the first 8
5. Multiples and factors

prime numbers.
d) Write down the prime
numbers that are fac-
or applicable copyright law.

tors of 36.

5 Multiples of 2-digit whole numbers to ✓ Determine the factors of

at least 100 18:
Factors of 2-digit whole numbers to at Because 18 = 3 ¥ 6 or
275
least 100 2 ¥ 9 or 1 ¥ 18, the
factors of 18 are 1, 2, 3,
6, 9 and 18.

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P A R T 2 PRACTICE

TOPIC GRADE Is the DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS AND Examples

LEVEL desired SKILLS TO BE MASTERED AT THE where
level INDICATED GRADE/LEVEL applicable
develop-
mentally
appro-
priate?

4 Multiples of 1-digit numbers to at ✓ As above, but ...

5. Multiples and factors

least 100 factors are introduced so

that learners can use factors
to multiply 2-digit numbers
by 2-digit numbers using
their multiplication tables
knowledge – not so that
they can be asked to fac-
torise any 2-digit number,
e.g. 68 or 84.
6 Commutative, associative and dis- ✓ Applying distributive proper-
tributive properties with whole ty:
numbers 4 362 ¥ 108 = 4 362 ¥ (100
Properties of 0 and 1 + 8) (use the distributive
6. Properties of rational numbers

property)
= 436 200 + 4 362 ¥ 8
= 436 200 + 34 896
= 471 096

5 Commutative, associative and dis- ✓ Using the distributive prop-

tributive properties with whole erty
numbers 547 ¥ (40 + 5) = 547 ¥ 40 +
547 ¥ 5
= 21 880 + 2 735
= 24 615
4 Commutative, associative and dis- ✓ Investigate that ...
tributive properties with whole 5 ¥ 7 = 5 ¥ (4 + 3) = (5 ¥ 4)
numbers + (5 ¥ 3) = 20 + 15 = 35

This concludes the scaffolding of concepts and skills regarding numbers

and operations as from birth to the end of Grade 6. According to Lerner and
Kline (2005: 482), barriers to be experienced in the Senior Phase and beyond
include basic operations (including fractions), decimals and percentages, mul-
tiplication with whole numbers, division, place value and measurement skills.
By attending to these barriers (that originated in the Intermediate Phase) by
means of a carefully stepped support programme, these barriers can be allevi-
or applicable copyright law.

ated or removed once learners enter the Senior Phase. It is therefore impera-
tive that mathematic teachers should strongly consider drafting and imple-
menting similar tools for the remaining content areas of patterns and
276 functions, space and shape, measurement and data handling.
As the focus group/grade of this book is at a Grade 4 level, the discussion of
support strategies will be aimed at common barriers to mathematising as
experienced by Grade 4 learners.

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8.8 support strategies to alleviate barriers at a Grade 4 level

8.8.1 Supporting number concept in the number range 0–10 000
No learner should be exposed to operations in this number range before
demonstrating a working knowledge of number concept. How do we know
when learners have this knowledge? Certainly not by demonstrating knowl-
edge of place value. Why? Place value can be “understood” by merely following
mechanical rules of position in space: 4371 can easily be interpreted as 4
thousands, 3 hundreds, 7 tens and 1 unit. But does this really demonstrate
that a learner knows the difference in quantity between tens and thousands?
A proven and valid way to assess whether a learner does have number con-
cept in the range that he or she is supposed to be working in, is to observe the
way in which he is able to estimate quantities in the speciﬁc number range.
Engage in activities similar to the following:

When a 750 g box of corn flakes is filled up to the top of the box it will con-
tain approximately 2950 flakes.
If the boxes are only filled up as indicated below, estimate how many cornflakes
each box will contain. Select from the box below, the answer that is closest to
your estimation:
A B C D

7002 2810 250 1655 8210 1360

Figure 8.9 Assessing number concept of Grade 4 learners

If a learner is not able to choose the most desired option, do not take for
granted that the learner struggles with number concept, first verify by read-
ing out the options to the learner – perhaps the learner only finds it difficult
or applicable copyright law.

to read and interpret numbers.

If the learner, however, still ﬁnds it difﬁcult, the following remedial inter-
vention may prove to be useful: transparent containers consisting of silver
balls (normally used as cake decoration) are used to represent ten thousands, 277
thousands, hundreds, tens and units.
This type of apparatus is preferred over and above those depicting tens,
hundreds, thousands, etc. as units that cannot be taken apart and perceived

10 000

1000

units 10 100

Figure 8.10 Simple apparatus to be used in promoting number concept

as units as well. By “building” and comparing numbers, perceiving them as,

for instance, “more than”, “less than”, “twice as much”, etc., a well-founded
number concept can be established.
From this, a semi-concrete manner of illustrating numbers should be intro-
duced before plotting Th, H, T, and U in the traditional columns.

Thousands Hundreds Tens Units

2 6 9 3

Figure 8.11 Semi-concrete representation of numbers

8.8.2 Supporting mental maths

or applicable copyright law.

It is expected of a Grade 4 learner to master the following:

278 • Addition: add 1-digit to 3-digit numbers
• Subtraction: subtract 1-digit from 3-digit numbers
• Multiplication: to 10 ¥ 10
• Division: reciprocal relationship between ¥ and ÷

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8.8.2.1 Addition and subtraction

If a learner should experience barriers to attaining the discussed outcomes,
the following remedial strategies can be followed.

1) Automising the addition and subtraction combinations in the

number range 0–20
In this regard, repetition and rote learning do play an important part. Howev-
er, the process does not need to be boring. Start with combination < 10 and
reinforce by means of games. Reward successes without putting a learner
(who is already struggling) under more pressure.
A good idea is to make your own ﬂash cards by putting every single possi-
ble combination (+) where answers do not exceed 20 and (–) where the num-
bers that are subtracted from do not exceed 20. Write/print on cards that
resemble ...

8+9= 17 17 – 9 = 8

Figure 8.12 Flashcards

Cut off a corner to simplify the stacking of cards (to prevent them from
turning upside down) and write answers on the ﬂipside. Be creative and use
these cards to play games to reinforce skills, for example use ﬂashcards as
playing cards and modify traditional games like snap! and rummy.

SNAP!

Shuffle flashcards and divide between players. Players keep cards stacked in
front of them, facing upwards. Players take turns in playing by taking their
top card and calling out the answer while piling cards between the players. If
an answer is the same as the previous one, the player to call out “Snap!” first,
collects the whole pile and puts it at the bottom of his or her own pile. The
game can stop at any time. The player who has the most cards will be the
winner of the round.

RUMMY (2–4 PLAYERS)

Learners are dealt 9 cards each. The rest of the cards are piled in the middle
(face up). Each learner begins to play by taking the top card and determining
whether the answer matches one or more cards’ answer in his or her hand. If
or applicable copyright law.

it does, he or she takes all the cards out and lays them on the table (ﬂipside
upwards so the rest of the players can verify the answer). If none of the
answers match, he or she keeps all the cards in his or her hand. The learner
then needs to throw out a card face-side up, next to the pile in the middle. The 279
next player can pick up the top card from either pile. The game then contin-
ues as described previously. The ﬁrst player to lay down all of his or her cards
on the table is the winner.

HOPSCOTCH

Do not hesitate to use bodily involvement: modify a traditional game of hop-

scotch. The input number is determined by throwing a dice. After each turn,
the game cards are moved around. The learner with the highest (correct) out-
put number will be the winner.
If learners were able to automise this process, they will probably not dis-
play difﬁculty in quickly adding 1-digit numbers to 3-digit numbers (in cases
when the next 10/100 is not bridged: 456 + 3 = ; 152 + 7= etc.).

Figure 8.13 Modified game of hopscotch

Source: Adapted from http://www.wilderdom.com (content is copyleft – http://creative
commons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

2) Reinforcing: “Filling up the next 10”

If this concept and skill is not reinforced, the learner will most probably not
be able to ﬁnd answers quickly enough to adhere to the outcomes of mental
maths. If the skill has been attained in smaller number ranges, the learner
will probably not be able to add a 1-digit number to 3-digit numbers and
or applicable copyright law.

bridge the next 10/100. How do we simplify attaining the skill of bridging the
next 10?
280
BY STORYTELLING: GREEDY GARY

Greedy Gary was not a good boy at all. He was never satisﬁed with what he
had – especially when it came to money. If he had R16, he wanted to have

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R20! If he had R86, he wanted R90! If he had R678, he wanted R680! The
learners will soon grasp the concept of the “next 10”.
Greedy Gary became so greedy that he started taking from people who sent
him to the shops to buy something. One day Gary had R24 in his pocket and
his mother sent him to the shop with R9 to buy bread. Because Greedy Gary
had only R24, he desperately wanted R30. So he took from his mother’s
money! How much did he take to make his total up to R30? Having taken this
money, could he still buy bread? The answer is “no”. He returned home and
told a lie that he had “lost” R6 and gave the R3 to his mother.

It would now be easier for

the learner to remember the
total: Gary’s ˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆ
330 rand
together with Mommy’s 3
I6 3
rand add up to 333 rand.
ˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆ

324 + 9 = 333

Figure 8.14 Using the story of Greedy Gary to explain filling up the next 10

3) Reinforcement for older learners

It is vital to reinforce the previously mentioned addition and subtraction com-
binations. However, if these have not been fully reinforced in the Foundation
Phase, additional support should be rendered – preferably by means of
numerous reinforcement games. For older learners who are more skilled at
handling objects, the following game could be tried out.

BOUNCE IT
(adapted from Pearson Education, 2008)

Soccer ball reinforcement games 4

8
Use a soccer ball (or any other that has clear 2
13
divisions) and write numbers from 0 to 20 ran-
16
domly on it. 12
14
Learners take turns in catching the ball with 9
8
both hands. He or she call out the numbers
15
or applicable copyright law.

indicated by the left thumb as well as the right

thumb. The learner then quickly subtracts the 10 1
20
11
smaller number from the bigger number and
281
indicates the answer by bouncing the ball the 3
7
number of times as indicated by the answer.
The rest of the learners count the number of Figure 8.15 Ball game as to
bounces to check the answer. automise subtraction < 20

There are lots of variations on this game and it can be applied to multiple addi-
tions at more advanced levels as well: catch with 4/6 ﬁngers and calculate the
total.

Why do it? To practise varied computation, mental math, and decision-making

skills.
Example: At a more advanced level, the leader might call for the use of several
numbers and more than one computation operation. For the situation below, the
player is directed to use the 5 numerals touched and to multiply, divide, add,
and subtract in any proper order to achieve the greatest result. In such an
instance, pencil and paper or a calculator may be used and, if this is to be a
team problem, the learners may work together. (Note: Use the proper Order of
Operations, described later in this box.)

Trials:
6 ¥ 5 + 7 – 2 ÷ 4 = 36½
6 ¥ (5 + 7) – (2 ÷ 4) – 71½
Practise Order of Operations with “Please Exercise My Dog And Snake” which
translates to using in priority: Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication or Division,
and Addition or Subtraction in left-to-right order.

Once this process is automised and the learners are able to display a good
number concept up to 999, learners will only need a “slight nudge” in order to
gain conﬁdence in subtracting single-digit numbers from 3-digit numbers.
Learners need to gain conﬁdence in expanding the combinations with which
they are already familiar:

Example
For example: 14 – 9 = 5
Therefore 24 – 9 = 15
34 – 9 = 25
44 – 9 = 35
154 – 9 = 145
274 – 9 = 265
384 – 9 = 375
or applicable copyright law.

8.8.2.2 Multiplication up to 10 x 10
282
1) The following prerequisite concepts and skills are:
• A well-founded number concept in the number range 0–100. Do refer
back to section 8.1 to review the relevant methodology.

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• Mastering the concept: “groups of” i.e. interpreting 6 ¥ 7 as 6 groups of 7.

• Commutative property: 6 groups of 7 is equal to 7 groups of 6: 6 ¥ 7 =
7¥6
• Skip-counting:

In 2s 3s 4s 5s 6s 7s 8s 9s 10s

Up to 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 99 100

• If learner should struggle to master this, return to semi-concrete experi-

ences, e.g.

2’s (count either arms or legs)

3’s (count wheels)

4’s (count legs)

5’s (count fingers)

6’s (count legs)

7’s (count spades)

8’s (count legs)

9’s (count stars)

10’s (count toes)

or applicable copyright law.

2) Using skip-counting to automise times tables

• 9 ¥ 5 = will be used as an example.
• As the learner has already grasped the concept of commutative property, 283
he or she will be asked to choose between counting in 5s or 9s (being
given a choice immediately relieves possible anxiety).
• The learner will most probably choose to count in 5s as this is easier.

TOPIC GRADE Is the DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS AND SKILLS Examples

LEVEL desired TO BE MASTERED AT THE INDICATED where
level GRADE/LEVEL applicable
develop-
mentally
appro-
priate?

5 Buying and selling ✓ Judy buys 60 pencils for

Simple budgets R120,00. She sells them
Calculating profit and loss all at the market day at
R3,50 a pencil. What
profit does she make?

4 Buying and selling ✓ Modise buys 3 books at

Simple budgets R5,50 each, 2 pencils at
R2,25 each, and a ruler
for R3,75. How much
change will she get from
R30?

3 Recognising and identifying South ✓ Practical experience:

2 Recognising and identifying South ✓ Practical experience:

African coins and banknotes buying and selling by
Solving money problems involving means of shopping
totals and change in rands and cents games.

1 Recognising and identifying the South ✓ Practical experience:

African coins and banknotes buying and selling by
Solving money problems involving means of shopping
totals and change in rands and cents games.

R No formal outcomes expected. Informal outcomes may include the fol-

4–5y Sorts coins according to size and colour

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TOPIC GRADE Is the DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS AND SKILLS Examples

LEVEL desired TO BE MASTERED AT THE INDICATED where
level GRADE/LEVEL applicable
develop-
mentally
appro-
priate?

3–4y Develops an understanding of fact that money has “value”; money

can be “earned” and that money must also be “saved” for later use
3. Financial mathematics

Develops an understanding of why (and accept that) he/she cannot

always have a desired item

18–36 Accompanies parents/caregivers to shops where they observe

months exchange of money in order to receive wanted items and receiving
change
Observes and develops an understanding of having to “pay” before
he/she can “get”

0–18 Accompanies parents/caregivers to shops where they observe

months exchange of money in order to receive wanted items

6 Compares 2 or more quantities of the ✓ Write the ratio of 400 g

same kind (ratio) to 2 kg in the simplest
Compares 2 or more quantities of dif- form.
ferent kinds (rate)

5 Compares 2 or more quantities of the ✓ Tom is 5 years old and

4. Rates and ratio

same kind (ratio) his father is 25 years

Compares 2 or more quantities of dif- older than Tom. What is
ferent kinds (rate) the ratio of Tom’s age to
his father’s age?

4 Compares 2 or more quantities of the ✓ Determine the cost of

same kind (ratio) the following number of
Compares 2 or more quantities of dif- apples if one apple costs
ferent kinds (rate) R2,50:
iii) Two apples
iii) Three apples
iii) Ten apples

6 Multiples of 2- and 3-digit numbers a) Write down the first five

Factors of 2- and 3-digit whole multiples of 62.
numbers b) Find all the factors of
Prime factors of numbers to at least 256.
100 c) Write down the first 8
5. Multiples and factors

prime numbers.
d) Write down the prime
numbers that are fac-
or applicable copyright law.

tors of 36.

5 Multiples of 2-digit whole numbers to ✓ Determine the factors of

at least 100 18:
Factors of 2-digit whole numbers to at Because 18 = 3 ¥ 6 or
275
least 100 2 ¥ 9 or 1 ¥ 18, the
factors of 18 are 1, 2, 3,
6, 9 and 18.

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P A R T 2 PRACTICE

TOPIC GRADE Is the DESCRIPTION OF CONCEPTS AND Examples

LEVEL desired SKILLS TO BE MASTERED AT THE where
level INDICATED GRADE/LEVEL applicable
develop-
mentally
appro-
priate?

4 Multiples of 1-digit numbers to at ✓ As above, but ...

5. Multiples and factors

least 100 factors are introduced so

property)
= 436 200 + 4 362 ¥ 8
= 436 200 + 34 896
= 471 096

5 Commutative, associative and dis- ✓ Using the distributive prop-

This concludes the scaffolding of concepts and skills regarding numbers

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8.8 support strategies to alleviate barriers at a Grade 4 level

7002 2810 250 1655 8210 1360

Figure 8.9 Assessing number concept of Grade 4 learners

to read and interpret numbers.

10 000

1000

units 10 100

Figure 8.10 Simple apparatus to be used in promoting number concept

as units as well. By “building” and comparing numbers, perceiving them as,

Thousands Hundreds Tens Units

2 6 9 3

Figure 8.11 Semi-concrete representation of numbers

8.8.2 Supporting mental maths

or applicable copyright law.

It is expected of a Grade 4 learner to master the following:

278 • Addition: add 1-digit to 3-digit numbers
• Subtraction: subtract 1-digit from 3-digit numbers
• Multiplication: to 10 ¥ 10
• Division: reciprocal relationship between ¥ and ÷

8.8.2.1 Addition and subtraction

If a learner should experience barriers to attaining the discussed outcomes,
the following remedial strategies can be followed.

1) Automising the addition and subtraction combinations in the

8+9= 17 17 – 9 = 8

Figure 8.12 Flashcards

SNAP!

RUMMY (2–4 PLAYERS)

HOPSCOTCH

Do not hesitate to use bodily involvement: modify a traditional game of hop-

Figure 8.13 Modified game of hopscotch

Source: Adapted from http://www.wilderdom.com (content is copyleft – http://creative
commons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

2) Reinforcing: “Filling up the next 10”

bridge the next 10/100. How do we simplify attaining the skill of bridging the
next 10?
280
BY STORYTELLING: GREEDY GARY

Greedy Gary was not a good boy at all. He was never satisﬁed with what he
had – especially when it came to money. If he had R16, he wanted to have

It would now be easier for

the learner to remember the
total: Gary’s ˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆ
330 rand
together with Mommy’s 3
I6 3
rand add up to 333 rand.
ˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆˆ

324 + 9 = 333

Figure 8.14 Using the story of Greedy Gary to explain filling up the next 10

3) Reinforcement for older learners

BOUNCE IT
(adapted from Pearson Education, 2008)

Soccer ball reinforcement games 4

indicated by the left thumb as well as the right

There are lots of variations on this game and it can be applied to multiple addi-
tions at more advanced levels as well: catch with 4/6 ﬁngers and calculate the
total.

Why do it? To practise varied computation, mental math, and decision-making

Example
For example: 14 – 9 = 5
Therefore 24 – 9 = 15
34 – 9 = 25
44 – 9 = 35
154 – 9 = 145
274 – 9 = 265
384 – 9 = 375
or applicable copyright law.

• Mastering the concept: “groups of” i.e. interpreting 6 ¥ 7 as 6 groups of 7.

• Commutative property: 6 groups of 7 is equal to 7 groups of 6: 6 ¥ 7 =
7¥6
• Skip-counting:

In 2s 3s 4s 5s 6s 7s 8s 9s 10s

Up to 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 99 100

• If learner should struggle to master this, return to semi-concrete experi-

ences, e.g.

2’s (count either arms or legs)

3’s (count wheels)

4’s (count legs)

5’s (count fingers)

6’s (count legs)

7’s (count spades)

8’s (count legs)

9’s (count stars)

10’s (count toes)

or applicable copyright law.

2) Using skip-counting to automise times tables

• If the learner chooses to count in 5s, he or she will need 9 ﬁngers to cal-
culate the answer.
10 15 20 35 40
30
5 45✓

3) Reinforce tables by using fun-ﬁlled activities

• Care should be taken against teaching the number patterns formed by
almost all times tables prematurely (e.g. the ﬁnger pattern for the 9
times table). This should not be done until the learner has demonstrated
that he or she can calculate the answers.
• There are numerous fun-ﬁlled group activities: go, explore, but adapt
each one to the context of your own classroom.
• If learners are, for example, familiar with the board game “Chinese
checkers”, it can be adapted in the following way:

CHECKERBOARD MATHS
(adapted from Pearson Education, 2008)

Why do it? To provide practice with basic facts and to enhance mental maths
skills.
You will need: A checkerboard and checkers, masking tape and a marking pen.
Tear off 10 or more short pieces of masking tape, write basic facts or computa-
tion problems on them and randomly stick them on the playing squares of the
checkerboard.
How to do it:
Checkerboard maths,
with one exception, is 5×8 4×4
played with the same
rules as a standard 7×7 5×4 6×6
checkers game. The
difference is that a player
6×9 8×8 3×8
cannot move to a
problem square until the
fact or problem is 7×8 9×9
or applicable copyright law.

answered correctly.
7×9 8×9 4×6
Example: The
284 checkerboard alongside
is set up so that selected 5×6 6×8
multiplication facts can
be practised.

Enhanced opportunities
• Play the game for mixed practice by including addition, subtraction, multiplica-
tion, and/or division facts on the tape strips. Check the answers with a calcula-
tor.
• Reverse the process by having answers taped to the checkerboard and the
related basic facts, computation, or short-story problems on index cards. Each
player must identify the matching problem before he or she is allowed to move
to the game square in question.
• Only indicate the question number on the board and keep index cards with
problems to solve on the side. Remember to have more than one problem for
each question number.

8.8.2.3 Division

1) As in the case of multiplication, the following prerequisite concepts and

skills are vital:
• A well-founded number concept in the number range 0–100.
• Mastering the concept: “equal grouping” i.e. interpreting 32 ÷ 4 as “if I
group 32 into 4 equal groups, how many will there be in each group?”
• Commutative property: 6 groups of 7 is equal to 7 groups of 6: 6 ¥ 7 =
7¥6
• Ability to skip-count (as in case of multiplication) is essential.
2) Using skip-counting to automise division:
• 42 ÷ 6 = will be used as an example.
• Learners are to be guided in interpreting it as “I need to count in 6s, up
to 42. How many 6s will I use to get to 42?”
• If we return to the use of ﬁngers, learner needs to ask: “I need to count in
6s, up to 42. How many ﬁngers will I use to get to 42?”

12 18 24 42
6

30 36
7✓
or applicable copyright law.

3) Reinforce tables by using fun-ﬁlled activities: 285

• Teachers do have numerous fun activities to reinforce and consolidate
skills. However, if they are used prematurely, or as “I-dish-out-you-keep-
yourselves-busy” activities, they will be worthless and wasteful.

• Mediating the process of learning should still be ﬁrst and foremost.

Teachers could, for example, use the following worksheet. Instead of it
being a worksheet completed individually, it can become a fun-ﬁlled
group activity:

COLOUR ACCORDING TO QUOTIENTS

(adapted from www.superteachersworksheets.com)

Learners work together in groups of four.

The quotients are divided among the players. Learners work together in order to
colour the picture together. Each learner may however only attend to his or her
own quotients and corresponding colours. If learners disagree on an answer, the
game stops and the remaining players work together with them to calculate the
correct answer. When all groups have completed their picture, they compare
them to observe whether they have coloured correctly.

Player Colour Quotients

1 Blue 0, 4, 7

Red 3
2
Yellow 6

Violet 8
3
Green 1

Brown 2, 5
or applicable copyright law.

4
286 Pink 9

4÷1=
35 ÷ 5 =
8÷4= 8÷8=
0÷8= 45 ÷ 5 = 16 ÷ 4 =

35 ÷ 7 = 49 ÷ 7 = 12 ÷ 2 =

0÷8=
12 ÷ 4 =
0÷5= 63 ÷ 7 =
12 ÷ 6 = 36 ÷ 6 =

56 ÷ 8 =
= 36 ÷ 4 =
8 24 ÷ 6 =
÷ 18 ÷ 3 =
40

27
21 ÷ 7 =

÷3
12 ÷ 3 = 9÷9=
=

=
9

18 ÷ 6 =
54 ÷ 9 = 72 ÷ 9 =
÷

24 ÷ 4 = 64 ÷ 8 =

7÷7=
18

= 0÷7=
5 6÷2=
÷
25 63 ÷ 9 =
42 ÷ 7 =
48 ÷ 8 =

30 ÷ 5 =
6÷1=

15 ÷ 3 = 10 ÷ 5 = 16 ÷ 8 =

14 ÷ 7 =
28 ÷ 7 =
28 ÷ 4 =
16 ÷ 2 =
18 ÷ 2 =

24 ÷ 3 =
4÷4=
8÷
36 ÷ 9 =

21 ÷ 3 =

45 ÷ 9 =
0÷4= 0÷6=

8.8.3 Supporting written calculations and problem solving

8.8.3.1 Written calculations
When a learner displays barriers to written calculations, the following needs
ﬁrst to be investigated:
• Graphomotor difﬁculties preventing the learner from expressing his or her
or applicable copyright law.

thoughts in writing. These learners have a physical disability in forming

letters and numbers due to weak ﬁne-motor control.
• Lack in number concept in the number range in which he or she is work- 287
ing in.
• Mental calculations skills that have not been automised yet.
• Wrong and inappropriate teaching methods from the past.

If all these can be ruled out, there will be little chance of a learner not master-
ing these concepts and skills when taught appropriately. If these cannot be
ruled out, the support strategies that follow can be implemented.

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION IN THE NUMBER RANGE 0–9999

When learners are being instructed to use a vertical method before calculat-
ing by means of a breaking-down technique, the effect could be disastrous.
The vertical method does not depend on a number concept, but is simply a
mechanical procedure to be followed. If a number concept could not be demon-
strated by means of breaking down, a learner should not be introduced to ver-
tical methods. The national curriculum (CAPS) states clearly that the “tradi-
tional carrying” vertical method should not be forced or insisted upon.
What is meant by expansion and breaking down of numbers?

Addition
4362 + 2486 = 4000 + 300 + 60 + 2 + 2000 + 400 + 80 + 6
= 4000 + 2000 + 300 + 400 + 60 + 80 + 2 + 6
= 6000 + 700 + 140 + 8
= 6000 + 800 + 40 + 8
= 6848

An adapted vertical method can be pursued, but the traditional “carrying”

and “borrowing” methods are not advisable and should deﬁnitely not be intro-
duced if a thorough understanding of the (adapted) vertical expansion method
cannot be displayed:
+ 4362
+ 2486
+ 4000 + 300 + 60 + 2
+ 2000 + 400 + 80 + 6
+ 6000 + 700 + 140 + 8 ≈ 6000 + 800 + 40 + 8 = 6848

Subtraction
4687 – 2143 = 4000 + 600 + 80 + 7 – 2000 – 100 – 40 – 3
= 4000 – 2000 + 600 – 100 + 80 – 40 + 7 – 3
= 2000 + 500 + 40 + 4
= 2544
or applicable copyright law.

Or
– 4687
288 – 2143
– 4000 + 600 + 80 + 7
– 2000 + 100 + 40 + 3
– 2000 + 500 + 40 + 4 = 2544

Multiplication
Determine whether the learner does understand, and has been instructed,
how to multiply 2-digit numbers by 10, 100 and 1000 respectively. If not,
reteach concept and skill. Only then can learners be expected to multiply 2-
digit by 1-digit or 2-digit numbers by means of expansion and not the vertical
method at ﬁrst.

25 ¥ 7 = (20 ¥ 7) + (5 ¥ 7) Or 25
= (10 ¥ 7) + (10 ¥ 7) + (5 ¥ 7) ¥227
= 70 + 70 + 35 35 (7 ¥ 5)
= 175 +140 (7 ¥ 20)
175

Factorising
Learners should grasp the connection between factorising and multiplication.
The “distribute property” should also be mastered. They will understand this
concept better if it is presented to them in the following way.

Factorise 24 (use counting in intervals as explained previously).

Can I count up to 24 in the How many times has the

The factors of 24 will be ...
following intervals? interval been counted?

1s ✓ 24 1 24

2s ✓ 12 2 12

3s ✓ 8 3 8

4s ✓ 6 4 6

5s 7

6s ✓ 4

7s 7

8s ✓ 3

9s 7
or applicable copyright law.

289

Division
Learners are expected to multiply up to 3-digit numbers by a 1-digit number.
This should also be done by means of breaking down and not necessarily a
long-division method (that can only be formally assessed in Grade 5).

Example: 192 ÷ 8
Write down 192 as a sum of multiples of 8:
192 = 80 + 80 + 32
Therefore: 80 ÷ 8 = 10; 80 ÷ 8 = 10 and 32 ÷ 8 = 4
This means that: 192 ÷ 8 = 10 + 10 + 4 = 24

8.8.3.2 Fractions
It should be determined whether learners at Grade 4 level experiencing barri-
ers to working with fractions had ample opportunities to practise working
with fractions at concrete and semi-concrete levels during the Foundation
Phase. Before learners can be expected to calculate fractions of a speciﬁc num-
ber or add and subtract fractions with common denominators, they should be
able to order, compare and share equally (with/without remainders).

FRACTION BINGO

Why do it? To be able to order, compare and group fractions

together. They should add up to a whole. 1
4 1
1 12
You will need: Fraction pieces that are randomly dealt to 2–4 1 1
8 1
players. These are turned upside down in front of each player. 12 2
6
Each player also receives two circles each representing a
“whole” – one with a solid outline and another with a dashed outline.
How to do it: The game commences by a player throwing a pair of dice. Learn-
ers can use one of the fractions indicated or the fractions can be added if they
land on common denominators. If fractions are added, 1 the learner 1may also
1

3
3 learner then positions
6

choose to take, for example, a 1/2 instead of 2/4. The the

1
6

fraction(s) on the playing board (circles). Fractions with dashed outlines (1/3 and
6
1
6
1

1/ ) can only be placed on the playing board with the dashed outline. The next 3
6
1
player is then allowed to play.

1 1 1
1

3 3 8
6

1
1
1
8
6
or applicable copyright law.

84
1

1 2
6
1

1
6

1
1

3
8
4
4

1
290
How to win? The learner who 1 is able to ﬁll one (or both) circles ﬁrst, shouts “frac-
tion!” and wins. 8
1
1
1
8
84
1

1 2
1

1
81

8
4
4

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AN: 1242934 ; Nel, Norma, Nel, Mirna, Hugo, Anna.; Learner Support in a Diverse Classroom : A Guide for
Foundation, Intermediate and Senior Phase Teachers of Language and Mathematics
Account: s7738294
SUPPORTING LEARNERS IN A C Q U I R I N G T H E S K I L L O F M A T H E M A T I S A T I O N 8
000p
Copyright © 2013. Van Schaik Publishers. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S.

REALITY-BASED WORKSHEETS AND ACTIVITIES

Learners need to experience why practising fractions is useful. At the devel-

opmental level of a Grade 4 learner, only using symbols and not (at least) 2-
dimentional representation of the fractions is risky! Do consider using work-
sheets similar to the ones depicted in this section.

Cattle fractions
Mr Mthethwa decided to be different by building circular cattle kraals! Mr
Mthethwa has 48 cattle.
He decided to rotate the herd between three kraals as indicated below. Cal-
culate (and write or draw) how many cattle will graze in each of the sections of
the kraals.
1 1
1 8 6
4 1 1
2
1 2 7 6
3
4 8

Pizza fractions
Build the following pizzas using your pencil crayons as indicated:
Plain = Colour surface pink, Pepperoni = Brown circles, Green pepper = Green
x’s, Mushrooms = Yellow x’s
1⁄2 pepperoni and 1⁄2 plain ⁄2 pepperoni and
1 ⁄4 pepperoni and 1⁄2 plain
1

1⁄ mushroom
2

1⁄ plain, 1⁄ pepperoni, 1⁄4 green pepper and ⁄2 green pepper, 1⁄2 pepper-
1
4 4
1⁄4 mushrooms, 1⁄4 green pepper 1⁄ mushroom
4 oni and mushrooms
or applicable copyright law.

291

Design and label your pizza Design and label your pizza ⁄4 pepperoni and mushrooms,
1

using 2 ingredients using 3 ingredients 1⁄ plain, 1⁄ green pepper

2 4

8.8.3.3 Financial mathematics

The barriers that learners experiences in this regard, can almost always be
attributed to one or more of the aspects that follow.
• Insufficient practical experience as from preschool age (Refer to the consec-
utive milestones to making sense of money – from birth to 12 years as
described in subsection 8.7.2 on financial mathematics.)
• Insufficient teaching methods or opportunities (Determine the starting
point of the intervention and set out an intervention programme according
to the steps set out in subsection 8.7.2. Follow the example as set out in
Figure 8.8.)
• Poor number concept (Refer to support strategies in subsection 8.8.1.)
• Barriers to mastering operations (Refer to support strategies in 8.8.2 and
8.8.3.1.)

Supporting learners in this regard will include reteaching at a lower level to

build conﬁdence.

8.8.3.4 Patterns, space and shape, measurement and data handling

All the aspects that may impact on ﬁnancial maths already mentioned, also
pertain to barriers experienced in attaining outcomes in patterns, space and
shape, measurement and data handling.
Apart from this, the aspect of visual/spatial perceptual skills that are not
yet in place, may impact hugely on attaining outcomes in these areas:
• Learners struggle or fail to interpret and complete patterns, especially
or applicable copyright law.

those in a visual and non-number format.

292

13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00

Supporting barriers caused by visual-perceptual skills, should therefore rely

on intervention to alleviate perceptual barriers ﬁrst. This should identify and
support the acquisition of:
• Visual sequencing and seriation

Extend the following pattern

• Visual discrimination
• Visual foreground/background perception

Exercise to alleviate perceptual barriers

Count the shapes and complete the graph.

20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
or applicable copyright law.

3
2
1 293

• Visual closure

Which picture would be just

like the one on the left if all
the lines were ﬁlled in:
A

Source: Adapted from www.eyecan-

learn.com D

• Visual memory

Look at the picture for one minute. Look at it carefully and try to remember as
many animals as you can
or applicable copyright law.

Source: www.eyecanlearn.com

294
• Visual analysis and synthesis (building puzzles)
• Visual consistency/conservation (taking the same puzzle, turning the pieces
ﬂipside up and to reassemble)

8.8.3.5 Problem solving

When a learner displays barriers to problem solving the following needs to be
investigated ﬁrst:
• Barriers to reading and understanding the medium of instruction.
• Lack of number concept in the number range in which he or she is current-
ly working.
• Mental calculations skills that have not yet been automised.
• Whether or not the learner is not yet conﬁdent in performing written calcu-
lations, or does it mechanically with limited understanding.
• Whether or not the learner has not been exposed to problem solving in the
previous grades and therefore struggles to make the connection between
real-life problems and mathematical ones.

The following steps to problem solving can be adapted to suit the context of
the learners.

STEP 1: READ, HEAR AND SEE (VISUALISE) THE PROBLEM

The learner must understand what is happening in real life, what the prob-
lem is and also think about why it is posed as a problem.

STEP 2: SELECT IMPORTANT INFORMATION

The learner needs to decide what information is really necessary to solve the
problem and what information is not relevant.

STEP 3: DECIDE WHICH STRATEGY TO USE FOR SOLVING

The learner needs to reason in order to decide what kind of operations are to
be used. Be careful not to make the learner overdependant on key words such
as total, altogether, difference, etc. to derive the most suitable operation/cal-
culation.
At this step the learner needs to translate a real-life problem into a mathe-
matical one.

STEP 4: SOLVE THE PROBLEM

The learner has now identiﬁed the pertinent information and chosen a strate-
gy. Now it is time to solve the problem. Sometimes in this step the learner
will realise the chosen strategy isn’t working, in which case he or she needs to
or applicable copyright law.

return to Step 3 and select another strategy.

STEP 5: CHECK THE ANSWER AND TRANSLATE THE MATHEMATICAL ANSWER 295
INTO A REAL-LIFE ANSWER

The ﬁnal step is to check your answer. Put the answer back into the problem
and see if it makes sense or could possibly be an answer. If the answer makes

sense, congratulations are in order because the problem is solved. If the

answer makes no sense, return to Step 2 and try again.

STEP 6: VISUALISE/HEAR THE SOLUTION AND MAKE SURE THAT IT DOES MAKE
SENSE

These six steps can also be represented graphically:

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6

Read, Box ? Write down ✓ Check Does my
hear, important + sum, answer answer
see, listen, information × workings and give make
and – and real-life sense?
understand ÷ answer answer

A step-by-step example of problem solving at a Grade 4-level follows.

Problem
In a school, there are 30 desks per classroom in 9 classrooms and 25 per class-
room in 8 classrooms. How many desks are there in the 17 classrooms alto-
gether?
Step 1: 9 classrooms with 30 desks

8 classrooms with 25 desks

HOW MANY DESKS ALTOGETHER?

Step 2:
9 30 8 25
Step 3: ﬁrst ¥ and then +
Step 4: 9 ¥ 30 = (9 ¥ 10) + (9 ¥ 10) + (9 ¥ 10) 8 ¥ 25 = (8 ¥ 10) + (8 ¥ 10) + (8 ¥ 5)
= 90 + 90 + 90 = 80 + 80 + 40
= 270 = 200
270 + 200 = 200 + 70 + 200
or applicable copyright law.

= 400 + 70
= 470
296 Step 5: 30 + 30 + 30 + 30 + 30 + 30 + 30 + 30 + 30 = 270; four 25s is 100; there-
fore eight 25s must be 200
Step 6: There are 270 desks in all the classrooms.

In the remaining part of this chapter, focus will shift to additional support
strategies that have been proven to either prevent learners from displaying
barriers to attaining mathematising skills or alleviate/eradicate existing bar-
riers.

8.9 support strategies to prevent or alleviate general

barriers to mathematising
8.9.1 Cooperative learning groups
The idea of using cooperative learning groups in all South African mathemat-
ics classes will probably still be considered an idealistic venture for years to
come as teachers struggle to come to terms with large classes ﬁlled with
learners accessing the mathematics curriculum at diverse levels.
However, as the teaching strategy that follows has been proven to bear pos-
itive results, the use thereof should be strongly considered.
• Designate as many lesson periods as possible as maths-in-practice
(extremely practical and enjoyable maths lessons). Ideally these should
form the latter part of every lesson period, but due to practical reasons and
time constraints, it is often not possible in the South African classroom.
• Learners gain deeper conceptual understanding of maths outcomes
through small group practical activities. Maths-in-practice lessons support
tactile and visual learners and give students the opportunity to explore and
discover by manipulating materials.
• Groups consist of approximately four to six students who move their desks
together for the speciﬁc lesson if they are not already seated in collabora-
tive groups. They generally complete one activity per lesson and rotate
between approximately eight different activities per term (or sooner if at
all possible).
• The outcomes of these activities should not be used for formal assessment
purposes, but as it enables the teacher to move freely between the groups,
to observe and facilitate and guide where necessary, it provides an invalu-
able teaching tool because it informs future teaching interventions and
support strategies.
• In small groups, learners build skills of collaboration. They can explain
mathematical concepts to one another in small group discussions. Through
listening and participating in their discussions, the teacher gains insight
into learners’ understandings and misconceptions. Furthermore, the
or applicable copyright law.

teacher has time to provide additional support to struggling learners or

additional challenges to learners who have already mastered outcomes.
• This method is especially valuable in classes where resources are limited. A 297
classroom could perhaps have a single computer, but ﬁve to six learners
can still work together and take turns in solving suitable problems posed
electronically. Furthermore, maths board games may be expensive and

other maths apparatus may gather dust in a cupboard, because the whole
class will not be able to share it. Through rotation, every learner could ben-
eﬁt from using limited resources.
• Planning, creating and using materials for maths-in-practice sessions can
be time consuming. Furthermore learners need to have a clear understand-
ing of classroom rules, procedures, and expectations during these lessons in
order for the classroom to be well managed.
• Even though these sessions are engaging and hands-on, it is important to
keep activities closely aligned with curriculum outcomes. For example: a
Grade 5 group could use advertisements from a local newspaper in order to
compile a shopping list. The reason for shopping (e.g. personal necessities
for a camping trip in winter) and the budget should be provided beforehand.
• Apart from the advantages already mentioned, collaborative small groups
also hold the following beneﬁts on psychosocial levels:
– It ensures that maximum number of learners learn.
– It increases learner engagement in mathematics.
– It facilitates social interaction and promotes social skills.
– It improves self-concept and attitude toward self.
– It motivates learners and provides for learners’ needs for fun as the out-
comes are not used for formal assessment.
– It facilitate learning in a variety of ways.

Other added beneﬁts:

• Learners sometimes explain concepts to each other better than a teacher
can to an entire class. This usually results in better retention of concepts
and skills.
• Questions are more likely to be asked and answered in a group setting.
This saves a lot of time over a long question-and-answer session with the
entire class, which can cause some students to become bored.
• Varying from teacher-directed to group-directed activities prevents your
class from falling into a rut.
• Shy learners are more likely to ask and answer questions in a group set-
ting. The same is true of lower-skilled learners.
• The open job market is looking for people with good interpersonal and
problem-solving skills. Regular participation in cooperative learning activi-
ties can help develop and hone these skills.
or applicable copyright law.

When teachers are able to motivate learners to work effectively in groups, the
results can be very productive and a fun-ﬁlled and relaxed learning environ-
ment can be created. The key to managing these activities is organisation.
298 The more organised and prepared teachers are, the greater the likelihood of
success. In order to simplify the organisation, use containers of equal size (e.g.
boxes with lids used for copier paper). Label these boxes clearly providing the
following information:

• A large box number (on the lid as well)

• A description of curriculum concepts and skills (e.g. Gr 4 : place value)
• The name of the activity/game (e.g. Dart-a-number)
• A description of the contents of the box
• A description of the game/activity on the inside of the lid.

The Grade 4 place-value activity that follows can easily be turned into a
group activity.

DART-A-NUMBER!

Why do it? To be able to conceptualise numbers in the number range 0–9999.

You will need: a modiﬁed dart board as depicted below as well as 4 modiﬁed
darts (dart tips removed and replaced with small balls of Prestik).
How to do it? The learner needs to throw a
dart at each circle. Only one dart per circle 3000 6000
0 0 0
can be used to build up a number. If a 50 0 200
700
dart lands on the innermost circle,
0 800

70
0
the total of the remaining three 0

0
70

0
90 20 0
darts can be doubled. The learner

500
00

builds his or her number and 0

100
0

0 4

0
6 9
30

80
compares it to that of the other 1
10
0

1000
4000

players.
40 90 3

600
1
5 2 7
0

0
6

Who wins? The learner with Double

70 3
900

800

3000
the highest number.
0

8
0
10

3
0
3

10 60
5 0 1
80
100

80
0
0

40 50 0
100

40
00

0
6
00

100 0
0
30

30
500 0 80
00 00
90
0 2000

8.9.2 Storytelling to improve conceptualisation

or applicable copyright law.

In recent years there has been a renewed interest in the role of stories in math-
ematics education, not only as a means of spreading knowledge, but also as a
cognitive tool for understanding mathematics. According to Balakrishnan 299
(2000), using mathematics to tell stories and using stories to explain mathemat-
ics are two sides of the same coin. They join what never should have been sepa-
rated: the scientist’s and the artist’s ways of uncovering truths about the world.

Furthermore, in mathematics education, a story is a powerful cognitive tool

that can assist in providing meaning to the seemingly irrelevant facts, algo-
rithms and procedures, which mathematics addresses. At times a story may
only be loosely tied to the mathematical content; on the other hand the story
line may be linked directly to the concepts and skills to be acquired.

To illustrate the use of storytelling in a Grade 3 mathematics class, the story

of “Postman Pat learns to round off” will be used. (The teacher tells learners
about a postman called Pat, who had to deliver mail despite the fact that he
dislikes getting wet. In rainy weather there were obviously numerous prob-
lems to be encountered ...)
Postman Pat delivered mail in Rounding-off Street where houses were only
built on round numbers (10, 20, 30, etc.). When he came to where house num-
ber 16 should have been it started raining. Due to learners’ prior knowledge of
Pat who does not like getting wet as well as their assumptions of counting for-
wards to nearest 10, they will “prompt” him to run to the house at number 20.
This is then confirmed by the teacher. The activating event happens when Pat
stops at 14 and it starts to rain. Instead of running forward as assumed by
learners, Pat turns round and runs to the house at number 10. When the edu-
cator agrees to this “solution”, conflicting viewpoints result. Learners are
simultaneously confused and intrigued by this disorientating occurrence.
Motivated by this dilemma, learners are ready to be set up for failure. The
educator repeats the Postman Pat scenario with random numbers between 11
and 19 (except 15). As the learners observe the scenarios, they consolidate that
their concept of “counting forward to the nearest ten” cannot always be applied
to predict Postman Pat’s destination. They start to realise that a new
approach is needed: sometimes the nearest 10 implies counting backwards!
To reinforce the concept of 5 always being rounded off to next 10, use a prac-
tical demonstration: choose 2 Postman Pats with similar athletic ability. The
one is to run forward to the “next 10” and the other one has to turn around
first and then run towards the previous 10. Learners will grasp why Postman
Pat cannot waste time by first turning around and only then start running.
or applicable copyright law.

300

8.9.3 Enrichment
During enrichment, the content that is used to attain the concepts and skills
of a speciﬁc grade are expanded (quantitative as well as qualitative, i.e. more
and more difﬁcult content). The following example taken from the PISA 2003
Assessment Framework, illustrates how an ordinary class assignment at a
Grade 3 level, can be expanded to stimulate the acquisition of mathematising
skills for more advanced learners.

GRADE 3: 3-D OBJECTS

Crafty Susan
Small cube
Susan likes to build blocks from small cubes like the one shown in the
Small cube
diagram alongside: Small cube

Susan has lots of small cubes like this one. She uses glue to join
cubes together to make other blocks.

First, Susan glues eight of the cubes together to make the block
shown in Diagram A:

Diagram A
Diagram A
Then Susan makes the solid blocks shown in Diagram B and Diagram C below:
Diagram A

Diagram B Diagram C
Diagram B Diagram C Source: OECD (2003)
Diagram B Diagram C

1. How many small cubes will Susan need to make a block as in Diagram A?
_____
2. How many small cubes will Susan need to make a block as in Diagram B?
_____
3. How many small cubes will Susan need to make a block as in Diagram C?
_____
or applicable copyright law.

Expand above-mentioned questions as follows for the more abled learner:

4. Susan realises that she used more small cubes than she really needed to 301
make a block like the one shown in diagram C. She also realises that she
could have glued small cubes together to look like the block in Diagram C, but
the block could have been hollow.

What is the minimum number of cubes she needs to make a block that looks
like the one shown in Diagram C, but hollow?_______
5. Now Susan wants to make a block that looks like the solid block, but is 6
small cubes long, 5 small cubes wide and 4 small cubes high. She wants to
use the smallest number of cubes possible, by leaving the largest possible
hollow space inside the block.

What is the minimum number of cubes that she will need? _________

8.9.4 use of technology as “TEACHnology”

For many learners, mathematics produces feelings of dread and anxiety. In
our classrooms, learners fear being humiliated if they don’t know how to solve
a problem or perhaps come up with the wrong answer. They feel pressured by
their teachers, peers, and time constraints.
Using technology to reinforce maths skills removes these barriers and
helps learners find their comfort zone. Do remember that they are in general
familiar with technology – unlike many adults! So, it makes sense to turn to
technology as an educational tool, especially when learners are experiencing
difficulties.
It is common for learners to have trouble or need extra practice before fully
conceptualising a lesson, especially with maths. Maths lessons follow a pro-
gression, so if the learners do not have a solid understanding of the basics, or if
they don’t quite grasp a concept, they may have difficulty later. It is important
to try and identify trouble areas as early as possible in order to reinforce con-
cepts and skills by making use of technology, especially in the form of games.
The best way to eliminate maths anxiety is to present assignments in a
non-threatening way. If teachers should find their learners feeling defeated
before even opening a maths book, try turning to technology to help them con-
quer their maths fears. Frequently, computers can open doors in ways that
textbooks will never be able to. And since computers have endless patience,
they promote a can-do attitude instead of resistance.
Technology brings the material to life, making use of powerful visual and
sound effects to create an interactive learning experience. Characters are
colourful and activities are fun-filled. The aspect of winning is not overpower-
ing and always subordinate to “having fun”. For example, learners can learn
fractions and decimals at Grade 4 level as Frank and his pizzeria employees
or applicable copyright law.

guide them through “Frank’s Fraction Pizzeria” (www.time4learning.com). Or

try out Detective X where learners can learn all about symmetry, translations
and rotations at Math Playground (www.mathplayground.com).
302 The entertaining voices and visuals bring maths to life, sparking learners’
curiosity and imagination. Furthermore, learners can learn and practise by
means of adapted popular games, e.g. Monopoly, Pacman, racing games and
many more (www.arcademicskillbuilders.com). This reduces fear of maths

even more, as the learners are already familiar with the game skills and are
confident that they will be able to convert these game skills to mathematics
skills.
It is possible, that no matter how we as teachers try, our learners will still
not believe that maths is fun. Maths is usually believed to be fun only for the
learners who are good at it. However by rewarding and encouraging learners
for their efforts through engaging in computer/online games, math phobias
that are born out of a lack of confidence, can be overcome. Daily encourage-
ment and enthusiasm will be remembered and leave a lasting impression on
the learners.
Is there a single best website for maths? This will remain a matter of per-
sonal opinion. The author has, however, searched far and wide to find the best
sites that are free, child safe, contain limited advertising and provide excel-
lent content and games that will keep learners’ attention and provide for their
need for fun as well as empowerment.
A favourite site is Math Playground (www.mathplayground.com). It is
designed for learners up to the senior phase (and even beyond) and has fea-
tures learners will enjoy and from which they will really learn. It offers
games, help and activities from basic computation practice to learning pro-
gramming.
Here are a few examples:
• How to do (almost anything) in math
• Logic games
• Math at the Mall: shopping game
• Word problem games
• Timez Attack: a excellent game to master multiplication
• Collaborative math projects
• Printable worksheets

Math Playground is a highly rated and safe site for children. Apart from this
site, the following sites have a wide variety of activities, but maths is always
included. Also, as learners’ skills develop and advance, different sites will suit
their needs.

FUNBRAIN (www.funbrain.com)

This is a Maths Arcade – 25 maths games including Ball Hogs, Mummy Hunt,
Bumble Numbers. Register on your ﬁrst visit and pick up where you left off
next time!
or applicable copyright law.

APPLES 4 THE TEACHER (www.apples4theteacher.com)

This is an extensive collection of free educational math games and online les- 303
sons. There are maths lessons and activities on counting backwards, counting
in 2s, 5s, and 10s, number sense games, telling time with interactive clocks
and many more ...

COOL MATH 4 KIDS (www.coolmath4kids.com)

It contains maths games, fun lessons, puzzles and brain benders, ﬂash cards,
a maths dictionary, fractions, geometry as well as a preschoolers section.

SUPERKIDS (www.superkids.com)

Your own maths worksheets can be created here.

CYBERCHASE | PBS KIDS (www.pbskids.org/cyberchase)

Various games and activities are included as is a guide for parents.

PRONGO (www.prongo.com)

Prongo.com has fun, interactive, educational games. Maths games and puz-
zles are organised by age range. There is, however, advertising present on
this site.

IKNOWTHAT (www.iknowthat.com)

This site includes more than just maths, such as parent and teacher forums,
interactive games organised by subject and grade level from preschool
through to Senior School phase.

8.10 conclusion
Many learners’ self-esteem is shattered due to their reoccurring failure in
mathematics. It can be expected and understood: which people can handle
failure after failure every day and still keep up their self-conﬁdence? The feel-
ing of being a failure and being different from everyone else is extremely com-
mon in people who repeatedly experience failure without ever having the
opportunity to overcome it. Almost every day in school and in almost every
subject learners are forced to apply their mathematical thinking. When you
see mathematics this way, it can be understood why many learners give up
altogether.
On the other hand, there is no other school subject to which society assigns
more importance than maths. Even if learners perform well in other subjects,
their self-perceived “failure” in maths can get them thinking and sometimes
also asking: “Why can’t I do this maths? Why am I not as good as my friends?
Maybe I’m just really stupid!”
This experience is devastating to the self-esteem and if it continues
or applicable copyright law.

unchecked, can eventually impact the entire experience of childhood. It can

destroy a child’s school years and the effects thereof can certainly spill over
into adulthood.
304 But there are also people who, in their adulthood, confess how the input of
speciﬁc teacher/teachers assisted and motivated them to overcome their barri-
ers. As their teachers believed in them, they slowly started believing in them-
selves as well. They won back their self-esteem, and many experienced, for

the very ﬁrst time, inspiration and enthusiasm for the subject. They found
themselves thinking: “Maths isn’t too bad after all! It’s actually fun! Now I
ﬁnally understand the use of mathematics.”
Are you willing to be such a mathematics teacher?
If you are not yet convinced, do take a few minutes to page to Addendum B
of this chapter. Take cognisance of how the measuring concepts are integrated
with the concepts of doubling and halving. As to create an authentic maths
experience, the context of Mathematics in the kitchen is used. Furthermore,
learners manipulate the ingredients of a fudge recipe, which further con-
tributes to maths being experienced as meaningful.
As to demonstrate the integration between teaching, learning and assess-
ment, learner outcomes are recorded on more than one level. (Refer to the
multilevel rubric.) These differentiated outcomes are also communicated to
parents and other stakeholders by means of a differentiated report card
(snapshots included).

SUMMARISING ACTIVITY

Chipatwali is a Grade 3 learner. Her class received the following assignment:

––22 22
22 ––22 20
20

++55 ++55

÷÷22 ––77 ÷÷22 1010 ––77 1717

++77 66 ++77 90
90

1010 ××66 ++40

40 1010 ××66 50
50 ++40
40

Start
Start Start
Start
here
here here
here

The second picture depicts the way in which Chipatwali completed it. Study her
answers as to determine the area(s) of need. Also study the following relevant
background information:
Chipatwali is an eight-year-old girl who has been enrolled at school for the ﬁrst
time. She has been placed together with her peer group in Grade 3 in a main-
stream setting. The language of learning and teaching is English.
or applicable copyright law.

Chipatwali was born in Malawi. Her home language used to be Chechewa. During
her preschool years, she lost both parents due to HIV and AIDS-related diseases.
She ended up at a missionary station that used to be run by her current guardian,
305
the Reverend Longman. At the missionary station she was home-schooled in
English by Emily, the wife of Reverend Longman. Although resources were not
readily available and learning material had to be prepared by Emily who did not
have any teaching experience, it soon became evident that Chipatwali was a

highly motivated learner with very promising learning potential. When the mis-
sionary and his family had to be evacuated at the end of last year, the Longmans
returned to Johannesburg and brought Chipatwali with them as she has been
raised as their own child for the previous three years.
During the ﬁrst term, Chipatwali struggled to adapt socially, emotionally and
academically to the new educational environment. However, towards the middle
of the year she started to make friends and she is currently (in the third term)
happy and well adapted. Although her learning potential is noted by all teachers,
there are major backlogs, which have not be fully dealt with yet.
Design a stepped support programme for Chipatwali – starting at the relevant
areas of need on a Grade 2 level. Also take all contextual factors into account –
not only risk factors, but also enabling factors.
Your support programme must not only state the different milestones (steps) to
support, but also the relevant intervention methods/strategies.

GLOSSARY

Amanuensis refers to the practice where a types of mathematical skills or completing

person (the scribe) reads the questions to a mathematical tasks if left to figure things
candidate and writes down the candidate’s out by themselves or if taught in convention-
spoken words verbatim. A learner is consid- al ways.
ered for amanuensis when his or her writ- Mathematical learning disability, also
ing ability prevents him or her from giving referred to as dyscalculia, is a maths disabil-
a true portrayal of his or her knowledge ity that can cause difficulties such as learn-
and/or competence. ing maths concepts (e.g. quantity, place
Direct instruction in mathematics value and time), difficulty memorising
involves an instructional approach to math- maths facts, difficulty organising numbers,
ematics that emphasises the use of careful- and understanding numbers. These learners
ly sequenced steps that include demonstra- are often referred to as having poor “number
tion, modelling and practice by means of sense/concept”.
worked examples. Planning aid refers to the practice when cer-
Epistemological beliefs are an individual’s tain candidates, especially those who may
fundamental assumptions about the nature become disorientated during
of knowledge and learning. assessment/examinations (thereby prevent-
Individual identity is the sum of an indi- ing them from answering the question paper
vidual’s (the learner’s) knowledge and to the best of their ability) are assisted by
understanding of his or her self. the invigilator. The invigilator is allowed to
Mathematical learning difficulty is when structure the paper and time allocation per
question for these learners.
or applicable copyright law.

a person has difﬁculty learning in a typical

manner: often due to the brain’s inability to Somatic complaints are those that have no
receive and process information related to medical explanation. They generally consist
mathematics in a neurotypical manner. of gastrointestinal problems, nausea, vomit-
306 This difficulty can make it problematic for ing, colitis, migraines, headaches, back
a person to learn maths as quickly or in the aches and skin disorders. It is thought that
same way as someone who isn’t affected by these problems, although real to the suffer-
a learning difficulty. People with a learning er, may be brought on by stress or emotional
difficulty have trouble performing specific factors.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adler, B. 2001. What is dyscalculia? Available ment Policy Statement (CAPS). Mathemat-
at: http://www.dyscalculiainfo.org (accessed ics (Intermediate Phase). Pretoria.
on 15 August 2011). Donald, D., Lazarus, S. & Lolwana, P. 2006.
Aikens, N.L. & Barbarin, O. 2008. Socioeco- Educational psychology in social context, 3rd
nomic differences in reading trajectories: ed. Cape Town: Oxford University Press
the contribution of family, neigborhood and Southern Africa.
school contexts. Journal of Educational Government Gazette. 2010, 2 August. Call for
Psychology, 100, 235–251. comments on Action Plan to 2014: Towards
Balakrishnan, C. 2000. Teaching Secondary the Realisation of Schooling 2025. Available
School Mathematics. Burnaby, BC, Cana- at: http://www.education.gov.za (accessed on
da: Simon Fraser University. July 13, 2011).
Barnes, H. & Venter, E. 2008, December. Gorman, J. 1999. Understanding children’s
Mathematics as a social construct: teaching hearts and minds: emotional functioning
Mathematics in Context. Pythagoras, 3–14. and learning disabilities. Teaching Excep-
Barnes, H. 2005, June. The theory of realistic tional Children, 31(3): 72.
Mathematics education as a theoretical Gravenmeijer, K. 1994. Developing realistic
framework for teaching low attainers in Mathematics education. Utrecht: Freuden-
Mathematics. Pythagoras, 42–57. thal Institute.
Chick, H. & Vincent, J. (Eds). 2005. Using Lerner, J. & Kline, F. 2005. Learning disabili-
theory to advance our understandings of ties and related disorders: characteristics
student cognitive development. Proceedings and teaching strategies, 10th ed. Boston:
of the 29th Conference of the International Houghton Mifﬂin Co.
Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Morgan, P.L., Farkas, G., Hildemeier, M.M. &
Education, Melbourne, 187–192. Maczuga, S. 2009. Risk factors for learning
Chick, H. & Vincent, J. (Eds). 2005. Trends in related behaviour problems at 24 months of
the evolution of models and modeling per- age: population-based estimates. Journal of
spectives on mathematical learning and Abnormal Child Psychology, 37: 401–413.
problem solving. Proceedings of the 29th Neubrand, M. 2001. Deutsche PISA-Experten-
Conference of the International Group for gruppe Mathematik: Grundlagen der
the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Ergänzung des internationalen PISA-Math-
Melbourne, 192–196. ematik-Tests in der deutschen Zusatzerhe-
Coley, R. 2002. An uneven start: indicators of bung. Zentralblatt für Didaktik der Mathe-
inequality in school readiness. Princetown: matik, 33(2): 45–59.
NJ: Educational Testing Service. Niss, M. 1999. Mathematical competencies and
Dada, F., Dipholo, T., Hoadley, U., Khemba, the learning of mathematics: the Danish
E., Muller, S. & Volmink, J. 2009. Report of Kom project. Available at:
the task team for the review of the imple- http://w3.msi.vxu.se/users/hso/aaa_niss.pdf
mentation of the National Curriculum (accessed on 15 October 2011). Denmark:
Statement. Pretoria: Department of Educa- IMFUFA, Roskilde University.
tion, 45, 49. OECD. 2003. Measuring student knowledge
Dengate, B. & Lerman, S. 1995. Learning and skills: a new framework for assessment.
theory in Mathematics Education: using a Paris, France, 1999: OECD, Programme for
wide angle lens and not just the micro- International Student Assessment (PISA),
scope. Mathematics Education Research 1–104.
Journal, 7(1): 26–36. Sale, D. 2006. The emerging science of learn-
or applicable copyright law.

DBE. 2009. National Early Learning and ing: demystifying highly effective teaching.
Development Standards for children from Available at:
birth to four years. Pretoria. http//www.earcos.dennissale.com (accessed
DBE. 2011, June. Report on the Annual on 15 July 2010). 307
National Assessments of 2011. Pretoria.
DBE. 2011, January. Curriculum and Assess-

• back
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(EBSCOhost) - printedof conTenTs
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308
308p

1. Topic: Whole numbers

Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

Account: s7738294
P A R T 2 PRACTICE

Counting (num- 1–10 1–100 1–200 1–1000 1–10 000 1–10 000 Also in decimals
ber range)

Orders and com- 1–10 1–20 1–100 1–999 to 4-digit num- to 6-digit num- to 9-digit num-
pares and (no place value) (place value: bers bers bers
understand 11–20)
place value

Written calcula- No written calcu- + and – and + and – up to + and – up to + and – up to + and – up to + and – up to 6-

EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost)

tions and prob- lations; repeated addi- 100; 999; 9999; 99 999; digits and more
lem solving informal verbal tion: ¥: 2-digit by 1- ¥: 2-digit by 1- ¥: 2-digit by 2- ¥: 3-digit by 2- ¥: 4-digit by 3-
problem solving up to 20 digit < 100; digit numbers; digit numbers; digit numbers; digit numbers;

• back- To
÷: 1-digit by 1- ÷: 2-digit num- ÷: 3-digit by 1- ÷: 3-digit by 2- ÷: 4-digit by 3-

printed
digit numbers bers by 1-digit digit numbers digit numbers digit numbers
numbers

Table
Mental maths none + and –: answers +, – and ¥: +, – and ¥ +: add +: add + and –: as previ-
in domain 0–20 answers in answers in 1-digit to 3-digit 1-digit to 3-digit ous, but also:
Addendum A to Chapter 8

on 7/10/2019
(with domain 0–20 domain 0–50 numbers numbers 147–=28
concrete appara- –: subtract 1- –: subtract 2- ¥: to 12¥12;
tus if necessary) digit from digit from ÷: divisibility

Foundation, Intermediate and Senior Phase Teachers of Language and Mathematics

3-digit numbers 4-digit numbers rules for:
¥: to 10¥10 ¥: to 10¥10; 2, 5, 10, 100 and

of conTenTs
naTIonal cURRIcUlUM oUTcoMes PeR GRaDe

÷: reciprocal ÷: reciprocal 1000

relationship relationship
A. Content area: Numbers, operations and relationships

between ¥ and ÷ between ¥ and ÷

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2. Topic: Fractions
Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6
000p

Account: s7738294
and grouping up sharing and quarters: sixths, quarters and eights. twelfths (including other: tenths to hun-
to 10 that grouping up to 10 Problem solving: thirds mixed fraction) dreds
Problem solving as
includes remain- that includes + and – of mixed frac-
equal sharing and Problem solving: equal sharing with Calculate fractions of
ders. remainders. tions. Also in problem
grouping with equal sharing and remainders expressed whole numbers
solving.
whole numbers grouping with whole as unitary fractions. (resulting in whole
that may lead to numbers that may numbers).

EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection

unitary fractions lead to remainders as Problem solving with
(up to 20). unitary fractions
common fractions.

• back
(up to 50).

(EBSCOhost)
Decimal frac- n/a n/a n/a n/a In context of measure- In context of measure- Compare decimals to
tions ment compare and ment compare and at least 2 decimal
describe 0,5; 1,5; 2,5 describe 0,5; 1,5; 2,5 places
etc. etc. + and – of positive

To Table
Problem solving Problem solving decimals with at least

- printedof
including decimals. including decimals. two decimal places.
Problem solving
including decimals.

on 7/10/2019
Equivalent n/a n/a n/a n/a Recognising and Recognising and Recognising and
forms using equivalent using equivalent using equivalent

conTenTs
forms (denominators forms (denominators forms of common

Foundation, Intermediate and Senior Phase Teachers of Language and Mathematics

which are multiples of which are multiples of fractions with 1/2-digit
each other). each other). denominators.
Recognising and Recognising and Equivalent forms of
using equivalent form using equivalent form decimal fractions to at
of decimal fraction: of decimal fraction: least two decimal
0,5; 1,5; 2,5 etc.– in 0,5; 1,5; 2,5 etc.– in places.
context of measure- context of measure-
Equivalent forms of
ment. ment.
percentages.

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310
000p

3. Topic: Financial maths

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Account: s7738294
P A R T 2 PRACTICE

Financial maths / No formal out- ID SA coins and ID SA coins and ID SA coins and Buying and selling Buying and selling Buying and selling
money comes banknotes banknotes banknotes in number range in number range in number range to
0–9 999 0–99 999 9-digits
Solve money prob- Solve money prob- Solve money prob-
lems in number lems in number lems in number Simple budgets Simple budgets Simple budgets
range 0–20 and range 0–100 and range 0–999 and Profit and loss Profit and loss
change in either R change in either R change in either R Reading and inter-
or c. or c. or c. As well as con- preting accounts
verting between R Calculating discount
and c.

EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost)

• back- To
4. Topics: ratio and rate;

printed
5. Multiples and factors and
6. Properties of rational numbers

Table
Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

on 7/10/2019
Ratio and rate n/a n/a n/a n/a Comparing two or more quan- Comparing two or more quan- Comparing two or more quantities of the
tities of the same kind (ratio) tities of the same kind (ratio) same kind (ratio)
Comparing two quantities of Comparing two quantities of Comparing two quantities of different

Foundation, Intermediate and Senior Phase Teachers of Language and Mathematics

different kinds (rate) in above- different kinds (rate) in above- kinds (rate) in above-mentioned number
mentioned number range mentioned number range range

of conTenTs
Multiples and n/a n/a n/a n/a Multiples of 1-digit numbers to Multiples of 2-digit whole Multiples of 2⁄3-digit whole numbers;
factors at least 100 numbers to at least 100; Fac- Factors of 2⁄3-digit whole numbers to at
tors of 2-digit whole numbers least 100.
to at least 100.
Prime factors of numbers to at least 100.

Properties of n/a n/a n/a n/a Commutative, associative and Commutative, associative and Commutative, associative and distributive

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rational num- distributive properties of whole distributive properties of properties of whole numbers in above-
bers numbers in above-mentioned whole numbers in above-men- mentioned number range TAT
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number range tioned number range properties of 0 and 1
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or applicable copyright law.

B. Content area: Patterns, functions and algebra

Topics: 1. Numeric and geometric patterns
000p

Topics: 2. Input and output values

Account: s7738294
Topics: 3. Number sentences

Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

EBSCO Publishing : eBook

Collection
objects and draw- objects and draw- drawings. drawings. describe observed own words. words.
ings. ings. relationships or
Copy and extend sim- Copy and extend sim- Describe generated

• back
rules in own words.
Create new pat- Copy and extend ple number ple number rules.
terns. simple number sequences to 200. sequences to 1000.

(EBSCOhost)
sequences to 100.
Create new patterns. Create new patterns.
Create new pat-
Describe observed Describe observed
terns.
patterns ID, describe patterns ID, describe

To Table
Describe observed and copy geometric and copy geometric

- printedof
patterns. patterns in natural and patterns in natural
cultural artefacts. and cultural artefacts.

Input and n/a n/a n/a n/a Determine output Determine output Determine output val-

on 7/10/2019
output values values for given values for given ues for given input val-
input values using input values using ues, or input values for

conTenTs
verbal description verbal description given output values

Foundation, Intermediate and Senior Phase Teachers of Language and Mathematics

5:00 AM
and flow diagrams. and flow diagrams. using verbal descrip-
tion, flow diagrams and
tables.

Number sen- n/a n/a n/a n/a Write number sen- Write number sen- Write number sen-
tences tences to describe tences to describe tences to describe
problem situations. problem situations. problem situations.
Solve and complete Solve and complete Solve and complete
number sentences number sentences number sentences by:

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312
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Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

Account: s7738294
• inspection • inspection • inspection
• trial and improvement • trial and improvement • trial and improvement
P A R T 2 PRACTICE

• substitution. • substitution. • substitution.

Determine equivalents of Determine equivalents of Determine equivalents of dif-
different descriptions of different descriptions of ferent descriptions of same
same relationship or rule same relationship or rule relationship or rule presented:
presented: presented: • verbally
• verbally • verbally • in flow diagrams
• in flow diagrams • in flow diagrams • by number sentence
• by number sentence. • by number sentence. • tables.

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• back- To printed
Table
on 7/10/2019

Foundation, Intermediate and Senior Phase Teachers of Language and Mathematics

of conTenTs
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or applicable copyright law.

C. Content area: Space and shape (geometry)

000p
Topics: 1. 2-D shapes and 3-D objects Topics: 3. Viewing of objects (Intermediate Phase only)
Topics: 2. Transformations (Intermediate Phase only) Topics: 4. Position and movement (Intermediate Phase only)

Account: s7738294
Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

EBSCO Publishing : eBook

Collection
balls). pictures: pictures: pictures: ronment forms and geometric forms and geometric
Describes, sorts and • triangles, rectan- • triangles, rectan- • triangles, rectan- • rectangular prism setting: setting:
compares physical gles, and circles gles, squares and gles, squares and • spheres • similarities/differ- • similarities/differ-

• back
3-D objects accord- • prisms and circles circles • cylinders ences between ences between
ing to: spheres. • prisms, cylinders • prisms, cylinders, • pyramids cubes and rectan- tetrahedrons, and

(EBSCOhost)
• size and spheres. cones, pyramids • circles gular prisms other pyramids
Describes, sorts and
• objects that roll and spheres. • (polygons) • similarities/differ- similarities/differ-
compares physical Describes, sorts and
• objects that slide. (up to 6-sided fig- ences between ences between
2-D shapes and 3-D compares physical Describes, sorts and

To Table
ures). squares and rec- paralellograms
Builds 3-D objects objects according to: 2-D shapes and 3-D compares physical
Draw 2-D shapes on tangles and rectangles

- printedof
using concrete • size objects (pictures and 2-D shapes and 3-D
grid paper. • (polygons) • (polygons)
materials. • objects that environment) objects (pictures and
Describes, sorts and (up to 7-sided fig- (up to 8-sided fig-
roll/slide according to: environment):
compares 2-D ures). ures).
• shapes that have • size • 2-D shapes in the

on 7/10/2019
straight or round • objects that faces of 3-D shapes and 3-D Draw 2-D shapes on
edges. roll/slide objects objects in terms of: grid paper. Describes, sorts and
compares 2-D

conTenTs
• shapes that have • flat/straight and • shapes of faces Describes, sorts and

Foundation, Intermediate and Senior Phase Teachers of Language and Mathematics

5:00 AM
Observes and builds shapes and 3-D
straight or round round/curved sur- • flat and curved compares 2-D
given 3-D objects objects in terms of:
edges. faces and edges. surfaces shapes and 3-D
using concrete • faces
• straight and objects in terms of:
materials. Observes and builds Observes and cre- • vertices
curved sides • shapes of faces
given 2-D shapes ates given and • edges
• number of sides • number of faces
and 3-D objects described 2-D • length of sides
• length of sides. • number of sides
using concrete shapes and 3-D • size of angles.
materials. Makes 3-D models • length of sides.
objects using con-
crete materials. using cut-out poly-
gons.

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314
000p

Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

Account: s7738294
Makes 3-D models Makes 3-D models
using cut out poly- using:
P A R T 2 PRACTICE

gons. • drinking straws to

make a skeleton
• nets.
Draw shapes on grid
paper.

EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection

Draws circles, pat-
terns in circles and
patterns with circles
using a pair of com-

(EBSCOhost)
passes.

• back- To
Transformations Recognises symme- Recognises symme- Recognises sym- Determines lines of Recognises, draws Recognises, draws Recognises, draws
try in own body and try in own body and metry in 2-D symmetry in 2-D and describes line of and describes line of and describes line of

printed
environmental environmental shapes and 3-D shapes and uses symmetry in 2-D symmetry in 2-D symmetry in 2-D
objects – focus on objects – focus on objects. paper folding and shapes. shapes. shapes.

Table
front and back. front and back; left reflection. Making 2-D shapes. Use geometric fig- Draw enlargement
and right. 3-D objects and pat- ures and solids to and reductions of 2-

on 7/10/2019
terns using: perform: D shapes to com-
• tesselations • rotations (turns) pare size and shape
• line symmetry. • reflections (flips) of:

Foundation, Intermediate and Senior Phase Teachers of Language and Mathematics

• translations • triangles
(slides) • quadrilaterals.

of conTenTs
Making 2-D shapes.
3-D objects and pat-
terns using:
• tesselations

5:00 AM via CORNERSTONE

• line symmetry
• rotational symme-
try

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• reflections TAT
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Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

Viewing of Describe one 3-D- Describe one 3-D- Recognises 3-D Recognises 3-D Viewing of objects in Viewing of objects in Viewing of objects in
000p

objects object in relation to object in relation to objects from differ- objects from differ- different positions. different positions. different positions.
another (e.g. front another (e.g. front ent positions. ent positions.

Account: s7738294
or behind). or behind; to the
left/right).

EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection

3-D objects in rela- each other. an arrangement of • maps. Tracing a path Describe how to
tion to each other. 3-D objects and
Describes positional between position. move between the

• back
relationships locates objects on positions on the
between self, peer the map. grid.

(EBSCOhost)
and 3-D objects. Describes positional
relationships
between self, peer

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and 3-D objects.

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conTenTs

Foundation, Intermediate and Senior Phase Teachers of Language and Mathematics

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316
000p

D. Content area: measurement

Topics: 1. Length, mass and capacity

Account: s7738294
Topics: 4. Perimeter, surface area and volume
P A R T 2 PRACTICE

Topics: 2. Time Topics: 5. Classiﬁcation of angles

Topics: 3. Temperature

Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection

(EBSCOhost)
etc. measures: hand measures: hand desk lengths, metres). and 3-D objects
sures and trundle sures and trundle
spans, footsteps). spans, footsteps). • Approximate distance using SI- units (mm,
wheels. wheels.
between 2-D shapes cm, m and km) to

• back- To
using string; area of 2- Conversion between Conversion between precision.

printed
D shapes using tiling. mm, cm, m and km. mm, cm, m and km.

Mass Describes objects Estimates, com- Estimates, com- Estimates, compares, Units: g and kg. Units: g and kg. Estimates, meas-

Table
in terms of: pares, orders, meas- pares, orders, meas- orders, measures 3-D Measuring instru- Measuring instru- ures, records and
light, heavy, heav- ures 3-D objects ures 3-D objects objects (non-standard ments: measuring ments: measuring orders 3-D objects

on 7/10/2019
ier, etc. (non-standard (non-standard and standard measures: jugs, kitchen scales jugs, kitchen scales using SI-units, using
measures: brick, measures: brick, kg packets). and balances. and balances. g and kg (conver-
sandbags, etc.). sandbags, etc.). sion as well).
Conversions Conversions

Foundation, Intermediate and Senior Phase Teachers of Language and Mathematics

between g and kg. between g and kg.

of conTenTs
Capacity Describe objects Estimates, com- Estimates, com- Estimates, compares, Using ml and l (as Using ml and l (as Measuring instru-
in terms of: pares, orders capac- pares, orders capac- orders according to well as conver- well as conver- ments: measuring
empty, full, less ity, measures capacity, measures capac- capacity. Measures sions). Measuring sions). jugs.
than, more than, ity of 3-D objects ity of 3-D objects capacity of 3-D objects instruments: meas-

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Using ml and l (as
etc. (non-standard (non-standard (non-standard and stan- uring jugs. well as conver-
measures: spoons, measures: spoons, dard measures: litres, sions).
cups, etc.). cups, etc.). bottles, etc.).

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000p

Account: s7738294
events in own daily early, late, morning, Names in order: hours, quarters of in terms of: in terms of: in terms of:
life. afternoon, night. days of week and hours and minutes. • Seconds • Seconds • Seconds
• Minutes • Minutes • Minutes

EBSCO Publishing : eBook

Sequences events Compares events months of the year. Solves problems involv-
• Hours. • Hours. • Hours.
within one day. i.t.o. duration: Calculates elapsed ing calculation with and
longer, shorter, time in: conversion between: Measuring instru- Measuring instru- Conversions
faster, slower. • Hours and min- • minutes ← → hours ments: watches and ments: watches and between time units:

Collection
• hours ← clocks. stop watches. As previous plus
Sequences events utes using clocks → days
• days ← time zones.
using language such • Days, weeks and → months. Conversions Conversions

• back
as yesterday, today months using cal- ID important dates on between time units: between time units:
and tomorrow. endars. calendars, including seconds, minutes, as previous plus

(EBSCOhost)
dates of: hours, days, weeks, decades, centuries
Places birthdays on Sequences events
Religious festivals, his- months, years. and millennia.
calendar. according to days,
weeks, months and torical events. Solves problems Solves problems

To Table
years. Recognises and involving time. involving time.
describes different cal-

- printedof
ID important dates
on calendars, endars used in different
including dates of: cultures.
learner birthdays,

on 7/10/2019
religious festivals,
historical events.

conTenTs

Foundation, Intermediate and Senior Phase Teachers of Language and Mathematics

5:00 AM
Temperature n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Units: °C Units: °C
Measuring instru- Measuring instru-
ments: ments:
Thermometers. Thermometers.
Solve real-life prob- Solve real-life prob-
lems involving tem- lems involving tem-
perature. perature.

TAT
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8

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318
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Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

Account: s7738294
Perimeter, sur- n/a n/a n/a n/a Investigates perimeter Investigates perimeter Investigates perimeter using
face area and using rulers or measur- using rulers or measur- rulers or measuring tapes:
P A R T 2 PRACTICE

volume ing tapes: ing tapes: • Areas of polygons using

• Areas of polygons • Areas of polygons square grids to develop the
using square grids and using square grids and rules for calculating the
tiling to develop the tiling to develop the area of squares and rectan-
concept of square concept of square gles
units units • Volume and capacity of 3-D
• Volume and capacity • Volume and capacity objects to develop the rules
of 3-D objects to of 3-D objects to for calculating the area of
develop the concept of develop the concept of squares and rectangles.

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cubic units cubic units Relationship between perime-

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• Solves real-life prob- • Solves real-life prob- ter and area of rectangles and
lems involving perime- lems involving perime- squares.

printed
ter, surface area and ter, surface area and Relationship between surface
volume. volume. area, volume and dimensions

Table
of rectangular prisms.
Solves real-life problems

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involving perimeter, surface
area and volume.

Foundation, Intermediate and Senior Phase Teachers of Language and Mathematics

Classification of n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Recognises and Recognises and describes
angles describes right angles in right angles in 2-D shapes, 3-

of conTenTs
2-D shapes, 3-D objects D objects and the environ-
and the environment. ment in terms of:
• Right angles
• Angles < 90 °
• Angles > 90 °.

E. Content Area: Data Handling

Topics: Interpreting data
000p
Topics: Collecting data
Topics: Organising, recording and summarising data Topics: Probability

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Topics: Displaying data

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Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6
Collecting Collects physical Collects physical Collects physical Collects physical Poses questions Poses questions about Poses questions about
data objects in environ- objects in environ- objects in environ- objects in environ- about own and own and family and own and family and
ment according to ment according to ment according to ment according to family and school school environment. school environment.

Collection
stated features. stated features. stated features. stated features. environment. Identifies appropriate Identifies appropriate data
Identifies appropri- data sources.

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sources. Uses simple data
ate data sources.
Makes and uses simple collection sheets (requir-
Collects data to data collection sheets ing tally marks) and sim-

(EBSCOhost)
answer questions. that involve counting ple questionnaires
objects to answer (yes/no responses) to
questions. answer questions.

To Table
Collects data to answer Collects data to answer

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summarising to a single proper- to a single proper- a single property, supplied data by ½ • tally marks. • tally marks • tally marks
data ty. ty, chosen for a chosen by teacher. properties for a • tables. • tables.

conTenTs
reason. particular reason.

Foundation, Intermediate and Senior Phase Teachers of Language and Mathematics

5:00 AM
Gives reasons for Examines ungrouped Distinguishes between
Gives reasons for collections being numerical data to samples and population.
collections being grouped in particu- determine the mode. Examines ungrouped
grouped in particular ways. numerical data to deter-
lar ways. mine the mode and the
median.

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8

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320
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Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

Displaying Draws a pic- Draws a picture as Draws pictures Draws pictures Draws a variety of Draws a variety of graphs to Draws a variety of graphs to

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data ture as record of collected and constructs and constructs graphs to display display and interpret data display and interpret data
P A R T 2 PRACTICE

record of col- object. pictographs pictographs and and interpret data including: including:
lected object. that have a 1-1 bar graphs that including: • pictographs • pictographs
Constructs pic-
correspondence have a 1-1 corre- • pictographs (many-to-one correspon- (many-to-one correspon-
tographs where stick-
between own spondence (1-1 correspondence) dence)
ers/stamps represent
data and repre- between own data dence) • bar graphs. • bar graphs.
individual elements in
sentations. and representa- • bar graphs.
a collection of objects.
tions.

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based on explains how it was tion of objects, info in own and sented in a variety of variety of ways to draw con- ways to draw conclusions and
own-picture sorted and answers explains how it peers’ representa- ways to draw conclu- clusions and make predic- make predictions sensitive to

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or own-sort- questions about it. was sorted and tions of data. sions and make pre- tions sensitive to the role the role of:
ed objects. answers ques- dictions sensitive to of: • Context

printed
Reads and inter-
tions about it. the role of: • Context • Categories within the data
prets data pre-
sented in simple • Context • Categories within the data • Other human rights issues.

Table
tables and lists. • Other human • Other human rights
rights issues. issues.

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Probability Compares and clas- Compares and classifies Predicts the likelihood of events
sifies events as events on scale from: based on observation and
• certain that they • certain that they will hap- places them on a scale from:

Foundation, Intermediate and Senior Phase Teachers of Language and Mathematics

will happen pen • impossible
• certain that they to to

of conTenTs
will NOT happen • certain that they will NOT • certain.
• uncertain. happen. List possible outcomes for sim-
Counting the number List possible outcomes for ple experiments:
of possible outcomes simple experiments: • tossing a coin
for simple trials. • tossing a coin • rolling a die
• rolling a die • spinning a spinner.
• spinning a spinner.

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Counting the frequency of actu-
Counting the frequency of al outcomes for a series of tri- TAT
actual outcomes for a series als.
RO E
VIE

of trials.
W

Source: Adapted from DBE (2011), January. Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS). Mathematics (Intermediate Phase).
SUPPORTING LEARNERS IN A C Q U I R I N G T H E S K I L L O F M A T H E M A T I S A T I O N 8
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Addendum B to Chapter 8
an exaMPle of a GRaDe 5 MUlTIlevel MaTHeMaTIcs lesson
multilevel lesson for formal assessment purposes

Content: Select Select Recipe for • 3 × 200g packets

Maths core content: teaching uncooked Marie biscuits
Numbers, Operations and doubling material e.g. fudge • 1 packet (500g)
Relationships: Doubling & and halving d/h in the Ingredients: icing sugar
halving of 1, 2, 3-digit kitchen mass using • 1 block (500g)
numbers g and kg melted margerine
Mass and capacity: capacity • 1 tin (300g) caramel
g, kg; l and ml using treat
(converting ml and l • 2 teaspoons (10ml)
between units) vanilla essence

Planning the Revise Design Ab gr 1: no modification

process: ability differentiated Ingredients in ml and l, g and kg.
Planning grouping assessment Double and halve the recipe. Check answers by
learner (Ab gr) tasks/ × 2 and ÷ 2
PLANNING

activities/ assignments
assessment for each Ab gr 2: unwinding with ASS
tasks group Ingredients only in g and ml.
Double and halve the recipe.

Ab gr 3: straddling to gr 3 numbers, operations and relationships: doubling and halving of 1 and 2-digit
numbers.
Measurement: Estimate measure, compare and order 3-D objects using non-standard and standard
measures: a) Mass, e.g. packets b) Capacity, e.g. bottles.
Learners use non-standard units only and by using drawings or contrete objects, they also double and halve
the ingredients. Also attempt continuous doubling.

Planning the Design Rubric – Refer to example and

assessment keeping the focus of the explanation of Rubric on
process: differentiated assignments following page.
Planning in mind. Assess values
formal and attitudes as well.
assessment

40% 20% 20% 20%

Split into ability groupings.

Teach the Discuss possible Give feedback Completes

core content method by which to teacher. assessment
(concept of fudge will be Teacher explains task.
doubling made. assessment task.
TEACHING

and halving) Completes

to the Receives assessment Carry on with assessment.
or applicable copyright law.

whole class. task. If necessary assessment task. Teacher support

learner from group 1 to individual
explains the assignment. learners.
321
Teacher support: Assessment task. Completes
In order to master assessment
concept of task.
doubling/halving.

ASSESS MATHEMATICS ASSESSMENT TASK 3 GRADE 5

PRODUCT
ACCORDING Name of learner: Date:
TO THE Numbers, Operations and Relationships: doubling and halving Topic:
ASSESSMENT Measurement: mass and capacity in the kitchen
CRITERIA AS
STATED IN Assessment criteria 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
RUBRIC
ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING OUTCOMES

• learner is able to differentiate between capacity and

mass by describing when to use appropriate units
All ability groups

• learner demonstrates the ability to use l instead of

ml for larger capacities
• learner demonstrates the ability to use kg instead
of g for bigger masses
• learner masters the concept of halving
• learner masters the concept of doubling
Ability group 2

• learner can master appropriate doubling operations

• learner can master appropriate halving operations
only with g and ml, no conversion yet
Ability group 1

• learner can master appropriate doubling operations

• learner can master appropriate halving operations
• learner is able to convert between SI units g and kg
• learner is able to check answers by doing appropriate
alternataive operations

Ability group 3: Mastering of doubling and halving,

Grade
capacityand mass units – l, ml, g and kg
3
Doubling & halving of 1 & 2-digit numbers. level
Measurement: mass & capacity: non-standard units

Record assessment Rating Achievement description Marks

outcomes in the format code %
as prescribed in
RECORDING

7 Outstanding Achievement 80–100

National Protocol for
Assessment: 6 Meritorious Achievement 70–79
Grades R–12
5 Substantial Achievement 60–69
4 Adequate Achievement 50–59
3 Moderate Achievement 40–49
2 Elementary Achievement 30–39
1 Not Achieved 0–29
or applicable copyright law.

Formal reporting at least once a term.

REPORTING

• Suggested format to be found in National Protocol for Refer to next section for examples
Assessment: Grades R–12 of report cards.
• Schools may use own format
• Not advisable to use LOs and Assessment Standards in
reports to parents – rather use core curriculum as headings.

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Index

A C
accommodations 61 classroom rotations 127
examples 61–62 classroom support 59
adaptations 61 Cognitive Academic Language Proficien-
cy (CALP) 110–111
examples 61–62
communication 239
addition 279, 288
comparing 237
argumentation 239 comprehension 96
articulation 86 constructivism 232, 233
assessment 48 constructivist theory 29
cyclic process 49–51 content area 266
diagnostic 52 numbers, operations and relationships
in context 194, 200, 205, 210 266
methods of 51 cooperative learning groups 297
benefits 297–298
types of 49
curriculum differentiation 60
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) 21
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
D
(ADHD) 21
auditory analysis 145 differentiated instruction 126
differentiated learning activities and
auditory blending 146, 150
assessment 131
support 150
differentiation 59, 132
auditory discrimination 145 implementing in the classroom 124
support 148 problems of 121–123
auditory figure-ground 146 questions about 136–137
auditory impairments 17 rationale 118–120
auditory memory 146 role of the teacher 124–125
auditory synthesis 145 strategies for differentiation 126
autism 19–20 direct instruction 232
direct teaching 27
Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) 20
directionality 161
district-based support teams (DBST) 57
B
functions 57, 58
barriers to learning 15, 48 roles 58
or applicable copyright law.

extrinsic barriers 15 division 285, 290

intrinsic barriers 15–19 Down’s syndrome 18
326 Basic Interpersonal Communication dyscalculia 252
Skills (BICS) 110, 111
behaviour 172 E
Bloom’s Taxonomy 65, 67 English second-language (ESL) learners

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INDEX

110 roles 58
enrichment 301 intellectually impaired 18
epilepsy 18 intelligences 36–38
extrinsic barriers 15 intervention 259
within the home, family and communi- starting point 259, 262–263
ty environment 257 intervention tools 260
within the school and classroom envi- intrinsic barriers 16, 245, 246
ronment 256 dyscalculia 252
eye-hand coordination 160 emotional immaturity 247
giftedness 255
F identifying learners 245
factorising 289 maths anxiety 250
financial mathematics 292 right-brain hemisphere dominance
fine motor skills 159 253
fluency 94
fractions 290 L
language 31, 79, 174
g content 82
Gardner, Howard 36 elements of 81
gross motor skills 159 expressive language 80, 176
Guidelines for Full-Service/Inclusive figurative 83
Schools 58 form 81
forms of 80
H literal 83
handwriting 109 oral language 87
health 16 receptive language 80, 174
use 82
I written language 103
inclusive education 4–5 language and literacy assessment 171
global agenda 6 observation portfolio 172–190
in South Africa 6 language development 83
medical model 9, 14 12–18 months 84
socioecological model 9 27–46 months 84
South African documents 8 learning stage 85
theoretical grounding 9 prelinguistic stage 83
individual education plan (IEP) 68 language proficiency 110
assessment stage 69 levels 110–111
lateral dominance 161
or applicable copyright law.

IEP meeting 69
referral stage 68 laterality 160
individualised support plan (ISP) 135 learning 25
institutional-level support team(ILST) mediated learning 30 327
56, 57 styles 34
composition 56 theories 26, 28
functions 57, 58 learning challenges 40

learning disabilities (LD) 42 o

causes 42 oral language 86–87
characteristics 43 teacher’s role in development 88–89
learning problems 41
ordering 237
categories 41–42
learning styles 34–38 P
types of 35
patterns, space and shape, measurement
learning styles vs cognitive styles 34 and data handling 292
learning support 55
peer tutoring 129–130
DBSTs 57
perception 143
ILSTs 56
auditory perception 143
process 55
definition 143
support teams 56
related to motor abilities 144, 159
learning theories 26
visual perception 143
behavioural theory 26
cognitive theory 28 perceptual barriers 293
neobehaviourism theory 28 perceptual difficulties 144
left brain vs right brain 254 auditory perception 145
listening comprehension 194–200 guidelines to deal with 162
error analysis 198–200 identification 146
support 146, 148
m visual perception 154
matching 236 person characteristics 14
mathematical literacy 236 phonemic awareness 90
premaths concepts 236–237 phonics 91
skills to be taught 238–240 phonological awareness 109, 149
mathematics 232 stages 109
and real-life scenarios 241–242 phonology 81
barriers to teaching 234 physical impairment 19
extrinsic barriers 256 pragmatics 82
games 279–281, 284, 290, 299, 302
problem posing and solving 239
intrinsic barriers 245
problem solving 295–296
support programme 264–265
products of learning 66–67
websites 302–304
psycholinguistics 144
modelling 239
morphology 81 r
multiple intelligences 36
reader 90
multiplication 282, 289
aspects to become an adequate reader
N 90
or applicable copyright law.

reading 89, 177

National Commission on Special Needs
in Education and Training comprehension 204
(NCSNET) 7, 15 error analysis 203–204
328 National Committee on Education Sup- ideas for learning support 203–204
port Services (NCESS) 7, 15 levels of reading 192
national curriculum outcomes 308 oral or silent 200
number concept 237, 277–278 reading behaviour 191

analysing the record of 191–192 syntax 82

reading development 99 systems of child development 12
reading difficulties 178 chronosystem 12
auditory processing 178–180 exosystem 12
comprehension 183 macrosystem 12
phonological awareness 178 mesosystem 12
spatial 182 microsystem 12
visual memory 181–182
reading in the class 100 T
ways of reading 100–101 teacher tips 21, 200, 201, 209, 212, 214
reading level 101 teaching phonics 218
reading process 97 teaching styles 40
cycles 98–99 technology as “TEACHnology” 302
representation 240 theories 9–11
reversals 155 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
theory 11
S
constructivist theory 11
Salamanca Statement 6, 118 thinking and reasoning 187–190, 238
scaffolding 31, 63–64, 131 time 14
Screening, Identification, Assessment
and Support (SIAS) Strategy 57 u
purpose of strategy 74 United Educational Scientific and Cul-
stages of SIAS 74–75 tural Organisation (UNESCO) 6
semantics 82 universal design for learning (UDL) 60
social constructivism 31
use of aids and tools 240
socioeconomic status (SES) 258
sorting 237 V
spatial perception 160
visual closure 158
speaking 206
visual impairments 17
error analysis 209
visual memory 157
narratives 206
games 157
vocabulary 207–208
vocabulary 95
spelling 106–107, 186
Vygotsky 11, 31
spelling development 108
spelling difficulties 186 W
auditory 186
White Paper 6 7, 118
visual 186–187
principles 7
storytelling 299
strategies 7
subitising 237
subtraction 279, 288 whole-class teaching 128
or applicable copyright law.

support strategies 277, 295 word recognition 93

prevent/alleviate general barriers 297, writing 102, 183–185, 210–211
299, 301 ideas for teaching 105–106
problem solving 295 strategies 213–214 329
supporting mental maths 278 writing development 103
supporting number concepts 277 written work 193
supporting written calculations 287 assessment 193

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8.4
ure
Fig-
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Figure 8.4 An example from a Grade 6 Mathematics workbook

Source: DoE (2011). Mathematics workbook 2 (Grade 6: Term 3, Week 1).

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A. Content area: Numbers, operations and relationships
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1. Topic: Whole numbers

Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

Counting (num- 1–10 1–100 1–200 1–1000 1–10 000 1–10 000 Also in decimals
ber range)

Orders and com- 1–10 1–20 1–100 1–999 to 4-digit num- to 6-digit num- to 9-digit num-
pares and (no place value) (place value: bers bers bers
understand 11–20)
place value

Written calcula- No written calcu- + and – and + and – up to + and – up to + and – up to + and – up to + and – up to 6-
tions and prob- lations; repeated addi- 100; 999; 9999; 99 999; digits and more
lem solving informal verbal tion: ¥: 2-digit by 1- ¥: 2-digit by 1- ¥: 2-digit by 2- ¥: 3-digit by 2- ¥: 4-digit by 3-
problem solving up to 20 digit < 100; digit numbers; digit numbers; digit numbers; digit numbers;
÷: 1-digit by 1- ÷: 2-digit num- ÷: 3-digit by 1- ÷: 3-digit by 2- ÷: 4-digit by 3-
digit numbers bers by 1-digit digit numbers digit numbers digit numbers
numbers

Mental maths none + and –: answers +, – and ¥: +, – and ¥ +: add +: add + and –: as previ-
in domain 0–20 answers in answers in 1-digit to 3-digit 1-digit to 3-digit ous, but also:
(with domain 0–20 domain 0–50 numbers numbers 147–=28
concrete appara- –: subtract 1- –: subtract 2- ¥: to 12¥12;
tus if necessary) digit from digit from ÷: divisibility
3-digit numbers 4-digit numbers rules for:
permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

¥: to 10¥10 ¥: to 10¥10; 2, 5, 10, 100 and

÷: reciprocal ÷: reciprocal 1000
relationship relationship
between ¥ and ÷ between ¥ and ÷

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2. Topic: Fractions
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Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

Common frac- Informal problem Informal problem Order and com- Order and compare + and – (same + and – (same + and – denominators:
tions solving: sharing solving: pare halves and halves, eighths, denominators) up to denominators) up to multiples of each
and grouping up sharing and quarters: sixths, quarters and eights. twelfths (including other: tenths to hun-
to 10 that grouping up to 10 Problem solving: thirds mixed fraction) dreds
Problem solving as
includes remain- that includes + and – of mixed frac-
equal sharing and Problem solving: equal sharing with Calculate fractions of
ders. remainders. tions. Also in problem
grouping with equal sharing and remainders expressed whole numbers
solving.
whole numbers grouping with whole as unitary fractions. (resulting in whole
that may lead to numbers that may numbers).
unitary fractions lead to remainders as Problem solving with
(up to 20). unitary fractions
common fractions.
(up to 50).

Decimal frac- n/a n/a n/a n/a In context of measure- In context of measure- Compare decimals to
tions ment compare and ment compare and at least 2 decimal
describe 0,5; 1,5; 2,5 describe 0,5; 1,5; 2,5 places
etc. etc. + and – of positive
Problem solving Problem solving decimals with at least
including decimals. including decimals. two decimal places.
Problem solving
including decimals.

Equivalent n/a n/a n/a n/a Recognising and Recognising and Recognising and
forms using equivalent using equivalent using equivalent
forms (denominators forms (denominators forms of common
which are multiples of which are multiples of fractions with 1/2-digit
permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

each other). each other). denominators.

Recognising and Recognising and Equivalent forms of
using equivalent form using equivalent form decimal fractions to at
of decimal fraction: of decimal fraction: least two decimal
0,5; 1,5; 2,5 etc.– in 0,5; 1,5; 2,5 etc.– in places.
context of measure- context of measure-
Equivalent forms of
ment. ment.
percentages.

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3. Topic: Financial maths

Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

4. Topics: ratio and rate;

5. Multiples and factors and
6. Properties of rational numbers

Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

Ratio and rate n/a n/a n/a n/a Comparing two or more quan- Comparing two or more quan- Comparing two or more quantities of the
tities of the same kind (ratio) tities of the same kind (ratio) same kind (ratio)
Comparing two quantities of Comparing two quantities of Comparing two quantities of different
different kinds (rate) in above- different kinds (rate) in above- kinds (rate) in above-mentioned number
permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

mentioned number range mentioned number range range

Multiples and n/a n/a n/a n/a Multiples of 1-digit numbers to Multiples of 2-digit whole Multiples of 2⁄3-digit whole numbers;
factors at least 100 numbers to at least 100; Fac- Factors of 2⁄3-digit whole numbers to at
tors of 2-digit whole numbers least 100.
to at least 100.
Prime factors of numbers to at least 100.

Properties of n/a n/a n/a n/a Commutative, associative and Commutative, associative and Commutative, associative and distributive
rational num- distributive properties of whole distributive properties of properties of whole numbers in above-
bers numbers in above-mentioned whole numbers in above-men- mentioned number range
number range tioned number range properties of 0 and 1

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B. Content area: Patterns, functions and algebra
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Topics: 1. Numeric and geometric patterns

Topics: 2. Input and output values
Topics: 3. Number sentences

Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

Numeric and Copy and extend Copy and extend Copy and extend sim- Copy and extend sim- Now also look for Observed relation- Observed relationships
geometric simple patterns simple patterns ple patterns using ple patterns using relationships or ships or rules of pat- or rules of patterns
patterns using physical using physical physical objects and physical objects and rules of patterns and terns described in described in own
objects and draw- objects and draw- drawings. drawings. describe observed own words. words.
ings. ings. relationships or
Copy and extend sim- Copy and extend sim- Describe generated
rules in own words.
Create new pat- Copy and extend ple number ple number rules.
terns. simple number sequences to 200. sequences to 1000.
sequences to 100.
Create new patterns. Create new patterns.
Create new pat-
Describe observed Describe observed
terns.
patterns ID, describe patterns ID, describe
Describe observed and copy geometric and copy geometric
patterns. patterns in natural and patterns in natural
cultural artefacts. and cultural artefacts.

Input and n/a n/a n/a n/a Determine output Determine output Determine output val-
output values values for given values for given ues for given input val-
input values using input values using ues, or input values for
verbal description verbal description given output values
and flow diagrams. and flow diagrams. using verbal descrip-
permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

tion, flow diagrams and

tables.

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Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

• inspection • inspection • inspection
• trial and improvement • trial and improvement • trial and improvement
• substitution. • substitution. • substitution.
Determine equivalents of Determine equivalents of Determine equivalents of dif-
different descriptions of different descriptions of ferent descriptions of same
same relationship or rule same relationship or rule relationship or rule presented:
presented: presented: • verbally
• verbally • verbally • in flow diagrams
• in flow diagrams • in flow diagrams • by number sentence
• by number sentence. • by number sentence. • tables.
permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

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C. Content area: Space and shape (geometry)
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Topics: 1. 2-D shapes and 3-D objects Topics: 3. Viewing of objects (Intermediate Phase only)
Topics: 2. Transformations (Intermediate Phase only) Topics: 4. Position and movement (Intermediate Phase only)

Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

2-D shapes and Recognises and Recognises and Recognises and Recognises and Recognises names, Recognises and Recognises and
3-D objects names 3-D objects names 2-D shapes names 2-D shapes names 2-D shapes visualises 2-D names 2-D shapes names 2-D shapes
in classroom and on and 3-D objects in and 3-D objects in and 3-D objects in shapes and 3-D and 3-D objects in and 3-D objects in
pictures (boxes and classroom and on classroom and on classroom and on objects in the envi- natural and cultural natural and cultural
balls). pictures: pictures: pictures: ronment forms and geometric forms and geometric
Describes, sorts and • triangles, rectan- • triangles, rectan- • triangles, rectan- • rectangular prism setting: setting:
compares physical gles, and circles gles, squares and gles, squares and • spheres • similarities/differ- • similarities/differ-
3-D objects accord- • prisms and circles circles • cylinders ences between ences between
ing to: spheres. • prisms, cylinders • prisms, cylinders, • pyramids cubes and rectan- tetrahedrons, and
• size and spheres. cones, pyramids • circles gular prisms other pyramids
Describes, sorts and
• objects that roll and spheres. • (polygons) • similarities/differ- similarities/differ-
compares physical Describes, sorts and
• objects that slide. (up to 6-sided fig- ences between ences between
2-D shapes and 3-D compares physical Describes, sorts and
ures). squares and rec- paralellograms
Builds 3-D objects objects according to: 2-D shapes and 3-D compares physical
Draw 2-D shapes on tangles and rectangles
using concrete • size objects (pictures and 2-D shapes and 3-D
grid paper. • (polygons) • (polygons)
materials. • objects that environment) objects (pictures and
Describes, sorts and (up to 7-sided fig- (up to 8-sided fig-
roll/slide according to: environment):
compares 2-D ures). ures).
• shapes that have • size • 2-D shapes in the
straight or round • objects that faces of 3-D shapes and 3-D Draw 2-D shapes on
edges. roll/slide objects objects in terms of: grid paper. Describes, sorts and
• shapes that have • flat/straight and • shapes of faces Describes, sorts and compares 2-D
Observes and builds shapes and 3-D
straight or round round/curved sur- • flat and curved compares 2-D
permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

given 3-D objects objects in terms of:

edges. faces and edges. surfaces shapes and 3-D
using concrete • faces
• straight and objects in terms of:
materials. Observes and builds Observes and cre- • vertices
curved sides • shapes of faces
given 2-D shapes ates given and • edges
• number of sides • number of faces
and 3-D objects described 2-D • length of sides
• length of sides. • number of sides
using concrete shapes and 3-D • size of angles.
materials. Makes 3-D models • length of sides.
objects using con-
crete materials. using cut-out poly-
gons.
{

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Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

Makes 3-D models Makes 3-D models
using cut out poly- using:
gons. • drinking straws to
make a skeleton
• nets.
Draw shapes on grid
paper.
Draws circles, pat-
terns in circles and
patterns with circles
using a pair of com-
passes.

Transformations Recognises symme- Recognises symme- Recognises sym- Determines lines of Recognises, draws Recognises, draws Recognises, draws
try in own body and try in own body and metry in 2-D symmetry in 2-D and describes line of and describes line of and describes line of
environmental environmental shapes and 3-D shapes and uses symmetry in 2-D symmetry in 2-D symmetry in 2-D
objects – focus on objects – focus on objects. paper folding and shapes. shapes. shapes.
front and back. front and back; left reflection. Making 2-D shapes. Use geometric fig- Draw enlargement
and right. 3-D objects and pat- ures and solids to and reductions of 2-
terns using: perform: D shapes to com-
• tesselations • rotations (turns) pare size and shape
• line symmetry. • reflections (flips) of:
• translations • triangles
permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

(slides) • quadrilaterals.
Making 2-D shapes.
3-D objects and pat-
terns using:
• tesselations
• line symmetry
• rotational symme-
try
• rotations
• reflections
• translation.
{

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Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6
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Viewing of Describe one 3-D- Describe one 3-D- Recognises 3-D Recognises 3-D Viewing of objects in Viewing of objects in Viewing of objects in
objects object in relation to object in relation to objects from differ- objects from differ- different positions. different positions. different positions.
another (e.g. front another (e.g. front ent positions. ent positions.
or behind). or behind; to the
left/right).

Position and Follows directions to Follows directions to Positions self within Reads, interprets Locate position on Locate position on Locate position on
movement move/place self move/place self the classroom; or and draws informal • labelled (coded) • labelled (coded) • labelled (coded)
within the class- within the class- place/move 3-D maps of the school grid grid grid
room. room; or place/move objects in relation to environment or of • column and row • maps. • maps.
3-D objects in rela- each other. an arrangement of • maps. Tracing a path Describe how to
tion to each other. 3-D objects and
Describes positional between position. move between the
relationships locates objects on positions on the
between self, peer the map. grid.
and 3-D objects. Describes positional
relationships
between self, peer
and 3-D objects.
permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

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D. Content area: measurement

Topics: 1. Length, mass and capacity Topics: 4. Perimeter, surface area and volume
Topics: 2. Time Topics: 5. Classiﬁcation of angles
Topics: 3. Temperature

Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

Length Describes objects Estimates, com- Estimates, com- Estimates, compares, Units: mm, cm, m Units: mm, cm, m As before.
in terms of: pares, orders, meas- pares, orders, meas- orders, measures 3-D and km. and km. Estimates, meas-
longer, shorter, ures 3-D objects ures 3-D objects objects (non-standard ures, records and
Using rulers, metre Using rulers, metre
wider, tall, short, (non-standard (non-standard and standard measures: orders 2-D shapes
sticks, tape ,mea- sticks, tape ,mea-
etc. measures: hand measures: hand desk lengths, metres). and 3-D objects
sures and trundle sures and trundle
spans, footsteps). spans, footsteps). • Approximate distance using SI- units (mm,
wheels. wheels.
between 2-D shapes cm, m and km) to
using string; area of 2- Conversion between Conversion between precision.
D shapes using tiling. mm, cm, m and km. mm, cm, m and km.

Mass Describes objects Estimates, com- Estimates, com- Estimates, compares, Units: g and kg. Units: g and kg. Estimates, meas-
in terms of: pares, orders, meas- pares, orders, meas- orders, measures 3-D Measuring instru- Measuring instru- ures, records and
light, heavy, heav- ures 3-D objects ures 3-D objects objects (non-standard ments: measuring ments: measuring orders 3-D objects
ier, etc. (non-standard (non-standard and standard measures: jugs, kitchen scales jugs, kitchen scales using SI-units, using
measures: brick, measures: brick, kg packets). and balances. and balances. g and kg (conver-
sandbags, etc.). sandbags, etc.). sion as well).
Conversions Conversions
between g and kg. between g and kg.
permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Capacity Describe objects Estimates, com- Estimates, com- Estimates, compares, Using ml and l (as Using ml and l (as Measuring instru-
in terms of: pares, orders capac- pares, orders capac- orders according to well as conver- well as conver- ments: measuring
empty, full, less ity, measures capacity, measures capac- capacity. Measures sions). Measuring sions). jugs.
than, more than, ity of 3-D objects ity of 3-D objects capacity of 3-D objects instruments: meas- Using ml and l (as
etc. (non-standard (non-standard (non-standard and stan- uring jugs. well as conver-
measures: spoons, measures: spoons, dard measures: litres, sions).
cups, etc.). cups, etc.). bottles, etc.).
{

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Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6
Copyright © 2013. Van Schaik Publishers. All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses

Time Describes time i.t.o. Describes time of Reads analogue Reads and writes ana- Reads, tells and Reads, tells and Reads, tells and
day/night. day, using vocab. time in hours and logue and digital time in writes analogue, writes analogue, writes analogue,
Orders recurring such as minutes. terms of hours, half digital and 24-h time digital and 24-h time digital and 24-h time
events in own daily early, late, morning, Names in order: hours, quarters of in terms of: in terms of: in terms of:
life. afternoon, night. days of week and hours and minutes. • Seconds • Seconds • Seconds
• Minutes • Minutes • Minutes
Sequences events Compares events months of the year. Solves problems involv-
• Hours. • Hours. • Hours.
within one day. i.t.o. duration: Calculates elapsed ing calculation with and
longer, shorter, time in: conversion between: Measuring instru- Measuring instru- Conversions
faster, slower. • Hours and min- • minutes ← → hours ments: watches and ments: watches and between time units:
• hours ←→ days clocks. stop watches. As previous plus
Sequences events utes using clocks
• days ←→ months. time zones.
using language such • Days, weeks and Conversions Conversions
as yesterday, today months using cal- ID important dates on between time units: between time units:
and tomorrow. endars. calendars, including seconds, minutes, as previous plus
dates of: hours, days, weeks, decades, centuries
Places birthdays on Sequences events
Religious festivals, his- months, years. and millennia.
calendar. according to days,
weeks, months and torical events. Solves problems Solves problems
years. Recognises and involving time. involving time.
ID important dates describes different cal-
on calendars, endars used in different
including dates of: cultures.
learner birthdays,
religious festivals,
historical events.

Temperature n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Units: °C Units: °C

permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Measuring instru- Measuring instru-

ments: ments:
Thermometers. Thermometers.
Solve real-life prob- Solve real-life prob-
lems involving tem- lems involving tem-
perature. perature.
{

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Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

Perimeter, sur- n/a n/a n/a n/a Investigates perimeter Investigates perimeter Investigates perimeter using
face area and using rulers or measur- using rulers or measur- rulers or measuring tapes:
volume ing tapes: ing tapes: • Areas of polygons using
• Areas of polygons • Areas of polygons square grids to develop the
using square grids and using square grids and rules for calculating the
tiling to develop the tiling to develop the area of squares and rectan-
concept of square concept of square gles
units units • Volume and capacity of 3-D
• Volume and capacity • Volume and capacity objects to develop the rules
of 3-D objects to of 3-D objects to for calculating the area of
develop the concept of develop the concept of squares and rectangles.
cubic units cubic units Relationship between perime-
• Solves real-life prob- • Solves real-life prob- ter and area of rectangles and
lems involving perime- lems involving perime- squares.
ter, surface area and ter, surface area and Relationship between surface
volume. volume. area, volume and dimensions
of rectangular prisms.
Solves real-life problems
involving perimeter, surface
area and volume.

Classification of n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Recognises and Recognises and describes
permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

angles describes right angles in right angles in 2-D shapes, 3-

2-D shapes, 3-D objects D objects and the environ-
and the environment. ment in terms of:
• Right angles
• Angles < 90 °
• Angles > 90 °.

Topics: Collecting data Topics: Interpreting data

Topics: Organising, recording and summarising data Topics: Probability
Topics: Displaying data

Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

Collecting Collects physical Collects physical Collects physical Collects physical Poses questions Poses questions about Poses questions about
data objects in environ- objects in environ- objects in environ- objects in environ- about own and own and family and own and family and
ment according to ment according to ment according to ment according to family and school school environment. school environment.
stated features. stated features. stated features. stated features. environment. Identifies appropriate Identifies appropriate data
Identifies appropri- data sources. sources. Uses simple data
ate data sources.
Makes and uses simple collection sheets (requir-
Collects data to data collection sheets ing tally marks) and sim-
answer questions. that involve counting ple questionnaires
objects to answer (yes/no responses) to
questions. answer questions.
Collects data to answer Collects data to answer
questions. questions.

Organising, Sorts physical Sorts physical Sorts physical Sorts, orders and Records data Organises and records Organises and records
recording and objects according objects according objects according to organises own and using: data using: data using:
summarising to a single proper- to a single proper- a single property, supplied data by ½ • tally marks. • tally marks • tally marks
data ty. ty, chosen for a chosen by teacher. properties for a • tables. • tables.
reason. particular reason.
Gives reasons for Examines ungrouped Distinguishes between
permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Gives reasons for collections being numerical data to samples and population.
collections being grouped in particu- determine the mode. Examines ungrouped
grouped in particular ways. numerical data to deter-
lar ways. mine the mode and the
median.
{

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Gr. R Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 4 Gr. 5 Gr. 6

Displaying Draws a pic- Draws a picture as Draws pictures Draws pictures Draws a variety of Draws a variety of graphs to Draws a variety of graphs to
data ture as record of collected and constructs and constructs graphs to display display and interpret data display and interpret data
record of col- object. pictographs pictographs and and interpret data including: including:
lected object. that have a 1-1 bar graphs that including: • pictographs • pictographs
Constructs pic-
correspondence have a 1-1 corre- • pictographs (many-to-one correspon- (many-to-one correspon-
tographs where stick-
between own spondence (1-1 correspondence) dence)
ers/stamps represent
data and repre- between own data dence) • bar graphs. • bar graphs.
individual elements in
sentations. and representa- • bar graphs.
a collection of objects.
tions.

Interpreting Answers Describes own collec- Describes own Reads, interprets Critically reads and Critically reads and inter- Critically reads and interprets
data questions tion of objects, or peers’ collec- and reports on interprets data pre- prets data presented in a data presented in a variety of
based on explains how it was tion of objects, info in own and sented in a variety of variety of ways to draw con- ways to draw conclusions and
own-picture sorted and answers explains how it peers’ representa- ways to draw conclu- clusions and make predic- make predictions sensitive to
or own-sort- questions about it. was sorted and tions of data. sions and make pre- tions sensitive to the role the role of:
ed objects. answers ques- dictions sensitive to of: • Context
Reads and inter-
tions about it. the role of: • Context • Categories within the data
prets data pre-
sented in simple • Context • Categories within the data • Other human rights issues.
tables and lists. • Other human • Other human rights
rights issues. issues.

Probability Compares and clas- Compares and classifies Predicts the likelihood of events
sifies events as events on scale from: based on observation and
• certain that they • certain that they will hap- places them on a scale from:
will happen pen • impossible
permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

• certain that they to to

will NOT happen • certain that they will NOT • certain.
• uncertain. happen. List possible outcomes for sim-
Counting the number List possible outcomes for ple experiments:
of possible outcomes simple experiments: • tossing a coin
for simple trials. • tossing a coin • rolling a die
• rolling a die • spinning a spinner.
• spinning a spinner.
Counting the frequency of actu-
Counting the frequency of al outcomes for a series of tri-
actual outcomes for a series als.
of trials.

Source: Adapted from DBE (2011), January. Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS). Mathematics (Intermediate Phase).

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