A N A LY SI S OF ST RU CTU

RES-I
A N A LY SI S OF ST RU CTU
RES-I
1. Trusses
 Trusses

• A framework composed of members joined at their ends to form a structure is

called a truss.
• Truss is used for supporting moving or stationary load. Bridges, roof supports,
derricks, and other such structures are common example of trusses.
• When the members of the truss lie essentially in a single plane, the truss is
called a plane truss .
• In plane trusses loads act in the plane of the truss only. Roof trusses and bridge
trusses can be considered as plane trusses.
• If all the members of a truss do not lie in a single plane, then it is called a space
truss. Tripod and transmission towers are the examples of space trusses.
 Trusses
• Perfect, Deficient and Redundant Trusses
A pinjointed truss which has got just sufficient number of members to resist the
loads without undergoing appreciable deformation in shape is called a perfect
truss.
Triangular truss is the simplest perfect truss and it has three joints and three
members (Fig. 3.1). Perfect trusses with four and five joints are shown in Figs. 3.2
and 3.3 respectively.
• Fig. 3.1 shows most basic triangular truss. Members are connected by pin-joints,
which arrest translation but not rotation. Each member has three degrees of
freedom in a plane, two translations and one rotation. Total degrees of freedom
are 9. Each pin joint arrests two degree of freedom. Hence, degrees of freedom of
pin-joint connected structure is 3. For keeping the structure stationary, these three
degrees of freedom should be arrested. In the figure, left fixed support arrests two
degrees of freedom, whereas in the right, the roller support arrests one degree of
freedom. Thus the structure cannot move and the structure is called stable. This
type of structure is also called rigid structure .
 Trusses (Cont…)

Fig 3.1: A 3-member truss

 Trusses (Cont…)

Consider a 4-member structure as shown in Fig. 3.2. This type of structure is called
non-rigid. Under the application of loads, the structure can adopt various
configurations.
Degree of freedom of this structure is one. This because, each member has 3 degrees
of freedom. So total degree of freedom is 12. Four pin joints arrest 2 degrees of
freedom. In addition, left and right supports arrest 2 and 1 degrees of freedom,
respectively. Hence, total degrees of freedom: 12-8-3=1. This is called mechanism

Fig 3.2: 4-member structure

 Trusses (Cont…)
• It may be observed that to increase one joint in a perfect truss, two more
members are required. Hence the following expression may be written down as
the relationship between number of joints j, and the number of members m, in a
perfect truss.
m = 2j – 3
• However, the above equation gives only a necessary, but not a sufficient
condition of a perfect truss. For example, the two trusses shown in Fig. 3.5(a)
and (b) have the same number of members and joints. The truss shown in Fig.
3.5(a) is perfect whereas the one shown in Fig. 3.5(b) is not capable of retaining
its shape if loaded at the joint marked 6. Therefore, the only necessary and
sufficient condition of a perfect truss is that it should retain its shape when load
is applied at any joint in any direction.

Fig.3.5
 Trusses (Cont…)
• A truss is said to be deficient if the number of members in it are less than that
required for a perfect truss. Such trusses cannot retain their shape when loaded.
A deficient truss is shown in Fig. 3.6. A truss is said to be redundant if the
number of members in it are more than that required in a perfect truss. Such
trusses cannot be analysed by making use of the equations of equilibrium alone.
Thus, a redundant truss is statically indeterminate. Each extra member adds one
degree of indeterminacy. For the analysis of such members the consistency of
deformations is to be considered. The truss shown in the Fig. 3.7 is a typical
redundant truss. In this truss one diagonal member in each panel is extra. Hence
it is a two-degree redundant truss.

Fig. 3.6 Fig. 3.7

 Trusses (Cont…)
• Another way to prove this relation is as follows. In 2-dimensional space, the
equilibrium of each joint is specified by three scalar force equations. There are in
total 2j such equations for a plane truss with j joints. For the entire truss
composed of m members, there are m unknowns (tensile or compressive forces in
the member) plus 3 unknown support reactions in the general case of statically
determinate plane truss. Thus, for any plane truss, the equation m+3=2j will be
satisfied, if the truss is statically determinate internally.
• An important point to be noted: A member of the truss is a two force member.
Hence, the forces are collinear. A member of the truss is either in tension or
compression.
 Trusses (Cont…)
Some standard trusses
• Following figure shows 4 types of trusses: (a) Warren truss (b) Pratt truss (c)
Howe truss (d) K-truss

Warren Truss

Howe Truss
 Trusses (Cont…)

Ideal truss structure has only pin-

joints. When welded or riveted
connections are used to join structural
Pratt Truss members, we may usually assume that
the connection is a pin joint if the
centerlines of the members are
concurrent at the joint.

K-Truss

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 Trusses (Cont…)
• Assumptions
• The following assumptions are made:
(1) The ends of the members are pin-connected (hinged);
(2) The loads act only at the joints;
(3) Self-weights of the members are negligible;
(4) Cross-section of the members is uniform.

• If at allthe cross-section varies, the centre of gravity ofthe section is

assumed to be located along the same longitudinal line.
• In reality the members are connected by bolting, riveting or by welding. No
special care is taken to ensure perfect pin-connections. However, experiments
have shown that assuming pin-connected ends is quite satisfactory since the
members used are slender.

.
 Trusses (Cont…)

• Nature of Forces in Members

The members of a truss are subjected to either tensile or compressive forces. A
typical truss ABCDE loaded at joint E is shown in Fig. 3.8(a). The member BC
is subjected to compressive force C as shown in Fig. 3.8(b). Effect of this force
on the joint B (or C) is equal and opposite to the force C as shown in Fig.
3.8(b).

Fig. 3.8(a)
 Trusses (Cont…)
• Nature of Forces in Members
The member AE is subjected to tensile force T. Its effect on the joints A and E
are as shown in Fig. 3.8(b). In the analysis of frame we mark the forces on the
joints, instead of the forces in the members as shown in Fig. 3.8(c). It may be
noted that compressive force in a member is represented in a figure by two
arrows going away from each other and a tensile force by two arrows coming
towards each other. This is quite logical considering the fact that the markings on
the members represent the internal reactive forces developed which are
opposite in direction to the applied forces.

Fig. 3.8(b) Fig. 3.8(c)

 Trusses (Cont…)
Methods of Analysis

The following three methods are available for the analysis of pin-connected
frames:

• Method of joints
• Method of section
• Graphical method (Maxwell’s Diagrams)

The first two are analytical methods and are mostly used.
 Trusses (Cont…)
Method of Joints
• At each joint the forces in the members meeting at the joint and the loads at the
joint, if any, constitute a system of concurrent forces.
• Hence, two independent equations of equilibrium can be formed about each joint.
• For starting analysis, a joint is selected where there are only two unknown
forces.
• Many a time such a joint can be identified only after finding the reaction at the
support by considering the entire frame.
• Then making use of the two equations of equilibrium for the system of forces
acting at the joint those two unknown forces are found.
• Then the next joint is selected for analysis where there are now only two
unknown forces. Thus, the analysis proceeds from joint to joint to find the forces
in all the members.
 Trusses (Cont…)
• Let us start with joint C. Equilibrium at joint C Applying Lami's
theorem.

• Joint B has three unknown force. So we select joint D, which has only
two unknown forces .

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Determine the forces in all the members of the truss shown in Fig. 3.9(a) and
indicate the magnitude and nature of forces on the diagram of the truss. All inclined
members are at 60° to horizontal and length of each member is 2 m.
Trusses (Cont…)

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 Trusses (Cont…)

• Now joint E has 3 unknown and joint B has two unknown now we select joint
B.

• Resolving the forces in vertical dedication

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 Trusses (Cont…)
• Hence, the actual direction is opposite to that show. Thus,

• Coming to point E now,

 Trusses (Cont…)

• Resolving the forces in vertical direction

• Thus, the problem has been solved.

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 Trusses (Cont…)
Method of Sections

• In the method of section, after determining the reactions, a section line is

drawn passing through not more than three members in which forces are not
known such that the frame is cut into two separate parts.
• Each part should be in equilibrium under the action of loads, reactions and
forces in the members that are cut by the section line.
• Equilibrium of any one of these two parts is considered and the unknown
forces in the members cut by the section line are determined.
• The system of forces acting on either part of truss constitutes a non-concurrent
force system. Since there are only three independent equation of equilibrium,
there should be only three unknown forces.

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 Trusses (Cont…)
Method of Sections

• Hence, in this method it is an essential condition that the section line should pass
through not more than three members in which forces are not known and it
should separate the frame into two parts.

• Under the following two conditions the method of section is preferred over the
method of joints:
(1) In a large truss in which forces in only few members are required;
(2) In the situation where the method of joints fails to start/proceed with
analysis.

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 Trusses (Cont…)
Method of Sections

• As an example, consider the truss shown in figure below. Suppose that it is

desired to find out forces in member HG, CG and CD.

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 Trusses (Cont…)

• To solve it, take a section passing through three members HG, CG and CD.
Taking left hand side for making free-body diagram, we observe that there are
three unknown forces.

We have three equilibrium

equations:
∑FX =0 ∑FY ∑M =0
=0 and
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 Trusses (Cont…)

• Utilizing first equilibrium equation, i.e., resolving all external

forces on the left part in the horizontal direction and making their
algebraic sum equal to zero.
F1 + F2 cos 45⁰ +F3 =0..............(A)
Similarly, vertical force balance gives
F2 sin 45⁰ -100=0
which gives,
F2 =100√2 =141.4 kN
Lastly taking moment about, point C,
-F1 × 1 + 100 × 2 =0

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 Trusses (Cont…)
F1 = 200kN
Equating (A) thus gives
200+ 100 + F3 =0
F3 = -300kN
• -ve sign shows that assumed direction was opposite to
actual direction.
• Observe that this problem is otherwise a statically indeterminate problem.
However we have been able to find out forces in three required members.

SPACE TRUSSES
• A space truss is the three-dimensional counterpart of the plane truss. The
idealized space truss consists of rigid links connected at their ends by ball-
and-socket joints. A space truss requires six bars joined at their ends to form
the edges of a tetrahedron as the basic non-collapsible unit.
• We may form a new rigid unit to extend the structure with three fixed joints
on the existing structure.
 Trusses (Cont…)
• There are in all 3 j equations for a space truss with j joints. For the entire truss
composed of m members, there are m unknowns plus six unknown support
reactions in the general case of a statically determinate space structure. Thus, for
any space truss, the equation m +6=3 j will be satisfied if the truss is statically
determinate internally. A simple space truss satisfies this relation automatically.
Starting with the initial tetrahedron, for which the equation holds, adding three
members and one joint at a time extends the structure, thus preserving the
equality.
Method of joints for space trusses
• The method of joints developed for plane trusses may be extended directly to
space trusses by satisfying the complete vector equation
F =0
for each joint. We normally begin the analysis at a joint where at least one known
force acts and not more than three unknown forces are present. Adjacent joints
on which not more than three unknown forces act may then be analyzed in turn.
 Trusses (Cont…)
Method of sections for space trusses: The method of sections discussed in the
earlier section may also be applied to space trusses. The two vector equations
∑ F=0 and ∑M=0
must be satisfied for any section of the truss, where the zero moment sum will hold
for all moment axes. Because the two vector equations are equivalent to six scalar
equations, we conclude that a section should in general not be passed through more
than six members whose forces are unknown. The method of sections for space
trusses is not widely used, however, because a moment axis can seldom be found
which eliminates all but one unknown, as in the case of plane trusses.

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 Frames
• A structure is called a frame if at least one of its individual members is a multi-
force member. A multi-force member is defined as one with three or more forces
acting on it, or one with two or more forces and one or more couples acting on it.
Frames are structures which are designed to support applied loads and are usually
fixed in position.
Frames:
1.Support loads.
2.Usually stationary.
3.Fully constrained.
• Not all forces are directed along the members as in a truss. In a member of
truss, forces are directed along the member only. For example, in the
following illustration, truss is subjected to compressive forces.