Experimental Psychology

Clinical psychologists use scientific

Experimental Psychology and criteria to evaluate data from
the Scientific Method
psychological tests and patient
Psychology is the science of behavior. observations during sessions. Whether the
Psychologists utilize a scientific approach to data comes from laboratory experiments,
comprehend behavior, relying on research- real-world settings, or therapy sessions
based evidence to gain insight into
psychological processes. The Need for Scientific Methodology

The essence of understanding the causes of

Scientists use scientific methods for
why things happen and distinguishing them
psychological research, including specifying
in all contexts before getting and making
conditions, observing systematically, and
facts.
accepting or rejecting alternative
explanations based on observed behaviors. Commonsense Psychology
It's the non-scientific data gathering that
The word science comes from the Latin
shapes expectations and beliefs and
word Scientia, which simply means
directs behavior toward others (Heider,
knowledge.
1958.)
Science, today, consists of content and Commonsense psychologists
process. Science content refers to the
knowledge we acquire through courses like -Believe that behavior is derived from the
psychology or chemistry. Science in data we collect from our own experience
process is an activity that involves and what we have learned from others.
gathering data, noting relationships, and
-Find the ability to gather data
providing explanations through systematic
systematically and impartially. It is
methods.
constrained by two very important factors:
Some of the tactics used in psychological research The sources of psychological information
Inferential strategies
Methodology - the scientific techniques
used to collect and evaluate psychological
Non-scientific Sources of Data
Data - the facts and figures gathered in
research studies In connection with commonsense
psychology, information or data gathered
Psychology uses scientific research
came from friends and relatives, people
methods for various areas, including
with authority, people we admire, reports
perception, attitudes, and social
from the media, books from what we read,
behaviors. Researchers gather data in
and so forth. However, these are not very
controlled laboratory conditions,
good sources for obtaining valid data
community surveys, or natural settings.
about behavior.

Psychologists studying human Non-scientific sources of data could be

development may observe young based on commonsense psychology, which
children's reactions under various could lead to wrong and inaccurate
laboratory or real-world conditions. results.
 The Power of Negative Thinking Alfred North Whitehead

Negative experiences are more likely to “Scientific Mentality”

happen because people think that it's a A philosopher, believed science requires
bad day in advance because of many faith inGathering Empericaluniverse,
an organized Data as
factors, but mostly because of some outlined in "Science and the Modern
beliefs. They think and believe that, like in World" (1925).
some certain events, if it turns bad, next
Determinism - holding that human
time it will be bad again.
behavior has specifiable causes
Gathering
Gathering Emperical
Emperical Data
Data
Non-scientific Inference
Whitehead attributed the origins of
Prediction of behavior or explanation using modern science to Aristotle, who
data is not connected in any scientific believed in the existence of order in the
manner. universe and systematically described it
through empirical data collection.
For example, stereotyping. Carol is a
librarian so we automatically assume that Aristotle advocated for systematic
she is probably serious because that observation and classification of natural
characteristic is part of the librarian phenomena to understand the order
stereotype (Hamilton & Rose, 1980.) inherent in the universe.

Galileo's investigation of falling

The Accuracy of Non-verbal Behavior objects contradicted Aristotle's belief
that heavy objects fall faster than
Even though people tend to be more light ones, showing the importance of
accurate about the traits of others they systematic empirical inquiry.
know well, perceivers can be remarkably
accurate about the personality of Systematic empirical data collection - It
strangers when they can observe even is preferable to common-sense
thin slices of nonverbal behavior (Amady observation, it does not guarantee
& Rosenthal,1993) correct conclusions without proper
testing and investigation.
In other words, it's the level of detail with
which an individual analyzes nonverbal Seeking General Principles
communication signals from others.
Modern scientists move beyond mere
observation to propose general
principles or theories that explain
The Characteristics of Modern Science
observed phenomena

The Scientific Mentality Tycho Brahe collected extensive data on

stars, but Johannes Kepler's laws
The psychologist’s goal of prediction
explained them effectively.
rests on an assumption: Behavior must
follow a natural order; therefore, it can
1972: Schlegel emphasized that theories
be predicted. shape what we observe, influencing both
the selection of observations and their
interpretation.
 Good Thinking Reason for Change: Cognitive priming
theory replaces social learning theory
Good thinking, a key aspect of the due to its ability to explain a wider
scientific method, is necessary to range of behaviors observed after
counteract the tendency to only perceive exposure to media violence
what aligns with our expectations. Publicizing Results
14th Century & Late 1960s: William of Dynamic Nature of Modern Science
Occam's principle of parsimony, or Occam's
Ongoing: Modern science is characterized
razor, emphasizes simplicity, precision, and
by its dynamic nature.
clarity of thought, discouraging
Importance of Collaboration: Scientists
unnecessary assumptions in explanations.
frequently meet through professional
and special interest groups, as well as
Crandall (1988) applied the principle of
attend conferences to exchange
parsimony in investigating the causes of
information.
bulimia, highlighting the importance of
social contagion as the most parsimonious Importance of Information Exchange
explanation over other existing
Vital to Scientific Process: Continuous
explanations.
exchange of information is crucial for
Self Correction scientific progress.
Avoiding Isolation: Working in isolation
Scientific Progress and Uncertainty would hinder progress, as researchers
Present: Modern scientists acknowledge would miss incorporating recent findings
the uncertainty of their conclusions. and may duplicate efforts.
Ongoing: Science evolves with the
Replication
acquisition of new information, leading
to the reevaluation of old concepts. Replication in Scientific Approach

Weight-of-Evidence Approach Ongoing Principle: Replication is

Present: A "weight-of-evidence" approach considered a crucial aspect of the
prevails, where accumulating evidence scientific method.
increases confidence in explanations or Importance of Repeatability: Procedures
theories. should yield consistent results upon
repetition if data gathering was objective
Evolution of Theories on Media Violence
and good thinking was employed.
Prior to 1986 (for more than 30 years):
Social learning theory explained the link Value of Replicated Findings
between media violence and aggressive Limited Value of Single Researcher
behavior. Findings: Findings obtainable by only
Present (After 1986): Cognitive priming one researcher have limited scientific
theory is more commonly used, positing value.
that observing violence triggers cognitive
representations of aggressive behavior
stored in memory.
 Example of Dream Predictions: Dreams Prediction - involves anticipating and
predicting future events cannot be predicting behaviors based on associated
scientifically evaluated due to inability to conditions. It is useful for psychologists,
replicate original conditions and lack of researchers, and clinicians. Research
objective evaluation. designs like correlational and quasi-
Example of Behavioral Research: Predictions experimental are commonly used to
about children's behavior after exposure to predict behavior.
violent media can be scientifically evaluated
Explain - involves understanding the
through replication.
causes of a behavior and the conditions
Replication Across Sciences that reliably reproduce it. This involves
Behavioral vs. Physical Sciences: Replication using an experimental search design,
is more common in physical sciences than in manipulating settings to produce the
behavioral sciences. behavior while controlling for other
factors. However, not all experiments are
Example of Cold Fusion (1989): Worldwide feasible or desirable, and nonexperimental
attempts to replicate the reported nuclear or quasi-experimental research methods
fusion experiment without heat have not may be preferred.
substantiated the claim, highlighting the
importance of replication in scientific Control - involves applying learned
progress. behavior knowledge through
experimentation, often with the intent of
Criteria for Replication causing behavioral change and increasing
Importance of Findings: Replication is more knowledge, rather than solely focusing on
common when findings have significant control.
implications or directly contradict current
The Scientific Method: Tools of Psychological
understanding. Science

Objectives of Psychological Science Observation- It is the systematic noting

and recording of events.
This introduces various scientific research Within the scientific framework,
methods for understanding psychological observation also must be made
phenomena, focusing on four major systematically — once the researcher has
objectives: description, prediction, devised a system for observing, the same
explanation, and control, each contributing to system must be applied consistently to
psychological science's objectives. each observation.
Description - Descriptive research is the Measurement- The assignment of
initial step in understanding phenomena, such numerical values to objects or events
as human and animal behaviors. It provides a according to conventional rules.
systematic and unbiased account of observed Experimentation- It is a process
characteristics, allowing for greater undertaken to test a hypothesis that
knowledge of behaviors. particular behavioral events will occur
Prediction - involves anticipating and reliably in certain situations.
predicting behaviors based on associated Three minimum requirement:
conditions. It is useful for psychologists, 1. Procedures for manipulating the setting
researchers, and clinicians. Research designs 2. Predicted outcome must be observable
like correlational and quasi-experimental are 3. Measure the outcome
commonly used to predict behavior.
 Scientific explanation in psychological From Pseudoscience to Psychological
science Science

Identifying Antecedent Condition Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1926) - Credited as

the first Experimental Psychologist and
Antecedent Condition, or antecedents, are
also its proponent. He opened his
circumstances that come before the event
laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879.
or behavior that we want to explain.
Comparing Treatment Conditions G. Stanley Hall - One of the first
laboratory students that studied under
Treatments- Specific sets of antecedent Wilhelm Wundt. He went to open the first
conditions. psychology laboratory in the United
“Treat” does not necessarily mean that we States at Johns Hopkins University.
must do something to the subject ; rather, it Mental Philosophy - It includes the study
means that we are treating subjects of consciousness and mental processes
differently when we expose them to different and it was based on the premise that the
sets of antecedents. human mind begins as a blank slate,
gaining knowledge of the world through
The Psychology Experiment sensory experiences.
It is a controlled procedure in which at least Pseudoscientific Therapy - “Pseudo” a
two different treatment conditions are Greek word meaning “False” it refers to
applied to subjects. any study that gives the appearance to be
scientific but has no scientific basis and
Random assignment of subjects- This avoids
has not been confirmed using any
the possibility that subjects in one condition
scientific study.
may be systematically.
Phrenology - It indicates as well assessing
Between-subjects design- Subjects receive the traits of characters and mental
only one kind of treatment faculties based on the dispositions of the
Within-subject design- Different procedures size and location of bumps on the skull.
produce different effects. Physiognomy - Using the facial features
Establishing Cause and Effect particularly the eyes, nose, chin, and
forehead, to evaluate one’s traits, mental
If a subject set of antecedents always leads capacity, and skills.
to a particular behavior, whereas other
treatments do not, we can infer that the Mesmerism - Invented by Franz Mesmer,
subject causes the behavior. he believed that fluids in the body ebbed
and flowed by magnetic principles can
Temporal Relationship- The type of cause
cure both physical and mental illness by
and effect relationship we establish through
realigning the fluids using magnets,
experiments.
electrodes, and hands across the body.
David Hume (1711-1776)- The Scottish
Spiritualism - A purported contact with
philosopher argued that we can never
ghosts and spirits of the deceased. As a
establish causality from temporal
medium, spiritualists held seances which
relationships.
they claimed they can speak to the dead
Necessary versus Sufficient Conditions and provide psychological advice to the
relatives.
When we seek causes, we rarely seek
conditions that are both necessary and End of Chapter 1
sufficient.