Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 SOIL MECHANICS

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 CONTENT
1. Soil Introduction
2. Index properties of Soil
3. Classification of Soil
4. Soil Structure and Clay mineralogy
5. Compaction

ir
lS
6. Capillarity of Soil
7. Stresses in Soil

pa
8. Permeability

s
Ja
9. Seepage Analysis
10. Stress distribution
11. Compressibility of soil and Consolidation
12. Shear Strength of Soil
13. Earth Pressure
14. Stability of Slope
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Definition Of Soil
The term ‘soil’ is defined as an unconsolidated material , composed of particles produced by
the process of disintegration of rocks.
The process of formation of soil is termed as ‘PEDOGENESIS’
➢ Soil is formed due to the weathering of rocks.
➢ Weathering of the soil can occur either Physically or Chemically.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
Note:- Leaching is the process of extracting a substance from a solid material, i.e. dissolved in a
liquid.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
▪ If the soil is formed by physical weathering, the resulting soil particles retain the same
composition as that of parent rock but if it is formed by chemical weathering mineral
content of soil differs from the parent rock due to the action of acid or alkalies.

▪ If the weathered material retains over the parent rock, it is termed as residual soil & if it is
transported it is termed as transported soil.

ir
lS
▪ The characteristics of the soil: Size of Particle, Shape & Soundness, Surface texture, Degree

pa
of sortness depends upon mode/agency of transportation.

s
Solid particles-
Ja
Angular -
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Properties Water Air Ice Gravity Organism
Reduction Considerable Consider- Considerable Minor
Size Reduction able Impact Abrasion
grinding
and

ir
Impact

lS
Rounding off Sand & High degree of Angular Angular, Non

pa
Shape & Gravel Rounding Solid Spherical _
Soundness

s
Particles Particles

Ja
Smooth , Shine , Impact Striated Striated
Surface Texture Polished Produces Surface Surface _
Frosted Surfaces

Sorting Considerable Sorting Considerable Very Little No sorting Limited

Sorting
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Sorting Sorting
• General cycle involved in the formation of soil

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
• Types of Soil :

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 TYPES OF SOIL
• On the basis of mode of transportation:
a. Alluvial Soil : It is the soil which is deposited from suspension in Running water.
• Transported soil (water)

ir
lS
• Weathering is physical

pa
• Found alongs the bank of river

s
Ja
b. Lacustrine soil : It is the soil which is deposited from suspension in fresh still
water of lake.

c. Marine Soil : It is the soil which is deposited from sea water.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
d. Aeoline Soil / Sand Dunes : It is the soil which is transported by blowing wind.

e. Glacial Soil : It is the soil which is transported by ice.

ir
lS
f. Colluvial / Talus Soil : It is formed due to transportation by gravity.

s pa
g. Loess Soil : It is uniformly graded wind blown silt , slightly cemented by calcium

Ja
compound or Montmorillonite . It is also termed as collapsable soil.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
h. Marl Soil : It is finely grained calcium carbonate soil of Marine origin which is
formed due to the decomposition of Aquatic plants & bones of animals.

i. Tuff Soil : It is a fine grained soil composed of very small particles ejected from
volcanoes during its explosion and deposited by wind or water.

ir
lS
j. Bentonite Soil : It is a highly plastic clay consisting of high % of montmorillonite.
It is a residual soil of chemically weathered volcanic ash. It is used as lubricants

pa
drilling operation. Montmorillonite is highly plastic passes high shrinkage and

s
swelling proportion & low shear strength

Ja
k. Black Cotton Soil : It is residual soil formed from basalt & have excess of
montmorillonite in it. It is dark in colour & is suitable for growing cotton.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
l. Laterite Soil : It is the type of soil formed due to leaching ( washing out of silicious
compound & deposition of iron oxide and aluminium oxide ). It is found in hilly areas. It
is hard after long exposure.

m. Muck Soil : It is a mixture of fine particle inorganic soil & Black decomposed organic
matter. It is found in Marshy, Swampy after the overflow of river.

ir
lS
n. Peat Soil : It is highly organic soil which almost entirely consist of black decomposed

pa
vegetative matter in different stages. It is highly fibrous, compressible.

s
Ja
Note : Muck Soil + Peat Soil Cumulose Soil; which is found near the river.

o. Loam Soil : It is a mixture of clay, sand & silt.

p. Gumbo Soil : It is a black coloured, sticky, highly plastic soil. It can be formed either by
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
physical weathering or by chemical weathering.
Q. Lacustrine soils are soils [IES 1996]
a. Transported by river and streams
b. Transported by glaciers
c. Deposited in sea beds
d. Deposited in lake beds.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statements in the context of aeolian soil
1. The soil has low density and low compressibility
2. The soil is deposited by wind
3. The soil has large permeability
Of these statements [IES 1997]

ir
lS
a. 1, 2 and 3 are correct

pa
b. 2 and 3 are correct.

s
Ja
c. 1 and 3 are correct
d. 1 and 2 are correct

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statements in the context of aeolian soil
1. Peat and muck are organic soil
2. Peat is inorganic soil whereas muck is an organic soil
3. Indurated clay is a type of clay which does not soften under
prolonged wetting

ir
lS
Which of these statements are correct? [IES 2010]

pa
a. 1, 2 and 3 are correct

s
b. 2 only

Ja
c. 3 only
d. 1 and 3 only.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Match the list-I and list-II and select the correct answer [IES 2000]
List-I List-II
A. Loess 1. Deposited from suspension in running
water
B. Peat 2. Deposits of marine origin
C. Alluvial soil 3. Deposits by wind

ir
lS
D. Marl 4. Organic soil

pa
A B C D

s
Ja
a) 3 4 2 1
b) 4 3 1 2
c) 4 3 2 1
d) 3 4 1 2.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 PROPERTIES OF SOIL
Soil mass can be either two-phase or three-phase system which consists of solid, liquid
and gaseous matter that do not occupy separate spaces but are blended with each other
in definite proportion, which in turn govern the property of soil. In 2-phase, soil is fully
saturated or fully dry but in 3-phase, soil is partially saturated. Soil Solids are of two types:
inorganic matter & organic matter.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 V= Vv + Vs
V= (Va+ Vw)+Vs
W= (Wa + Ww)+Ws
ῥair ≈ 1.2 Kg/m3
ῥwater≈ 1000 Kg/m3

ir
lS
ῥsolids≈ 2600 Kg/m3

pa
Wair <<< Ww or Ws

s
Hence, it can be neglected

Ja
(Vair < Vw or Vs but volume of air cannot be neglected
Wsoil = Ww + Ws
Vsoil = Vw + Vs

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 IMPORTANT DEFINITION
Water Content (w)
• It is defined as the ratio of weight of water to the weight of solids (dry weight) of the soil
mass.
Ww
W= x 100
Ws

water content can be equal to zero but it has no upper limit. Generally fine grained soils

ir
have higher water content as compared to coarse grained soil.

lS
pa
W’
Ws=

s
(1+W)

Ja
Where w’= weight of soil
water content can also be reported in terms of total weight of the soil.
Ww
W”= Weight of water/weight of soil = x 100
W’
W” can be equal to zero but cannot be equal to 100%
0 ≤ W” < 100%
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Ww Ww
W”= =
W’ (Ww+ Ws )
Ww
= W WwW
w+ s
W W w w

1 W
W”= =

ir
(1+1/W) (1+W)

lS
pa
W W”
W”= W=
(1+W) (1−W”)

s
Ja
Note : Weight of solid is comparatively stable in comparison to weight of soil as it does
not changes with change in water, hence engineering significance of ‘W’ is more than
‘W” ‘.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The saturated & dry densities of a soil are respectively 2000 Kg/𝑚3 & 1500 Kg/𝑚3 . The
water content of soil in the saturated state would be [IES-1999]
a. 25
b. 50
c. 33.33.
d. 66.66

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. If a soil sample of weight 0.18 Kg having a volume of 10−4 𝑚3 & dry unit wt. of 1600
Kg/𝑚3 is mixed with 0.02 Kg of water then the water content in the sample will be
[IES-1999]
a. 30%
b. 25%.
c. 20%

ir
lS
d. 15%

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Void Ratio (e)
• It is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to volume of solids in given soil mass. Void
ratio of fine grained soil is generally higher than coarse grained soil.
Vv e>0
e=
Vs

ir
lS
Volume of void cannot be zero for soil as it is a 2-phase system, however it can be zero
for rocks.

pa
V
Vs =

s
(1+ e)

Ja
Where, V= Volume of total soil solid mass
Vs= Volume of solid
Vv= Volume of void
Void ratio can also be used to represent degree of denseness of soil.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
pa
• e2 > e 1

s
•

Ja
Vv2 > Vv1
• Vs2 < Vs1
• (Denseness)2 < (Denseness)1

1
e∝
Denseness
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Though volume of one void is more for coarse grained but total volume of void is more for fine grained
soil, hence void ratio & water content of fine grained soil is more than coarse grained soil

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
• When two or more soil samples are added or mixed, quantity (volume & weight) of solids will not change.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. In wet soil mass, air , occupies one - fourth of its volume & water occupies one-half
of its volume. The void ratio of soil is. [IES-2013]

a. 1
b. 2

ir
c. 3.

lS
d. 4

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. How many cubic meters of soil having void ratio of 0.7 can be made from 30 𝑚3 of soil
with void ratio of 1.2? [IES-2018]
a. 36.6 𝑚3
b. 30.0 𝑚3
c. 25.9 𝑚3
d. 23.2 𝑚3 .

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A soil deposit has a void ratio of 1.2, if the void ratio is reduced to 0.6 by compaction,
find percentage of volume loss [IES-2015]
a. 10%
b. 20%
c. 30%.
d. 40%

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. For a sandy soil with soil grains spherical in shape and uniform in size, what is the
theoretical void ratio? [IES-2009]
a. 0.61
b. 0.71
c. 0.91.

ir
d. 0.81

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Porosity (n)
• It is defined as ratio of volume of void to the total volume expressed as a percentage. It is
also know as percentage voids.
Vv 0 < n < 100%
n=
V

ir
lS
e n
n= e=

pa
(1+e) (1−n)

s
Ja
• Both ‘e’ & ‘n’ represents volume of void in it.

• Volume of solids is comparatively stable in comparison to the volume of soil as it does not
change with the change in volume of void , hence engineering significance of e>n .

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The value of porosity of a soil sample in which the total volume of soil grains is equal to
twicer the volume of voids would be [IES-2000]
a. 75%
b. 66.66%
c. 50%
d. 33.33%.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Two soil samples A & B have porosities 𝑛𝐴 = 40% & 𝑛𝐵 = 60% respectively . What is the
ratio of void ratios 𝑒𝐴 : 𝑒𝐵 ? [IES-2004]
a. 2:3
b. 3:2
c. 4:9.
d. 9:4

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. What would be the volume of water stored in a saturated column with a porosity of
0.35 with a cross-sectional area of 1𝑚3 & depth of 3m ? [IES-2012]
a. 2.0𝑚3
b. 0.105𝑚3
c. 1.05𝑚3 .
d. 3.0𝑚3

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The porosity of soil sample having its void ratio equal to unity would be [IES-2012]
a. 33.33%
b. 50.0%.
c. 66.66%
d. 75.0%

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Degree of Saturation (S)
• It is defined as the ratio of the volume of water in the voids to the volume of voids in the
given soil mass.
Vw 0 ≤ S ≤ 100%
S= x100
Vv

ir
• Depending upon degree of saturation soil mass can be classified-

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The degree of saturation is a ratio between which of the following parameters ?
[SSC JE ]
a. Volume of pores by volume of water
b. Volume of water by volume of pores.
c. Volume of solids by volume of pores

ir
d. Volume of air by volume of pores

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The porosity and the degree of saturation of soil sample are 0.7 & 40%,
respectively. In a 100𝑚3 volume of the soil, the volume ( expressed in 𝑚3 ) of air is ____
[IES]

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Air Content (aC)

• Air content of soil mass is defined as a ratio of volume of air voids to the total volume
of voids. It is expressed as percentage.
Va 0 ≤ aC ≤ 100%
aC = x100

ir
Vv

lS
Vv= (Va + Vw) => Va/V x Vv/Vv = aC . n

s pa
Ja
Percentage Air content (na)
• It is the ratio of volume of air to the total volume Va
aC = x100
V

na =ac.n
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A soil has 30% air voids. It has a porosity of 0.4, the air content of the soil shall be
[IES]
a. 0.75.
b. 0.12
c. 1.33

ir
d. 0.77

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 UNIT WEIGHT / DENSITY
Bulk unit weight/Bulk density
It is ratio of weight/mass of soil in existing condition to the total volume of soil mass.

ir
weight of soil in existing condition

lS
𝛾b =
Volume of soil

pa
W

s
𝛾b =

Ja
V

Mass of soil in existing condition

𝜌 b=
Volume of soil

M
𝜌b =
V
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Dry unit weight / Dry density
• It is the ratio of weight / mass of soil in dry condition to the volume of soil mass.

Wd W Md M

ir
𝛾d = = 𝜌d = =
V V V V

lS
s pa
It can also be used to represent the denseness of the soil.

Ja
Denseness of soil ∝ 𝛾 d ∝
1
e

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Saturated unit weight / Saturated density
It is defined as the ratio of weight / mass of soil in saturated condition
to the volume of soil.

ir
lS
Wsat Msat
𝛾 sat = 𝜌sat =

pa
V V

s
Ja
Note : If soil is dry => S=0 , 𝛾b= 𝛾d or 𝜌b = 𝜌d
If soil is saturated => S=1 , 𝛾b= 𝛾sat or 𝜌b = 𝜌sat

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Submerged unit weight / Submerged Density
• It is defined as submerged unit weight of soil solids per unit of total
volume. When the soils exists below ground water i.e. in submerged
condition, a buoyant force acts on the soil solids . Hence it is obvious that

ir
net weight of saturated soil solids has been reduced and this reduce mass

lS
is known as buoyant unit weight

pa
𝛾sub / 𝛾’ = 𝛾sat - 𝛾w

s
Ja
• Soil below W.T. is submerged and
saturated but above W.T. is capillary
fringe is saturated but not submerged.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Unit weight of Solids / Density of Solids

• It is defined as the ratio of weight /mass to the volume of solids in the

given soil mass.

ir
lS
weight of solids

pa
𝛾s =
volume of solids

s
Ja
Ms
𝛾s =
Vs

• NOTE- 𝜸𝒔 > 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 > 𝜸𝒃 > 𝜸𝒅 > 𝜸𝒔𝒖𝒃

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Saturated unit weight of soil is the ratio of : [SSC JE-2020]
a. Total void to saturated bulk unit weight
b. Saturated bulk unit weight to total void
c. Bulk unit weight of soil when it is fully saturated.
d. Total volume to saturated bulk unit weight

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The unit weight of the soil sample is 20 KN/m3 and the water content is 18%. The dry
density of the soil sample is:
a. 21.18 KN/m3
b. 16.94 KN/m3.
c. 11.12 KN/m3

ir
d. 11.89 KN/m3

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

True / absolute specific gravity (G)

ir
weight of solid of given volume

lS
Gs/G=
weight of standard fluid of same volume

s pa
Ws Vs

Ja
Gs/G = x [V = Vw]
Ww Vs s
𝛾s
Gs/G =
𝛾w

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Mass/Bulk/Apparent Specific Gravity (GM)
weight of solid of given volume
GM = [ Vs = Vw ]
weight of standard fluid of same volume

W 𝛾 𝜌
GM = = =

ir
Ww 𝛾w 𝜌w

lS
pa
G > GM

s
Ja
• Specific Gravity of fine grained
soil is more than coarse grained soil.

• Specific Gravity of inorganic soil

is more than organic soil.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Specific Gravity (G) increases with increase in mineral content of soil.
• As per Indian Standards ‘G’ is reported at 27oc

At any other temperature , 𝛾S = Constant

𝛾S (27oC) = 𝛾S(ToC)

ir
lS
G 27oC x 𝛾w(27oC) = G(ToC) x 𝛾w(ToC)

s pa
If standard fluid is changed, 𝛾S = Constant

Ja
𝛾s 𝛾s
Gf ’ = G=
𝛾f 𝛾w

Gf ’ 𝛾f = 𝛾w G
G
𝛾w Gf ’ =
Gf ’Use=codeG"JASPALLIVE"
{ } for instant maximum discount onGUnacademy
fluid
𝛾f Plus subscriptions.
Q.A sand sample has a porosity of 30% & specific gravity of solids as 2.6. What is its
degree of saturation at moisture content of 4.94% ʔ
a. 40%
b. 3.5%
c. 30%.

ir
d. 25%

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. What will be the unit weight of fully saturated soil sample having water content of
38% & grain specific gravity of 2.65 ʔ
a. 19.88 KN/𝑚3
b. 17.88 KN/𝑚3 .
c. 16.52 KN/𝑚3
d. 14.65 KN/𝑚3

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A dry soil has mass specific gravity of 1.35. If the specific gravity of solids is 2.7.Then
the void ratio will be
a. 0.5
b. 1.
c. 1.5
d. 2

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Density Index / Relative Density / Degree of Density
It is a parameter used in sandy & gravelly soils. It represents the relative
degree of compactness .
(𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − e)
ID = x 100

ir
(𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − emin)

lS
pa
0 ≤ I D ≤ 100%

s
Ja
Loose soils have low values of ID while dense soils have high values.
emax = void ratio of soil in loosest state.
emin = void ratio of soil in densest state.
e = void ratio of soil in natural state.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 (1/𝛾d(min) – 1/𝛾d)
• ID = x 100
(1/𝛾d(min) – 1/𝛾d(max))

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
• ID is not used for the analysis of cohesive soils as there are large uncertainties involved in
finding the void ratio of cohesive soils in its loosest state in laboratories.
• Two sand deposits having same shape & size can exhibit different properties if they
posses different ID.
• Sand having more ID is more compact , dense, stable, less compressible, has higher shear
strength.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A given cohesionless soil has emax =0.85, emin =0.5 in the field, the
soil is compacted to a mass density of 1800 Kg/𝑚3 at w/c of 8% .Take
the mass density of water as 1000Kg/ 𝑚3 & Gs = 2.7. The relative
density (in%) of the soil is,
a. 56.43
b. 60.25

ir
lS
c. 62.87

pa
d. 65.71.

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Which one of the following represents relative density of saturated sand deposit
having moisture content of 25%, if maximum and minimum void ratio of sand are 0.95
and 0.45 respectively and specific gravity of sand particles is 2.6? [IES-2002]
a. 40%
b. 50%
c. 60%.

ir
lS
d. 70%

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statements:
1. Relative density is a meaningful parameter for all types of soils.
2. Relative density is a meaningful parameter only for cohesionless soils.
3. Relative density is a better indicator of the denseness of an in-situ granular soil
deposit than the void ratio

ir
Which of the statements are correct ? [IES 2012]

lS
a. 1,2 and 3

pa
b. 1 and 2 only

s
Ja
c. 2 and 3 only.
d. 1 and 3 only

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Relative Compaction
• It is used to indicate the degree of denseness or compactness in absolute terms as
density index (ID) , but it can be applied for both cohesionless & cohesive soil.
𝛾d
Rc = x 100
𝛾d(max

ir
lS
𝛾d = Dry unit weight of soil in existing natural state.

pa
𝛾d(max)= Dry unit weight of soil in densest state.

s
G. 𝛾w (1+ emin)

Ja
RC =
(1+ e) x G. 𝛾w
(1+ 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
Rc = x 100 R c = (80+ 0.2 ID)
(1+ e)
In loosest state , ID = 0 , Rc = 80%
In densest state , ID = 100% , Rc = 100%
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Packing of Uniform Sphere
• Packing of the uniform sphere is the only system void ratio & porosity of which can be
found mathematically.
• Spheres of uniform size attains stable loosest packing in ‘cubical array’.
• Spheres of uniform size attains stable densest packing in ‘Rhombohedral array’.
➢ Loosest State

ir
Here each particles is in contact with 5 more similar particle.

lS
s pa
Vv 0.476 ∗ 6

Ja
emax = = =0.91
Vs e Π
nmax = max
(1+emax)
0.91
=
(1+0.91)
= 0.47

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Densest State
Here each particle is the contact with 12 more similar particles.
Π
Vol. pf solids(Vs)=
6
Π
Vol. of voids (Vv) = 0.707 - = 0.183𝑚3
6

ir
0.183
emin = x 6 = 0.35

lS
Π
emin

pa
nmin = = 0.26
(1+emin)

s
Q. If void ratio of soil is 0.5 . Indicated its degree of denseness.

Ans : e= 0.5
0.91 − 0.5 0.41
Ja
ID = = x 100
0.91 − 0.35 0.56
= 73.21%
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 INTER RELATIOSHIP BETWEEN THE PROPERTIES OF SOIL
1. e , w , G , S :
Vv
e=
Vs

ir
⇒ S.e = w.G

lS
s pa
Ja
Vv
⇒ e= = Vv
Vs
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
2. γb , G , e , S , γw :
𝛾w(G+S.e)
𝛾b =
(1+e)

3. γd , G , e , γw : For dry soil

ir
lS
𝛾w.G
𝛾d =
(1+e)

pa
• For saturated soil

s
Ja
𝛾sat = γ𝑑(1+w)

𝛾w(G+e)
𝛾 sat =
(1+e)
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 𝛾′
4. 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏
, G, e,𝛾𝑤 :

𝛾w(G − 1) 1
𝛾’ = (1+e)
=1-n
(1+e)

ir
lS
G
𝛾’ = 𝛾𝑑 + (n-1) 𝛾𝑤 𝐺𝑚 = G(1-n) =

pa
(1+e)

s
Ja
5. γd , γb , w :
𝛾b
𝛾d =
(1+w)

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
6. γd, G, γw , w:
If S=1 ⇒ e=wG
G 𝛾w
𝛾d =
(1+w.G )
The above relationship is significant to understand the compactness of soil.

ir
lS
pa
7. γd, 𝑛𝑎 , G, w, γw :

s
Ja
(1−𝑛𝑎)G 𝛾w
𝛾d =
(1+w.G )

The above relationship is also significant to understand the compactness of

soil.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A soil has 28 gms of soil solids, 10 𝑐𝑚3 of voids, 9gm of water, Sp. Gravity
of soil grain of 2.7 consider following statements.
9
a. W= x100%
28
10 x 2.7
b. e =
28
9

ir
c. S = x 100

lS
10 x 2.7
10 x 2.7

pa
d. n = .
28+10 x 27

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A saturated soil has a total density 22 KN/𝑚3 & a water content of 10%.
The bulk density & dry density of soil are.
a. 19
b. 20.
c. 21

ir
d. 22

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A soil sample has a porosity of 40% & the specific gravity of solid is 2.70 .
If the soil is 50% saturated, the unit weight will be nearly,
a. 22 KN/𝑚3
b. 20 KN/𝑚3
c. 18 KN/𝑚3 .

ir
d. 16 KN/𝑚3

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Oven dry mass of a pat of clay is 10.8 gm & mass of mercury displaced on
immersion is 84.2 gm. If the specific gravity of solids is 2.72 & the density of
mercury is 13.6 g/𝑐𝑚3 , the shrinkage limit of the soil will be nearly,
a. 12%
b. 15%
c. 18%

ir
lS
d. 21%.

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The porosity of a soil n is,
e
a. (1+e).
e
b. (1−e)
e+1
c. e

ir
lS
e−1
d. e

pa
Where, e = void ratio

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A certain soil has the following properties Gs = 2.71, n=40% & w=20%. The
degree of saturation of the soil rounded off to the nearest percentage is
___________

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A soil sample taken from the field has a specific gravity of 2.5 & void ratio
of 0.75. The water content required to fully saturated the soil at that void
ratio is
a. 25%
b. 30%.
c. 55%

ir
lS
d. 40%

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A saturated soil sample has a dry unit weight of 18000 N/𝑚3 & specific
gravity 2.65 if unit weight of water is 9810 N/ 𝑚3 , determine the water
content of the soil sample ʔ
a. 0.25
b. 0.34
c. 0.17.

ir
lS
d. 0.41

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. What would be the void ratio of the soil mass, if the porosity of a soil
mass is 0.35 ʔ
a. 0.26
b. 0.35
c. 0.54.

ir
d. 0.6

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 INDEX PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL
• Index properties of the soils are those which helps in classification & identification of the
soil.
Water content (w)
• Soil water

ir
lS
a. Ground/Free/Gravity water

pa
It is subsurface water that fills the voids continuously up to ground water table level.

s
This water is subjected to no force other than its own weight.

Ja
b. Capillary water
It is the water which is lifted above ground water
table level by capillary forces. It obeys law of
hydraulics & move under hydrostatic forces.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Note : Ground water & capillary water is also termed as pore water.
If GW is present, then no capillary water is present.
c. Structural water
It is the water which is chemically combined with the crystal structure of water. This
water can not be removed even after boiling
d. Adsorbed water

ir
lS
Pellicular water.

pa
i. Hygroscopic water

s
It is the water which is adsorbed by the soil solids.

Ja
1
Extent of water adsorbed by soil solids ∝ ∝ SSA
𝑑
This water is not affected by gravity or capillary forces
ii. Film water
It is the water that is present as a film over the layer of hygroscopic water.
ItUseiscode
formed due
"JASPALLIVE" to the
for instant condensation
maximum of subscriptions.
discount on Unacademy Plus aqueous vapour.
 Water content by different methods
a. Oven dry method
• This is the most accurate laboratory method.
• For inorganic soil, temperature is maintained at 105 – 110 ℃
• For organic soil, temperature is maintained at less than 60℃ to avoid oxidation of

ir
lS
organic matter.
• In this method, all types of soil water is removed i.e. ground, capillary, adsorbed

pa
except structural water.

s
Ja
M𝑤 M2 − M3
W= = x 100
M𝑠 M3 − M1

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
b. Sand bath method
• It is a quick field method that is used when the facility of oven is not available.
• Steps of observation are same as in oven dry method.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
c. Alcohol method
• It is also a quick field method.
• In this method, Methylated spirit is added in the sample as it increases the rate of
drying & is ignited to note the water content.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
d. Pycnometer method
• This is suitable for those soil whose ‘G’ is known.
• This method is used for cohesionless soil as in case of cohesion soil. It is difficult to
remove entrapped air from soil sample during the test.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
(M3 − M4)G (M2 − M1) G−1
MS = W= [ ] -1
G−1 M3 − M4 G
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
e. Calcium carbide or Moisture meter method
• In this method, 4-6 gm of soil is taken out which is placed in moisture
meter & calcium carbide is used & sample is shaken well due to 𝐶𝑎𝐶2
reacts with water present in it & formation of acetylene gas that exerts
pressure on calibrated gauge which shows water content in terms of total
wt. of soil.

ir
• It is the quickest method available to find water content.

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
f. Radiation method
• It is a field method in which two steel casing are lowered into the soil
mass to be tested.
• Radioactive materials emits neutrons which strike with hydrogen atoms
of water losses its energy, & it is calibrated with the water content of the

ir
soil.

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
g. Torsion balance or Infrared method
• In this method, infrared rays are used. It is suitable for those soil which
quickly absorbs the moisture from the atmosphere.
• Here, also water content of the soil in terms of total weight of the soil.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Identify the method that is not used for determination of in situ unit weight of a
natural soil deposit? [SSC JE 2019]
a. Core cutter method
b. Sand bath method .
c. Water displacement method
d. Sand replacement method

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The commonly used method for quick determination of water content at field
embankments is : [SSC JE 2004]
a. Oven drying method
b. Sand bath method .
c. Alcohol method
d. Calcium carbide method .

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Specific Gravity
Specific gravity of the soil can be measured by
a. 50 ml density bottle
b. 500 ml flask
c. Pycnometer

ir
lS
Density bottle method is the most accurate amongst all & suitable for all type of soil.

pa
If flask & pycnometer method used for fine grained soil then, kerosene is used instead
of water.

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 weight of solid of given volume
•G=
weight of standard fluid of same volume

Md 𝛾w(at 27℃) = 996.5

G=
(M4 − M3)−Md

ir
𝛾w(at 4℃) = 1000

lS
s pa
Ja
Md
G= [ ] xGk
(M4 − M3)+Md

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Unit weight of soil
a. Water displacement method
This method is suitable for cohesive soil which is highly sticky in nature.
M − M1
In the test specimen will be coated with paraffin wax to prevent. 2
𝜌p

ir
lS
s pa
𝜌=
mass of soil
= 𝜌=
M1 Ja
volume of soil Vw −(M2 𝜌− M1)
p

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
b. Submerged unit weight method
• It is suitable for cohesive soil.
• In this method coated specimen is immersed in water & it reduced / effective /
buoyant / submerged weight is noted.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja M
𝜌= M − M 1M − M
( 2𝜌 3)−( 2 𝜌 1)
w p

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
c. Core cutter method
It is a field method which is suitable for cohesive soil.

This method consists of a core cutter of vol. 1000 cc [ D = 10 cm, H =

13cm ], a dolly of height 2.5 cm & a hammer.

ir
lS
pa
Mass of soil
𝜌=
Vol.of soil

s
Ja
Volume of soil in cutter = Volume of core cutter = V

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
d. Sand replacement method
Since, core cutter method is not suitable for hard & gravely soil, this method is used in this
case.
In this test, first bulk mass density of sand used is found followed by the unit weight of the
soil.

ir
In this method bulk unit weight is to be calculated.

lS
From the representative sample water content, & dry unit weight also calculated.

pa
Volume of sand filling the hole = Volume of soil excavated

s
M

Ja
Density of soil =
V

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
I. Finding out bulk density of sand

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Finding out density of soil in field

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
Note : In both core cutter method & sand replacement method, soil sample is further
tested for its water content by oven drying method.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Particle size distribution
The % of various size of particles in a given dry soil sample is found by particle size
distribution analysis or mechanical analysis, which is carried out in two stages.
a. Sieve analysis
b. Sedimentation analysis
Particle size analysis

ir
lS
pa
Sieve analysis ( for coarse Sedimentation analysis ( for
grained soil d≥ 75𝜇) fine grained soil d< 75𝜇)

s
Ja
a. Pipette method
b. Hydrometer
Coarse Fine Wet
sieving/Gravel sieving/Sand
sieving sieving
4.75 < d < 80 75𝜇 < d < 4.75
mm mm Dry
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
a. Sieve analysis
It is done for the soil fraction having size greater than 0.075mm or 75𝜇.

As per IS 460: 1962, sieve are designed by the size of square opening in mm or 𝜇.

Weight of the soil fraction retained over each sieve is noted to find the % finer

ir
corresponding to given size of particle.

lS
% finer = % N = 100 – cumulative % weight retained.

s pa
Ja
i. Coarse sieving/Gravel sieving
It I done for soil fraction having size > 4.75mm
Std. sieve used in this cases are 80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 4.75 mm.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sieve size Weight % weight Cumulative % % finer
retained retained weight retained
80 mm 10 gm 10% 10% 90%
40 mm 30 gm 30% 40% 60%
(↓ D60)
20 mm 30 gm 30% 70% 30%
(↓ D30)

ir
lS
10 mm 20 gm 20% 90% 10%

pa
(↓ D10)

s
Ja
4.75 10 gm 10% 100% 0%
100 gm

• Fine sieving/Sand sieving

It is done for soil fraction that passes through 4.75 mm sieve & retained over 0.075
mm sieve.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Sedimentation analysis
• Sedimentation analysis is carried out for the soil fraction having size less than
0.0075mm.
• Particles having size smaller than 0.2 𝜇 cannot be analysis even by sedimentation
analysis as they undergo Brownian motion.
• Sedimentation analysis is based on ‘ STOKE’S LAW ‘ according to which settling

ir
lS
velocity of spherical particle undergoing settlement in an infinite medium, discretely,
keeping all the factor to be constant depends upon shape, size & mass of the particle &

pa
given by

s
(G−1) 𝛾w 𝑑2

Ja
Vs =
18𝜇

Vs = 1.05 𝑑2 m/sec
Where, d is in mm
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Limitation of Stoke’s law
1. Particles undergoing settlement are assured to be spherical but in actual
fine grained soil is flaky.

2. Medium in which settlement takes place is assumed to be infinite but in

ir
actual sedimentation jar is finite.

lS
pa
3. During settlement, discrete settling is considered but in actual

s
Ja
agglomeration of particles during settlement takes place.

4. Stoke’s law is valid for particles having size in the range of 0.1 mm to 0.2 𝜇
as above 0.1 mm size gravity acceleration sets in & constant velocity is
not attained & below 0.2 𝜇 Brownian motion takes place.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 General procedure for sedimentation analysis
Sedimentation analysis can be carried out by.
a. Pipette method
b. Hydrometer method
Method of preparation of soil suspension is same in both the method as follows.

ir
lS
i. Pre treatment

pa
Before preparing soil suspension, organic matter & calcium compounds present in the
soil sample is removed to avoid agglomeration of soil particles during settlement, (H2 O2

s
Ja
,0.2 N HCL is to be used)
ii. Preparing the soil suspension
iii. Post treatment
After preparing the soil suspension deflocculating reagent like sodium
hexametaphosphate, sodium oxilate, sodium carbonate, sodium silicate
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Pipette method
In this method, 10 ml of sample is collected from soil suspension at fixed sampling
depth (Hc ) of 10 cm at different time intervals.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
18𝜇Hc
Vs =
(G−1) 𝛾w t
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Mass of solids per unit volume of depth Hc ,& 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
%N =
Mass of the solid per unit volume initially

Md/Vp
%N = x 100
M𝐷/V

If affect of deflocculating reagent is also to be considered then,

ir
lS
Md − M
V V

pa
%N = p
M𝐷/V

s
Ja
Md = Mass of solids in sample collected from height Hc after time t
MD = Total mass of solids taken initially
M = Mass of deflocculating reagent added
V = Volume of soil suspension
Vp= Volume of pipette
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Hydrometer method
It is a device which is used for the measurement of density or specific gravity of the
suspension.
For simplicity in understanding, reduced hydrometer reading are marked on it (RH)
RH
𝜌𝑠 = 1+ or RH =(𝜌𝑠𝑠 - 1) x 1000
1000

ir
lS
Volume of the hydrometer below the centre of the bulbs is approx. 50% of its total Vol.
Mass of solids present at a depth of ′Hc ’ in time ‘t’ is computed directly by pipette method

pa
, but it is found indirectly in hydrometer method by nothing the density of the soil

s
suspension.

Ja
In pipette method, sampling depth is constant whereas in hydrometer method it increases
with increase in time & the settlement of particles,

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
pa
1 VH
Hc = H + (h − )
2 A

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 The size of the particle that settles in suspension up to sampling depth ‘Hc′ in time ‘t’ is
found using stoke’s law

Hc 18𝜇
d=k k=
t
(G−1) 𝛾w
Mass of suspension =

ir
lS
G Rh
Md = { }x
G − 1 1000

s pa
Ja
G R
%N ={ }x h x 100
G − 1 𝑀𝐷

The observed reduced hydrometer reading are further corrected for the following
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
i. Meniscus correction
Due to the presence of turbidity in soil upper layer of meniscus is noted instead of lower
level, which leads to reduced value of the observation noted. Hence, meniscus correction
is applied which is +ve .

R h = R′h + CM

ir
lS
ii. Dispersing agent correction

pa
Addition of dispersing agent results in increase density of suspension hence higher value
of observation is noted thereby dispersing agent correction is applied which is –ve.

s
Ja
R h = R′h − Cd
Note: Cmc = CM ±CT −Cd
iii. Temperature correction
If T > 27℃ R h = R′h + Ct
R h = R′h − Cmc
If T< 27℃ R h = R′h − Ct
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
Soil type Gradation Type of soil
A Well graded soil _

B Gap graded soil Fine grained

C Well graded soil Coarse grained
D Poorly graded soil
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Coarse grained
 For coarse grained soil, D10, D30, D60 size of particles holds higher significance & can be
found using particle size distribution curve.
D10 = Size in ‘mm’ such that 10% of particles are finer than this size.
D30 = Size in ‘mm’ such that 30% particles are finer than this size.
D60 = Size in ‘mm’ such that 60% particles are finer than this size.
D10 is also termed as effective size or effective diameter

ir
lS
a. Coefficient of uniformity (Cu)

pa
D60
Cu =

s
D10

Ja
For well graded sand, Cu > 6
For well graded gravel, Cu > 4
For uniformly graded coarse grained soil Cu ≈ 1

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Coefficient of curvature (Cc)
It signifies the shape of particle size distribution curve.

ir
(D30)2

lS
Cc =
D10 .D60

pa
Cc > 3 or Cc < 1 → Gap graded soil

s
Ja
For well graded coarse grained soil,
Cc ⟶ 1 to 3 i.e. 1≤ Cc ≤ 3

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A soil sample is subjected to laboratory sieve analysis using a complete set of
standard Is sieves. Out of 3 Kg of soil used in the test, 1200 gm was retained on IS 600
micron sieve. 1500 gm was retained on IS 500 micron sieve and the remaining 300 gm
was retained on IS 425 micron sieve. The uniformity coefficient for the soil is
[ SSC JE 2018]
a. 1.2 .

ir
b. 1.41

lS
c. 0.71

pa
d. 0.85

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The coefficient of gradation and the coefficient of uniformity of a given soil sample is
1.0 and 4.0 respectively. The ratio of effective size to the diameter through which 30% of
the total mass is passed is ?
[ SSC JE 2017]
a. 1.25
b. 1.5

ir
c. 1.75

lS
d. 2 .

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Uniformity coefficient of soil is
[ SSC JE 2010]
a. Always less than 1
b. Always equal to 1
c. Equal to or less than 1

ir
d. Equal to or greater than 1 .

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The coefficient of curvature for well graded soil must be in range:
[ SSC JE 2010]
a. 0.5 – 1.0
b. 3.0 – 4.0
c. 4.0 – 5.0

ir
d. None of the above .

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Uniformity coefficient of well graded soil is
[ SSC JE 2008]
a. Less than 2
b. Greater than 2
c. Greater than 6 .

ir
d. None of the above

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 CONSISTENCY OF SOIL
• It is the relative ease with which soil can be deformed.
• This term generally used for fine grained soil to signifies degree of firmness
of soil.

ir
• The addition of water reduces the cohesion making the soil still easier to

lS
mould.

s pa
Ja
• Atterberg analysed this in 4 stages of consistency i.e solid state, semi-solid
state, plastic state, liquid state.

• The water content at which soil passes from one stage of consistency to
another stage is termed as consistency limit ( Atterberg’s limit).
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 CONSISTENCY CURVE ( ATTERBERG’S CURVES)

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• If soil is partially saturated, any change in water content does not leads to change in its
volume of voids, volume of soils, e or n.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja
• Slope of stress – strain curve represents strength.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 CONSISTENCY ( ATTERBERG’S LIMITS)
Liquid limit (WL)
• It is defined as minimum water content at which soil has tendency to flow, at this state
soil passes from liquid state of consistency to plastic state of consistency & vice versa.
• At liquid limit all soil posses some negligible shear strength of 2.7 KN/𝑚2 , which can

ir
just measured.

lS
Type of soil WL(%)

pa
Gravel Non – Plastic

s
Sand Non – Plastic

Ja
Silt 30 – 40
Clay (Alluvial soil) 40 – 150
Clay (Black soil) 400 – 500
Clay (Bentonite soil) 500 -800
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Higher is the WL of the soil, higher Its compressibility(volume change).
• The tool used for cutting the soil may be ‘CASSAGRANDE TOOL OR ASTM TOOL’.
Test to find liquid limit (Cassagrande test)

• About 120 gm of soil passing through 425μ sieve is mixed with sufficient water so as to form
a uniform paste from it .

ir
• A portion of the soil is placed in the cup and a groove of standard size is made in it

lS
• The handle is rotated at the rate of about 2 revolution per second and no of blows required

pa
to flow the soil by the distance of (1/2’) is noted

s
• About 10 gm of soil from near the closed groove is taken for determination of water content

Ja
• Test is repeated at different water content and corresponding no of blows to flow the soil by
the distance of 1/2 inch is noted.
• The result of test is then noted / plotted in the form of curve termed as ‘flow curve’ and
water content corresponding to 25 no of blows to flow the soil by distance of ½ inch is
interpolated and termed as liquid limit.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Note : In some cases, soil slips instead of flowing in the test, the result of such test is
discarded
• In flow curve, water content is marked on y-axis & corresponding number of blows
mark on x-axis on log scale
• Test is repeated such that no of blows range from 20-50

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Groove Cassagrande tool ASTM tool
Bottom width 2mm 2mm
Top width 11mm 13.5mm
Height 8mm 10mm
• Remarks : ASTM tool is suitable for more sandy soil where Cassagrande tool tends to
tear the sides of groove.

ir
lS
• The slope of flow curve is termed as flow index which signifies rate of loss of shear

pa
strength of soil with increase in water content.
• Higher the value of If , lower is the shear strength.

s
Ja
W1 − W2
Flow index I𝑓 =
log10N2 − log10N1

Flow index I𝑓 =W10 - W100

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
pa
• For the graph below, If1 > If2

s
(shear strength)1 < (shear strength)2
Ja
1
Flow index I𝑓 ∝
Shear strength
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja
N 𝑥
WL = WN { }
25

Where, x = 0.068 – 0.121

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Alternatively, liquid limit can also be found by IS code method (IS 2720)

WN
WL =
1.3213 − 0.23log10N

• Liquid limit can also be found by ‘Static cone penetration test’

• It consists of static cone penetration having central cone angle of 31° & sliding mass of

ir
lS
80gms

pa
Note : Here, also liquid limit can be found by one point method,

s
Wx

Ja
WL =
0.77log10x
Where, x= penetration of cone in ‘mm’ into the sample at water content of ‘w’.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Casagrande Apparatus is used to determine __________ [SSC JE 2017]
a. Liquid limit .
b. Plastic limit
c. Shear strength
d. Shrinkage limit

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Identify the consistency limit corresponding to the smallest water content at which
the soil is still in liquid state [SSC JE 2020]
a. Plastic limit .
b. Consistency index
c. Shrinkage limit
d. Liquid limit .

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Match list-I with list-II and select the correct answer using codes [IES 2004]
List-I List-II
A. Cassagrande’s apparatus 1. Determination of grain size
distribution
B. Hydrometer 2. Consolidation characteristics
C. Plate load test 3. Determination of

ir
lS
consistency limits

pa
D. Oedometer 4. Determination of safe
bearing capacity of soil

s
Ja
A B C D
a. 1 3 2 4
b. 1 3 4 2
c. 3 1 2 4
d. 3 1 4 2.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Plastic limit (Wp)
• It is defined as minimum water content at which soil is in plastic stage of consistency or
behaves like a plastic material
• At plastic limit, soil passes from plastic state of consistency to semi-solid state of
consistency & vice versa.
Type of soil Wp(%)

ir
lS
Gravel Non – Plastic
Sand Non – Plastic

pa
Clay (Alluvial soil) 25 – 50

s
Ja
Clay (Black soil) 200 – 250
Silt 20 - 25
Note: Plasticity is the property of the soil which allows it to be deformed rapidly without
elastic rebound, without volume change & without rupture.
• The plasticity of fine grained soil is due to the presence of charge over the surface of
particle & bipolar
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instantnature of water.
maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Plastic limit determination

• From determination point of view, Plastic Limit is defined as minimum water content at
which soil just began to crumble or crack, when rolled in a thread of 3mm diameter.
• 15 gm air dried sample soil passing through 4.25𝜇 sieve is mixed with sufficient amount
of water so as to make it plastic

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following properties of clays X and Y

Properties Clay X (%) Clay Y (%)

Liquid limit 42 56
Plastic limit 20 34
Natural water 30 50

ir
content

lS
pa
Which of the clays X or Y experiences larger settlement under identical loads is more

s
plastic and is softer in consistency? [IES 2009]

Ja
a. X, Y and X
b. Y, X and X
c. Y, X and Y .
d. X, X and Y
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shrinkage Limit (Ws)
• It is defined as maximum water content at which further reduction in the water content
of the soil does not leads to reduction in the volume of soil, as below shrinkage limit
replacement of the water by air in equal volume takes place while reducing the water
content.

ir
• It may also defined as min water content at which soil is completely saturated

lS
1
Shrinkage limit ∝

pa
Volume change

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Note : shrinkage limits governs the compressibility of the soil, higher is the
shrinkage limit, lower is the compressibility or volume changes limit

• Note : If Ws1 → shrinkage limit of soil 1

ir
If Ws2 → shrinkage limit of soil 2

lS
⇛ Ws1 < Ws2

pa
Then, volume change of soil 1 is more than volume change of soil 2

s
Ja
i.e. volume change soil1 > soil2
Ws1 < Ws2
Shrinkage limit (Ws) governs the compressibility of soil i.e. higher is the
shrinkage limit, lower the compressibility
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• For soil to have higher compressibility it have lower shrinkage limit & higher
liquid limit.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shrinkage limit determination
• Consider a soil sample having water content more than shrinkage limit.
Let its mass & volume be M1 , V1
• The soil is subjected to drying as a result of which its volume decreases. At a particular
stage of drying, When its water content is equal to its shrinkage limit, its mass & volume
is M2 & V2 .

ir
lS
• On complete drying, let its mass & vol. be like Md & Vd

s pa
Ja
V1 −Vd
Ws = W1 – { } 𝜌w
Md
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• To find shrinkage limit, 30gms of soil passing through 425𝜇 sieve is mixed with water
content greater than shrinkage limit & following test is performed

𝜌w 𝜌w e
Ws = − Ws =
𝜌d 𝜌s G

Ms

ir
Note : G = ; Ms = Md

lS
Vs .ρw
M1 −Md
Volume of solids (Vs) = V1 – { }

pa
ρw

s
Md

Ja
G=
V1.ρw −( M1 −Md)

Specific Gravity can also be found by the data of shrinkage limit.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shrinkage Index

• It is the range of consistency in which soil is in semi- solid state of

consistency.

ir
lS
• It is defined as numerical difference of plastic limit & shrinkage limit.

s pa
Ja
Is = Wp - Ws

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shrinkage Ratio (R)
• It is defined as ratio of decrease in volume of soil expressed as a% of its dry volume to
the corresponding change in its water content above the shrinkage limit.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
V1 −V2
Vd
S.R or R = x 100
W1 −W2
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• If water content is reduced upto shrinkage limit, W2 = Ws & V2 = Vd

V1 −Vd
Vd
S.R or R = x 100
W1 −Ws

ir
lS
pa
1 1
Ws = -
R G

s
Ja
V1 −V2 ρw V1 .ρw V2 .ρw
• Note : W1 –W2 = = -
Ms Ms Ms
V1 .ρw V2 .ρw
= -
Md Md
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The plastic limit & liquid limit of a soil are 30% & 42% respectively. The percentage
volume change from liquid limit to dry state is 35% of the dry volume similarly the
percentage vol. change from plastic limit to dry state is 22% of the dry volume. The
shrinkage ratio will be nearly [IES 2019]
a. 4.2
b. 3.1

ir
c. 2.2

lS
d. 1.1 .

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A saturated specimen of clay was immersed in mercury and displaced volume was
21.8 cc. The weight of the sample was 32.2 gm. After oven drying for 48 hors, weight
reduced to 20.2 gm while volume came down to 11.6 cc . The shrinkage limit of soil is
[IES 2015]
a. 7.9%
b. 8.0%

ir
lS
c. 8.9% .

pa
d. 9.8%

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A clay sample has a void ratio of 0.5 in dry state and specific gravity of solids = 2.70.
Its shrinkage limit will be
[IES 1996]
a. 12%
b. 13.5%

ir
c. 18.5% .

lS
d. 22%

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. In shrinkage limit test the volume & mass of a dry soil pat are found to be 50 𝑐𝑚3 &
88 gm respectively the sp. Gravity of the soil solids is 2.71 & the density of water is
1gm/cc .The shrinkage limit in % up to two decimal place is _____ [GATE 2018]

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Volumetric Shrinkage (Vs)
• It is defined as decrease in volume of soil expressed as the % of its dry
volume when water content is reduced from its given value up to shrinkage
limit

ir
V1 −Vd

lS
Vs = x 100
Vd

s pa
Ja
Vs = (W1 – Ws) R

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Linear Shrinkage (LS)
• It is defined as decrease in one dimension of the soil expressed as % of its
original dimension when water content is reduced from its given value up
to shrinkage limit.

ir
lS
• In case of soil, linear dimension is considered as the thickness (as area of
soil is infinite)

s pa
Ja
100 1/3
LS = 100 { 1- [ ] }
100+Vs

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Plasticity index (Ip)
• It is the range of consistency in which soil exhibits plastic properties or behave like
plastic material.
𝑰𝑷 = 𝑾𝑳 − 𝑾𝑷

ir
• LL, PL and plasticity index are all dependent upon type & amount of clay mineral

lS
Note : Table 1

s pa
Ip Description

Ja
0 Non plastic
<7 Low plastic
7-17 Medium plastic
>17 Highly plastic
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Table 2 Type of soil Ip
Gravel 0
Sand 0
Silt 10-15
Clay(Alluvial) 15-100

ir
Clay(Black cotton) 100-250

lS
pa
• For sand & gravel, plastic limit is not attained hence, they are reported as non-plastic
soil.

s
Ja
• If plastic limit of the soil comes equal or grater than liquid limit then plasticity index
reported as zero.
I x + Ip2 x2
(IP)mix = p1 1
x1 + x2
x1 , x2 = prop. Of soils present
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The liquid limit & plastic limit of the soil is given as 45% & 22% respectively . The
plasticity index of the soil would be_______ [SSC JE 2017]
a. 0.2
b. 0.23 .
c. 0.5
d. 0.67

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Consistency Index / Relative consistency
• In- situ behavior of saturated fine grained soil at its natural water content is
represented by consistency index.
W –𝑊 W −𝑊
Ic = L 𝑁 = L 𝑁
IP WL –𝑊𝑃

ir
Case 1 : If WN > WL ⟶ liquid, Ic < 0

lS
pa
Case 2 : if WN < WL ⟶ Soil is in solid or semi solid state of consistency

s
Ja
consistency , 𝐼𝑐 > 1

Case 3 : if Wp< WN < WL ⟶ Plastic state of

consistency , 0≤ 𝐼𝑐 ≤ 1

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Liquidity Index / Water plasticity ratio
• Its significance is some as that of consistency index.

• It is defined as the ratio of difference of natural water content (WN) & plastic limit to
the plasticity index. 𝑊 –𝑊 𝑊 −𝑊
Ic = 𝑁 𝑃 = 𝑁 𝑃

ir
IP WL –𝑊𝑃

lS
pa
Ic + Ip =1

s
Ja
• Case 1: If WN > WL ⟶ Liquid, IL > 1

• Case 2 : If WN < Wp ⟶ Solid or semi solid, IL < 0

• Case 3 : If Wp < WN < WL ⟶ Plastic, 0 ≤ IL ≤ 1

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Note : Consistency Description Ic IL UCS
stage (Kg/𝒄𝒎𝟑 )
Liquid Liquid <0 >1 -
Plastic Very soft 0 – 0.25 1 – 0.75 0 – 0.25
Soft 0.25 – 0.5 0.75 – 0.5 0.25 – 0.50
Medium 0.5 – 0.75 0.5 – 0.25 0.5 – 1

ir
stiff 0.75 – 1 0.25 - 0 1–2

lS
Stiff

pa
Semi solids Very stiff to >1 <0 2–4
hard

s
Ja
solid Hard To very >1 <0 >4
hard
Unconfined compressive strength (UCS)
It is defined as the load per unit area at which unconfined specimen of soil of standard
dimension fail in simple compression test.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Toughness Index
• It represents the shear strength of the soil at its plastic limit.

Ip
IT =
If

ir
• Generally , 0 ≤ IT ≤ 3 But if IT < 1 soil is considered to be easily friable ( crumble) at

lS
plastic limit.

pa
Note :

s
Ja
a. Compressibility / Volume change / Shrinkage ⟶ WL, Ws, Is
b. Plasticity ⟶ Wp, Ip
c. Rate of loss of shear strength ⟶ If or shear strength
d. In situ behaviour of fine grained soil ⟶ Ic, IL
e. Shear strength at plastic limit ⟶ IT
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
General relationship between Atterberg’s limit & Engineering
properties

Characteristics Comparing soi at Comparing soil at

equal WL with Ip equal Ip with WL
increases increases

ir
lS
Dry strength Increases Decreases

pa
Toughness index near Increases Decreases

s
Wp

Ja
Compressibility Almost constant Increases
Permeability Decreases Increases
Rate of volume Decreases Increases
change
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A soil sample liquid limit of 60% plastic limit of 35% and shrinkage limit of 20% and it
has a natural moisture content of 50%. The liquidity index of soil is [IES 1996]
a. 1.5
b. 1.25
c. 0.6 .

ir
d. 0.4

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sensitivity
• Consistency of undisturbed sample of clay may change upon remoulding even at the
same water content.
• This change in consistency or decrease in degree of firmness or decrease in shear
strength takes place due to the following reasons.
i. Due to permanent destruction of soil solids upon remoulding (due to breaking of

ir
lS
intermolecular bonds)
ii. Due to reorientation of the water molecule in the adsorbed layer of soil solids.

pa
• This loss in strength is represents in terms of its sensitivity which signifies degree of

s
Ja
disturbance of soil sample upon remoulding.
• It is defined as ratio of UCS in undisturbed / Natural state to UCS of soft in remoulded
state eg: piling in clay

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 (UCS) 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑
S=
(UCS)𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑑

ir
lS
pa
Sensitivity Description

s
Ja
<1 In sensitive (honeycomb)
1–4 Less sensitive/Normal sensitive
4–8 Sensitive(Flocculant/honeycomb
)
8 – 16 Extra sensitive(Flocculant)
> 16 for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" Unstable/Quick
Q. Four times in the remoulded state then its sensitivity will be [IES 1999]
a. 1
b. 2
c. 4 .
d. 8

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Thixotrophy
• Over a period of time, soil regains a part of the lost strength on the account of
remoulding due to rehabilitation of water molecule in the adsorbed layer of soil to
attain chemical equilibrium.
• This property of soil by virtue of which it attains or regains a part of its lost strength is
termed as thixotrophy.

ir
• Higher the sensitivity of soil, higher its thixotrophy hardening. This property is

lS
important where construction activities involve.

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The property of clays by virtue of which they regain, if left alone for a time apart of
the strength lost due to remoulding at unaltered moisture content, is known as ,
[IES 2019]
a. Thixotropy.
b. Sensitivity
c. Consistency

ir
lS
d. activity

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Activity
• The behaviour or plasticity of soil depends upon type of mineral, amount of mineral &
amount of water present in adsorbed layer of the soil.
• Skempton defined a parameter termed as activity which represents the compressibility
or vol. changes in soil with change in water content.
Ip

ir
At =

lS
C

pa
Where, C = % of particles finer than 2𝜇

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Activity Description
< 0.75 Inactive
0.75 – 1.25 Normal
> 1.25 Active

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Clay mineral Activity
Kaolinite 0.4 – 0.5
Illite 0.5 – 1.0

ir
Montmorillonite 1-7

lS
Na - Montmorillonite 4 – 7(7.2)

pa
Ca - Montmorillonite 1.5

s
Ja
Note : Highly active soils are not suitable for construction activity. e.g. black
cotton soil.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statements
1. Activity is a property typical of clay soil
2. An activity value of 7 in a clay soil is indicative of presence of montmorillonite
mineral
3. An activity value of 7 in a clay soil is indicative of the presence of illite mineral
Which of these statements are correct? [IES 2013]

ir
lS
a. 1,2&3

pa
b. 1 & 2 only .

s
c. 1 & 3 only

Ja
d. 2 & 3 only

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A fine grained soil has 60% (by weight) silt content. The soil behaves as semi solids
when water content is between 15% & 28% . The soil behaves fluid like when the water
content is more than 40% . The activity of the soil is [GATE 2015]
a. 3.33
b. 0.42
c. 0.30 .

ir
lS
d. 0.20

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The laboratory test on a soil sample yields the following results natural moisture
content = 18% , liquid limit = 60% , Plastic limit = 25% percentage of clay sized fraction =
25% .The liquidity index & activity ( as per the expression proposed by skempton) of the
soil respectively are, [GATE 2017]
a. -0.2 & 1.4 .
b. 0.2 & 1.4

ir
c. - 1.2 & 0.714

lS
d. 1.2 & 0.714

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Activity of soil is ratio of the plasticity index to [SSC JE 2020]
a. Percentage by weight of clay fraction .
b. Percentage of sensitivity
c. Liquidity index
d. Percentage of compressive strength

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Collapsibility
• The soil which shows large decrease in its volume due to increase in its water content
without any increase in external pressure or load are termed as collapsable soil. e.g.
loess soil, sand dunes, fine sand & silt , slightly cemented due to the presence of Ca .
∆ V ∆H ∆e
CP = = =
Vo Ho 1+eo

ir
lS
• All collapsible soils are characterised with bulky coarse grained solids loosely held by
capillary forces.

pa
Collapse potential (CP) Severity of problem

s
Ja
0 – 1% No problem
1 – 5% Moderate problem
5 – 10% Trouble
10 – 20% Severe trouble
> 20% Very severe trouble
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Difference between organic & inorganic soil
• Liquid limit of inorganic soil not of volcanic origin rarely has volume
greater than 100%

• Organic soil have generally high value of liquid limit (>50%) but their

ir
lS
plastic limit is also comparatively high, hence their plasticity index value

pa
are not as high as its liquid limit.

s
Ja
• For organic clay , liquid limit of oven dried sample is 0.7 times less than the
liquid limit of air dried sample.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. What is the terminal velocity (m/s) for a 4g particle which is falling in the water with
projected area of 5 sq . Cm ? The coefficient drag is given as 0.47 [SSC JE 2017]
a. 0.58 .
b. 5.2
c. 7.5

ir
d. 10

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE SOIL
• Classification of soil is done in order to arrange the soils into different groups on the
basis of its engineering properties.
• Generally soil classification soil classification done on the basis of simple index
properties. The most commonly used properties are Grain size distribution curve.
• It can be done by any of the following methods.

ir
lS
Particle size classification

pa
• In this method, soil is classified on the basis of its particle size composition & is termed

s
as clay, silt, sand, gravel, pebble & boulder

Ja
a. Clay : d < 2𝜇

b. Silt: 2𝜇 ≤ d ≤ 75𝜇

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Fine silt 2𝜇 ≤ d < 10𝜇
• Medium silt 10𝜇 ≤ d ≤ 20𝜇
• Coarse silt 20𝜇 ≤ d ≤ 75𝜇

c. Sand: 75𝜇 ≤ d ≤ 4.75mm

• Fine sand 2𝜇 ≤ d < 0.425mm

ir
• Medium sand

lS
0.425mm ≤ d ≤ 2mm
• Coarse sand 2mm ≤ d ≤4.75mm

s pa
Ja
d. Gravel: 4.75mm ≤ d ≤ 80mm
• Fine gravel 4.75mm ≤ d < 20mm
• Coarse gravel 20mm ≤ d ≤ 80mm
e. Pebble : 80mm ≤ d ≤ 300mm
f. Boulder: d ≥ 300mm
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Textural chart classification
• In this method, classification of soil is done on the basis of relative % of
clay, silt & sand present in the soil which is further read from the textural
chart.

• This method is suitable for describing the coarse grained soil rather than

ir
lS
clay soils property of which are less dependent upon particle size

pa
distribution.

s
Ja
• To use the chart for the given % of three constituents forming a soil, lines
are drawn parallel to the three sides of an equilateral ∆ & their common
point of intersection is noted to fall in a particular region of the textural
chart.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Highway Research Board Classification System
• It is also termed as Public Road Administration classification (PRA) system, which is
generally used for classification of soils used for pavement construction.
• In this method soil is divided into 7 main groups which is further divided into several
subgroups.
• The higher the value of ‘Group Index’(GI), poorer is the quality of the material used for

ir
the pavement construction

lS
• Group Index depends upon

pa
i. Liquid limit

s
Ja
ii. Plastic limit
iii. % of the particle passing through 75𝜇 sieve.

GI = 0.2a + 0.01bd + 0.005ac

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Where,
a = Portion of 1% passing through 75𝜇 sieve greater than 35 but not exceeding 75.
Expressed as a whole no. between 0-40
b = Portion of % passing through 75𝜇 sieve greater than 15 but nit exceeding 55,
Expressed as a whole no. between 0-40
c = Portion of numerical liquid limit greater than 40 but not exceeding 60, expressed as

ir
whole no. between 0-20

lS
d = Portion of numerical plasticity index greater than 10 but not exceeding 10 expressed

pa
as whole number between 0-20

s
GI Quality of materials

Ja
0–4 Excellent to good
4 - 20 Average to poor or fair
Note : When a = b = c = d = 0 , GImin = 0
When a = b = 40 , c = d = 20, GImax =20
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Indian Soil Classification System
• In this system, classification of soil is done on the basis of

a. Particle size distribution

b. Plasticity characteristics

ir
lS
c. Compressibility

s pa
• In this method soil is classified in broadly two categories

a. Coarse grained soil Ja

b. Fine grained soil
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Step 1 : Find out type of soil (i.e. CGS/FGS)
Coarse grained soil, if 50% or more soil fraction are greater than 75𝜇 (or retained on 75𝜇
sieve)
Fine grained soil, if 50% or more soil fraction are lesser than 75𝜇 (or passes through 75𝜇
sieve)

ir
lS
Step 2 : Classification of coarse grained soil

pa
a) Gravel(G) b) Sand(S)

s
Ja
Gravel(G) – If 50% or more of coarse fraction (having size > 75𝜇) have size > 4.75mm ( or
retained on the 4.75mm sieve)

Sand(S) – If less than 50% of coarse fraction (having size > 75𝜇) have size < 4.75mm (or
passes through 4.75mm sieve)
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• If gravel fraction ≥ Sand fraction
→ Gravel (G)
( d ≥ 4.75 ) ( 4.75 < d ≤ 75𝜇)

• If sand fraction > gravel fraction

ir
→ Sand (S)

lS
( 4.75 < d < 75𝜇) ( d ≥ 4.75 )

s pa
Ja
In this system, coarse grained soil is further classified on the basis of % fineness.

% fineness means → Particles finer than 75𝜇

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Step 3 : When % fineness > 12% we indicate gradation of soil only
GW well graded gravel
G ( Cu > 4 , 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3 )
GP Poorly graded gravel When G ≥ S
( Cu < 4 , Cc < 1 or Cc > 3 )

ir
lS
SW well graded sand

pa
G ( Cu > 6 , 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3 )

s
SP Poorly graded sand When S > G

Ja
( Cu < 6 , Cc < 1 or Cc > 3 )

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Case 2 When % fineness > 12% we indicate type of fine grained soil also

GC Clayey gravel → C>M

( IP > 7 or above A-line )
G GM silty gravel → M>C When G ≥ S

ir
( Ip < 4 or below A-line )

lS
GM - GC Silty clayey gravel → C≃M

pa
( 4 ≤ Ip ≤ 7 )

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 SC Clayey sand → C>M
( IP > 7 or above A-line )
S SM silty sand → M>C When S ≥ G

ir
( Ip < 4 or below A-line )

lS
SM - SC Silty clayey sand → M≃C

pa
( 4 ≤ Ip ≤ 7 )

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• When % fineness between 5-12% we indicate both gradation & fine grained soil dual
notation.
Gravel

GW – GC Well graded gravel with clay → C > M

( Cu > 4, 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3, Ip > 7 )
GP - GM Poorly graded gravel with silt → M>C

ir
lS
( Cu < 4, Cc < 1 or Cc > 3, Ip < 4 )

pa
GW – GM Well graded gravel with silt → M>C When G ≥ S

s
( Cu > 4, 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3, Ip < 4 )

Ja
GP – GC Poorly graded gravel with clay → C > M
( Cu < 4, Cc < 1 or Cc > 3, Ip > 7 )

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Note : % fineness between 5 – 12% and Ip between 4 – 7. In such cases non plastic
classification is favoured.

Sand

SW – SC Well graded sand with clay → C > M

( Cu > 6, 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3, Ip > 7 )

ir
SP - SC Poorly graded sand with clay → C>M

lS
( Cu > 6, Cc < 1 or Cc > 3, Ip > 7 )

pa
SW – SM Well graded sand with silt → M>C When S > G

s
( Cu > 6, 1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3, Ip < 4 )

Ja
SP – SM Poorly graded sand with silt → M > C
( Cu < 6, Cc < 1 or Cc > 3, Ip < 4 )

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Step 4: Classification of fine grained soil (FGS)
• Fine grained soil → If more than 50% soil fraction have size smaller than 75𝜇
FGS are further classified in three types
a) Clay (C) b) Silt (M) c) Organic soil (O)
• Fine grained soil again classified on the basis of their compressibility :

ir
High compressible soil (H) , WL > 50%

lS
Intermediate compressible soil (I) , 35% ≤ WL ≤ 50%

pa
Low compressible soil (L) , WL < 35%

s
Ja
CH → High compressible clay
CI → Intermediate compressible clay CLAY
CL → Low compressible clay

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
MH → High compressible silt
MI → Intermediate compressible silt SILT
ML → Low compressible silt

OH → High compressible organic soil

ir
OI → Intermediate compressible organic soil ORGANIC SOIL

lS
OL → Low compressible organic soil

s pa
• In order to separate inorganic clay from silt & organic soil, ‘ A- Casagrande’ defined a

Ja
line termed as A-line which shows relationship between plasticity index and liquid
limit of soil
Soil above A-line → Clay
Soil below A-line → Silt or Organic soil

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Equation of A-line,

Ip = 0.73 ( WL – 20 )

• In order to mark the presence of upper limit of soil A-line termed as U-line
is defined, which also shows relationship between Ip & WL

ir
lS
• No soil exists above U-line

s pa
Ja
Equation of U-line,

Ip = 0.9 ( WL – 8 )

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Plasticity Chart

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The suitability number of a backfill for D50 = 1mm , D20 = 0.5mm and D10 = 0.08mm
will be nearly, [IES 2020]
a. 16
b. 18
c. 20

ir
d. 22 .

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The standard plasticity chart by Casagrande to classify fine-grained soil is shown in the
figure.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
The area marked P represents -
a. Inorganic clays of high plasticity .
b. Organic clays and highly plastic organic silts
c. Organic and inorganic silts and silt clays
d. Clays
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider a soil sample, for which test yield the following results:
Passing 75𝜇 sieve - 62%
Liquid limit - 35%
Plasticity index - 14%
As per the group index classification of soil, what is the soil condition of the above soil

ir
sample ?

lS
a. Poor .

pa
b. Fair

s
c. Good

Ja
d. Excellent

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A fine grained soil is found to be plastic in water content range of 26 – 48% . As per
Indian standard classification system, the soil is classified as,
a. CL
b. CH
c. CL – ML

ir
d. CI .

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The laboratory test results of a soil sample are given below,
Percentage finer than 4.25 mm = 60,
Percentage finer than 0.075 mm = 30,
Liquid limit = 35%, Plastic limit = 27%
The soil classification is

ir
a. GM .

lS
b. SM

pa
c. GC

s
d. ML - MI

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A fine grained soil has liquid limit of 60 and plastic limit if 20 . As per the plasticity
chart, according to IS classification, the soil is represented by the latter symbols.
a. CL
b. CI
c. CH .
d. CL - ML

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Which of the following expressions represents the correct value of coefficient of
curvature ?
(D30)2
a. Cc = .
D60 x D10
(D60)2
b. Cc =
D30 x D10
(D10)2

ir
c. Cc =
D60 x D30

lS
D30
d. Cc =

pa
D60 x D10

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The coefficient of gradation and the coefficient of uniformity of a given sample is 1.0
and 4.0 respectively . The ratio of effective size to the diameter through which 30% of
the total mass is passed is ______
a. 1.25
b. 1.5
c. 1.75

ir
lS
d. 2 .

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 SOIL STRUCTURE
• The arrangement of soil particles in the soil mass is termed as structure of soil.
• A given sample of soil may have any of the following structure.
Coarse Grained Structure / Single Grained Structure
• This type of structure is formed for the soil having particle size > 0.02mm i.e Gravel,

ir
Sand, Coarse silt.

lS
• In the formation of these structure, gravitational forces plays predominant role & surface

pa
electrical force are insignificant as the result of which soil particles when settles down in

s
suspension under the effect of their own wt. tends to come in contact with other

Ja
particles leading to particle to particle contact.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Honeycomb Structure
• This type of structure is found for the soil having particle size in the range ( 0.2𝜇 –
0.02mm ) i.e. for silt & clay.
• In the formation of these structure both gravitational force & surface electrical forces
plays equally important role , as a result of which when the particles settles under the
effect of their own weight in suspension, surface electrical forces hold them in contact
with each other in the form of clusters of honeycomb enclosing large vol. of voids

ir
between them.

lS
• If the structure is unbroken it possess high strength & permeability but once it is broken

pa
both strength & permeability decreases

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Flocculant and Dispersed Structure

• This type of structure is formed if size of particle is < 0.2𝜇 fine clays &
colloids.

• In the formation of these structures, surface electrical force plays the

ir
lS
predominant role & gravitational forces are insignificant.

s pa
• The particles of fine grained soil in which this type of structure is formed are

Ja
flaky in nature & carries surface electric charge which I generally positive at
edge & negative at the centre.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Flocculant Structure
• If the net force during the deposition between these particles are
attractive they are aligned into head to head or head to face orientation
termed as flocculant structure.
• These structures are found to have high strength and low compressibility
& high permeability.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Dispersed Structure
• If the net force between these particles is repulsive during deposition,
they are aligned into face to face orientation termed as dispersed
structure.
• These structures are found to have low strength, low permeability & high
compressibility.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Note : Tendency of formation of flocculant structure use increases,
a. With increase in
• Concentration of electrolyte
• Valency of ion
• Temperature

ir
b. Increases with decrease in

lS
• Dielectric constant of the medium

pa
• Size of ion

s
Ja
• PH
• Anion adsorption
• Hence e.g. marine clay is found to have flocculant structure & lacustrine
clay is found to have dispersed structure
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Structure Of Composite Soil
• Structure of composite soil depends upon relative proportion of coarse
and fine grained particles in it.

• According which , these are classified as

ir
lS
pa
a. Coarse grained skeleton structure

s
Ja
b. Cohesive matrix

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Coarse Grained Skeleton
Structure
• This structure is formed when relative % of coarse

ir
grained particle is more than fine grained particles.

lS
• Voids of coarse grained structure are filled with fine

pa
grained particles.

s
• In this case, coarse grained particle acts as load

Ja
bearing member & results in formation of low
compressible soil.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Cohesive Matrix

ir
lS
• This structure is formed when relative % of

pa
fine grained particle is more than coarse

s
grained particle , due to which coarse grained

Ja
particles are not in contact with each other.
• In this case, fine grained particles acts as load
bearing members & results in formation of
high compressible soil.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 CLAY MINEROLOGY
• The clay material are basically composed of tiny crystalline structure
substance of one or more members of a small group of minerals termed
as clay mineral.
• These clay mineral are evolved mainly from chemical weathering of

ir
lS
certain rocks forming minerals.
• These minerals are hydrous aluminosilicates with other metallic ions.

pa
• These clay minerals on the basis of their crystalline arrangement can be

s
Ja
divided into following groups

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Name of Mineral & Group Structural formula
1. Kaoline Group
a. Kaollinite (OH)4 Al4 .Si4 .O10
(1 : 1 Mineral)

ir
b. Halloysite (OH)4. Al4 . Si4 . O10 . 4H2O

lS
2. Montomorillonite Group

pa
a. Montomorillonite ( 2 : 1 mineral) (OH)4. Al4 . Six . O20 . nH2O

s
3. Illite Group

Ja
a. Illite ( 2 : 1 mineral) (OH)4. Ky(Six-y . Aly) . Al4 . Mg6 . Fe4

• All the clay minerals are found to have following fundamental building
blocks.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Silica Tetrahedral Unit
• In this unit, four oxygen atoms encloses silica at the center of the
tetrahedron geometry with all the oxygen at the base of the tetrahedron
lying in the same common plane & is shared by 2-tetrahedral units
• Charge present over tetrahedron units is ‘-1’

ir
• It is symbolically represented as trapeziums.

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Octahedron Unit (Octrahedral)
Element at the centre Name of the unit

Aluminum (Al) Gibbsite

Iron (Fe) Ferrite

ir
lS
Magnesium(Mg) Brucite

pa
• Net charge present over gibbsite unit is ‘+1’.

s
Ja
• It is symbolically represented by rectangle.
• Here each hydroxyl atom is shared between 3 units.
• Clay mineral is formed by different proportions
of silica and octahedral units.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Kaolinite(1:1 mineral)
• There exist a strong hydrogen bond between the silica unit and octahedral
unit
• Since the hydrogen bond is strong, kaolinite mineral has good strength
• It has low compressibility

ir
lS
• China clay is the product of kaolinite

pa
• Its plasticity index (Ip) is approximately 15

s
• Kaolinite mineral is electrically neutral but it may show negative charge in

Ja
presence of water due to isomorphous substitution.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Montmorillonite (2:1 mineral)
• There exists weak water bond between the silica units and the octahedral
units
• Since weak water bond is present, it has lesser strength than kaolinite
mineral

ir
lS
• It exhibits high compressibility, swelling and shrinkage properties.

pa
• Total thickness of this unit may extend upto 3 mm

s
• Its plasticity index is approximately 0.

Ja
• It is generally found in Black cotton soil
• Bentonite Clay and Alluvial Clay are other examples of montmorillonite.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Illite (2:1 mineral)
• There exists intermediate ionic bond between the silica units and the
octahedral units.
• The structure of Illite mineral is same as that of montmorillonite
• Total thickness of this unit is 30 nm approximately.

ir
lS
• Its plasticity index is approximately 30.

pa
• It is generally found in Laterite soil

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Properties Kaolinite Montmorillonite Illite

Grain size Maximum Minimum Intermediate

Swelling and Minimum Maximum Intermediate

ir
shrinkage

lS
properties

s pa
Plasticity index Minimum Maximum Intermediate

Dry strength Minimum Ja Maximum Intermediate

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Note : Base Exchange Capacity
• The ability of the clay particles to absorb ions ore cations on its surface and
edges is called base exchange method.
• This property is a function of mineral structure or the size of particle
• This base exchange capacity is measured in terms of weight of cations

ir
which may be held over the surface of 100 grams of dry soil.

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Mineral Base Exchange Capacity( in
eq/100 gm)

Kaolinite 3-8

Illite 40

ir
lS
Montmorillonite 80

s pa
• Cations can also be placed in order of their replacement ability as follows:

Ja
Li+ < Na+ < H+ < K+ < NH4+ < Mg+2 < Ca+2 < Al+3

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following clay minerals
1. Kaolinite
2. Illite
3. Montmorillonite

ir
Which one of the following is thew correct sequence of the minerals given

lS
above in the increasing order of their grain size? [IES 2006]

pa
a. 3-2-1.

s
Ja
b. 1-3-2
c. 1-2-3
d. 3-1-2

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The correct sequence of plasticity of minerals in soil in an increasing
order is [IES 2002]
a. Silica, Kaolinite, Illite, Montmorillonite.
b. Kaolinite, Silica, Illite, Montmorillonite
c. Silica, Kaolinite, Montmorillonite, Illite

ir
lS
d. Kaolinite. Silica, Montmorillonite, Illite

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Match List-I (Deposit) with List II (Soil structure) and select the correct
answer List I List II
[IES 2010]
Coarse Grained Soil Flocculated
Silt Deposit Cohesive Matrix
Clay Deposit Honeycomb
Composite Soil Single grain

ir
lS
Codes: A B C D

pa
a. 2 3 1 4

s
Ja
b. 4 3 1 2.
c. 2 1 3 4
d. 4 1 3 2

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Which one of the clay minerals has expansive properties?
[UPPSC AE 2007]
a. Halloysite
b. Antigorite
c. Kaolinite

ir
d. Montmorillonite.

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The clay mineral whose structural units are held together by potassium
bond is [GATE 2018]
a. Illite.
b. Halloysite
c. Kaolinite

ir
d. Smectite

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The clay mineral governing the swelling behaviour of black cotton soil is
[GATE 2014]
a. Illite.
b. Halloysite
c. Kaolinite

ir
d. Montmorillonite

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The shape of the clay particle is usually
[GATE 2014]
a. Angular
b. Flaky.
c. Tubular

ir
d. Rounded

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Clay is generally
[SSC JE 2014]
a. Cohesive.
b. Permeable
c. Having large particle size

ir
d. None of these

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Which of the following bonding is responsible to combine the silica-
gibbsite sheet in kaolinite clay mineral? [SSC JE 2017]
a. Covalent Bond
b. Hydrogen Bond.
c. Ionic Bond

ir
lS
d. Polar Covalent Bond

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 CAPILLARITY IN SOIL
• Capillary Water
• It is the water which is being lifted by capillary forces above the free surface level
• This water remains in suspension in the voids of the soil and fill it up to a certain distance
above the ground water table that is further classified into following zones:

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Zone of capillary saturation:
• It is the zone in which soil with 100% voids are filled with capillary water.
Zone of partial capillary saturation:
• It is the zone in which only small voids are filled with capillary water and
large voids are filled with air.

ir
lS
Zone of contact/Absorbed water:

pa
• It is the zone in which water surrounding the particles at contact point is
present, without having any continuity

s
Ja
Capillary Forces:
• It depends upon surface tension, pressure in water in relation to
atmospheric pressure and size and conformation of soil pores

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• It is the property which exist in the surface film of water which tends to
contract the contained volume into a form having minimum surface area .
• Since the water at surface is in tension, this property is termed as surface
tension

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Rise of the water in capillary tubes/ voids of the soil takes place up to an
extent when surface tension force is balanced by weight if the water in
capillary tube/ void of the soil

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• The capillary rise is given by
4.Ts.cos𝛼
hc =
𝛾w.d

where, Ts = surface tension

𝛼 = contact angle

ir
lS
d= diameter of capillary fringe

s pa
• For capillary rise to be maximum, cos 𝛼= 1 ⇒ 𝛼 = 0°

Ja
hc max =
4.Ts
𝛾w.d

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• At 20℃ , Ts = 72.8 x 10-8 KN/cm
0.29
hc max =
d

• At 4℃ , Ts = 75.8 x 10-8 KN/cm

ir
lS
0.3
hc max =

pa
d

s
Ja
[hc max is in cm]

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• With the rise in temperature, the height of the capillary rise decreases

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
4.Ts.cos𝛼 2.Ts
hc = hc =
𝛾w.d 𝛾w.R

Where, R = radius of meniscus

1
hc 𝛼
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
R
• With the increase in water content of the soil, the radius of meniscus
increases hence, height of capillary rise decreases in soil & when water
content rises to such an extent soil becomes completely saturated, radius
of meniscus becomes infinity hence height of capillary rise reduces to
zero.

ir
lS
• Capillarity is not found in saturated soil.

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• The tensile stress in capillary water is termed as Capillary tension/
Capillary potential / Soil suction / Pressure deficiency/ Suction

ir
pressure.

lS
• The capillary pressure induced on soil particle is compressive and this

pa
pressure is equal to capillary tension at the level of meniscus and

s
remains same throughout its height.

Ja
• The capillary pressure is transferred by grain to grain contact , hence
it tends to force the soil solids to come in closer state of contact and
is also termed as Effective Stress or Intergranular Pressure

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Due to Capillary rise in capillary
tube or voids of soils

ir
Surface tension in water

lS
develops

s pa
Ja
Transfer of tension to capillary
tube / soil solids

Development of Capillary
pressure
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Solids are in compression

ir
lS
Transfer of this compression
by grain to grain contact

pa
along full height hc

s
Grains come closer Ja
to each other and
denseness increases
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Factors Effecting Capillary Tension In Soil
Factors Capillary Tension

Particle Size (d) increases Decreases

Water content (w) increases Decreases

ir
lS
Plasticity Index (Ip) increases Increases

pa
Temperature increases Decreases

s
Ja
Denseness of soil (𝛾𝑑 ) Increases

Angle of Contact (𝛼) Decreases

Dissolved salts in pore water Increases

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Water can also be held by the surface tension at the point of contact
between the soil solids and capillary water in this form is termed as Contact
moisture.
• Tension present in water tends to force the soil solids in closer state of
contact giving rise to Contact Pressure, which in turn gives rise to

ir
phenomenon called apparent cohesion due to which soil may acquire

lS
strength.

pa
• The factors affecting contact pressure are:

s
i. Particle Size

Ja
ii. Density of Packing
iii. Angle of Contact
iv. Water Content
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• When soil is completely saturated , meniscus is destroyed, contact pressure
reduces to zero, hence there is no apparent cohesion.
• Since the size of voids, extent of packing, arrangement of particle is not
uniform, the theory of capillarity is not entirely valid in soils and hence
following modifications are to be applied analyse capillarity
a. The size of the voids may be assumed to be 20% of effective size of the

ir
solids i.e. d= 0.2D10

lS
20.Ts

pa
hc max =
𝛾w.D10

s
Ja
b. As per Allen Hazen, the capillarity in soil is given by
C
hc max =
𝑒 .D10
Where, C is a constant whose value ranges from 0.1 – 0.5 cm3

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 c. Capillarity in soil can be computed by assuming voids to be spherical
Vv ∝ d3
Vs ∝ D103 D = e1/3.D10

4.Ts
hc max =

ir
𝛾w. e1/3.D10

lS
• The values of capillary rise in different types of soil are given in the table

pa
below

s
Ja
Type of soil Capillary rise (in cm)
Gravel 2-10
Sand 10-100
Silt 100-1000
Clay 1000-3000
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Slaking Of Clay
• When sample of clay is dried below the shrinkage limit to its minimum
volume and suddenly immersed in water , it will cause its slaking (
disintegration into a soft wet mass)

ir
• The slaking is due to entry of air in the voids of clay during drying and

lS
water enters in these voids due to immersion, meniscus is formed, causing

pa
high pressure and finally disintegration and explosion of the voids.

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Bulking Of Sand
• If a dry mass of sand is moisturized slightly and then dumped loosely then
its volume increases considerably relative to its dry state.
• This phenomenon is termed as “ BULKING OF SAND”
• It takes place due to contact moisture which will result apparent cohesion

ir
between sand particles that in turn holds the particles together.

lS
• The finer the particle more the apparent cohesion more is the bulking

pa
• The bulking is also depends upon water content.

s
Ja
• When soil is saturated, meniscus is destroyed, bulking is reduced to zero.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Frost Action
• The freezing and melting of water present in soil and the resultant effect
on the soil and its structure is termed as FROST ACTION.

• It consists two process

ir
lS
pa
a. Frost heave

s
b. Frost boil

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
a. Frost heave
• It is defined as rise of ground level surface due to frost action.

• When temperature falls below freezing point the water in the capillary
fringe may freeze leading to the formation of ice.

ir
lS
• Since, volume of the ice is more (≈ 9%) than water volume of voids and

pa
subsequently volume of soil increases.

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
a. Frost boil
• If temperature rises above the freezing point in the soil in which frost
wave has occurred, the frozen soil mass melts and free water is liberated
resulting in softening of soil/settling of soil

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
• Note : Frost action takes place in the soil which is highly porous and
permeable e.g. Fine sand and coarse silt.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Capillary Siphoning
• When the water level in the reservoir is corresponding to highest flood
level, the portion on the upstream of the dam will be saturated. The water
level in the upstream previous shell will be same as highest flood level.
• Due to capillarity, water will rise through height ‘hc’

ir
• If the top of the core of the dam situated at a height ‘ h < hc ‘above the

lS
HFL, the capillary forces will pull the water in descending portion of the

pa
dam this process is termed as “CAPILLARY SIPHONING”

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A soil sample sample has an average grain size as 0.03 mm. The size of
interstices is one-eight of the mean grain diameter. Considering 𝜎 of water as
0.075 g/cm, the water will rise in clay to height of [IES 2018]
a. 2.4 m
b. 3 m

ir
c. 3.6 m

lS
d. 4 m.

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Which of the following statements is not true in the context of capillary
pressure in soils? [GATE 2006]

a. Water is under tension in capillary zone

b. Pore water pressure is negative in capillary

ir
lS
c. Effective stress increases due to capillary zone

pa
d. Capillary pressure is more in coarse grained soils.

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 STRESSES IN SOIL
• Total Stress (𝜎)
• At any given plane section in the soil mass, total stress (load per unit area) is
due to self weight of soi (weight of solid + weight of water) or due to over
burden pressure (uniform surcharge)

ir
lS
• The total stress is further constituted of two different types of stress.

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
a. Effective Stress ( Intergranular Stress/Pressure) (𝜎)
ത

• It is the stress which is being transferred in the soil mass by grain to grain
contact which tends to force the soil solids to come in contact (closer
contact) with each other, resulting in increased Denseness, Stability,
Strength and reduced void ratio and mobilisation of Shear Strength.

ir
lS
pa
• Since this pressure is transferred by grain to grain contact it is termed

s
As ‘Intergranular Pressure’.

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
b. Pore Water Pressure ( Vertical Pressure) (u)
• It is the pressure which is being transferred by pore fluid and is equal to the height of
weight of fluid column (water) above the concerned section in soil mass.
• This water pressure acts all around the soil solids. Hence, does not force the solids to
come in closer contact with each other (doesn’t have any shear component).
• It is also termed as ‘NEUTRAL PRESSURE’

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• For static equilibrium of soil mass at section, x-x is normal direction
𝜎 = 𝜎ത + u

ir
lS
pa
• Total stress and pore water pressure are measurable.

s
Ja
• The effective stress (𝜎)
ത is not a physical parameter and cannot be measured.
• It can be only calculated by subtracting the neutral stress from total stress.
• Effective stress is not a physical parameter reason being it is considered to be acting upon
total area of soil, but in actual it acts at the pt. of contact of the soil solids. Hence
ΣN
Actual Contact Stress, = 𝜎𝐴′
A Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount onsc
• The concept of effective stress if it is not measurable parameter is still very useful as all
properties of the soil are dependent on effective stress instead of total stress and
neutral stress
Shear strength

ir
Consolidation

lS
Properties of soil

pa
which depend on

s
effective stress

Ja
Bearing capacity

Lateral pressure
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 At section x-x
𝜎 = h1 𝛾 + h 𝛾sat
u = h 𝛾𝑤
𝜎ത = 𝜎 – u – h1 𝛾 + h 𝛾sat – h 𝛾w
𝜎ത = h1 𝛾 + h (𝛾sat – 𝛾w)

ir
lS
𝜎ത = h1 𝛾 + h 𝛾sub

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• The different cases of stresses on soil are given as follows:
Case I : Submerged soil mass

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
points 𝝈 u 𝜎′ = 𝜎 − u
A 0 0 0
B H1 𝛾w H1 𝛾w 0

C H1 𝛾w + H 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 (H1 + H ) 𝛾w H1 𝜎’
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Note: If the water table is above ground level , the variation in ground with water table
will have no effect over the effective stress ( like in case of lakes or ponds) as total stress
and pore water pressure changes by some magnitude.
• But if the water table level is below ground level, change in ground water table level also
causes corresponding change in effective stress.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Case II : When the water table is below ground level and is rising

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Effective stress at point ‘C’ when water table level is at section 1-1
𝜎ത = H1 𝛾 + H 𝛾 sub
• Effective stress at point ‘C’ when water table level rises by ‘h’ and is at section 2-2
𝜎ത = (H1 – h) 𝛾 + (H + h) 𝛾 sub
• Change in effective stress at point ‘C’

ir
Δ𝜎ത = ℎ(𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 −𝛾)

lS
since, 𝛾 > 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏

pa
Δ𝜎ത = (-)ve

s
Ja
• Note : Effective stress will be reduced in the soil mass with increase in water table level,
when it is present below the ground level.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• If water table is lowered due to pumping out of the water, when and water table is
below the ground level, effective stress will be increased.
a. In short term : soil over lowered water table remains saturated.

b. In long term : soil over lowered water table will reached its bulk state.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Case III : Soil mass with surcharge and water table below ground level

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 points 𝝈 u 𝜎′ = 𝜎 − u

ir
lS
A q 0 q

pa
B q + H1 𝛾 0 q + H1 𝛾

s
C
Ja
q + H1 𝛾 + H 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 H 𝛾w q + H1 𝛾 + H 𝛾′

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Case IV : Soil mass with capillary fringe (soil is saturated with capillary
water above GWT)

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 points 𝝈 u 𝜎′ = 𝜎 − u
A 0 -HC 𝛾w HC 𝛾w
B HC 𝛾sat 0 HC 𝛾sat or
HC 𝛾sat + H 𝛾’

ir
lS
C HC 𝛾sat+ H 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 H 𝛾w HC 𝛾sat + H 𝛾’

pa
Or
HC 𝛾w + (HC + H)𝛾’

s
Ja
• Note : The effect of capillarity is same as that of surcharge (q= HC 𝛾w ) because it helps
in increasing the effective stress.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• If the soil above point ‘B’ would have been saturated due to ground water (GW) instead
of capillary water , effective stress in the soil would have decreased (by HC 𝛾w ) due to
increase in pore water pressure (by HC 𝛾w )
• The effect of capillarity on effective stress can be calculated by considering soil to be
saturated by ground water and adding capillary pressure ( HC 𝛾w )
• Note : This is the reason why we can walk comfortably on a sand beach adjacent to the

ir
sea, on a patch falling within capillary zone but not on dry sand above capillary zone

lS
some distance further away from sea, neither on the submerged soil patch below sea
water both of which exhibit less bearing capacity or strength, due to absence of

pa
capillary pressure.

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Case V : Soil mass with surcharge and water table at ground level.

a. When surcharge is applied gradually

• If surcharge is applied gradually , it is carried by the soil solids.

points 𝝈 u 𝜎′ = 𝜎 − u

ir
lS
s pa
A q 0 q

B q + H 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡
Ja H 𝛾w q + H 𝛾′

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
b. When surcharge is applied instantly / suddenly
• When surcharge is applied instantly and water table level is at ground level, it is
carried by the pore water which causes increase in pore water pressure due to which
pore water seeps out from the voids of the soil subsequently transferring the
surcharge over the soil solids.
• When entire excess pore water pressure is dissipated out, total surcharge is carried by

ir
soil solids.

lS
at t = 0

pa
points 𝝈 u 𝜎′ = 𝜎 − u

s
A q
Ja 0 q

B q + H 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 q + H 𝛾w H 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
at t = t , when entire excess pore water pressure is not dissipated out,

points 𝝈 u 𝜎′ = 𝜎 − u

ir
lS
A q q-x q

pa
B q + H 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 q - x + H 𝛾w x + H 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
at t = tfinal

points 𝝈 u 𝜎′ = 𝜎 − u

A q 0 q

ir
lS
B q + H 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 H 𝛾w q + H 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Case VI : Partially saturated soil
• If soil is partially saturated, air is also present along with water in the voids of the soil
mass. Hence, in analysis of effective stresses , pore air pressure is also considered
along with pore water pressure.
• In this case, effective stress is given by,

ir
𝜎ത = 𝜎 − 𝑢𝑎 + 𝑥(u𝑎 −uw)

lS
pa
(u𝑎 = pore air pressure

s
(u𝑤 = pore water pressure

Ja
𝑥 = fraction of area of soil occupied by water
𝐴w
=
𝐴
(depends upon Degree of saturation)

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A soil sample under seepage has a downward flow of water. Which of the following
statements are correct with regard to stresses at any point in the soil mass?
1. Effective stress is decreased by an amount equal to the seepage force
2. Effective stress is increased by an amount equal to the seepage force
3. Total stress will change
4. Total stress will unaltered [IES 2006]

ir
lS
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

pa
a. 1 and 3

s
b. 2 and 3

Ja
c. 1 and 4
d. 2 and 4 .

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Which one of the following expressions represents the shear strength of soil at point
X? [IES 2004]

ir
lS
s pa
a. γdry H tan ϕ

Ja
b. [γdry H – (H + H1) γw ] tan ϕ
c. γsub H tan ϕ.
d. [γdry H – H1γw ] tan ϕ

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q.The ground conditions at the site are shown in figure below:

ir
lS
pa
The saturated unit weight of sand ( in KN/m3) is [GATE 2008]

s
Ja
a. 15
b. 18
c. 21.
d. 24

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The total stress, pore water pressure and effective stress ( in KN/m2) at
the point P : [IES – 2008]
a. 75, 50 and 25
b. 90, 50 and 40
c. 105, 50 and 55.

ir
d. 120, 50 and 70

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Assuming that a river bed level does not change and the depth of water in river was 10
m, 15 m, and 8 m during the months of February, July and December respectively of a
particular year. The average bulk density of the soil is 20 KN/m3 . The density of water is
10 KN/m3. the effective stress at a depth of 10m below the river bed during this month
would be [IES 2005]
a. 300 KN/m3 in February, 350 KN/m3 in July and 320 KN/m3 in December
100 KN/m3 in February, 100 KN/m3 in July and 100 KN/m3

ir
b. in December.

lS
c. 200 KN/m3 in February, 250 KN/m3 in July and 180 KN/m3 in December

pa
d. 300 KN/m3 in February, 350 KN/m3 in July and 280 KN/m3 in December

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A river 5m deep consists of a sand bed with saturated unit weight of 20 KN/m3
𝛾𝑤 = 9.81 KN/m3 . The effective vertical stress at 5m from the top of sand bed is
[GATE-1999]

a. 41 KN/m3
b. 51 KN/m3.

ir
lS
c. 55 KN/m3

pa
d. 53 KN/m3

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 PERMEABILITY
• It is the ability of medium to permit the flow of fluid (water) through its
interconnected voids.

• It is also termed as ‘HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY’

ir
lS
• Permeability of CGS is more than FGS

s pa
Type of Soil Permeability,(cm/sec)

Ja
Gravel >1
Sand 1 – 10-3
Silt 10-3 – 10-7
Clay <10-7
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 DARCY LAW
• According to Darcy’s law for saturated soil mass in laminar flow condition rate of flow
through the medium per unit area under unit hydraulic gradient is termed as
PERMEABILITY .
v∝i
i = Hydraulic Gradient

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 v=k.i
Discharge ,
Q = A.v = A. k I
If i = 1

ir
k=

lS
A

pa
Note : The velocity of flow is considered by Darcy’s is Average/Discharge/Superficial/

s
Ja
Virtual /Macroscopic velocity, as flow assume to be taken place through total area of soil
but in actual flow of water table place through interconnecting voids, area of which is
much smaller than total area of soil. Hence , actual or seepage velocity of flow comes out
to be much more than average velocity.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
A = As + A w + Aa

Ja
V
Aw <<< A Vs = If S = 1
n.S
Vs >>> V Q = A . V V
= Aw . Vs Vs =
n

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Note : V ∝ i
Vs ∝ I

k
kp =
n

ir
Where, K = co efficient of permeability ( shows speed of flow w.r.t avg. velocity)

lS
kp = co efficient of percolation ( shows speed of flow(water) w.r.t actual

pa
velocity)

s
• Note : Darcy’s law is not valid in case of gravel as flow through gravel is not laminar, it

Ja
is turbulent.
For flow to be laminar in case of soil.,
Re ≤ 1

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Between the seepage velocity and the discharge velocity in a soil [SSC JE 2005]
a. The former is always higher.
b. The latter is always higher
c. Any one may be higher
d. Both are equal

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. If the void ratio and discharge velocity for the soil is 0.5 and 6x 10-7
m/sec respectively, what is the value of seepage velocity (m/sec)?
[SSC JE 2017]
a. 3 x 10-7
b. 6 x 10-7

ir
c. 12 x 10-7

lS
d. 18 x 10-7.

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Determination of Permeability
• Permeability of soil can be found by any of the following method.
Laboratory Method
Constant Head Method

ir
• This method is generally used for CGS(gravel & Sand) for which substantial

lS
discharge can be obtained during the test is small time.

s pa
• It is not suitable for fine grained soil.

Ja
• In this methods, water is allowed to flow through the soil mass under
constant head and volume of water passed through it in given time ‘t’ is
noted.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 v
Q=
t

ir
V.L

lS
k=
h.A.t

pa
Where, V = Volume of water collected in time ‘t’

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Falling Head Method / Variable Head Permeability Test

• This method is generally used for fine grained soil for which constant head
method is not suitable.
• In this method of stand pipe is known Area ‘a’ is in inserted into the

ir
medium and water is allowed to flow through it.

lS
• As the flow of water takes place through the medium over period of time,

pa
height of water in the sand pipe reduces.

s
Ja
• In order to compute permeability of medium, Height of water in stand pipe
at different time interval is noted.
• Let at any time interval ‘t’, flow of water through medium takes place
under the head of ‘h’
• If water moves by ‘dh’ distance in sand pipe in time ‘dt’.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ℎ
𝑎𝐿 (ℎ1)
𝑘 = 2 ⋅ 303 ⋅ ⋅ log102

ir
𝐴⋅𝑡

lS
• Note : If in given time interval ‘t’, height of water in stand pipe falls

pa
from ‘h1’ to ‘h2’ and in same time interval, it falls from ‘h2’ to ‘h3’

s
Ja
then,
ℎ2 = ℎ1 ℎ3

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. If during a permeability test on a soil sample with a falling head permeameter , equal
time intervals are noted for drop of head from h1 to h2 and again from h2 to h3, then
which one of the following relation would hold good?
a. h32 = h1h2
b. h2 = h1h3.

ir
c. h12 = h2h3

lS
d. h1 -h2 = h2 – h3

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. In a falling head permeability test the initial head of 1.0 m dropped to
0.35 m in 3 hours, the diameter of stand pipe being 5 mm. The soil specimen
was 200 mm and of 100 mm diameter. The coefficient of permeability of the
spoil is [GATE: 2002]
a. 4.86 x 10-5 cm/s

ir
b. 4.86 x 10-6 cm/s.

lS
c. 4.86 x 10-7 cm/s

pa
d. 4.86 x 10-8 cm/s

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Capillarity Permeability Test
• This test is also known as horizontal capillary test.

ir
• It is used to find both permeability of the medium and capillarity in it.

lS
pa
• In this test, a partially saturated sample of soil is placed in a cylindrical glass tube of

s
diameter. 4cm and length 35 cm.

Ja
• Water is allowed to flow through the sample under the constant head applied at the
inlet of the tube (glass tube) while the other end of the tube is kept open to the
atmosphere to permit the escape of air present in the voids of the sample.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Horizontal distance travelled by the water in the sample at different time is noted to
Analyse its permeability and capillary rise in it.

• The degree of saturation at the end of the test is found by taking the wet mass of the
soil sample and porosity is computed from known dry mass, volume and specific gravity.

ir
lS
𝑥22 − 𝑥12 2 ⋅ 𝐾𝑢
= (ℎ0 +ℎ𝐶 )

pa
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝜂𝑠

s
Ja
• In the above equation, there are two unknown Ku and hc . Hence two sets of reading of
distance travelled by water in time ‘t’ is noted in this test under the constant head (ho)1
and (ho)2.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Indirect Method to find Permeability
• Kozney karman Method
1 𝛾𝑤 𝑒 3
𝐾= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ 𝑑2
𝐾𝑘 𝜇 1 + 𝑒

1 𝛾𝑤 𝑒 3 1

ir
𝐾= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ 2

lS
𝐾𝑘 ′ 𝜇 1 + 𝑒 𝑆𝑠

pa
Here, 𝐾𝑘 and 𝐾𝑘 ′ are kozney karman constant, which depends upon shape, curvature of
voids.

s
Ja
d = Size of particle
S𝑠 = Specific Surface area or Surface area per unit volume
6
𝜇 = Dynamic viscosity For spherical particle, S𝑠 =
𝑑
If concerned particle is not spherical and passes through sieve size ‘A’ and retains
6
over sieve size ‘B’ then, S𝑠 =
𝐴𝐵
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Allen Hazen Method
2
K = CD10 in cm/sec

For C = 100,
2
K = 100 D10

ir
lS
pa
• Consolidation

s
Ja
K = 𝐶v 𝑀ν ⋅ 𝛾𝑀

Where, Cv = coefficient of consolidation

Mv =coefficient of volume compressibility
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Terzaghi’s Method

K = 200𝑒2 ⋅ (De )2
Where, e = Void ratio
De = size of sphere for which ratio of vol. to surface area is same as that of given particle.

ir
V
(De ) = 6 { } actual particle

lS
SA

pa
• Louden’s Method

s
Ja
log10 K ⋅ Ss2 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝜂

Where, Ss = Specific surface are = 6/D

a, b = Constants where a = 1.3 and b = 5.1
𝜂 = Porosity
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Jaky’s Method
K = 100 ⋅ (Dm )2

ir
lS
pa
Where, Dm denotes size of particles whose frequency of occurrence is maximum,

s
Ja
in cm

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statements:
1. Permeability of soil decreases as the effective stress acting on the soil
increases.
2. The presence of organic material in the soil increases its permeability.
3. Entrapped air decreases the permeability of a soil

ir
Which of the above statements are correct? [IES 2009]

lS
a. 1

pa
b. 1 and 2

s
c. 2 and 3

Ja
d. 1 and 3.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statements:
The coefficient of permeability k depends upon
1. Void ratio of the soil
2. Duration of flow
3. Equivalent diameter of the soil grains

ir
4. Shape of the particles

lS
Which of the above statements are correct? [IES 2010]

pa
a. 1 ,2,3 and 4

s
Ja
b. 2 and 3
c. 1, 3 and 4.
d. 3 and 4

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Which of the following factors does NOT affect permeability of soil?
[SSC JE-2019]
a. Properties of pore fluid
b. Grain size of soil particles
c. Void ratio

ir
d. Volume of soil.

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Two soil specimens with identical geometric dimensions were subjected to falling head
permeability test in laboratory under identical conditions the fall of water head was
measured after identical time interval the ratio of initial to final water heads for the test
involving the first specimen was 1.25. If the co efficient of permeability of second
specimen is 5 times that of the first, the ratio of initial to final water heads the involving
the second specimen is
[GATE-2012]

ir
lS
a. 3.05.
b. 3.80

pa
c. 4

s
Ja
d. 6.25

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A loose uniform sand with rounded grains has effective grain size of
0.05 cm. Coefficient of permeability of the sand is? [ SSC JE 2016]
a. 0.25 cm/sec.
b. 0.5 cm/sec
c. 1 cm/sec

ir
lS
d. 1.25 cm/sec

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Field Method
• Permeability of the soil found in laboratory is representing property of sample which
differs from the actual permeability of the soil in field.
• Lab test must be performed as far as possible on undisturbed soil sample but in the
type of soil for which permeability is important (sand, silt etc) ,undisturbed sample
passes large uncertainities, hence on these sample lab test are not reliable and should
be tested by field method to note true value of permeability.

ir
lS
• Permeability in the fields can be found by any of the following:

s pa
i. Pumping out test

Ja
• This method is used for soil having large area of influence e.g. Dams , Reservoirs
• In this method, water is pumped out from the medium with the help of wells in order
to find its permeability

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Case a : Well in Unconfined Aquifer

• Dupit’s theory

π ⋅ K(𝐻 2 − ℎ02 )
Q=
2.303 ⋅ log1 𝑅Τ𝑟𝜔

ir
lS
pa
2.303 Q ⋅ log1 𝑅Τ𝑟𝜔
K=

s
π ⋅ (𝐻 2 − ℎ02 )

Ja
• Theim’s theory

2.303 Q ⋅ log1 𝑟𝟐 Τ𝑟𝟏

K=
π ⋅ (ℎ𝟐2 − ℎ𝟏2 )
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Case b : Well in confined Aquifer

• Dupit’s theory

2.303 Q ⋅ log1 𝑟𝟐 Τ𝑟𝟏

K=

ir
𝟐π ⋅ D (H − ho)

lS
s pa
Ja
• Theim’s theory

2.303 Q ⋅ log1 𝑟𝟐 Τ𝑟𝟏

K=
2π ⋅ D(h2 − h1)

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
ii. Pumping in test
• This method is used for small area of influence.
• This method include following test,

a. Open end Test

ir
• In this test, an open end pipe is sunk into the soil medium and soil is taken out of the

lS
pipe joint to the bottom.

pa
• Clean water having temperature slightly greater than the ground water is added

s
through a metering system to maintain gravity flow under the constant head.

Ja
• Water may also be allowed to enter into the hole under same pressure head
• The permeability of the medium is given by,
q
K=
5.5 r. h
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
h = Head under which flow takes place.
r = Radius of well
q = Constant rate of flow

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
b. Packer’s test
• In this test, pipe plugged at bottom and perforated over its surface upto distance ‘L’
from the bottom is sunk into the medium and water is all owed to flow in the medium
under constant head.
• Permeability of the medium is given by,
• If L ≥ 10r,

ir
lS
pa
𝑞 𝐿
K= log10
2𝜋𝐿ℎ 𝑟

s
Ja
• If r < L < 10r,

𝑞 −1
𝐿
K= sin
2𝜋𝐿ℎ 2𝑟
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja
Note : Tests suitable for a particular type of soil is as follows.
Clean Gravel and Sand : Constant Head Method
Fine Sand, Sandy Silt, Silt : Falling Head Method
Homogeneous Clay : Consolidation test
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Ground water flows through an aquifer with across section area of
1.0 x 104 m2 and a length of 1500 m. Hydraulic heads are 300 m and
250 m at the ground water entry and exit point in the aquifer
respectively. Ground water discharge into a stream at the rate of 750
m3/day. Then the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is [IES 2018]
a. 1.5 m/day

ir
lS
b. 2.25 m/day.

pa
c. 3.5 m/day

s
Ja
d. 4.25 m/day

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A tubewell of 30 cm diameter penetrates fully into an artesian
aquifer. The strainer length is 15 m. The yield from the well under a
drawdown of 3m through the aquifer consisting of sand and effective
size of 0.2 mm and coefficient of permeability of 50 m/day, with radius
of drawdown of 100m is nearly [IES 2014]
a. 240 l/s

ir
lS
b. 120 l/s

pa
c. 24 l/s.

s
Ja
d. 12 l/s

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Factors Affecting Permeability of Soil
1. Size of the particle (D10)
• The permeability of granular soils depends mainly on the cross-sectional area of the
pore channel.
• Since, the average diameter of the pores in soil at a given porosity increase in portion to
the average grain size, the permeability of granular soil is expected to increase as the

ir
square of effective size of grains

lS
K ∝ (D )2 or K ∝ d2

pa
10

s
Ja
2. Specific Surface Area(Ss)
• higher is the degree of saturation more will be the flow channels available for water to
flow and lower will be the resistance offered by air against the flow of water, hence
higher is the permeability 1 2
K∝( )
Ss
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
3. Degree of Saturation (S)
• Higher is the degree of saturation, more will be the flow channels available for water
to flow

K∝S

ir
4. Effect of Soil Structure

lS
• The permeability of a soil deposit is effected by its in place structure

pa
• A loose granular soil would have higher void ratio than dense soil, hence therefore

s
would permit greater flow

Ja
• A fine grained soil with flocculated structure will have higher permeability than soil
with dispersed structure even at same void ratio.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
5. Effect of Soil Type
• The volume of water that can flow through a soil mass is related more to the size of
voids

KCoarse Grained Soil > K Fine Grained Soil

ir
lS
• Depending upon type of cation adsorbed on the surface of montmorillonite clay
mineral the permeability increased in following order,

pa
K < Na < H < Ca

s
Ja
• For kaolinite,
Na < k < Ca <H

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
6. Degree of Compaction
• With increase in degree of compaction, denseness of soil increases which reduce the
area of flow channel that in turn reduces permeability.
• Keeping the all factors constant higher the void ratio the area of flow and permeability is
also increases.

ir
lS
→ Kozney’s equation

pa
𝑒3
K∝

s
1+𝑒

Ja
→ Terzaghi’s equation
K → sand > clay K ∝ 𝑒2
e → clay > sand

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
8. Properties of Permeant (fluid)
• Permeability of soil depends on both soil property and fluid property.
K = f [ fluid property, medium property]
• In order to avoid this, a parameter termed as coefficient of Intrinsic or absolute
permeability is defined which depends only upon medium property.
Kμ
• Here, = K ′ , coefficient of Intrinsic Permeability and 𝜇 and 𝛾𝑤 depends on the

ir
𝛾𝑤

lS
temperature

pa
T ↑ → 𝛾𝑤 ↓ 𝜇 ↓

s
Ja
K∝T

• Hence for a given void ratio and structural arrangement ‘K’ remains constant

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
9. Entrapped Gases
• Higher is the presence of entrapped gasses, more is the resistance offered to the flow of
water and lower is the area of flow channel hence, smaller is the permeability.
10. Foreign Impurities
• More is the presence of foreign impurities, higher the resistance available to the flow of
water, hence lower the permeability.

ir
lS
11. Adsorbed Water

pa
• Higher the presence of water lower the permeability and therefore flow of water is also
low.

s
Ja
• It is assured that in the presence of adsorbed water, void ratio is reduced by o.1.
Effective Void Ratio (e’) = e – 0.1

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. . Consider the following statements:
1. Permeability of soil decreases as the effective stress acting on the soil
increases.
2. The presence of organic material in the soil increases its permeability.
3. Entrapped air decreases the permeability of a soil

ir
Which of the above statements are correct? [IES 2009]

lS
a. 1

pa
b. 1 and 2

s
c. 2 and 3

Ja
d. 1 and 3.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The viscosity and unit weight of percolating fluid are reduced to 5% and 95%
respectively due to rise in temperature. If other things remain constant, the
coefficient of permeability will be
[SSC JE 2004]
a. Increase by 28%
b. Increase by 53%

ir
c. 34.3%

lS
d. None of these.

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Permeability Of Stratified Soil Deposits
• Soil mass has several layers deposited one above each other. Their bedding plane may be
horizontal or vertical or inclined.

ir
lS
• Each layer is assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic has its own value of coefficient of
permeability.

s pa
Ja
• The average permeability of the whole deposit will depend upon direction of flow with
relation to the bedding plane as follows

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 (a) Parallel to the bedding plane

ir
lS
s pa
loss is same but rate of flow is different.
Zi Ja
• When flow takes place parallel to bedding plane through each layer, head
Ki 𝑛 σ𝑖=1 𝑘𝑖 ⋅ 𝑧𝑖
k avgII =
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
𝑧𝑖
(b) Perpendicular to the bedding plane
• so in case, discharge and velocity of flow remains same in each layer but loss of head
differs each layers

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑘𝑖 ⋅ 𝑧𝑖
k avg⊥ =
𝑛 Zi
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions. σ𝑖=1
Ki
Q. A soil depth has 3 layers having same thickness each but the permeabilities of the
layers are in the ratio of 1:2:4 from top to bottom. What is the ratio of average
permeability in the horizontal direction to that in the vertical direction? [IES 2005]
a. 7:2
b. 14:6
c. 28:24

ir
lS
d. 49:36.

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A stratum of soil consist of three layers of equal thickness. The permeability of both
the top and the bottom layers is 10 -4 cm /sec ; and that of the middle4 layer is 10-3
cm/sec; then the value of the horizontal coefficient of permeability for the entire
deposit of the soil layer is [IES 2015]
a. 2 x 10 -4 cm /sec
b. 3 x 10 -4 cm /sec

ir
c. 4 x 10 -4 cm /sec.

lS
d. 5 x 10 -4 cm /sec

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 SEEPAGE ANALYSIS
• When the water flows through saturated soil mass, total head at any point consists of
pressure head.

a. Pressure head (Piezometric head)

ir
lS
b. Datum head (Elevation head)

pa
c. Velocity head (Kinetic head)

s
Ja
• Flow through the soil mass is considerably very less (negligible), hence velocity head is
neglected

• Total head = Pressure head + Datum head

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Elevation head or datum head at any point is the vertical distance of that point
measured from the datum point or reference point which is normally taken at the tail
water level for convenience.

• If concerned point is above datum, then datum head is positive and if it is below the
datum head will be negative.

ir
lS
• Pressure head at any given point is equal to height of the water above the concerned

pa
point or height of water in piezometer or stand pipe instead at the covered point.

s
Ja
• Difference of total head between any 2 points in soil through which flow is occurring is
termed as HEAD LOSS

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Head A B C

Pressure (hw) hwA hwB hwC

Datum (z) -zA -zB -zC

ir
lS
Total (h) hwA - zA hwB – zB = 0 hwC - zC

s pa
Ja
Hydraulic head under which flow takes place
• Head loss Gradient, i =
length of flow

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Seepage Pressure
• When water flows through saturated soil mass, it exerts pressure over the soil skeleton
by virtue of frictional drag, this pressure exerted by water over the soil solids is termed
as SEEPAGE PRESSURE.

• If ‘h’ is the hydraulic head or seepage head under which flow takes place, then the

ir
lS
seepage pressure is given by,

s pa
Ja
Ps = hγw

Ps = i . L . γw
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• The pressure leads to the development of force over the soil mass termed as SEEPAGE
FORCE.
Ps = Ps . A = i . L . A . γw

ir
lS
Where, A = total x-section area of the soil mass

s pa
• This seepage force, when expressed in terms of unit volume of soil is termed as

Ja
SPECIFIC SEEPAGE FORCE.

S.Ps = i γw

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Seepage pressure always act in the direction of flow hence, effective stress in the soil
mass, may either increase or decrease due to seepage pressure depending upon
direction of flow.

σ′ = Z . γsub ± p𝑠

ir
lS
• If flow takes in downward direction, seepage pressure also acts in the downward

pa
direction resulting in increase in effective stress.

s
Ja
• If flow takes place in upward direction, seepage pressure also acts in upward direction,
resulting in decrease in effective stress

σ′ = Z . γsub − i Z γw
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 (i) No flow condition

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Head A B C
Datum H 0 H-Z
Pressure H1 H + H1 H1 + Z
Total H + H1 H1 + H H + H1

ir
lS
pa
Stress A B C

s
Ja
Total (𝜎) H1.𝛾w H1.𝛾w + H.𝛾sat H1.𝛾w + Z.𝛾sat

Pore water pressure H1.𝛾 w (H + H1). 𝛾w (H1 + Z). 𝛾w

(u)
Effective stress (𝜎’) 0 H. 𝛾sub Z. 𝛾sub
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 (ii) Downward flow condition

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Head A B C
Datum H 0 H-Z
Pressure H1 H + H1 - h H1 + Z – i.Z
Total H + H1 H1 + H - h H + H1– i.Z

Stress A B C

ir
lS
Total (𝜎) H1.𝛾w H1.𝛾w + H.𝛾sat H1.𝛾w + Z.𝛾sat

s pa
Pore water pressure H1.𝛾w (H + H1 –h). 𝛾 w (H1 + Z). 𝛾w – i.Z.𝛾 w

Ja
(u)
Effective stress (𝜎’) 0 H. 𝛾sub + h. 𝛾w Zsat – Z.𝛾w + i.Z.𝛾w
Z𝛾sub + ps
In downward flow condition, the value below the tank is open and a contact level
ofUsewater in the soil is maintained by adjusting the supply from the top and outflow
code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
from the top.
 (iii) Upward flow condition

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Head A B C
Datum H 0 H-Z
Pressure H1 H + H1 + h H1 + Z + i.Z
Total H + H1 H1 + H + h H + H1+ i.Z

ir
lS
Stress A B C

s pa
Total (𝜎) H1.𝛾w H1.𝛾 w + H.𝛾sat H1.𝛾w + Z.𝛾sat

Pore water pressure H1.𝛾w

(u) Ja (H + H1 + h). 𝛾w (H1 + Z). 𝛾w + i.Z.𝛾w

Effective stress (𝜎’) 0 H. 𝛾sub - h. 𝛾w Z 𝛾w + i.Z.𝛾w

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• In upward flow condition, value at the bottom of the soil is opened and the water is
supplied at the constant rate.

Special Cases
• When flow takes place in upward direction, seepage pressure also acts in upward

ir
direction resulting in decrease of effective stress.

lS
• If seepage pressure results equals the submerged weight of soil mass, effective

pa
stresses in soil reduces to zero.

s
• In such case, cohesionless soil mass looses all its strength and has the tendency to flow

Ja
along with flowing water
• This phenomena in which particle of the soil leaves the soil mass and flow along with
water is termed as ‘’Quicksand condition/ Piping/ Sand boiling/ Floating condition”

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 For Quick-sand Condition
𝐺−1
i =
1+ⅇ

• The hydraulic gradient under which Quicksand condition occurs is termed as Critical Hydraulic

ir
gradient/ Piping gradient/ Floating gradient

lS
𝐺−1
ic =

pa
1+ⅇ

s
Ja
• To avoid Quick-sand condition, working or available gradient(i) must be less than the critical
hydraulic gradient
i < ic

• NOTE: Factor of safety against Quicksand condition is given by ic

FOS =
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions. i
• For fine sand and coarse silt for which specific gravity and void ratio are 2.6 and 0.65
respectively, hence the critical hydraulic gradient is given by

ic ≈ 1
• Quicksand is not a type of sand, it is a flow condition observed in case of
cohesionless soils.

ir
• It is found in fine sand and coarse silt and is not found in gravels, coarse sand and

lS
clay

pa
• In gravels and coarse sand which are highly permeable soil, high discharge is required

s
to obtain critical hydraulic gradient, that practically does not occur in nature

Ja
Q=kiA
for unit area , i = Q/k
• Quick sand conditions can also be analysed by considering equilibrium of critical
section
• Quick sand condition occurs when the sand under artesian pressure is overlained by
impermeable layer of clay.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q.A unit volume of a mass of saturated soil is subjected to horizontal seepage. The
saturated unit weight is 22 KN/m3 and the hydraulic gradient is 0.3. The resultant
body force on the soil mass is:
[GATE 2004]
a. 1.98 KN

ir
b. 6.6 KN

lS
c. 11.49 KN

pa
d. 22.97KN.

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The specific gravity and in situ void ratio of a soil deposit are 2.71 and 0.8
respectively. The value of the critical hydraulic gradient is:
[GATE 2002]
a. 0.82
b. 0.85

ir
c. 0.92.

lS
d. 0.95

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Seepage force per unit volume (i) can be expressed as:
[GATE 1996]
a. i𝛾wL
b. iL
c. 𝛾wh

ir
lS
d. i𝛾w.

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q.A deposit of fine sand has porosity n and specific gravity of soil solid is G. The
hydraulic gradient of the deposit to develop boiling condition of sand is given by
[IES 1996]
a. ic = (G − 1)(1 − 𝑛).
b. ic= (G − 1)( (1 +n)

ir
c. ic= (G − 1)/(1 − 𝑛)

lS
d. ic= (G − 1)/(1 + 𝑛)

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A sand deposit has a porosity of 0.375 and a specific gravity of 2.6, the critical
hydraulic gradient for sand deposit is
[IES 2009]
a. 2.975
b. 2.225

ir
c. 1.

lS
d. 0.75

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statements
1. The hydraulic head at a point in the soil includes piezometric head as well as
datum head.
2. Piping in soil occurs when effective pressure becomes equal to zero.
3. Piping in soil occurs when soil is highly porous.

ir
Which are the above statements are/is correct?

lS
[IES 2010]

pa
a. 1, 2 and 3

s
Ja
b. 1 and 2 only
c. 2 and 3 only
d. 2 only.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 LAPLACE EQUATION AND FLOWNET
• If seepage take place in two dimension, it can be analysed using Laplace equation which
represents the energy loss in any resistive medium

ir
• It can be used to describe the flow of heat in thermal medium, flow colour in conductive

lS
medium and in our case flow of water through permeable medium

pa
𝜕2𝐻 𝜕2𝐻

s
• Laplace equation for isotropic medium + 2 =0

Ja
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦
(permeability is same in all directions)
• Laplace equation for anisotropic medium
(permeability is different in all directions) 𝜕2𝐻 𝜕2𝐻
𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑦 2
=0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Assumptions in Laplace equation
• Darcy’s law is valid i.e. flow is laminar and medium is saturated.

• Pore fluid and soil solids are incompressible.

ir
lS
• Soil is homogeneous and Isotropic.

pa
𝜕2𝐻 𝜕2𝐻

s
a. For anisotropic soil

Ja
𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑦 2
=0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕2𝐻 𝜕2𝐻
b. For isotropic soil 2
+ 2 =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• The solution of Laplace equation by graphical method is known as flow net which
represents the description of Stream lines and Equipotential lines

ir
• Stream lines: These are the paths along which individual particle of water flows or

lS
seeps in the soil medium

s pa
• Equipotential lines: These lines represent contours or points of equal total heads

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Properties of Flow Nets
• Equipotential lines and flow lines intersect each other perpendicularly
• There can be no flow across flow lines and velocity of flow is always

ir
perpendicular to the equipotential line

lS
• Area bounded between two equipotential line and flow line is known

pa
as Flow field which is approximately square for isotropic medium and

s
Ja
rectangular for anisotropic medium
• Loss of head between two equipotential line is always same and is
termed as Equipotential drop (∆h)

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• The area between two flow lines is termed as Flow channels and
discharge through each channel is same

ir
• Smaller the dimension of flow field, greater will be the hydraulic

lS
gradient and velocity of flow through it

pa
• If water table is reversed on upstream and downstream side or

s
Ja
permeability is changed or head under which flow takes place is
changed, keeping the boundary conditions same, there is no change
in flow net
• Flow net is unique for given set of boundary conditions

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Many of fields in flow net are in fact far from resembling real square but
they still confer to the definition of elementary square.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Total discharge (q) :
𝑞 = Δ𝑞 × 𝑁𝑓
Δ𝑞 = discharge passing through each flow channels
𝑁𝑓 = No of flow channels = no of flow lines - 1

ir
• Equipotential drop (∆h)

lS
pa
𝐻
Δℎ =

s
𝑁𝑑

Ja
𝐻= Total head under which flow takes place
𝑁𝑓 = No of Equipotential drop = no of Equipotential lines - 1

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Application of Flow Nets
• Flow net can be used for the following purposes:
A. To find seepage discharge
Case 1: For isotropic medium
Consider a flow field of unit width in the plane of your screen size (a x b) units.

ir
lS
Let Δ𝑞 be the discharge passing through this flow field ,

pa
Δ𝑞 = k i A

s
Ja
𝑁𝑓
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐻
𝑁𝑑

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Where , K = Permeability of the mediums
H = Head under which flow is taking place, which is a hydraulic condition
Nf
= Shape factor, which depends upon only boundary conditions
Nd

ir
lS
pa
Note : if soil is replaced (k is changed) with other soil or if the head loss during flow
changes or if level of the water on upstream and downstream side are reversed,

s
Ja
change in only seepage discharge will be observed but shape factor will remain
same.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Case 2: For Non-isotropic medium
• In Non Isotropic medium, flow field is rectangular and not square.
• A non isotropic medium can be converted into isotropic medium in which flow field is
square

ir
𝑘𝑦

lS
𝑥𝑇 = 𝑥
𝑘𝑥

s pa
Ja
Also,
𝜕2𝐻 𝜕2𝐻
2
+ 2 =0
𝑘𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝑇 𝜕𝑦
𝑦𝑇 = 𝑥𝑦
𝑘𝑦

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• To plot the flow net for non Isotropic medium, the cross section through Non-Isotropic
medium is plotted to a natural scale on y-axis whereas in x-direction all dimensions
𝑘𝑦
parallel to x-axis are being reduced by factor
𝑘𝑥

• The actual flow net for this transformed section will now constructed in normal manner
as if soil is Isotropic
• The actual flow net thus will not have orthogonal set of curves

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Discharge through Flow field
a. For Actual flow field

Δq = 𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑦 Δℎ ______(1)

ir
lS
b. For Transformed flow field

s pa
Δq = 𝑘′ Δℎ _______(2)

Ja
Equating (1) and (2)

𝑘′ = 𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑦
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• In our case k = k’, hence discharge from equivalent transformed medium,

𝑁𝑓
Δq = 𝑘′𝐻
𝑁𝑑

ir
lS
Where, k’ = 𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑦

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
B. To find seepage Pressure
• Let ‘h’ is the hydraulic head in the medium at any given point after ‘n’ equipotential drops,
then seepage pressure at that point.

ir
lS
ps = h 𝛾 w

s pa
h = H –n ∆h

Ja
𝐻
Δh =
𝑁𝑑

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
C. To find the Hydrostatic/Pore water pressure
• If ‘hw’ is the pressure head at any point in the medium after ‘n’ equipotential drop then
hydrostatic pressure at this point is given by

ir
u = hw . 𝛾 w

lS
Total head (h) = hw + Z

pa
hw = h ± Z

s
Ja
and,
h = H – n ∆h
H
=H–n
Nd

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
D. Determination of Exit Gradient
• It is the hydraulic gradient at the downstream side of flow, at which percolating water
leaves the soil mass emerges out as free water.

ir
• If ∆h is the head across the lost flow field under which flow takes place and ‘l’ is the

lS
length of flow field over which this head is lost, then hydraulic or exit gradient is given

pa
by,

s
Δh

Ja
𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 =
𝑙

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Exit gradient is the governing criteria for ‘piping’ failure amongst all the hydraulic
gradient.
• To avoid piping, FOS of ‘ 6-7 ‘ is provided in case of fine sand and FOS of ‘4-5’ is
provided in case of coarse sand
ic
𝐹𝑂𝑆 =

ir
𝑖𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡

lS
• If the seepage force are large enough to erode the soil particles, piping can

pa
initiate and may progressively lead to structural collapse/failure.

s
• Soil mass susceptible to piping by erosion are fine sand and coarse silt.

Ja
• To avoid the possibility of erosion and piping two approaches are used,

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
a. Control of seepage and seepage forces by providing a cut-off wall/sheet pile
wall, trench to stop the seepage.

b. By the use of protective filters which prevents erosion and reduces the upfill

ir
pressure.

lS
pa
• A filter would prevent migration of finer particles but without in habiting flow of

s
water so there is hardly loss of head

Ja
• On the other hand, if the voids of filter are reduced, seepage forces will increase
to unacceptable level.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Condition to be Satisfied by filter medium
• The filter material should be sufficiently fine and so graded such that the voids of
the filters are small enough to prevent the base material.

• The filter material should be coarse enough not to be carried away through the

ir
drainage pipe.

lS
pa
• The filter layer should be sufficiently thick to provide good distribution of all

s
particle size through out the filter.

Upper Limit Condition Proposed by Terzaghi

Ja
𝐷15
(
𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟
) <5
𝐷85 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
( )
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Lower Limit Condition Proposed by Terzaghi

D15(filter)
4< < 20
D15(𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑

ir
D50(filter)

lS
< 25
D50(𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑

s pa
• The specification ensures no significant invasion of particles into the filler takes place

Ja
hence, it governs the upper limit of the grain size of filler medium.
• Rest are additional conditions {flow field size}2 > {flow field size}1
(iexit)2 < (iexit)1

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
{flow field size}2 > {flow field size}1

pa
(iexit)2 < (iexit)1

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja
• Either filler particle size neither small nor big.
→ Particle size big enough → To permit seepage to avoid seepage pressure
→ Particle size small → Soil will not comes out enough
• Along the phreatic line, the atmospheric pressure exists, its shape approximately parabola
• Liquefaction is associated with increase in pore water pressure due to vibration.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Flow through Non-homogeneous section
• If the permeability of the soil changes along the flow path, the flow lines are
deflected at the junction of two soil mass.

ir
• Let the flow line enter and exit the soil mases having permeability ‘K1’ and

lS
‘K2’

pa
𝑘1 tan 𝛼1
=

s
𝑘2 tan 𝛼2

Ja
• When permeability of one of the soil is 10 times more than the other soil
than the resistance offered by the more permeable soil is not considered
and no deflection correction is applied

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Unconfined flow
• In certain case of flow, the top boundary flow lines is not known or evident
from the geometry of the medium i.e. flow space is not fully defined.
• Flow through homogeneous dam is example of unconfined flow in which top

ir
flow line is drawn by the following method

lS
• This top most flow line below seepage takes place is termed as PHREATIC

pa
LINE

s
• Pressure below phreatic line is hydrostatic where pressure above the

Ja
phreatic line is atmospheric.
• Phreatic line follows the path of base parabola.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Case 1 : To draw the phreatic line in homogeneous Earthen
dam when draining filter provided

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Analytic method to find the equation of base parabola(phreatic line)
𝑦2 = 2 𝑆 𝑥 + 𝑆2

𝑆= 𝐷2 + 𝐻2 − 𝐷

ir
lS
Discharge through body of dam can also be computed directly from section PQ,

s pa
q = K. S = K D2 + H2 − 𝐷 Valid for Isotropic soil

Note : If medium is non-Isotropic Ja S= D2T + H2 − DT

𝑘𝑦
DT = D
𝑘𝑥
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Case 2 : To draw the phreatic line in earthen dam with no filter

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• In case homogeneous earthen dam has no drainage filter (a) downstream side,
the focus ‘F’ in this case will be the lowest point. Toe ‘F’ of the downward slope
and base parabola ‘BJG’ will cut the downward slope at J and extend beyond the
limit of the dam.
• The phreatic line must emerge out at some point ‘K’ meeting the downstream
face tangentially.
• The portion ‘KF’ is termed as discharge face and always remains wet.

ir
lS
• The correction ∆a by which the parabola is to be sifted downward is found by the
Δ𝑎

pa
values of given by Casagrande which depends upon downstream angle 𝛼 as
𝑎+Δ𝑎

s
follows

Ja
𝜶 30 60 90 120 135 150 180
Δ𝑎 0.36 0.32 0.26 0.18 0.14 0.10 0
𝑎 + Δ𝑎

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• If 𝛼 < 30°
𝑑 𝑑2 𝐻2
𝑎= − −

ir
cos𝛼 cos2 𝛼 sin2 𝛼

lS
pa
• If 30° < 𝛼 < 60°

s
Ja
𝑎 = 𝐻 2 + 𝑑2 − 𝑑2 − 𝑡 2 cot 2 𝛼

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A flow net below a dam consists of 24 equipotential drops and 7 flows channels.
The difference between the upstream and downstream water levels is 6m,the
length of the flow line adjacent to the toe of the dam at exit is 1m. The specific
gravity and void ratio of the soil below dam are 2.70 and 0.70 respectively. The
factor of safety against piping is? [GATE 2018}
a. 1.67

ir
b. 2.5

lS
c. 3.4

pa
d. 4.

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A sheet pile has an embedment depth of 12m in a homogeneous soil stratum. The
coefficient of permeability of soil is 10-6 m/s. difference in the water levels between
the two sides of the sheet pile is 4m. The flow net is constructed with five number of
flow line and eleven number of equipotential line. The quantity of seepage in cm3/s
per meter under the sheet pile is _______ [GATE 2017]

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The proposed dam shown in the figure is90 m long and the coefficient of
permeability of the soil is 0.0013 mm/sec . The quantity of water in m3 that will be lost
per day by seepage is [GATE 1998]

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
a. 55
b. 57.
c. 59
d. 61
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A layer of clay of thickness 12.5 m is underlain by sand. The 𝛾sat of the clay is 18.5
KN/m3 . When the depth of an open trench excavated in the clay reached 8 m the
bottom cracked and the water started entering the trench from below. The height to
which water would have risen from the top of sand in a bole hole if it were drilled into
sand prior to the excavation is ___________ (Take 𝛾𝑤 = 10 KN/m3 ) [GATE 1995]

ir
a. 8.3 m.

lS
b. 10.2 m

pa
c. 3.83 m

s
Ja
d. 6.3 m

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A flow net of an earth dam on impervious foundation consists of 4 flow channels
and 15 equipotential drops. The full reservoir level is 15m above the downstream
horizontal filter. Given that horizontal permeability is 9 x 10-6 m/s and vertical
permeability Is 1 x 10-6 m/s, the quantity of seepage through the dam will be
[IES 2009]
a. 36 ml/s/m

ir
b. 25 ml/s/m

lS
c. 20 ml/s/m

pa
d. 15 ml/s/m.

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The seepage occurring through an earthen dam is represented by a flow net
comprising of 10 equipotential drops and 20 flow channels. The coefficient of
permeability of the soil is 3 mm/min and the head loss is 5m. The rate of seepage (in
cm3/s per m length of the dam) through earthen dam is _________ [GATE 1995]

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statements from which flow net can be obtained
1. Rate of flow
2. Pore water pressure
3. Exit gradient
4. Permeability

ir
[IES 2007]

lS
a. 1, 2, 3 and 4

pa
b. 1, 2 and 3 only.

s
c. 2, 3 and 4 only

Ja
d. 1 only

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Compaction of soil
• The process of artificially (by
mechanical means) rearrangement of
soil particles and packing them closer

ir
lS
is termed as compaction of soil.
• Compaction reduces- void ratio,

pa
permeability and compressibility.

s
Ja
• Compaction increases- engineering
properties like shear strength, degree
of denseness, stability and bearing
capacity.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following:
1. Increase in shear strength and bearing strength

ir
lS
2. Increase in slope stability

pa
3. Decrease in settlement of soil

s
4. Decrease in permeability

Ja
Which of the above with respect to compaction of soil is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Compaction Vs. consolidation
• Compaction must not be confused Compaction Consolidation
with consolidation which is another It is almost an It is a time dependent
phenomenon in which volume

ir
instantaneous process. process.

lS
reduction takes place. Soil is always unsaturated Soil is always saturated
(S<1) (S=1)

pa
Volume reduction is due Volume reduction is due

s
to air expulsion. to water expulsion.

Ja
Specified mechanical It occurs on the amount
techniques are used of loads placed on the
(Rollers, Rammers). soil.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Compaction of soil

• The compaction of soil is Compaction lab tests

reported in terms of dry density • Standard proctor test

ir
of soil i.e., amount of solids that • IS 2720 light compaction test

lS
can be packed into unit volume
• Modified proctor test

pa
of soil.
• IS 2720 heavy compaction test

s
𝑀𝑑 𝑀𝑠
• 𝜌𝑑 = =

Ja
𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝑑

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Write True or False
The measure of soil compaction is its wet density. (True/False.)

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The field density and field moisture content of a soil can be
determined by:

ir
1. Core cutting method

lS
2. Sand replacement method

pa
3. Proctor compaction test

s
Ja
4. Modified proctor compaction test
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 2 only.
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 2 and 4 only

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Compaction lab tests
Compaction Standard proctor Modified proctor IS 2720 Light IS 2720 Heavy
characteristics test test compaction test compaction test
Volume of mould 1 1000 cc 945 cc 1000 cc
𝑓𝑡 3 (945 cc)

ir
30

lS
Number of layers 3 3 5 5

pa
Number of blows on 25 25 25 25
each layer

s
Weight of hammer 5.5 lb (2.495 kg) 2.6 kg 10 lb (4.54 kg) 4.9 kg

Ja
Height of free fall of 12 inches (304.8 310 mm 18 inches (457.8 450 mm
hammer mm) mm)
Compaction energy provided in standard proctor test is 595 KJ/𝒎𝟑 , whereas in modified proctor test, it is
2674 KJ/𝒎𝟑 .
Energy provided IS Light compaction test (𝑬𝑳 ) is 593 KJ/𝒎𝟑 , whereas energy provided in IS Heavy
𝑬
compaction test (𝑬𝑯 ) is 2703 KJ/𝒎𝟑 , and the ratio of 𝑬 𝑳 = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟓
𝑯
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. For conducting a standard proctor compression test, the weight of
hammer (P in kg), the fall of hammer (Q in mm), the number of blows

ir
per layer (R) and the number of layers (S) required as respectively :

lS
P Q R S

pa
(a) 5.89 550 50 3

s
Ja
(b) 4.89 450 25 3
(c) 3.60 310 35 3
(d) 2.60 310 25 3.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Optimum moisture content
• Compaction curve is use to find the • The line showing the relationship
water content of the soil which gives between water content and dry
maximum dry density (max. density of compacted soil at 0% of air

ir
compactness/denseness) of the soil,

lS
void is called ‘Zero air void line’
which is also termed as optimum
moisture content (OMC). 𝜌 𝐺.𝜌𝑊

pa
𝑑= 1+𝑤.𝐺
• The line showing the relationship • A line showing relationship between

s
between water content and dry

Ja
water content and dry density of
density of compacted soil at constant
percent of air voids is termed as ‘air compacted soil, at constant degree of
void line’. saturation (%) is termed as ‘saturation
𝜌 1 − 𝑛𝑎 .𝐺.𝜌𝑊 line’.
𝑑= 1+𝑤.𝐺 𝜌 𝐺.𝜌𝑊 𝐺.𝜌𝑊
𝑑= 1+𝑒 = 𝑤.𝐺
1+ 𝑆
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Optimum moisture content

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Let G be the specific gravity of soil solids, W the water content in the
soil sample, 𝛾𝑤 the unit weight of water, and 𝛾𝑑 the dry unit weight of

ir
the soil. The equation for the zero air voids line in a compaction test

lS
plot is

pa
𝐺.𝛾𝑤 𝐺.𝛾𝑤
(a) 𝛾𝑑 = . (b) 𝛾𝑑 =

s
1+𝐺.𝑊 𝐺.𝑊

Ja
𝐺𝑤 𝐺𝑤
(c) 𝛾𝑑 = (d) 𝛾𝑑 =
1+𝛾𝑤 1− 𝛾𝑤

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Optimum moisture content
Note points:
▪ Though 0% air void line is equal to 100% saturation line but,

ir
x% air void line ≠ (100 – x%) saturation line

lS
▪ In normal soil (silt, clay, fine sand (well graded)), maximum dry density is

pa
attained at 85 – 95% degree of saturation because it is practically not possible
to remove all the air from the soil sample even under maximum possible

s
Ja
compaction {as soon as the hammer is lifted after the impact some amount of
air re-enters into the soil}.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. OMC-SP and MDD-SP denote the optimum moisture content and
maximum dry density obtained from standard proctor compaction test,

ir
respectively. OMC-MP and MDD-MP denotes the optimum moisture

lS
content and maximum dry density obtained from the Modified Proctor

pa
test, respectively. Which one of the following is correct ?

s
(a) OMC-SP < OMC-MP and MDD-SP < MDD-MP

Ja
(b) OMC-SP > OMC-MP and MDD-SP < MDD-MP.
(c) OMC-SP < OMC-MP and MDD-SP > MDD-MP
(d) OMC-SP > OMC-MP and MDD-SP > MDD-MP

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Water content test on field
• Water content of the soil can be
computed on the field rapidly by:
1. Calcium carbide method

ir
2. Proctor needle method

lS
pa
• Proctor needle method
▪ Proctor needle is inserted in the sample

s
Ja
to be tested upto the depth of 75 cm at
the rate of 1.25 cm/sec and resistance
offered by the soil to the needle point
against penetration is noted.
1+ 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
▪ Relative compaction (𝑅𝑐 ) = ∗ 100
1+ 𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
▪ 𝑅𝑐 = 80 + 0.2 𝐼𝐷

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Factors affecting compaction
A. Water content B. Degree of compaction
• At low water content soil is stiff and offers • For a given type of compaction, higher
more resistance to compaction. the compaction effect, higher the

ir
maximum dry density and lower the

lS
• As the water content increases, it
becomes easier to compact the soil that OMC.

pa
results in higher dry density. • With increase in moulding water content
the influence of compaction effort on dry

s
• This works till OMC, beyond OMC water
density tends to diminish.

Ja
starts replacing solids resulting in
decrease in dry density (𝜌𝑊 < 𝜌𝑆 ) • If all the peaks of compaction curve for
different compactive effort are joined
together a ‘line of optimus’ is obtained
which shows that even a higher
compactive effort doesnot result in higher
efficiency of compaction.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Factors affecting compaction

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. In compaction test if the compacting effort is increased. It will result
in:

ir
(a) Increase in maximum dry density and OMC

lS
(b) Increase in maximum dry density but OMC remains unchanged

pa
(c) Increase in maximum dry density and decrease in OMC.

s
Ja
(d) NO change in maximum dry density but decrease in OMC

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Factors affecting compaction
C. Method of compaction

Type of equipment Stability of soil Project type

Action Type of soil

ir
1. Rollers

lS
a. Smooth wheeled Pressure Crushed stone, sand, Road construction

pa
gravel
b. Sheep foot Kneading Clayey soil Core of earthen dam

s
Ja
c. Pneumatic tyred Pressure + Kneading Sand, gravel, silt, clay Base, sub-base, Embankment,
highway, airfield, earth dams.

2. Rammers Impact All types of soil In confined area: Trench,

Basement wall, retaining wall
3. vibration sand vibration Embankment of oil storage tank

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Compaction by vibratory roller is the best method of compaction in
case of

ir
(a) Moist silty sand (b) Well graded dry sand.

lS
(c) Clay of medium compressibility (d) Silt of high compressibility

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Factors affecting compaction
D. Type of soil
▪ Course grained soil (well graded) – higher dry density
▪ Poorly graded or uniform sand – low dry density

ir
lS
▪ Clay soil – max. dry density decrease as plasticity increase

pa
▪ Heavy clay with plasticity – very low max. dry density

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
IS SCS recommended field tests
• Visual examination test
Visual examination is done by taking a representative sample of soil

ir
and spreading it on a flat surface or palm of the hand.

lS
a) Dilatancy test (reaction to shaking)

pa
b) Toughness test (consistency near plastic limit)

s
Ja
c) Dry strength test (crushing resistance)
d) Organic content & color

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statements:
1. Poorly graded or uniform sands compact to low dry unit weight

ir
lS
2. Heavy clays with high plasticity have very low maximum dry unit
weight

pa
3. In clay soils, the maximum dry weight tends to decrease as plasticity

s
Ja
increases.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3. (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 3 only
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Effect of compaction on engineering
properties of soil
A. Structure • Degree of orientation
B>A

ir
lS
W%
D>C

s pa
C>A

Ja
compactive effort
D>B

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Effect of compaction on engineering properties of
soil
B. Permeability D. Swelling
▪ for a given compaction effort, ▪ A soil on dry of optimum has
permeability decreases sharply higher water efficiency so it

ir
with increase in water content swells more.

lS
on dry side of optimum. E. Shrinkage

pa
C. Compressibility ▪ Soil compacted on wet of

s
▪ At relatively slow stress level, a optimum tends to exhibit more

Ja
soil compacted at wet of shrinkage upon drying then
optimum is more compressible those compacted on dry of
then the flocculated soil on dry optimum.
of optimum.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Assertion (A) : permeability continues to decrease with the increase
in dry density of a compacted soil.

ir
Reason (R) : Soil particles in water surrounding may be mutually

lS
attracted or repulsed.

pa
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is correct reason of (A)

s
Ja
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is not the reason of (A).
(c) (A) is correct, (R) is incorrect
(d) Both (A) and (R) is incorrect

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Effect of compaction on engineering properties of
soil
F. Stress-strain relationship • Soil compacted on dry of
(strength) optimum resist deformation on
application of stress, hence

ir
stress-strain curve rises steeply

lS
to a peak.

pa
• Soil compacted to wet of

s
optimum have a flatter stress-

Ja
strain curve without any peak
showing low strength and
progressive failure.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Effect of compaction on engineering properties of
soil
G. Pore water pressure
Soil compacted wet of optimum will have high pore water pressure as compared to soil compacted
to dry of optimum which have initially Low pressure (pore water pressure) that may be negative
also.

ir
Property of soil Dry of optimum Wet of optimum

lS
structure flocculant dispersed

pa
Water deficiency more less

s
permeability More (isotropic) Less (anisotropic)

Ja
Compressibility
a. Low stress Less More
b. High stress More less
swell ability more less
shrinkage less more
strength More (brittle) Less (ductile)
Pore water pressure less
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions. more
Effect of compaction on engineering properties of
soil
• In a certain engineering project, a particular property of soil may be
required on the basis of which compaction of soil is done as follows:
Engineering construction Properties required Compaction water content

ir
lS
Core of earthen dam Low permeability & low Wet of OMC

pa
volume increase (swelling)
to resist cracking.

s
Ja
Subgrade of pavement We require low volume Wet of OMC
change (swelling).

Homogeneous earthen dam High strength and low water Dry of OMC
pressure (uplift pressure)

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Compressibility of soil and Consolidation
• The compressibility of soil is defined as • Compressibility:
gradual decrease in volume of soil on
application of stress/load on soil.
• The volume decrease can be due to: a) Initial compressing/compaction (due to

ir
compression/expulsion of air)

lS
a) Compression and expulsion of pore air.
b) Consolidation

pa
b) Compression and expulsion of pore
water. 1) primary (due to expulsion of
water)

s
c) Compression of soil solid.

Ja
2) secondary (due to plastic
d) Plastic rearrangement of soil particles. rearrangement of particles)
• Water and soil solids are considered to be
incompressible, hence compression of
water and soil is neglected.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Compressibility of soil and Consolidation

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consolidation in soils:
(a) Is a function of the effective stress.

ir
lS
(b) Does not depend on the present stress

pa
(c) Is a function of the pore water pressure

s
(d) Is a function of the total stress

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Consolidation characteristics of the soil
(a) Effect of soil
• Granular soils exhibit a
compressibility behavior different

ir
lS
from that of clay.
• Dense sand are much less

pa
compressible than loose sand.

s
Ja
• For saturated fine grain soil, the
major factor contributing in
compressibility is consolidation.
• Rate of settlement decreases with
increase in effective stress.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Consolidation characteristics of the soil
(b) Effect of stress • OVERCONSOLIDATION RATIO (OCR)
𝝈′𝒄
• The maximum value of stress, the soil OCR =
has ever experienced is called 𝝈′
‘PRECONSOLIDATED STRESS’ (𝜎′𝑐 ). -> for normally consolidated soil, OCR=1

ir
(𝜎 ′ = 𝜎′𝑐 )

lS
• A soil is said to be ‘NORMALLY
CONSOLIDATED’ when the existing -> for preconsolidation soil, OCR>1

pa
surface effective stress 𝜎′, is the max. (𝜎′𝑐 > 𝜎′)
that is ever experienced by the soil in

s
Ja
stress history, i.e., 𝜎′𝑐 = 𝜎′
• If OCR < 1, soil is termed as
• A soil is said to be ‘UNDERCONSOLIDATED SOIL’
‘PRECONSOLIDATED/
OVERCONSOLIDATED’, if the existing
stresses is less than preconsolidated
stress i.e., 𝜎 ′ < 𝜎′𝑐 .
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Consolidation characteristics of the soil
• Preconsolidation of a soil stratum
may occur due to several reason:
a) Erosion of overburden soil.

ir
lS
b) Melting of glacier.

pa
c) Desiccation of upper layer of soil
(drying).

s
Ja
d) Change in elevation of water
table.
e) Desiccation due to plant life.
f) Removal of construction after
sometime.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Consolidation characteristics of the soil
• Normally consolidated soil has more settlement than over consolidated soil.
• Coefficient of compressibility (𝒂𝒗 ):
−∆𝑒

ir
𝑎𝑣 =

lS
∆𝜎′
• Coefficient of compression/ compression index (𝑪𝒄 )

pa
−∆𝑒
𝐶𝑐 =
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝜎1′ /𝜎0 ′)

s
Ja
For most of soils (clay) 𝐶𝑐 = 0.1 to 0.8
For undisturbed clay, 𝐶𝑐 =0.009 (𝑤𝐿 (%)- 10(%))
For remoulded clay, 𝐶𝑐 = 0.007 (𝑤𝐿 (%)- 7(%))
For all clays, 𝐶𝑐 = 1.15 (𝑒0 - 0.35)
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Coefficient of recompression/ recompression index (𝒄𝒗 )
−∆𝑒
𝑐𝑟 = ′ 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝜎1 /𝜎0 ′)

Q. Compression index developed by Casagrande is

ir
lS
(a) 𝐶𝑐 =0.009 (𝑤𝐿 + 10%)

pa
(b) 𝐶𝑐 =0.009 (𝑤𝐿 - 10%).

s
(c) 𝐶𝑐 =0.0009 (𝑤𝐿 + 10%)

Ja
(d) 𝐶𝑐 =0.0009 (𝑤𝐿 - 10%)

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Terzaghi’s one-dimensional consolidation
theory
• Assumptions used in Terzaghi’s theory: • There is unique relationship independent of
a) Compression and flow are one dimensional time between void ratio and effective stress
−𝛿𝑒
(vertical). (i.e., 𝑎𝑣 = , here 𝑎𝑣 is assumed to be

ir
𝛿𝜎

lS
b) Darcy’s law is valid. constant) i.e. secondary consolidation is not
considered as it takes place at constant stress

pa
c) Soil is homogeneous and isotropic.
hence in such case, there will not be unique

s
d) Soil is completely saturated. relationship between ‘e’ & ‘𝜎’ or it can also be

Ja
e) The soil solids and water are both interpreted as that hydrodynamic lag is
incompressible. considered but plastic lag is not considered.

Strains are small i.e., the applied load increment

produces virtually no change in the thickness of
the soil sample.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Terzaghi’s one-dimensional consolidation theory

• In the consolidation process, as the excess • Coefficient of volume change or coefficient of

volume compressibility (𝑴𝒗 )
pore water pressure dissipates, the 𝑎𝑣
𝑀𝑣 =
effective stresses are increased. 1 + 𝑒0

ir
lS
𝜕𝑢ത 𝜕2𝑢
= 𝑐𝑣 2 • Coefficient of consolidation
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧

pa
• It is the basic differential equation which 𝐾(1 + 𝑒0 )
𝑐𝑣 =
𝑎𝑣 . 𝛾𝑤

s
relates the rate of change of excess

Ja
hydrostatic pressure to the rate of change 𝐾
𝑐𝑣 =
of expulsion of excess pore water pressure 𝑀𝑣 . 𝛾𝑤
from a unit volume of soil mass during the
Magnitude of consolidation is given by ‘𝑎𝑣 ’ & time
same time interval. rate of consolidation is given by ‘𝑐𝑣 ’.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The slope of the e-log p curve for a soil mass gives:
(a) Coefficient of permeability, K

ir
lS
(b) Coefficient of consolidation, 𝐶𝑣

pa
(c) Compression index, 𝑐𝑐 .

s
(d) Coefficient of volume compressibility, 𝑀𝑣

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Terzaghi’s non-dimensional factor
a) Drainage path ratio: b) Degree of consolidation:
𝑧
𝑍=ҧ • When the settlement at any stage
𝑑 is known

ir
• Double drainage, one drainage ∆ℎ

lS
surface at top and one at bottom 𝑈 % = 𝑋 100
∆𝐻

pa
𝐻
𝑑= • When pore water pressure is

s
2 known

Ja
• Single drainage path, either at top 𝑢ഥ𝑖 − 𝑢ത
or bottom 𝑈 % = 𝑋 100
𝑢ഥ𝑖 − 𝑢𝑓
𝑑=𝐻
• When void ratio is known
𝑒0 − 𝑒
𝑈 % = 𝑋 100
𝑒0 − 𝑒100
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Terzaghi’s non-dimensional factor
• Time factor (𝑻𝒗 ) If U is in fraction,
𝑡
𝑇𝑣 = 𝑐𝑣 . 2 𝑇𝑣 = - 0.0851 – 0.9332 𝑙𝑜𝑔10(1 – u)
𝑑

ir
lS
Solution of Terzaghi’s 1-D differential equation is
given by ;
• Theoretically, for 100% primary consolidation,

pa
∞
infinite time is required but it is assumed to be

s
𝑢 = 1 − ෍ 𝑓1 (𝑍)𝑓2 (𝑇𝑣 ) completed, if degree of consolidation has

Ja
𝑛=0 reached > 90%.
𝜋
For U < 60%, 𝑇𝑣 = 4 𝑢2
• If approx. result of 1-D consolidation equation is
For U > 60%, referred graphically, it is observed as follows,
𝑇𝑣 = 1.781 – 0.933 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (100 – u)

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Terzaghi’s one-dimensional consolidation theory assumes that
(a) e, 𝑉𝑠 P relationship is linear.

ir
lS
(b) e, 𝑉𝑠 ,𝑙𝑜𝑔10 P relationship is linear

pa
(c) e, 𝑉𝑠 ,𝑙𝑜𝑔10 e relationship is linear

s
𝑃
(d) e, 𝑉𝑠 ,𝑙𝑜𝑔10 relationship is linear

Ja
𝑃0

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Laboratory consolidation test
• Consolidation test: The consolidation test data are further use to
Use to find parameters like 𝑎𝑣 and 𝑐𝑣 along with determine the following:
coefficient of permeability & swelling behavior

ir
a) Void ratio & coefficient of volume change.
of soil.

lS
It can be computed by any two method; Height
This test is carried out in the device termed as

pa
of solid methods, Change in void ratio method.
OEDOMETER or CONSOLIDOMETER.
I. Height of solid method

s
Ja
𝑀𝑠 𝑊𝑠
𝐻𝑠 = =
𝑉𝑠 . 𝐴. 𝜌𝑤 𝑉𝑠 . 𝐴
The void ratio of soil sample is
𝐻 − 𝐻𝑠
𝑒=
𝐻𝑠

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Laboratory consolidation test
1. Casagrande’s logarithmic of time fitting
method
ll. Change in void ratio method
for u = 50%, 𝑇𝑣 can be found mathematically/
graphically

ir
∆𝐻
∆𝑒 = 1 + 𝑒𝑓

lS
∆𝐻𝑠
𝑒𝑓 − 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑2
𝑐𝑣 = 𝑇𝑣50

pa
𝐻𝑠 − 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝑡50

s
b) Determination of coefficient of

Ja
consolidation.
𝑐𝑣 can be determined by taking the advantage of
consolidation v/s time factor curve. This method is
termed as CURVE FITTING METHOD.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Laboratory consolidation test
2. Taylor square root of time fitting method
• This method uses the characteristics of u(%) v/s
√𝑇𝑣 curve.

ir
lS
• This curve is straight upto u= 60% and the abscissa
at u= 90% is equal to 1.15 times of abscissa at u=

pa
60%.

s
• For u= 90%, 𝑇𝑣90 is computed mathematically or

Ja
graphically.

𝑑2
• 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑇𝑣90
𝑡90

• Square root of time fitting method is better for

those soils which have heigh compressibility.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Taylor square root of time fitting method
Note: The compression ‘𝑅0 − 𝑅𝑖 ’ • Initial compression ratio’
is due to many factors which 𝑅𝑖 − 𝑅0
includes: 𝑟0 =

ir
𝑅𝑖 − 𝑅𝑓

lS
• Compression of small quantities • Primary compression ratio (root
of air in soil.

pa
time)
• Imperfect saturation 10 𝑅0 − 𝑅100

s
Ja
• Vertical elastically compression 𝑟𝑝 =
9 𝑅𝑖 − 𝑅𝑓
of soil specimen
• Secondary compression ratio
• Lateral expansion of soil 𝑟𝑠 = 1 − 𝑟0 + 𝑟𝑝
specimen.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Laboratory consolidation test
c) Determination of coefficient of
permeability

ir
A falling head permeability test

lS
can be performed or can be

pa
computed as,

s
𝐾

Ja
𝑐𝑣 =
𝑀𝑣 . 𝛾𝑤

𝐾 = 𝑐𝑣 . 𝑀𝑣 . 𝛾𝑤

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Computation of settlement
• Total settlement (𝑆𝑡 ) = 𝑆𝑖 + 𝑆𝑐 + 𝑆𝑠 • When coefficient of compressibility is
• 𝑆𝑖 - initial compression/ compaction known

ir
• 𝑆𝑐 - primary consolidation settlement 𝑎𝑣 . ∆𝜎′

lS
• 𝑆𝑠 - secondary consolidation ∆𝐻 = 𝐻0
1 + 𝑒0

pa
settlement
1. Determination of primary

s
Ja
consolidation (𝑆𝑐 ) • When coefficient of volume
• When void ratio is known compressibility is known
∆𝑒 ∆𝐻 = 𝑀𝑣 . ∆𝜎 ′ . 𝐻0
∆𝐻 = 𝐻0
1 + 𝑒0
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Computation of settlement
• When coefficient of compression is known

ir
lS
𝑐𝑐 𝐻0 𝜎′ 1
∆𝐻 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 { ′ } if soil is normally consolidated

pa
1+ 𝑒0 𝜎 0

s
𝑐𝑟 𝐻0 𝜎′ 1
∆𝐻 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 { ′ } if soil is over consolidated

Ja
1+ 𝑒0 𝜎 0

Total settlement:
𝑐𝑟 𝐻0 𝜎′ 1 𝑐𝑐 𝐻0 𝜎′ 1
∆𝐻 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 { ′ } + 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 { ′ }
1+ 𝑒0 𝜎 0 1+ 𝑒0 𝜎 0

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The initial and final void ratios of a clay sample in a consolidation
test are 1 and 0.5, respectively. If the initial thickness of the sample is

ir
2.4 cm, then its final thickness will be

lS
(a) 1.3 cm

pa
(b) 1.8 cm

s
Ja
(c) 1.9 cm
(d) 2.2 cm

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Computation of settlement
2. Determination of secondary
consolidation (𝑆𝑠 )

ir
It continues much beyond primary

lS
consolidation.

pa
∆𝑒
𝐶∝ =

s
∆𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑡

Ja
𝐻100
𝐶∝ .
𝐻𝑓 𝑡
∆𝐻 = 𝑒100 . log{𝑡 }
1+ 100
𝑒𝑓

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Vertical sand drains
• The principle of functioning of a sand drain is • The magnitude of consolidation would
based on the consolidation theory of remain same & only the rate of settlement
RADIALLY & VERTICALLY DRAINED SOIL. would increase.

ir
lS
• The slow rate of consolidation of saturated • Sand drains are provided when
clay of low permeability may be accelerated embankments to be constructed over a

pa
by means of vertical sand drains, which highly compressible clay layer.

s
provide path for radial drainage, resulting in

Ja
shortening of drainage path. • These sand drains also helps in increasing
the rate of development of shear strength
• Consolidation is then mainly due to horizontal in soil, thereby would permit a faster rate
radial drainage, which results in faster of construction of embankment.
dissipation of excess pore water pressure.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Sand drains are used to
(a) Reduce the settlement

ir
lS
(b) Accelerate the consolidation.

pa
(c) Increase the permeability

s
(d) Transfer the load

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Stress distribution
• At a certain point within the soil mass, 1. Vertical pressure due to point load:
the stresses are caused due to both it can be analyzed by using:
1. BOUSSINESQ’S THEORY

ir
surface loading as well as due to self

lS
weight of the soil, these can be found 2. WESTERGAARD’S THEORY.

pa
separately and then added to get the
final stress at the concerned point.

s
Ja
• Stresses due to surface loading are
computed as follows:

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Boussinesq’s theory
Assumptions:
• Soil is homogeneous, Isotropic, semi-infinite and elastic.

ir
• Hooke’s law is valid.

lS
• Self weight of soil is neglected.

pa
• Soil is unstressed initially.

s
Ja
• Change in volume of soil due to application of load is neglected.
• Distribution of stress about vertical axis is symmetrical.
• In top surface of soil is free from shear stress and only subjected to
point load.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Boussinesq’s theory
• 𝜎𝑧 = 𝐾𝐵 . 𝑄/𝑍 2
3 1 5/2
𝐾𝐵 = { }

ir
2𝜋 𝑟 2

lS
1+
𝑍

pa
3 1 5/2 2
𝜎𝑧 = { 2 } . 𝑄/𝑍

s
2𝜋 1+ 𝑟

Ja
𝑍

3𝑄. 𝑟 1 5/2
𝜏𝑟𝑧 = 3
{ 2 }
2𝜋. 𝑍 𝑟
1+
𝑍
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Boussinesq’s theory
• It can be referred both vertical • a)Vertical pressure distribution
normal stress or shear stress are diagram on any horizontal plane

ir
independent of elastic constant at constant depth.

lS
(E & H) but are very much

pa
r/Z 𝑲𝑩 𝑲𝑩 . 𝑸
dependent on the assumptions 𝝈𝒛 =
𝒁𝟐

s
Ja
of elastic theory. 0 0.4775 Maximum

• This theory can further be used 0.5 0.2733 57% of maximum

to analyze following distribution 1 0.0844 17.7% of maximum

diagram. 2 0.0085 1.8% of maximum

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Stresses obtained from Boussinesq’s theory are considered reasonably
satisfactory in foundation engineering because:

ir
(a) They represent stress distribution in homogeneous soil below loaded area

lS
pa
(b) They account for anisotropy of soil properties

s
(c) They give due regards to plastic behavior of soil, particularly for settlement

Ja
analysis
(d) They consider elastic soil medium, and the intensity of allowable stresses
below foundation in most cases are quite small and justify elastic solution.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Boussinesq’s theory

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Boussinesq’s theory
• If this pressure distribution b) Vertical pressure distribution
diagram is plotted for unit load diagram on vertical line at a
i.e. (Q=1), it is called ‘INFLUENCE constant radial distance:

ir
DIAGRAM’ for point ‘P’ below

lS
• Vertical pressure on vertical line
axis.

pa
at a constant radial distance
• It can be concluded that at a from point load first increase

s
Ja
given depth when horizontal with increase in depth reaches
radial distance i.e., more than or its maximum value & further
equal to twice the depth, 𝜎𝑧 due starts decreasing.
to point is neglected.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Boussinesq’s theory
3 1
𝜎𝑧 = { 𝑟 2}5/2 . 𝑄/𝑍 2
2𝜋 1+
𝑍

For 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧 𝑚𝑎𝑥.

ir
lS
Z = 3/2 . r ,

pa
𝛽 = 39° 13′

s
Ja
𝑄
𝜎𝑧 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.088 2
𝑟
𝑟 𝑄
𝜏𝑟𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧 . = 0.071 2
𝑍 𝑟
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A uniform distributed line load of 500 KN/m is acting on the ground
surface. Based on Boussinesq’s theory, the ratio of vertical stress at a

ir
depth 2 m to that at 4 m right below the line of load is

lS
a) 0.25 b)0.5

pa
c) 2.0 . d) 4.0

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Boussinesq’s theory
c) Stress isobar/ isobar diagram
• An isobar is a curve or contour joining all
points below the ground surface of equal
vertical pressure.

ir
• The zone in the loaded soil mass bounded by

lS
as isobar of given vertical pressure is called

pa
‘PRESSURE BULB’.

s
• The vertical pressure at every point on the

Ja
surface of pressure bulb is same.
• For a given load, a number of isobars
corresponding to various intensity of vertical
pressure can be drawn and is termed as
ISOBAR DIAGRAM.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. An isobar is a line which connects all points below the ground
surface at which

ir
a) The local ground elevation is same

lS
b) The settlement is same

pa
c) The vertical stress is the same.

s
Ja
d) The ground elevation is varying

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Statement (1): Boussinesq equation is not suitable for sediments
deposits.

ir
Statement (2): sedimentary deposits do not represent an isotropic-

lS
cum-homogeneous system.

pa
(a) Both statement is correct, statement (2) is correct reason.

s
Ja
(b) Both statement is correct, statement (2) is not correct reason
(c) Statement (1) is correct, Statement (2) is incorrect
(d) Statement (1) is incorrect, statement (2) is correct

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Westergaard’s theory
Assumptions:
• Soil is homogeneous, semi-infinite & non-
isotropic (hence it is applicable in stratified
soil).

ir
• Medium is laterally reinforced with numerous

lS
closely spaced sheets of negligible thickness
(medium is rigid horizontally & elastic

pa
vertically).

s
• 𝜖𝐻 = 0 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦

Ja
• 𝜖𝑉 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐
• Poisson’s ratio 𝜇 = 0
𝜎ℎ
• 𝐸ℎ = =∞
𝜖ℎ

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Westergaard’s theory
𝑟
• According to Westergaard • If = 1.52, 𝐾𝐵 = 𝐾𝑤
𝑍
𝑄 𝑟
𝜎𝑧 = 𝐾𝑤 . If = 1.52, 𝐾𝐵 > 𝐾𝑤
𝑍2 𝑍

1 1 𝑟
If = 1.52, 𝐾𝐵 > 𝐾𝑤
𝐾𝑤 = { }3/2 𝑍

ir
𝜋 𝑟 2
1 + 2. 2

lS
𝑍
𝑄 1

pa
𝜎𝑧 = 2
{ 2 }3/2
𝜋. 𝑍 𝑟
1 + 2. 2
𝑍

s
Ja
𝑟
• If r=0, = 0
𝑍

𝐾
𝐾𝑤 = 0.318
𝑍2
𝑟
• For same , 𝜎𝑧𝐵 = 𝜎𝑧𝑊
𝑍
𝑟
= 1.52
𝑍

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Westergaard’s formula for vertical stress gives greater value of stress
than that by the Boussinesq’s formula, when r/Z exceeds:

ir
a) 1.5. b) 2.5

lS
c) 3.5 d) 4.0

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Stress due to surface loading
• The soil in practical is non-isotropic hence 1 3/2
𝐾𝐵 = 1 − { 2 }
results obtained using Westergaard’s theory 𝑟
are more accurate & closer to the actual 1+
𝑍

ir
result but practically Boussinesq theory is

lS
used as it gives more conservative results.

pa
2. Vertical pressure due to uniformly loaded
circular area below the centre

s
Ja
𝜎𝑧 = 𝐾𝐵 . 𝑄
𝐾𝐵 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝛼
𝑍
cos 𝛼 =
(𝑟 2 + 𝑍 2

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Stress due to surface loading
3. Vertical pressure due to line 4. Vertical pressure due to strip
load loading
2𝑞 1 2 𝑞
𝜎𝑧 = { } 𝜎𝑧 = {θ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ. 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ(β₁+β₂)}

ir
𝑍. 𝜋 𝑥 2 𝜋

lS
1+
𝑍

pa
Example – railway line

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Stress due to surface loading
5. Vertical pressure below the corner of 𝐾
uniformly distributed rectangular area
1 2𝑚 (𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 1 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 2
𝜎𝑧 = 𝐾. 𝑞 = ൝ 𝑋
K = influence factor 4𝜋 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 1 + 𝑚2 𝑛2 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 1
−1
2𝑚𝑛 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 1
+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ൡ

ir
𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 1 − 𝑚2 𝑛2

lS
• Special case:

pa
1. If point P lies inside the loading area
𝜎2 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 + 𝐾3 + 𝐾4 𝑞

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Stress due to surface loading
2. If point P lies outside the rectangular loading area.
𝜎2 = 𝑞 𝐾𝑝𝐴1𝑜𝑐1 − 𝐾𝑝𝐵1 𝑐𝑐1 − 𝐾𝑝𝐵2 𝐴𝐴1 + 𝐾𝑝𝐵1 𝐵𝐵2

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Approximate methods to calculate the vertical
stress
a) Equivalent point load method • 𝑄1 = 𝑞. 𝐴1 ; 𝑄2 = 𝑞. 𝐴2 ; 𝑄𝑛 = 𝑞. 𝐴𝑛
• Calculation of vertical pressure at any point in the
𝜎𝑧 = 𝐾𝐵1 . 𝑄₁/𝑍 2 + 𝐾𝐵₂ . 𝑄₂/𝑍 2 +……….
soil due to any shape of loading area.

ir
𝑛

lS
• The entire loaded area is divided into numbers of
𝜎𝑧 = ෍ 𝐾𝐵𝑖 . 𝑄𝑖 /𝑍 2
smaller area units & load acting on these area units

pa
𝑖=1
is replaced by equivalent point load acting at the
centroids of these area units.

s
Ja
• Accuracy of this method depends upon the size of
the area units considered, if the length of side of
these area units is smaller then one third the
depth at which stress is required, the error
involved is less than 3% in this method.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Approximate methods to calculate the vertical
stress
b) Trapezoidal method/ load distribution/ 2 to 1 method 1. For rectangular loading
• In this method, generally 2V:1H is adopted 𝑞 (𝐵𝐿)
𝜎𝑧 =
(distribution) below the loaded area. 𝐵 + 2𝑛𝑍 (𝐿 + 2𝑛𝑍)

2. For square loading

ir
𝑞. 𝐵2

lS
𝜎𝑧 =
(𝐵 + 2𝑛𝑍)2

pa
3. For circular loading

𝜋𝐷2

s
𝑞()
4

Ja
𝜎𝑧 =
𝜋 (𝐷 + 2𝑛𝑍)2
4

4. For strip loading

𝑞. 𝐵
𝜎𝑧 =
𝐵 + 2𝑛𝑍

Here, L>>B ; L+2nZ ≅ 𝐿

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Stress due to surface loading
6. Vertical pressure due to
triangulation loading
𝑞 𝑎𝑍
𝜎𝑧 = [𝑥. 𝛼 − 𝑥−𝛼 ]

ir
𝑎𝜋 𝑥 − 𝛼 2 + 𝑍2

lS
• Special case

pa
𝑞 𝑎.𝑍

s
𝜎𝑍𝐴 = . 2 2 at, x=0

Ja
𝜋 𝑎 +𝑍
𝑞.𝑎
𝜎𝑍𝐵 = at, x=a
𝜋

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. For a vertical concentrated load acting on the surface of semi-
infinite elastic soil mass, vertical normal stress at depth Z is

ir
proportional to:

lS
(a) Z

pa
(b) 1/Z

s
Ja
(c) 𝑍 2
(d) 1/ 𝑍 2 .

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Stress due to surface loading
7. Vertical pressure due to
Trapezoidal load
2𝑞
𝜎𝑧 = [𝑎 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝑏. 𝛽]

ir
𝜋𝑎

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Newmark’s Influence Chart Method
• Soil is assumed to be • 𝜎𝑧 = 𝐼𝑓 . 𝑁𝑎 . 𝑞
homogeneous, semi-infinite, elastic • Newmark’s chart
and isotropic; not for stratified soil.

ir
lS
• It is more accurate method for

pa
determining the vertical stress at

s
any point under the uniform area.

Ja
• m= no. of concentric circle (10)
• n= no. of radial lines (20)
1
• Influence factor (𝐼𝑓 )= = 0.005
𝑚𝑋𝑛
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Which of the following statement are correct
1. Stress isobar can be prepared using Boussinesq’s stress distribution

ir
theory.

lS
2. Equivalent point load method yields accurate results.

pa
3. Newmark’s method relates the vertical stress with the help of

s
influence chart

Ja
4. Westergaard’s method helps in determination of the stress
distribution for layered soils.
a) 1, 2 and 3 only b) 1, 3 and 4 only.
c) 1, 2 and 4 only d) 2, 3 and 4 only
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shear strength of soil
• SHEAR STRENGTH of soil is the
capacity of the soil to resist shearing
stress or it can also be designed as

ir
lS
maximum value of stress that can be
controlled within the soil mass.

pa
• A soil may derive its shear strength

s
due to following:

Ja
a) Interlocking between particles
(gravel and sand) b) Intermolecular attraction due to
cohesion or adhesion (clay & silt).

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shear strength of soil
c) Friction between the particles &
due to sliding and rolling of particles
(sand, gravel, silt)

ir
lS
• To express the friction resistance of

pa
soil, we can consider the analogy of

s
force transmitted by two solid

Ja
bodies in contact with each other.
If ‘N’ is the normal force
perpendicular to the surface of
contact & tangential force ‘𝜏 ′
parallel to the surface.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shear strength of soil
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇. 𝑁
𝜇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑁. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝚽

ir
• In soil like sand, gravel, the resistance to

lS
sliding on any plane within the soil mass

pa
depends upon the normal force & angle of
internal friction.

s
Ja
• However, in case of these in rolling friction
also along with sliding friction
.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Shear failure of soil takes place when
(a) The angle of obliquity takes place

ir
lS
(b) Maximum cohesion is reached in cohesive soil

pa
(c) ∅ reaches its maximum value in cohesionless soil.

s
(d) Residual strength of soil is exhausted

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Mohr’s stress circle
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥
𝜎= + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛼 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼
2 2
𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥
𝜏= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛼 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛼

ir
2

lS
𝜎𝑦 −𝜎𝑥 2

pa
Radius = + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2

s
Resultant stress on any plane= (𝜎 2 + 𝜏 2 )

Ja
Angle of inclination/ obliquity β
−1
𝜏
𝛽 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝜎
𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Mohr’s stress circle
𝜎1 = 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜎2 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Mohr’s stress circle
Mohr failure & Mohr failure hypothesis • Here, 𝜎1𝑓 & 𝜎3𝑓 are principle stresses
at failure. And if the values are known
• According to Mohr hypothesis, the from the test, Mohr circle

ir
material fail when the shear stress on

lS
corresponding to it can be drawn.
the failure plane at failure reaches a

pa
value which is unique function of
Normal stress on that plan at failure.

s
Ja
𝜏𝑓𝑓 = 𝑓 (𝜎𝑓𝑓 )
• The first ‘f’ in the subscript represent
failure plane & second one represent
‘at failure’

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Mohr’s stress circle
• A line tangent to the Mohr circle can
be drawn and this curve is called
‘Mohr failure envelope.

ir
• If stress condition at a given point lie

lS
below the Mohr failure envelope then

pa
it represents a Stable condition.

s
Ja
• If it lies on the Mohr failure envelope
then shear stress is equal to shearing
strength.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. In a Mohr’s diagram. A point above Mohr’s envelope indicates:
(a) Imaginary condition.

ir
lS
(b) Safe condition

pa
(c) Imminent failure condition

s
(d) Condition of maximum obliquity

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Mohr’s stress circle
• Coulomb’s equation • It is to be noted C & ∅ are not internal
𝜏𝑓 = 𝐶 + 𝜎. 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ properties of the soil but are related to typ[e
∅ − 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 of test and conditions under which they are

ir
C – internal cohesion being measured.

lS
𝜎 − 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 / failure
𝜏𝑓 − 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 • Pure Cohesive soil, ∅ = 0; 𝜏𝑓 = 𝐶

pa
• Pure cohesionless soil, C=0; 𝜏𝑓 = 𝜎. 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅

s
• The coulomb equation is combined with

Ja
Mohr failure criteria for which Mohr envelope
is assumed to be straight line over a particular
range of Normal stress 𝜏𝑓𝑓 , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑀𝑜ℎ𝑟 −
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠
:
𝜏𝑓 = 𝐶 + 𝜎𝑓𝑓 . 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. If S is the shear strength, C and ∅ are shear strength parameters, and
𝜎𝑛 is the normal stress at failure, then the Coulomb’s equation for

ir
shear strength of the soil can be represented by:

lS
(a) C = S + 𝜎𝑛 . tan ∅

pa
(b) C = S - 𝜎𝑛 . tan ∅.

s
Ja
(c) S = 𝜎𝑛 + C. tan ∅
(d) S = C - 𝜎𝑛 . tan ∅

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Mohr’s stress circle
• Drawbacks of Mohr-coulomb theory ▪ Mohr coulomb’s failure criteria can be expressed in
▪ The effect of intermediate stress 𝜎2 is ignored terms of the relationship between the principle
irrespective of its magnitude, which will have some stress 𝜎1𝑓 & 𝜎3𝑓 .
influence on strength of soil.
𝜎1𝑓 = 𝜎3𝑓 . 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (45°+ ∅/2) + 2C. tan(45°+ ∅/2)

ir
▪ Mohr failure envelope is assumed to be straight

lS
line. For frictional soil/ non-cohesive soil
▪ The angle of failure plane relative to the major

pa
principle plane 𝛼 can be expressed in terms of 𝜎1𝑓 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
=

s
angle of shearing resistance ∅ either by using 𝜎3𝑓 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅

Ja
Mohr failure hypothesis or analytically as, 𝛼 =
(45° + ∅/2) ▪ This relation is known as ‘OBLIQUITY
RELATIONSHIP’ & is valid for soil having C=0, i.e.,
▪ The most dangerous plane. i.e., plane on which
cohesionless soil only.
failure will take place is the plane on which the
difference of (𝜏𝑓 − 𝜏) is minimum.
𝛼 = 45° + ∅/2

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Mohr’s stress circle
▪ In case of sand, failure takes place on ▪ The maximum shear stress (𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) acts
the plane on which resultant stress is on plane inclined at 45° to major
most inclined with the normal stress principle plane & its magnitude is

ir
on the same plane at:

lS
𝜎1𝑓 − 𝜎3𝑓
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜏𝑓𝑓 = 𝜎𝑓𝑓 . tan ∅ 2

pa
▪ The failure on plane of maximum

s
▪ The Mohr failure hypothesis shown an

Ja
interesting fact, ‘the maximum shear shear stress can occur only at 𝛼 =
stress on the surface failure plane 𝜏𝑓𝑓 , 45° 𝑜𝑟 ∅ = 0°, that is when Mohr
is not the maximum shear stress in envelope is horizontal i.e., in case of
the element (𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 ). pure cohesive soil (clay).

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Statement(1): Mohr’s theory is based on logical arrangement of
experimental result.

ir
Statement(2): Mohr’s theory generalizes coulomb’s theory.

lS
(a) Both statement is correct, statement (2) is correct reason

pa
(b) Both statement is correct, statement (2) is not correct reason

s
Ja
(c) Statement (1) is correct, Statement (2) is incorrect.
(d) Statement (1) is incorrect, statement (2) is correct

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Mohr’s stress circle
• After Terzaghi introduced his
effective stress principle it was

ir
established that shear strength

lS
is related to effective stress. So,

pa
modified coulomb’s equation is
𝜎𝑓 = 𝐶 ′ + 𝜎 ′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′

s
Ja
𝜎′ = 𝜎 − 𝑈
Total stress, 𝜏𝑓 = 𝐶𝑈 + 𝜎. 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅𝑈

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Type of shear strength
a) Undrained shear strength If loading slow in both short term & long term
𝜏𝑓𝑈 = 𝐶𝑈 + 𝜎. 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅𝑢 condition on sand & for long term condition on
clay, drained shear strength should be

ir
Or 𝜏𝑓𝑈 = 𝐶 + 𝜎. 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ determined.

lS
If fast loading is done on saturated clay then, in

pa
short term condition, undrained shear strength Type of shear test on the basis of drainage

s
be determined. 1. UU test

Ja
2. CU test
b) Drained shear strength 3. CD test
𝜏𝑓𝑈 = 𝐶𝑑 + 𝜎′. 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅𝑑

Or 𝜏𝑓𝑈 = 𝐶′ + 𝜎′. 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Type of shear strength

Drainage condition in 2 stages Tine required for test

Confined stage (before Deviator stage (after

ir
shear) shear)

lS
a) Unconsolidated Undrained 5-15 min

pa
b) Consolidated Undrained I (24 hrs) + II (2 hrs)

s
Ja
c) consolidated drained 2 weeks

• Since more time is required for CD test, CU test is the one usually preferred to determine the effective stress
parameter.

• UU test is not preferred as confining pressure acting for very long time can’t be drained in small period of
time.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Which of the following laboratory triaxial test parameters should
one specify to be carried out in connection with the initial stability of

ir
footing on saturated clay?

lS
1. 𝐶𝑐𝑢 , ∅𝑐𝑢 - consolidated undrained

pa
2. 𝐶𝑢 , ∅𝑢 - undrained

s
Ja
3. 𝐶𝑑 , ∅′𝑑 - drained
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only.
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1,2 and 3

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Measurement of shear strength
a) Direct shear test (shear box test)
• The soil sample to be tested is confined in

ir
a metal box, square or circular in cross-

lS
section that splits into halves horizontally.

pa
• The shear is normally applied at
CONSTANT RATE OF STRAIN.

s
Ja
• The shear deformation as well as vertical
deformation (∆𝐻) are measured during
the test with the help of dial Gauge.
• Value of shear stress at failure are plotted
against the normal stress for each test.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Assertion (A): in a box shear test the failure plane is predetermined
and is horizontal

ir
Reasoning (R): the shear test is applied in the vertical direction.

lS
(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is correct reason of (A)

pa
(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct, (R) is not the reason of (A)

s
Ja
(c) (A) is correct, (R) is incorrect.
(d) Both (A) and (R) is incorrect

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Measurement of shear strength
Disadvantages:
1. Drainage condition can not be controlled & pore water pressure can not be
measure.

ir
lS
2. Not recommended for conditions other than ‘fully drained’.

pa
3. The failure plane is always horizontal which may not be the direction of

s
weakest plane of soil.

Ja
4. There are stresses concentration at the sample boundary, leading to non-
uniform shear stress distribution on the failure plane.
5. There is rotation of the principle plane throughout the test.so, field loading
situation can not be simulated accurately in the lab sample.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following features of direct shear test:
1. Failure takes place in the predetermined plane

ir
lS
2. It is a quick test

pa
3. Drainage condition can not be changed

s
4. Failure of sample is progressive

Ja
Which of the disadvantages are correct?
(a) 1,2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4.
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Measurement of shear strength
b) Triaxial shear test
• This test is very accurate and generally used
for research purpose.
• The stress distribution is uniform on failure

ir
lS
plane.
• At anytime, during this test, either pore water

pa
• 𝜎𝑐 = 𝜎3 = 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
line is open & drainage line is closed or vice- 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑑 + 𝜎3 = 𝑀𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

s
versa. 𝜎𝑑 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎3

Ja
• Confined compressive strength,
• In this test, the pre water pressure developed
𝜎𝑑𝑓 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 . 𝑓 = 𝑃/𝐴𝑓
in the specimen can be negative also in some
case. 𝐴0 (1 ± 𝜖𝑣 )
𝐴𝑓 =
(1 − 𝜖𝐿 )

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Measurement of shear strength
• For undrained condition:
𝐴0
• 𝐴𝑓 =
1−𝜖𝐿

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. For the determination of shear strength parameters, C and ∅, of soil
in the laboratory, the test is conducted will be:

ir
(a) Triaxial compression test.

lS
(b) Sieve analysis

pa
(c) Compaction test

s
Ja
(d) Relative density test

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Measurement of shear strength
c) Unconfined compression test
• This is a special case of triaxial test carried out at zero cell
pressure i.e., (𝜎𝑐 = 𝜎3 = 𝜎𝐿 = 0)

• Since, it is quick, water is not allowed to drain out of sample,

ir
hence it is an Undrained test.

lS
• Since the test produces only one Mohr circle (corresponding

pa
to 𝜎3 = 0), this is only to soils for which ∅𝐻 = 0 i.e., fully
saturated fissured clays.

s
• In the unconfined compression test, major principle stress at

Ja
failure 𝜎1𝑓 is also termed as unconfined compressive strength
(𝑞𝑢 )
𝜎1𝑓 = 𝑞𝑢 = 2. 𝐶𝑢 = 𝑃/𝐴𝑓

Undrai9ned shear strength of saturated clay is

𝜏𝑓 = 𝐶𝑢 = 𝑞𝑈 /2

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Unconfined compression test is most suitable for determining the:
1. Sensitivity of clay

ir
lS
2. Settlement of embankments

pa
3. Strength of partially saturated clay sample

s
4. Strength of fully saturated clay sample

Ja
(a) 1,2,3 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1 and 4 only.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Measurement of shear strength
d) Vane shear test • For two way shear
• In this test, there is no mechanism to
measure pore pressure & no drainage 𝑇𝑓
facility is provided hence, it can be 𝜏𝑓 =
conducted only under undrained 𝜋𝐷 2 𝐷
𝐻+

ir
condition. 2 3

lS
• It suitable for soft, saturated clay. • For one way shear

pa
• Vane is calibrated to a spring having 𝑇𝑓

s
torsion stiffness (K), hence the torque at 𝜏𝑓 =
𝜋𝐷2

Ja
shear failure is determined as: 𝐷
𝐻+
2 6
T=K.Q
• Sensitivity of soil
𝐶𝑈 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑆𝑡 =
𝐶𝑈 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A laboratory vane shear test apparatus is used to determine the shear strength of a clay
sample and only one end of the vane takes part in shearing the soil. If T= applied torque,
H= height of vane and D=diameter of the vane, then shear strength of the clay is given by:

ir
lS
𝑇𝑓
(a) 𝜏𝑓 = 𝐷
𝜋𝐷2 𝐻+ 6

pa
𝑇𝑓
(b) 𝜏𝑓 =

s
𝐻 𝐷
𝜋𝐷2 2 + 6

Ja
𝑇𝑓
(c) 𝜏𝑓 = 𝐷 .
𝜋𝐷2 𝐻+12
𝑇𝑓
(d) 𝜏𝑓 = 𝐻 𝐷
𝜋𝐷2 2 +12

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shear strength of clay soils
I. Undrained strength from UU test • If pore water pressure measured are made in UU
(𝜎1 − 𝜎3 )𝑓
𝜏𝑓 = 𝐶𝑈𝑈 = test & results are plotted in terms of effective
2 stress, only one Mohr circle is obtained for all the

ir
test samples.

lS
• Since failure envelope in UU test is horizontal, the

pa
Unconfined Compression test can be used to
determine the value of 𝐶𝑈 , due to the case of its

s
performance but results will not be as accurate as

Ja
of triaxial test.

• If soil is only Partially Saturated, the deviator stress

at failure will increase, with increase in cell
pressure & failure envelope is no longer a
horizontal line.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shear strength of clay soils
Note: the ratio of undrained shear strength of a normally consolidated
clay to the effective over burden pressure at the corresponding depth
𝐶𝑢
{from which the sample is taken} i.e., , has been found to be constant

ir
𝜎𝑍

lS
and & is related to 𝐼𝑝 as,

pa
𝐶𝑢
= 0.11 + 0.0037𝐼𝑝 %

s
Ja
𝜎′𝑍
Equation developed by Skempton

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A clay soil specimen when tested in Unconfined condition gave an
unconfined compressive strength of 100KN/𝑚2 . A specimen of same

ir
clay with the same initial condition subjected to UU triaxial test under a

lS
cell pressure of 100KN/ 𝑚2 . The axial stress (in KN/ 𝑚2 ) at failure

pa
would be.

s
(a) 150

Ja
(b) 200.
(c) 250
(d) 300

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shear strength of clay soils
II. Consolidated undrained
strength from CU test:
• The test result can be plotted in

ir
lS
terms of total or effective

pa
stresses.

s
𝜏𝑓 = 𝐶𝐶𝑈 + 𝜎. 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅𝐶𝑈

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shear strength of clay soils
• III. Consolidated drained test
from CD test:

ir
𝜏𝑓 = 𝐶′𝐶𝐷 + 𝜎 ′ . 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′𝐶𝐷 [𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑂𝐶 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑠]

lS
𝜏𝑓 = 𝜎 ′ . 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅′𝐶𝐷 [𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝐶 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑠]

pa
• Generally, it is assumed that the

s
effective stress strength

Ja
parameter determined from CU
test are same as that from CD
test, however CU & CD test don’t
give exactly same results.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shear strength of clay soils
Note: 𝐶𝑈𝑈 = 25 − 30 KN/m²
NC clays
∅𝑈𝑈 = 0

ir
lS
𝐶𝑈𝑈 = 100 − 200 𝐾𝑁/𝑚² OC clay
I

pa
∅𝑈𝑈 = 0

s
𝐶𝑑 = 0

Ja
NC clay
∅𝑑 = 20 − 30°
II
𝐶𝑑 = 60 − 100 𝐾𝑁/𝑚²
OC clay
∅𝑑 = 10 − 50°

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shear strength of clay soils
• For partially saturated clay
𝐶𝑈𝑈 = 80 − 150 𝐾𝑁/𝑚²
∅𝑈𝑈 = 0 − 50° I

ir
lS
𝐶𝑑 = 60 − 70 𝐾𝑁/𝑚²
II

pa
∅𝑑 = 20 − 30°

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shear strength of clay soils
1: undisturbed sensitive clays
2: remolded sensitive clays

ir
lS
3: insensitive clays

s pa
𝑄𝑖 : initial tangent module

Ja
𝑄𝑖 : secant module

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shear strength of clay soils

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shear strength of sands
• In dense sand, shear strength is

ir
dur to interlocking & friction

lS
pa
(sliding & rolling) both.

s
Ja
• In loose sand, the shear strength

is due to friction resistance only.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shear strength of sands
• The soil is continued to be sheared after it attains peak stress, the stress reduces
& becomes more or less constant termed as ultimate stress.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shear strength of sands
• Dense sand
In case of dense sand under the same loading pore water pressure

ir
becomes negative, resulting in increase of effective stress & shear

lS
strength.

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statement:
1. A sand with its void ratio higher than its critical void ratio increases

ir
in volume when sheared.

lS
2. A sand with its void ratio less than its critical void ratio increases in

pa
volume when sheared

s
3. For a sand at critical void ratio, the volume change during shear is

Ja
minimum.
Which of the given statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) only 1 and 2
(c) Only 2 and 3. (d) only 1 and 3
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shear strength of sands
• Factor affecting angle of • Angle of Repose
shearing resistance ▪ The maximum slope at which,
▪ Interlocking effect is more material dropped down through

ir
significant for dense sands & is a natural process, remains stable

lS
the chief contributing factor for is called angle of repose.

pa
the increased angle of shearing ▪ This concept is limited to dry,

s
resistance.

Ja
granular soils.
▪ The angle of shearing resistance ▪ The angle of repose is approx.
decreases rapidly with increase equal to angle of internal friction
in % of fineness. in its loose state.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shear strength of sands
• Stress path • Three possible stress paths:
a) Effective stress path (ESP)
b) Total stress path (TSP)

ir
lS
c) Stress path of total stress

pa
minus static pore water
pressure (TSSP)

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Statement(1): a curved or straight line connecting the relevant strss
point is called the stress path.

ir
Statement(2): all the total stress paths are the effective stress path for

lS
the drained tests are straight lines at a slope of 45°.

pa
(a) Both statement is correct, statement (2) is correct reason

s
Ja
(b) Both statement is correct, statement (2) is not correct reason.
(c) Statement (1) is correct, Statement (2) is incorrect
(d) Statement (1) is incorrect, statement (2) is correct

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Skempton’s pore pressure parameter
3(1 − 2𝜇) • The value of A at failure for different soil
𝐶𝑐 = are:
𝐸
∆𝑉𝑤
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑉𝑤 . ∆𝑈

ir
Type of soil 𝑨𝒕

lS
1 1 Very loose, fine saturated 2-3

pa
∆𝑈 = ∆𝜎3 + ∆𝜎1 − ∆𝜎3
𝐶𝑣 3 sand or saturated clay.
1 + 𝑛.

s
𝐶𝑐 Extra sensitive/quick soil 1.2-2.5

Ja
∆𝑈1 Normally consolidated 0.7-1.3
𝐵=
∆𝜎3 Lightly consolidated 0.3-0.7
∆𝑈2
ҧ
𝐴= Heavily preconsolidated -0.5 - 0
∆𝜎1 − ∆𝜎3

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Skempton’s pore pressure parameter
• Factors affection A & B:
1
•𝐵=

ir
𝐶
1+𝑛 𝐶𝑣

lS
𝑐
𝐶𝑐
▪ If soil is fully saturated; ≈0 => B=1

pa
𝐶𝑐

s
𝐶𝑐
▪ If soil is dry;

Ja
≈∞ => B=0
𝐶𝑐
here, 0≤ 𝐵 ≤ 1 for 0≤ 𝑆 ≤ 1
▪ Here, A depends upon strain, anisotropy, sample disturbance, over
consolidation ratio.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A and B are skempton’s pore pressure coefficient. For saturated
normally consolidated soil.

ir
(a) A>1 and B>1 (b) A>1 and B<1

lS
(c) A<1 and B>1 (d) A<1 and B=1.

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Earth pressure
• Structure which are used to hold back a
soil mass are called retaining structures.
Eg: retaining wall, sheet pile walls,

ir
lS
sheeting in excavation, basement wall.

pa
• The material that is retained by this
walls/structures is termed as Backfill

s
Ja
which may have its top surface inclined.
• Force exerted by backfill over these
retaining walls is termed as Earth
pressure.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Earth pressure
• Effect of earth pressure
▪ When the wall is rigid and unyielding the soil mass is in a
state of rest and there is no deformation and
displacement, this state is termed as Earth Pressure at
Rest.

ir
▪ Entire shearing resistance has been developed and

lS
mobilized resulting in application of least force on the

pa
wall termed as Active Earth Pressure.
▪ Shearing resistance builds up in direction towards the

s
wall the earth pressure increases gradually and reaches

Ja
till it can not withstand it and split failure surface and
reaches its maximum value termed as Passive Earth
Pressure.
▪ The active earth pressure & passive earth pressure
develop corresponding to the limiting status of
equilibrium.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Earth pressure
• Active earth pressure
• Failure plane makes an angle of 𝛼 with
horizontal plane, which in this case is

ir
major principle plane.

lS
𝛼 = 45° + ∅/2

pa
For dense sand very little horizontal

s
strain of less than -0.2% is required to

Ja
reach the active state.
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
𝐾𝑎 = ;
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛∅

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Earth pressure
• Passive earth pressure
• Failure plane makes an angle of

ir
𝛼 with horizontal which in this

lS
case is minor principle plane.

pa
𝛼 = 45° − ∅/2

s
Ja
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
• 𝐾𝑝 =
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛∅

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Earth pressure

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Earth pressure
• Ratio of lateral to vertical earth pressure
termed as coefficient of earth pressure (K).
• Earth pressure at rest
𝜎ℎ
= 𝐾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

ir
𝜎𝑣 𝜎ℎ 𝜇

lS
= = 𝐾0
Coefficient of active earth pressure 𝜎𝑣 1 − 𝜇

pa
𝑝𝑎 = 𝜎ℎ = 𝐾𝑎 . 𝜎𝑣 𝑝0 = 𝜎ℎ = 𝜎0 . 𝐾𝑣

s
Ja
Coefficient of passive earth pressure
𝑝𝑝 = 𝜎ℎ = 𝐾𝑝 . 𝜎𝑣

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The ratio of horizontal stress to vertical stress is called coefficient of :
(a) Active earth pressure

ir
lS
(b) Passive earth pressure

pa
(c) Earth pressure.

s
(d) Plastic earth pressure

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Earth pressure
• For sand & normally consolidated clay 𝐾0 can also be found empirically as:

𝐾0 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅′ or 𝐾0 = 0.95 − sin ∅ + 0.15

ir
lS
• For normally consolidated clay,

pa
Type of soil 𝑲𝟎
Dense sand 0.4 – 0.45

s
𝐾0 = 0.19 + 0.233𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐼𝑝

Ja
Loose sand 0.45 - 0.5
Mechanically dense 0.8 - 1.5
• for over consolidated clay, sand
Normally 0.5 – 0.6
𝐾0 = 𝐾0 𝑁𝐶𝐶 𝑂𝐶𝑅 consolidated clay
Over consolidated 1-4
clay
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Given that for a soil deposit,
𝐾0 = earth pressure coefficient at rest

ir
lS
𝐾𝑎 = active earth pressure coefficient

pa
𝐾𝑝 = passive earth pressure coefficient

s
𝜇= Poisson’s ratio

Ja
The value of (1- 𝜇)/ 𝜇 is given by:
(a) 𝐾𝑎 / 𝐾𝑝 (b) 𝐾0 / 𝐾𝑎
(c) 𝐾𝑝 / 𝐾𝑎 (d) 1/ 𝐾0 .

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Rankine’s earth pressure theory
• Assumptions: • The wall yields about the base &
• The soil mass is semi-infinite, thus satisfies the deformation
homogeneous dry and condition of plastic equilibrium.

ir
lS
cohesionless. • However, the retaining walls are

pa
• The ground surface is plane constructed of masonry or

s
which may be horizontal or concrete & hence back of wall is

Ja
inclined never smooth.
• The back of the wall is vertical
and smooth.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Which of the following assumptions of Rankine’s theory are correct
for lateral earth pressure?

ir
1. The soil mass is semi-infinite, homogeneous, dry and cohesionless

lS
2. The ground surface is plane which may be horizontal or inclined

pa
3. The wall yields about the base and thus satisfies the deformation

s
Ja
condition for plastic equilibrium
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3. (d) 2 and 3 only

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Rankine’s earth pressure theory
• Case(i) Dry/Moist backfill
1 1

ir
𝑝𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 . 𝛾𝐻2 𝑝𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝 . 𝛾𝐻 2

lS
2 2

𝐻
𝑍ҧ =

pa
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
3

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A wall with smooth vertical back and 10 meter height retains
cohesionless material with a horizontal surface. The cohesionless

ir
material weights 4.91 KN/m² and has an angle of internal friction of

lS
30◦. The total earth pressure is:

pa
(a) 81.585 KN/m length of wall.

s
Ja
(b) 91.585 KN/m length of wall
(c) 40.743 KN/m²
(d) 8.158 KN/m²

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Rankine’s earth pressure theory
• Case(ii) Cohesionless backfill • Case(iii) Submerged backfill:
with uniform surcharge: 𝐾𝑎 . 𝛾 ′ . 𝐻2 𝛾𝑤 . 𝐻2
𝑝𝑎 = 𝑝𝑎1 + 𝑝𝑎2 = +
1 2 2
𝑝𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 . 𝑞𝐻 + 𝐾𝑎 . 𝛾𝐻2 𝐾𝑝 . 𝛾 ′ . 𝐻2 𝛾𝑤 . 𝐻2
2
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝1 + 𝑝𝑝2 = +

ir
1 2 2
𝑝𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝 . 𝑞𝐻 + 𝐾𝑝 . 𝛾𝐻2

lS
2 𝐻 σ 𝑝𝑖 𝑍𝑖
𝑍1 = 𝑍2 = 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑍 =
3 𝑝𝑖

pa
𝐻 𝐻
𝑍1 = 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐵 𝑍2 = 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐵 𝐻
2 3
= 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
3

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A retaining wall retains a sand strata with ∅ = 30° upto its top. If a
uniform surcharge of 12 t/m² is subsequently put on the sand strata,

ir
then the increase in lateral earth pressure intensity on the retaining

lS
wall will be:

pa
(a) 1 t/m²

s
Ja
(b) 2 t/m²
(c) 4 t/m².
(d) 8 t/m²

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Rankine’s earth pressure theory
• Case(iv) Submerged backfill with
water table at depth of H, from
ground:
𝑝𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 . 𝛾𝐻1 + 𝐾𝑎 . 𝛾 ′𝐻2 + 𝛾𝑤 𝐻2

ir
lS
𝑝𝑎 = 𝑝𝑎1 + 𝑝𝑎2 + 𝑝𝑎3 + 𝑝𝑎4

pa
1 𝐻1
𝑝𝑎1 = . 𝛾𝐾𝑎 𝐻1 2 , 𝑍1 = 𝐻2 +
2 3
• Case(v) backfill with different soil

s
𝐻2

Ja
𝑝𝑎2 = 𝛾𝐾𝑎 𝐻1 𝐻2 , 𝑍2 =
2
having different friction angle:
1 𝐻2 For portion AC
𝑝𝑎3 = . 𝛾′𝐾𝑎 𝐻2 2 , 𝑍3 =
2 3 (i) 𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾1 . 𝑍
2 𝐻2 σ 𝑝𝑖 𝑍𝑖 (ii) 𝜎ℎ = 𝐾. 𝜎𝑣
𝑝𝑎4 = 𝛾𝑤 𝐻2 , 𝑍4 = ; 𝑍=
3 𝑝𝑖
(iii) 𝑝𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎1 𝛾1 . 𝐻1 ; 𝑝𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝1 𝛾1 𝐻1
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Rankine’s earth pressure theory
For portion CB
(i) 𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾1 𝐻1 + 𝛾2 . 𝑍
(ii) 𝜎ℎ = 𝐾. 𝜎𝑣

1
𝑝𝑎1 = . 𝐾𝑎1 . 𝛾1 𝐻1 2

ir
, 𝑍1 = 𝐻1 + 𝐻2
2

lS
𝐻2
𝑝𝑎2 = 𝐾𝑎2 𝛾1 𝐻1 𝐻2 , 𝑍2 =
2

pa
1 𝐻2
𝑝𝑎3 = . 𝐾𝑎2 𝛾2 𝐻2 2 , 𝑍3 =
2 3

s
Ja
σ 𝑝𝑖 𝑍𝑖
𝑍=
𝑝𝑖

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Rankine’s earth pressure theory
• Case(vi) Backfill with sloping surface:
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)
𝐾𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝑝𝑎 = 𝐾. 𝜎

ir
lS
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
= 𝛾𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽

pa
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

s
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
If 𝛽 = 0, 𝐾𝑎 =

Ja
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛∅

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

𝐾𝑝 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
If 𝛽 = 0, 𝐾𝑝 =
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛∅

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Rankine’s earth pressure theory
• Case(vii) Inclined back with Horizontal
Backfill:
Note: in this case, total active or passive
thrust is first calculated on a vertical plane
BC passing through the level of wall B.

ir
2

lS
𝑝𝑎
𝑝= + 𝑤2
𝑝𝑝

pa
𝐻
𝑍= from the base acting on an angle of

s
3

Ja
−1
𝑤
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑝𝑎
Here,
1 1
𝑝𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝐻2 , 𝑝𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝 𝛾𝐻2
2 2

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Rankine’s earth pressure theory
• Case(viii) Inclined backfill with sloping surface:
1
𝑝𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 . 𝛾𝐻𝐵𝐶 2
2

ir
1

lS
𝑝𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝 . 𝛾𝐻𝐵𝐶 2
2

pa
Acitve and passive earth pressure is calculated on imaginary
vertical plane of height 𝐻𝐵𝐶 passing through heel of wall B.

s
Ja
( 𝑤 + 𝑝𝑎 sin 𝛽 2 + (𝑝𝑎 . cos 𝛽)²)

𝐻
𝑍= acting at an angle of
3

𝑤 + 𝑝𝑎 sin ∅
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑝𝑎 cos 𝛽

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Active & Passive earth pressure for cohesive soil
• Case(i) for active state The critical height 𝐻𝑐 of an
𝑝𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 . 𝜎𝑣 − 2𝐶√(𝐾𝑎 ) unsupported vertical cut in cohesive
a) For dry or Moist backfill soil is

ir
2𝐶

lS
𝐻𝑐 𝐻𝑐
𝑍0 = 𝐻𝑐 = 2 𝑍0 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼
𝛾. √𝐾𝑎 𝛾.√𝐾𝑎 𝛾.

pa
The net pressure upto a depth 2𝑍0 is

s
This shows the negative pressure i.e.,

Ja
tension is developed at top level of zero i.e., it means that a cohesive soil
retaining wall & it decreases to zero should be able to stand with a
2𝐶 vertical face upto the depth of ‘2𝑍0 ’
at depth 𝑍0 =
𝛾.√𝐾𝑎
without any lateral support.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A retaining wall of 6m height has a saturated backfill of soft clay soil.
What is the critical height when the properties of the clay soil are:
𝐾𝑁

ir
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 17.56 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶 = 18𝐾𝑁/𝑚2

lS
𝑚

pa
(a) 1.1 m

s
(b) 2.1 m

Ja
(c) 3.1 m
(d) 4.1 m.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Active & Passive earth pressure for cohesive soil
(i) when tension cracks are not developed
𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝐻 2
𝑝𝑎 = − 2𝐶 𝐾𝑎 . 𝐻
2

ir
𝑏 + 2𝑎

lS
𝑍ҧ = 𝐻/3
𝑏+𝑎

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Active & Passive earth pressure for cohesive soil
(ii) When tension cracks are developed (iii) Submerged backfill with water table at
𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝐻2 2𝐶 2 depth H
𝑝𝑎 = − 2𝐶 𝐾𝑎 . 𝐻 +
2 𝛾
𝐻 − 𝑍0
𝑍= 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
3

ir
lS
• Case(ii) backfill with uniform surcharge
𝜎𝑣 = 𝑞 + 𝛾𝑍

pa
𝜎ℎ = 𝐾𝑎 . 𝜎𝑣 − 2𝐶 𝐾𝑎
𝑝𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 . 𝑞 + 𝐾𝑎 𝛾𝑍 − 2𝐶 𝐾𝑎

s
(iv) Backfill with different soils

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Active & Passive earth pressure for cohesive soil
(v) Backfill of intact saturated clay
• Active state 𝑝𝑎 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑍 − 2𝑐
• Passive state 𝑝𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝 𝜎𝑣 + 2𝐶 𝐾𝑝

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. In a certain sea shore, the height of retaining wall with smooth
vertical back is 4.4 m. the foundation is over an expansive collapsive
soil and has horizontal surface at the level of the top of the wall and

ir
lS
carries a UDL of 197 kPa. The unit weight and angle of internal friction
are 19 KN/m³ and 30◦, respectively. What is the nearest magnitude of

pa
total active pressure per meter length of the sea shore wall?

s
(A) 270 KN/m

Ja
(B) 360 KN/m.
(C) 450 KN/m
(D) 640 KN/m

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Coulomb’s wedge theory
• Assumptions:
▪ Soil is homogeneous, isotropic, elastic, dry, semi-infinite & cohesionless.

ir
▪ The face of wall in contact with backfill is vertical or inclined & is rough.

lS
▪ The failure wedge acts as rigid body & stress over it are uniformly

pa
distributed.

s
▪ The failure is essentially two dimensional & rupture surface is planar &

Ja
passes through the heel of the wall.
▪ The location of distribution of resultant thrust between wall & fill is known.
The point of application is taken at the lower third point of the wall by
assuming triangular distribution of earth pressure distribution of earth
pressure.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statement:
1. coulomb’s earth pressure theory doesn't take the roughness of wall into
consideration.

ir
lS
2. In case of non-cohesive soils, the coefficient of active earth pressure and
earth pressure at rest are equal.

pa
3. Any movement of retaining wall away from the fill corresponds to active

s
earth pressure condition.

Ja
(a) 1 alone is correct
(b) 1 & 2 are correct
(c) 2 alone is correct
(d) 3 alone is correct.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Coulomb’s wedge theory
Case(i) 𝜃 = 𝛽 = 0, 𝛿 = ∅ Case(ii) θ = 𝛽 = 𝛿 = 0
cos ∅ 1 − sin ∅
𝐾𝑎 = { }2 𝐾𝑎 =
1 + sin ∅
cos ∅ + sin 2∅ . sin ∅

ir
• Hence, it can be concluded that

lS
the RANKINE’S theory is

pa
cos ∅ simplified form of COULOMB’S

s
𝐾𝑎 =

Ja
(1 + 2. sin ∅)² theory.
• It can also be concluded that
Rankine’s theory overestimates
the active earth pressure.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statements:
Rankine’s theory and Coulomb’s theory give the same value of coefficient of active and passive earth pressures
when:

ir
1. The retaining wall has a vertical back

lS
2. The backfill is cohesionless
3. Angle of slope of back fill is equal to the angle of internal friction

pa
4. Angle of slope of backfill is 0°

s
5. Angle of wall friction 𝛿 is 0°

Ja
6. Angle of wall friction 𝛿 is equal to ∅
Of these statements:
(a) 1, 2, 3, and 5 are correct
(b) 1, 2, 4 and 5 are correct.
(c) 2, 3 and 6 are correct
(d) 1, 4 and 6 are correct

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sheet pile walls
Sheet piles are generally of 3 types-
i) Cantilever sheet pile

ir
lS
ii) Anchored sheet pile

pa
iii) Braced sheeting.

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sheet pile wall
• Cantilever sheet pile wall • Probable earth pressure diagram is
comparatively difficult to analyze, hence
▪ A cantilever sheet pile wall or bulkhead derives simplified earth pressure distribution diagram is
its stability entirely from the lateral resistance of used for theoretical analysis.
the soil into which it is driven.
▪ A cantilever bulkhead is used for moderate

ir
height only.

lS
a)Cantilever sheet pile in Granular soil

s pa
Ja • Factor of safety against overturning:

𝐹𝑂𝑆 =
1
2
𝐾𝑝 𝛾𝐷 2𝐷
3
1 𝐷
𝐾𝑎 𝛾 𝐻 + 𝐷 2 𝐻 +
2 3

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sheet pile wall
b) Cantilever sheet pile in cohesive
soils
Active earth pressure on right face of
wall,

ir
𝑝𝑎 = 𝐾𝑎 . 𝜎𝑣 − 2𝐶 𝐾𝑐 = 𝛾𝑍 − 2𝐶

lS
Passive pressure on left face of wall

pa
below dredge

s
𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 4𝐶 − 𝛾𝐻

Ja
Passive pressure at the base of wall
on right face
𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝑝𝑝 − 𝑝𝑎 )𝑏
𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 4𝐶 + 𝛾𝐻

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sheet pile wall
• Anchored bulkhead
▪ The stability of an anchored sheet pile
depends not only on the passive earth
resistance but also on the anchor rod.
▪ The driving depth is comparatively

ir
smaller than required in cantilever

lS
sheet pile.

pa
a) Free earth support method:
• Sheet pile is rigid as compared to

s
Ja
surrounding soil and may rotate at the
level of anchor rod.
• Passive earth pressure develops in the
soil in front of the piling & active
pressure develops in the soil at the
back of piling.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statement with respect to the anchored
sheet pile wall:

ir
1. Failure occur due to bulging

lS
2. Failure occur due to rotation

pa
3. Large yield is observed above the anchor rod

s
Ja
4. Large yield is observed below the anchor rod and above the dredge
line
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 4. (d) 3 and 4
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 STABILITY OF SLOPES
• Failure of slope takes place due
to following forces:
1. Gravity force

ir
lS
2. Seepage force

pa
3. Earthquake

s
4. Sudden drawdown of water

Ja
table
5. Erosion of soil
6. Excavation near the slope

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• An analysis of stability of slopes • Slopes are of two types:
consists of two parts, a) Infinite slope
i) The determination of most b) Finite slope
severely stressed internal

ir
surface & the magnitude of

lS
the shearing stress to which it

pa
is subjected.

s
ii) The determination of shearing

Ja
strength along the surface.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 STABILITY OF SLOPES
a) Infinite slope
• If a slope represented the boundary of a semi-infinite soil mass, & soil
properties of all identical depth below the surface are constant, it is called

ir
an ‘Infinite slope’.

lS
• Infinite slope practically do not exist.

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Infinite slope
• FOS of slope against sliding
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜏𝑓
𝐹𝑂𝑆 = =
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜏
• Case(i) cohesionless soil (C=0)

ir
a) Dry moist slope

lS
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅

pa
𝐹𝑂𝑆(𝐹) =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑖

s
b) Submerged slope

Ja
.𝜏𝑓 = 𝛾 ′ 𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖. 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅
𝜏𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅
𝐹𝑂𝑆 𝐹 = =
𝜏 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑖
FOS of submerged slope is same as that in Moist/Dry sand
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Infinite slope
If F>1, slope is STABLE
If F<1, slope is UNSTABLE

ir
If F=1, slope is NEUTRAL

lS
In a limiting case of stability, the angle of slope ‘i’ is referred as Angle of Repose.

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. For two infinite slopes (one in dry condition and other in submerged
condition) in a sand deposited having the angle of shearing resistance

ir
30°, factor pf safety was determined as 1.5 ( for both slopes). The slope

lS
angles would have been:

pa
(a) 21.05° for dry slope and 21.05° for submerged slope.

s
Ja
(b) 19.47° for dry slope and 18.40° for submerged slope
(c) 18.40° for dry slope and 21.05° for submerged slope
(d) 22.60° for dry slope and 19.47° for submerged slope

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Infinite slope
• c) Slope subjected to steady seepage & water table is at depth ‘h’
above critical section

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Infinite slope
𝛾 𝑍−ℎ +𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 .ℎ
• 𝛾𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑍
𝜏𝑓 𝛾𝑎𝑣𝑔 .𝑍−𝛾𝑤 ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖.tan ∅
•𝐹= =
𝜏 𝛾𝑎𝑣𝑔 .𝑍.cos 𝑖.sin 𝑖

ir
lS
𝛾𝑤 ℎ tan ∅
• FOS= 1 −
𝛾𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑍 tan 𝑖

pa
• If seepage is taking place parallel to the slope, FOS decreases

s
Ja
with increase in water table level (h) above the critical plane
(CD).

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Critical case i.e., least factor of safety is achieved when table
coincides with ground surface (h=Z)
𝛾′ tan ∅ 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡
F= , 𝛾′ ≅
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 tan 𝑖 2
1 tan ∅

ir
F=

lS
2 tan 𝑖
Note: if slope is completely submerged & steady seepage takes

pa
place at ground surface then, FOS is reduced to ½ in comparison

s
Ja
to FOS of dry & submerged slope.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Infinite slope
• Case(ii) Cohesive soil (C- ∅ Soil)
Dry/moist slope
𝐶 tan ∅
𝐹= +
𝛾. 𝑍. cos 𝑖. sin 𝑖 tan 𝑖

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
For the critical depth, Z=𝐻𝑐 , 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑓 , FOS=1
𝐶 1
𝐻𝑐 =
𝛾 (tan 𝑖 − tan ∅)𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖

ir
𝐶
= 𝑆𝑛

lS
Note:
𝛾𝐻𝑐

pa
𝐶𝑚
𝑆𝑛 =

s
𝛾. 𝐻

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. With respect to a C- ∅ soil in an infinite slope, identify if the
following two statements are TRUE or FALSE:

ir
1. The stable slope angle can be greater than ∅

lS
2. The factor of safety of the slope does not depend on the height of

pa
soil in the slope

s
Ja
(a) Both statements are FALSE
(b) 1 is TRUE but 2 is FALSE.
(c) 1 is FALSE but 2 is TRUE
(d) Both statements are TRUE
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Infinite slope
• Case(iii) steady seepage along the slope

𝜏𝑓 𝐶 + 𝛾𝑎𝑣𝑔 . 𝑍 − 𝛾𝑤 ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖. tan ∅

ir
𝐹= =

lS
𝜏 𝛾𝑎𝑣𝑔 . 𝑍. cos 𝑖. sin 𝑖
𝛾 𝑍 − ℎ + 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 . ℎ

pa
𝛾𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝑍

s
𝐶

Ja
𝐻𝑐 =
𝛾′
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 (tan 𝑖 − tan ∅) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑖
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. An infinite slope is to be constructed in a soil. The effective stress
strength parameter of the soil are C’=0 and ∅ = 30°, the saturated unit

ir
weight of the slope is 20 KN/m³ and the unit weight of water is 10

lS
KN/m³. assuming that the seepage is occurring parallel to the slope, the

pa
maximum slope angle for a factor of safety of 1.5 would be:

s
(a) 10.89°.

Ja
(b) 11.30°
(c) 12.48°
(d) 14.73°

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Finite slope
If the slope is of finite extent bounded by top & bottom surfaces, then
it is termed as finite slope.

ir
• Finite slope may have any of the following modes of failure

lS
i) Slope failure

pa
ii) Base failure

s
Ja
It is further of two type
i) Face failure
ii) Toe failure

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Finite slope
i) Face failure- if the failure surface
passes through slope above the
toe, it is termed as face failure.

ir
ii) Toe failure- it is the most common

lS
mode of failure in finite slope,

pa
failure surface passes through toe.

s
iii) Base failure- This failure takes

Ja
place in flat slope, when soil mass
below the toe is soft, weak in
compression to soil mass above the
toe.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Finite slope
Note: if H+D is to the total depth of • Methods based on total stress
failure surface, then ratio of depth of Analysis are:
failure surface to the height of slope (i) Planar failure surface method:

ir
is termed as Depth factor ‘𝐷𝑓 ’ Culmann’s method

lS
𝐻+𝐷

pa
𝐷𝑓 = (ii) Swedish slip circle method
𝐻

s
(iii) Friction circle method

Ja
For base failure (D>0), 𝐷𝑓 >1
For toe failure (D=0), 𝐷𝑓 =1

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Methods based upon effective stress analysis:
(i) Tylor’s stability number method
(ii) Bishop’s method

ir
• The rupture of the finite slope may take place

lS
along any one of the following failure surface:

s pa
(i) Planar failure surface

Ja
(ii) Circular failure surface
(iii) Non-circular failure surface

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q.

ir
lS
s pa
The depth factor 𝐷𝑓 in slope failue in the situation shown in the above failure will be:

Ja
(a) Greater than one.
(b) Less than one
(c) Equal to one
(d) Equal to zero

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Finite slope
1. Culmann’s method
1 sin 𝑖 − 𝜃
𝐶 + 2 𝛾𝐻 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅
sin 𝑖
𝐹=

ir
1
𝛾𝐻 (sin 𝑖 − 𝜃 . sin 𝑖) sin 𝑖

lS
2

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Finite slope
2. Swedish slip circle method Note: the distance 𝑥ҧ of centroid of the slip
circle, from the center of rotation ‘O’ can be
For pure cohesive soil (∅𝑢 = 0) found by dividing the wedge into number of
vertical slices & dividing the algebraic sum of
𝑀𝑅 𝐶𝑢 . 𝐿. 𝑟 moment of weight of each slice by total weight

ir
𝐹𝑂𝑆 = = of wedge.

lS
𝑀0 𝑊. 𝑥ҧ
σ 𝑊𝑖 . 𝑥ഥ𝑖

pa
𝑥ҧ =
σ 𝑊𝑖

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Finite slope
For C-∅ soil

𝐶 ′ 𝐿 + σ 𝑤. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖. 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅
𝐹=

ir
σ 𝑤. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
3. Friction circle method
• This method is based on the
total stress analysis, but it
enables the angle of shearing

ir
resistance to be taken into

lS
account.

pa
• The small circle of radius

s
‘𝑟. 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅’ is thus called ‘FRICTION

Ja
CIRCLE’ or ‘∅-circle’.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. In a friction circle method of slope stability analysis if ‘r’ defines the
radius of the slip circle, the radius of friction circle is:

ir
(a) 𝑟. 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅.

lS
(b) 𝑟

pa
(c) 𝑟. 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

s
Ja
(d) 𝑟. 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Finite slope
Total cohesive Resistance,

𝐶𝑚 𝐿ത = 𝐶𝑚 . ෍ ∆𝐿

ir
lS
pa
The factor of safety w.r.t cohesion is given by-

s
Ja
𝐶
𝐹𝑐 =
𝐶𝑚
A no. of slip circles are taken & FOS for each is found. The circle giving
minimum FOS is the critical slip circle.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statement associated with stability of slope:
1. Stability number is inversely proportional to cohesion and directly
proportional to height.

ir
lS
2. Swedish method of analysis is based on circular failure surface.

pa
3. The culmann method assumes that rupture will occure in a plane.

s
Which of the statement are correct?

Ja
(a) 2 and 3.
(b) 1 and 3
(c) 1 and 2
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Finite slope
4. Taylor’s stability number
• The function is expressed as a reciprocal of dimensionless number by Taylor termed as
‘STABILITY NUMBER’ (𝑆𝑛 )

ir
𝐶𝑢

lS
𝐻𝑐 =
𝛾𝑆𝑛

pa
𝐶𝑢
𝑆𝑛 =

s
𝛾𝐻𝑐

Ja
• If 𝐹𝑐 & 𝐹𝑛 are FOS with respect to cohesion & height respectively then,
𝐹𝑐 . 𝐶𝑚 𝐶𝑢
𝑆𝑛 = =
𝛾𝐻𝑐 𝛾𝐹𝑛 . 𝐻
𝐶𝑚
𝑆𝑛 =
𝛾. 𝐻
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. taylor’s stability number is given by which one of the following
expression? (C is cohesion, 𝐹𝑐 is factor of safety, 𝛾 is density of soil and

ir
H is the height of the slope)

lS
𝐶
(a) 𝛾𝐹

pa
𝑐
𝐶

s
(b) 𝛾.𝐻

Ja
𝐶
(c) 𝛾𝐹 .𝐻 .
𝑛
𝐶
(d) (𝛾+𝐻)𝐹
𝑛

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. An excavation is made with a vertical face in a clay soil which has
𝐶𝑢 = 50 KN/m², 𝛾= 18 KN/m³ and 𝑆𝑛 = 0.261 . The maximum depth of

ir
stable excavation will be nearly

lS
(a) 10.6 m.

pa
(b) 12.4 m

s
Ja
(c) 14.2 m
(d) 16.0 m

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 CONTENT
1. Shallow Foundation

2. Deep Foundation

ir
lS
3. Foundation on expansive soil

s pa
4. Stabilisation of Soil

5. Sub-Soil exploration Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 SHALLOW FOUNDATION
• Structure foundations are the substructure elements which transmit the structural
load to the earth in such a way that the supporting soil is not overstressed and not
undergo deformation that would cause excessive settlement of the structure.

• Here, the properties of the supporting soil must be expected to affect the choice of

ir
lS
type of structural foundation suitable for the structure.

pa
• The failure of foundation may be due to

s
Ja
i. Settlement of soil / foundation (It Is called as settlement failure)
ii. Sliding / slipping of soil foundation (it is called shear failure)

• The foundation should be safe in shear criteria as well as settlement criteria.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Types Of Foundation

ir
lS
s pa
Shallow Foundation Deep Foundation

Ja
Df Df
(a) Terzaghi , ≤1 (a) Terzaghi , >1
B B

(b) Carries the load due to base (b) Carries the load due to base and
resistance. side resistance.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shallow Foundation

Raft / Mat Footing

ir
Isolated Combined Strip Spread

lS
s pa
Ja
Square Rectangular Circular

Rectangular Trapezoidal

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Shallow Foundation
• A shallow foundation transmit structural load to the soil strata at a relatively small
depth by the action of end bearing.
Df
• As per Terzaghi if ≤ 1, it is termed as shallow foundation.
B

ir
Df

lS
Note : = 1 − 15, it is termed as Moderate deep foundation.
B

pa
• It is further classified into Raft / Mat and footing.

s
Ja
Note : For reasons of economy, shallow foundation are always preferred over deep
foundation
Note : As per Skempton,
Df
For Shallow foundation, ≤ 2.5
B
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A shallow foundation defined as a foundation which [ SSC JE 2011 ]
a) Has low bearing capacity
b) Has a depth of embedment less than its width.
c) Is resting on the ground surface
d) Cause less settlement

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Strip Footing
• These are also known as wall footing, to support wall where the length is greater than
the width.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Isolated Footing
• These are also known as spread footing and is used below the column.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Raft / Mat Footing
• These type of foundation are large continuous footing which supports all columns and
walls of a structure and are constructed when soil is weak.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Combined Footing
• These footings are usually constructed due to space limitations.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Pile Footing
• These are used to transmit heavy column loads to a group of piles joined at top by a pile
cap. The pile transmit the structural loads to the underlying soil through friction and
bearing.
• The choice of a particular type of foundation depends on
a. Magnitude of loads

ir
lS
b. Nature of subsoil strata

pa
c. Nature of superstructure

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Guidelines for Selection of Foundation
Types of soil and loading conditions Suitable Foundations
If structural load is less and soil is medium to Shallow Foundation
dense
If structural load is heavy and soil is loose / Raft / Deep Foundation
weak.

ir
lS
If swelling pressure is high and differential free Raft / Deep Foundation
swell value is more than 35%

pa
If footing area is more than 40% of plinth area. Raft foundation / Combined footing

s
If structural load is heavy and foundation is to be Compaction pile

Ja
placed in running water (river, sea, canal)
If soil is loose saturated sand and is prone to Compaction pile
liquifaction
If structural load is less (1-3 storey building) Isolated footing
If soil is expansive and high swelling and Floating or balancing foundation / Underreamed
shrinkage characteristics is found pile
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 General Requirements of Foundation
• For a satisfactory performance, a foundation must satisfy the following three
conditions-

i. Location and depth criterion

ir
ii. Shear failure criterion ( Bearing Capacity Criterion)

lS
iii. Settlement criterion

s pa
• A foundation must be properly located and founded at such a depth that its

Ja
performance is not affected by factors such as lateral expulsion of soil beneath the
foundation, seasonal volume changes caused by freezing, thawing and presence of
moisture and adjoining structure.

• A foundation must be safe against shear failure or soil rupture.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• The settlement of the foundation especially differential settlement, must be within
the permissible limit.

• Excessive settlement may effect the utility of the structure and may also cause its

ir
damage and decreases its aesthetic value.

lS
pa
Note : Generally, for sandy soil settlement is critical. For clayey soil the shear strength

s
Ja
is critical.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundation
Terminology used for analysis of bearing capacity are:

Gross Pressure / Gross Loading Intensity (qg)

ir
lS
• For a footing constructed with its base at the depth Df below the ground surface, the
total pressure at the base of footing due to weight of the superstructure, weight of

pa
footing and weight of soil fill over the footing, it is termed as Gross pressure / loading

s
intensity.

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Net Pressure / Net Loading Intensity (qn)
• The deformation of soil below the base of the footing is caused only by the pressure over
and above that which existed before the construction of the footing of the superstru-
cture.
• The difference between the gross pressure and the over burden pressure at the base of
footing is termed as net pressure or net loading intensity.
qn = qg - 𝛾.Df

ir
lS
(If water table effect is also considered)

pa
qn = qg - 𝛾′.Df

s
Ja
Q C + Wf + Ws
𝑞𝑔 =
Af

Where, Af = Area of footing

Qc = Weight of column above GL(DL+LL)
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qu)
• If the load at base of footing is gradually increased, a stage will be reached when
the load will cause the shear failure of the supporting soil.

• The maximum gross pressure intensity of the loading that the soil can support
before it fails in shear or minimum gross pressure intensity of the loading at which

ir
soil fails in shear is termed as Ultimate Bearing Capacity.

lS
pa
• Ultimate bearing capacity of the soil is not only related to the properties of soil but
also to the characteristics of footing such as its size, shape, depth, mode of loading

s
whether loading is applied axially or eccentrically

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qnu)

• The maximum net intensity of loading at the base of the foundation that the soil can
support before failure in shear.

• It is difference of Ultimate Bearing Capacity and Overburden pressure.

ir
lS
qnu = qu - 𝛾.Df

pa
(If water table effect is also considered)

s
Ja
qnu = qu - 𝛾′.Df

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Net Safe Bearing Capacity (qns)

• It is the maximum net intensity of loading that the soil can safely support without the risk
of shear failure.

ir
• It is obtained by dividing qnu by desired factor of safety F

lS
pa
• Usually, a factor of safety of 2.5 - 3 is used

s
Ja
qnu
qns =
F

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Gross Safe Bearing Capacity (qs)

• It is the maximum gross intensity of loading that the soil can safely support without failing
in shear
qu − γDf
qs = + γDf

ir
F

lS
pa
Note : since the additional term due to self weight of soil (γDf ) is available in full depth and

s
is present from past history, it seems logical and rational not to use factor of safety for this

Ja
term.
• It is preferred to use only net safe bearing capacity in calculation instead of gross safe
bearing capacity.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Net Safe Bearing Pressure (qns)
• It is maximum net intensity of loading that can be allowed on the soil without the
settlement exceeding the permissible value
• No factor of safety is to be applied in this as it is already included in permissible value of
settlement
Allowable Bearing Pressure (qa net)

ir
lS
• It is the maximum net intensity of loading that can be imposed on soil with no possibility
of shear failure or settlement failure.

pa
• Hence, it is the smaller of net safe bearing capacity (shear failure criterion) and net safe

s
Ja
bearing pressure settlement criterion.

𝑞𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞𝑛𝑠𝑐 , 𝑞𝑛𝑠𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Note : It is often confusing to come across varied terminology in different literature
and even in code of practice

ir
lS
• But the terminology used here is logical and rational.

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Which of the following has least bearing capacity ? [ SSC JE 2014]
a) Loose gravel.
b) Hard rocks
c) Soft rocks
d) Compact gravel

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Modes of Shear failure

• When a horizontal strip footing is subjected to the gradually increasing load, it

undergoes characteristic settlement.

ir
• This settlement behavior is found to be related to the soil properties.

lS
pa
• The soil zones involved in generating resistance to foundation load, that is responsible

s
for bearing capacity, have been identified qualitatively.

Ja
• Three different types of failure mechanism based on pattern of shearing zones have
been identified as follows.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 (I) General Shear failure
• It is typical of soils possessing brittle type stress - strain behavior (medium dense sand)
• This mode of failure is found in shallow foundation in very dense ,medium dense sand
• It has well defined failure pattern

ir
• Stress zone in this case extend up to ground surface

lS
• A sudden failure accompanied by tilting of foundation is observed in this case

pa
• A bulging of ground adjacent to the foundation takes place

s
•

Ja
Before failure settlement would be small
• load settlement curve indicates that failure is abrupt and ultimate load can be easily
located.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 (II) Punching Shear failure
• It occurs in soils possessing the stress – strain characteristics of very plastic soil.

• It is found in shallow foundation in loose sand / NCC and in deep foundation.

ir
lS
• It has poorly defined shear plane Soil zones beyond loaded area is not / little affected.

pa
• Significant penetration / settlement of wedge shaped soil zone beneath the

s
Ja
foundation is observed accompanied by vertical shear beneath edges of foundation.

• The load settlement curve indicates a continuous increase in settlement with

increasing in load.

• Ultimate load cannot be clearly identified.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 (III) Local Shear failure

• Its pattern has some of the characteristics of both general and punching shear
failure
• Main feature of local shear failure is its well defined wedge and slip surface only
beneath the foundation

ir
lS
• Slip surface not visible beyond the edges of the foundation

pa
• Slight bulging of the ground surface adjacent to the foundation may be observed

s
• Significant settlement of soil directly beneath the foundation takes place

Ja
• The local settlement curve does not indicate ultimate load clearly
• Soil possessing plastic stress - strain properties fail in this mode eg. loose sand

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Note : Guidelines to identify mode of failure

General Local
Sand
Frictional Angle (𝜙) > 36° < 28°

ir
SPT No. > 30 <5

lS
Relative Density > 70% < 30%

pa
Void Ratio < 0.55 > 0.75

s
Ja
Clay
UCS >100 kN/m2 < 80 kN/m2

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity

i. Position of groundwater table.

ii. Type of soil and its physical and average properties ( 𝛾, C and 𝜙 )

ir
lS
iii. Type of foundation ( Strip, Square, Circular )

pa
iv. Size of footing ( depth and width )

s
v. Nature of ground surface ( horizontal or inclined )

Ja
vi. Type of loading ( concentric and eccentric )
vii. Initial stress on soil ( Normal or Over consolidated )
viii. Type of shear failure ( General, Punching, local )

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Methods to Determine Bearing Capacity

• It can be analyzed by any of the following-

i. Analytical / Static method

ir
lS
ii. Codal Provision : Various building codes are published by codal agencies like BIS, NBC,
IRC, CPWD etc. in which bearing capacity of zonal Soil is published which can be used

pa
directly for rough analysis.

s
Ja
iii. Field method
• Plate load test ( PLT )
• Standard Penetration test ( SPT )
• Cone Penetration test ( CPT )
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Rankine’s Method
• It considered the equilibrium of two soil elements, one immediately below the
foundation (element I) and the other just beyond the edge of footing (element II), but
adjacent to element I
• When the load on footing increases and approaches ultimate bearing capacity ( qu ), a
state of plastic equilibrium is reached under the footing

ir
• For the shear failure of element I, element II must also fail by lateral thrust from

lS
element I

pa
• During the state of shear failure (plastic equilibrium),the analysis can be done as

s
follows-

Ja
σ1 = σ3 tan2 α + 2C tan α

For cohesionless soil, C = 0

σ1 = σ3 tan2 α
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• For element I, which is in active state of equilibrium

qu = σh tan2 α ___________ (i)

For element II, which is in passive state of equilibrium

ir
lS
σh = γ 𝐷f tan2 α ___________ (ii)

s pa
Ja
1+sin 𝜙 2
From (i) and (ii) 𝑞𝑢 = 𝛾𝐷𝑓
1−sin 𝜙

2
1 + sin ϕ
qu = γDf
1 − sin ϕ
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Note : In the effective stress analysis, qu is given by,

2
1 + sin ϕ
qu = γ′Df
1 − sin ϕ

ir
• This analysis can also be used to find the minimum depth of foundation as follows,

lS
pa
2
qu 1 − sin ϕ

s
Df min =

Ja
𝛾 1 + sin ϕ
• This theory is only applicable to cohesionless soil
• Effect of width and size of footing is not considered
• If Df = 0 then q = 0, which is not practical

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Fellenius Theory

• It is based on plastic theory and is applicable for only pure cohesive Soil
(clays)

ir
lS
pa
• In this theory, the rupture plane / failure plane is assumed to be an arc

s
of circle and general shear failure is considered

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Terzaghi’s Theory
• It is an improvement over Prandtl's theory
• Prandtl considered the base of the footing to be smooth whereas, Terzaghi
considered the base to be rough.

ir
lS
Assumptions in Terzaghi Theory

pa
i. Foundation is shallow (Df ≤ B)

s
ii. Base of foundation is rough

Ja
iii. Footing is continuous strip (L >> B). It means analysis in 2-D along width and depth
iv. At the time of failure soil reaches into plastic stage
v. Failure is general shear failure.
vi. The stress zone of soil extends up to the foundation level only but not up to the
ground level .
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
vii. The shear resistance of soil above the foundation is ignored, it means only base
resistance is considered while side resistance is ignored

Note : It is the main reason due to which this theory is not applicable for deep
foundation

ir
lS
viii. The soil above the base of foundation is removed and replaced by an

pa
equivalent surcharge (q = 𝛾Df)

s
Ja
ix. The load is vertical and concentric ( Note : If load is eccentric Meyerhoff's
theory is used)
x. Ground Surface is horizontal and foundation is also horizontal.
xi. Water table is beyond the zone of influence of stress hence, it does not effects
the bearing capacity

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• This theory is based on the limiting equilibrium approach, where in the forces
acting on soil wedge immediately beneath the foundation are examined for static
equilibrium condition the ultimate bearing capacity is determined.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• The base of footing being rough, when the footing sinks into the soil, a certain
portion of soil, i.e. soil wedge ‘adb’ immediately beneath the footing is prevented
from undergoing any lateral movement by friction and adhesion between the
base of footing and the soil.

ir
lS
• The wedge of soil ‘adb’ is termed as ZONE-I and remain in a state of ‘ELASTIC
EQUILIBRIUM’ is effectively a part of the footing itself.

s pa
Ja
• At failure, the vertical downward movement of the footing and the intact soil
wedge ‘adb’ pushes the soil on either side of elastic wedge and transforms it into
a state of plastic equilibrium.

• In Zone II , where soil is in plastic equilibrium it is termed as ‘Zone of Radial

Shear’
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• One set of shear plane in these zone radiate from the edge of footing and the
curved lower boundary of these zone has shape of a circle (for cohesive soil) and
logarithmic spiral (for C 𝜙 soil)

• Zone III is termed as Rankine passive zone of linear shear in which the two sets of

ir
lS
shear plane are inclined at angle of (𝜃 = 45° − ∅/2) to the horizontal

s pa
• The lower boundary ‘ad’ and ‘bd’ of the elastic wedge are failure plane rising at

Ja
angle of ∅ to the horizontal.

• The failure surface de’f’ and def are taken to be vertical at ‘∅’

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• The footing cannot break into the soil, until the passive resistance of soil masses
is overcome.

• The inclined face ‘ad’ or ‘bd’ can be considered as a rough back of rigid wall with
Shear parameters C and ∅.

ir
lS
• At failure,𝛴Fy = 0

s pa
1

Ja
qu = CNC + qNq + BγNγ
2

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Note : The total passive resistance Pp on the surface ad and bd is made Up to 3
Components-

i. Pp𝛾 produced by weight of soil in shear zone assuming the soil to be

cohesionless ( C = 0 ) and neglecting the surcharge

ir
ii. Ppc produced due to soil cohesion, assuming soil to be weight less (𝛾 = 0) and

lS
neglecting the surcharge

pa
iii. Ppq produced by the surcharge assuming soil to be cohesionless and weightless
( C = 0, 𝛾 = 0 )

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• 𝛾 in II term is for soil above the base of footing
• 𝛾 in III term is for soil below the base of footing
• C is unit cohesion for soil below the footing
• Nc, Nq, N𝛾 are bearing capacity factors which depends upon friction angle ∅ of
soil.

ir
lS
Note : For pure clay (∅ = 0)

pa
N∅ = 1

s
Nq = 1

Ja
N𝛾 = 0
Nc = 5.7 ( As per L Hospital rule )
qu = 5.7C + 𝛾Df x 1 + 0.5 B 𝛾(0)
qu = 5.7C + 𝛾Df
qnu = qu - 𝛾Df qnu = 5.7C
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• The net ultimate bearing capacity of pure cohesive soil is independent of its size
and depth.

ir
lS
• The bearing capacity q in Terzaghi and Prandtl theory is same with difference in
only bearing capacity factor

pa
eg. for pure clay as per Prandtl theory

s
Ja
Nc = 5.14
Nq = 1
N𝛾 = 0

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. As per Terzaghi's equation, the bearing capacity of strip footing resting on cohesive
soil (c = 10kN/m2) for unit depth and unit width (assume NC as 5.7) is [IES 1999]
a) 47 kN/m2
b) 57 kN/m2.
c) 67 kN/m2
d) 77 kN/m2

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Modification for Different Shape of the Footing
a. For strip footing : qu = CNc + qNq +0.5B 𝛾 N𝛾
b. For Square footing : qu = 1.3CNc + qNq +0.4B 𝛾 N𝛾
c. For Circular footing : qu = 1.3CNc + qNq +0.3B 𝛾 N𝛾
d. For rectangular / raft footing

ir
𝐵 𝐵

lS
qu = {1 + 0 ⋅ 3 }CNc + qNq +0.5 {1 − 0 ⋅ 2 } B 𝛾 N𝛾
𝐿 𝐿

pa
Strip Square Circular Rectangular /

s
Raft

Ja
Sc 1 1.3 1.3 𝐵
{1 + 0 ⋅ 3 }
𝐿
Sq 1 1 1 1
S𝛾 1 0.8 0.6 𝐵
{1 − 0 ⋅ 2 }
𝐿
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A raft of 6m x 9m is founded at a depth of 3 m in a cohesive soil having C = 120kN /m2.
The ultimate net bearing capacity of the soil using Terzaghi's theory will be nearly
[IES 1999]
a) 820 kN/m2.
b) 920 kN/m2
c) 1036 kN/m2

ir
lS
d) 1067 kN/m2

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Modification for Shear failure
• Terzaghi’s theory is applicable for general shear failure.
• No theoretical solution is available for local and punching shear failure.
• Punching shear failure is very uncommon, since footing are rarely place on very loose
sand.

ir
• Local shear failure is however common.

lS
• In case of footing on loose sand or soft clays where local shear failure can take place,

pa
shearing resistance is not mobilized along the entire length of failure surface as
observed in general shear failure.

s
Ja
• Terzaghi proposed empirical adjustments to shear strength parameters (C,∅) to cover
the case of local shear failure.
• Shear strength parameters Cm and ∅m must be used in bearing capacity equation and
bearing capacity factors are determined on basis of ∅m
2 2
Cm = C and tan ∅m = tan ∅
3 3
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. In case of footing on the surface or shallow depth is very dense sand, which one
of the following types of failure is likely to occur? [IES 2005]
a) Punching shear failure
b) Local shear failure
c) General shear failure.

ir
d) Any of the above three

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Modification due to water table level

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
qu = CNc + 𝛾 Df Nq +0.5B 𝛾 N𝛾
(i) (ii) (iii)

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Case (i) : when water table is in zone-I i.e. (Z1 > B)
• Water table level below the zone of influence of stress
• Water table in this zone has no influence on the bearing capacity hence no change in
bearing capacity is introduced i.e. terms (i) , (ii) , (iii) remains unaffected

Case (ii) : when water table is in zone - II at depth of Z2 below the foundation ( 0 ≤ Z2

ir
≤ B)

lS
• In this case terms (i) and (iii) of bearing capacity equation will be affected whereas

pa
term (ii) will remain Unaffected

s
• To account for water table effect either use effective parameters C’, ∅′ and effective

Ja
unit weight of the soil or use water table correction factor
• Generally, effect on C and ∅ is neglected in absence of data , but effect on unit weight
of soil is accounted, i.e. effect on first term is negative
In absence of data, C’ ≈ C
∅′ ≈ ∅
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Effective Parameters Water table correction factor
qu = C’N’c + 𝛾 Df Nq +0.5B 𝛾e N𝛾’ qu = C’N’c + 𝛾 Df Nq +0.5B R𝛾𝛾a N𝛾’

Z2 𝛾 + B − Z2 γ′ Z2 γ + B − Z2 γsat
γe = γa =
𝐵 𝐵

ir
1 Z2

lS
R𝛾 = 1 +
2 B

s pa
If Zz = B , 𝛾e = γ If Z2 = B , 𝛾a = γ

Ja
qu = CNc + 𝛾 Df Nq +0.5B 𝛾 N𝛾 qu = CNc + 𝛾 Df Nq +0.5B 𝛾 N𝛾

If Zz = 0 , 𝛾e = γ′ If Zz = 0 , 𝛾𝑎=𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡

1 ′
q u = C’N’ + 𝛾′ D N q
f qdiscount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.u
c instant maximum = C’N’c + 𝛾 D N
f q +0.5B ( 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) 𝑁 γ
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for 2
Case (iii) : when water table is in zone III, i.e. at the depth Z3 from Ground level
( 0 ≤ Z 3 ≤ 𝐃𝐟 )

• In this case all three terms of bearing capacity equations (i), (ii), (iii) will be
affected, but effect on 1st term (i) is negligible

ir
lS
pa
• Here also either use effective parameters or water table correction factor

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Effective Parameters Water table correction factor
qu = C’N’c + 𝛾𝑒 Df Nq + 0.5B 𝛾′ N𝛾’ qu = C’N’c +R𝑞 𝛾aDf N’q + 0.5Bγ′ N𝛾’

Z3 𝛾 + Df − Z3 γ′ Z3 γ + B − Z3 γsat
γe = 𝛾a =
Df Df

ir
If Z3 = 0 , 𝛾e = γ′

lS
1 Z3
R𝑞 = 1+
2 Df

pa
qu = C’N’c + 𝛾′ Df Nq + 0.5B 𝛾′ N𝛾′

s
1

Ja
If Z3 = Df , 𝛾e = 𝛾 If Z3 = 0 , 𝛾a =𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 , R𝑞 =
2
1
qu = C’N’c + 𝛾 Df Nq + 0.5B 𝛾′ N𝛾′ qu = C’N’c +( 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 )Df N’q + 0.5B 𝛾′ N𝛾′
2

If Z3 = Df , 𝛾a =𝛾, R𝑞 = 1
qu = C’N’c + 𝛾 Df Nq + 0.5B 𝛾′ N𝛾′
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Special case
i. For Cohesionless Soil ( C = 0 ) { i.e. sand }
qu = 𝛾 Df Nq +0.5B 𝛾 N𝛾

ir
If water table rises to the ground level

lS
1 1
qu = ( 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 )Df N’q +0.5 ( 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 )N𝛾

pa
2 2

s
Ja
• In cohesionless soil, ultimate bearing capacity is proportional to depth (Df) and
width of foundation (B)
• Due to rise in water table level up to ground level ultimate bearing capacity
reduces up to half.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
ii. For Pure Cohesive Soil ( ∅ = 0 ) { i.e. clay }

Nc = 5.7, Nq = 1, N𝛾 = 0
qu = 5.7C + 𝛾Df
• If water table rises to the ground level

ir
lS
qnu = 5.7C′

s pa
Ja
• The ultimate bearing capacity of foundation placed on clay is independent of
width / size of foundation, but is dependent on its depth (Dt)
• Net ultimate bearing capacity is nearly unaffected by rise of water table to the
ground level.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The percent reduction in the bearing capacity of a strip footing resting on sand
under flooding condition (water level at the base of the footing) when compared to the
situation where the water level is at a depth much greater than the width of footing, is
approximately [ GATE 2018 ]
a) 0
b) 25

ir
c) 50.

lS
d) 100

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Skempton Theory
• This theory is partly based on field observation, partly on laboratory test and
partly on theoretical analysis
• It is suitable for pure cohesive soil (clay)
• It can be applied for both shallow footing as well as deep footing

ir
• In this theory, base resistance and side resistance both are considered

lS
The net ultimate bearing capacity is given as

s pa
qnu = C Nc

Where, C = Unit cohesion Ja

Df
Nc = Skempton bearing capacity factor which depends upon ratio
B

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Df
• Case (i) If = 0,
B

Footing Strip Square/Circular/Raft/Rectang

ular
Nc 5 6
Df
• Case (ii) If ≥ 2.5

ir
B

lS
Footing Strip Square/Circular/Raft/Rectang

pa
ular

s
Nc 7.5 9

Ja
Df
• Case (iii) If 0 < < 2.5
B
Footing Strip Square Square/Circular/Raft/
Rectangular
Nc 0.2Df 0.2Df 0.2Df 0.2B
5(1 + ) 6(1 + ) 5(1 + )(1 + )
B B B L

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Note : Unlike Terzaghi’s theory Skempton’s theory can be applied at any
depth

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The ultimate bearing capacity of a square footing on surface of a saturated clay
having confined compression strength of 50 kN/m2 (using Skempton equation) is
[IES 2003]
a) 250 kN/m2
b) 180 kN/m2
c) 150 kN/m2.

ir
lS
d) 125 kN/m2

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A strip footing having 1.5 m width founded at a depth of 3 m below ground level
in a clay soil having C = 20 kN/m2 , ∅ = 0° and unit weight Y = 20 kN/m2 . What is the
net ultimate bearing capacity using Skempton's analysis?
[IES 2004]
a) 30 kN/m2
b) 60 kN/m2

ir
c) 100 kN/m2

lS
d) 140 kN/m2.

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Meyerhof’s Theory
• It is the most generalized theory available to find the bearing capacity as it gives
comprehensive analysis for bearing parameters.
• The failure mechanism in this is similar to that of Terzaghi but it considered failure
surface that extended above the foundation level, hence shearing resistance of soil
above the base of foundation is also taken into account.

ir
• Ultimate bearing capacity for shallow foundation in this case is given by

lS
pa
qu = C Nc Sc dc ic + q Nq Sq dq iq + 0.5 B 𝛾 N𝛾 S𝛾 d𝛾 i𝛾

s
Ja
• Here Nc, Nq, N𝛾 are Meyerhof bearing capacity factor same as proposed by Prandtl
ϕ
Nq = eΠ tan ϕ tan2 450 +
2
Nc = ( Nq -1 ) cot∅
N𝛾 = ( Nq -1) tan(1.4∅)
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Here S, d, i are shape factor, depth factor and inclination factor for each of bearing
capacity term respectively, given as-
Factors Expressions
Sc , Sq , S𝛾 1 for strip footing
Sc 0.2 B ϕ
1+ tan2 450 +
L 2
Sq , S𝛾 0.1 B 2 0 ϕ
1+ tan 45 +

ir
L 2

lS
For ∅ > 10° and 1 for ∅ = 0

pa
dc
0.2 D ϕ
1+ tan 450 +

s
B 2

Ja
dq , d𝛾 0.1 D ϕ
1+ tan 450 +
B 2
ic , i𝑞 For ∅ > 10° and 1 for ∅ = 0
α 2
1− , 𝛼 is in degree
90
i
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions. α 2
𝛾 1−
• Here, ‘B’ refers to the width or diameter of foundation

• The inclination factor ‘i’ takes into account the effect of inclination of load on bearing
capacity

ir
lS
• ‘𝛼’ is the inclination of the resultant force from the Vertical {i.e. 𝛼 = tan-1 (H/V)}

s pa
• Meyerhof introduced the concept of useful width to compute the bearing Capacity

Ja
when the resultant load on footing eccentrically with respect to center of the footing

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• To account for eccentricity of loading the footing dimensions are modified in such
away that becomes concentric to the reduced dimensions of the footing.

• For a strip footing, if the load has an eccentricity ex in direction of width a modified
width ‘ B’ ’ is used in place of B in bearing capacity equation and in the determination
of shape and depth factor

ir
lS
B’ = B – 2ex

pa
• In a rectangular footing, there can be eccentricity of loading in direction of both width

s
and length equal to ex and ey.

Ja
• In such case, reduced dimension B’ and L’ are used in place of actual dimension
B’ = B – 2ex
L’ = L – 2ey
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• The effective area ‘A’ for the purpose of the calculation of total vertical load Q is given
by
A’ = B’ x L’

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
IS CODE RECOMMENDATION FOR BEARING CAPACITY (IS
6403)

• Is code recommends that for computation of ultimate bearing capacity of a shallow

foundation in general shear failure following is used

ir
qnu = C Nc Sc dc ic + q (Nq – 1) Sq dq iq + 0.5 B 𝛾 N𝛾 S𝛾 d𝛾 i𝛾 w’

lS
pa
• Here Nc, Nq, N𝛾 are Meyerhof bearing capacity factor same as proposed by Prandtl

s
ϕ
Nq = eΠ tan ϕ tan2 450 +

Ja
2
Nc = ( Nq -1 ) cot∅
N𝛾 = 2( Nq +1) tan∅

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Here, w’ is water table correction factor { it is equivalent to Rγ }
1 Z2
w’ = 1 +
2 Df

ir
• Z2 is measured from base of foundation

lS
pa
• 𝛾 in third term is 𝛾avg

s
Ja
• The influence of water table is taken care in second term of bearing capacity
equation by taking ‘q’ as effective surcharge at the level of base of the footing

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
The slope, depth and inclination factors are as follows -
Factors Expressions
Sc 0.2 B
1+ for rectangle
L
Sq 1.3 for square and circle
0.2 B
1+ for rectangle
L
1.2 for square and circle
0.4 B

ir
S𝛾 1- for rectangle

lS
L

pa
dc 0.8 for square and 0.6 for circle

s
0.2Df ϕ
1+ tan 450 +

Ja
B 2

dq = d𝛾 For ∅ > 10° and 1 for ∅ < 10°

0.1Df ϕ
1+ tan 450 +
B 2
ic = i𝑞 α 2
1 − ,𝛼 is in degree
90
i𝛾
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions. α 2
1 −
∅
• In local failure, the recommendations are same as of Terzaghi theory
2 2
Cm = C , tan∅m = tan∅
3 3
• For cohesive soil, net ultimate bearing capacity of a footing immediately upon
Construction (∅m = 0) is given by -

ir
qnu = C Nc Sc dc ic

lS
pa
• Here, Nc = 5.14 the undrained shear strength Cu is obtained either from

s
unconfined compressive strength test or from co - relation with point resistance

Ja
value obtained from static cone penetration test

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The bearing capacity factors Nc , Nq , and N𝛾 are functions of [IES 2005]
a) Width and depth of footing
b) Density of soil
c) Cohesion of soil
d) Angle of internal friction of soil.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 FIELD METHOD
Plate Load Test ( IS 1888 )

• The test was designed to determine modulus of subgrade reaction which is used in
designing of rigid pavement.

ir
lS
• It is field test to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, and probable
settlement under a given loading

pa
• The test essentially consists of loading a rigid plate at foundation level and determining

s
the settlement corresponding to load increment

Ja
• The ultimate bearing is then taken at the load at which the plate starts sinking at a rapid
rate
• This method assumes that down to the depth of influence of stresses the soil strata is
reasonably uniform.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
a) Bearing Plate : The bearing is either square or circular made of mild steel of not
less than 25 mm thickness and size ranging from 300 - 750 mm

• Small size plate is used for dense and stiff soil whereas large size plate is used for loose
and soft soils

ir
lS
pa
• The size of plate shall be at least 4 times the maximum size of the soil particles present
at test location.

s
Ja
b) Test Pit : The test pit, usually at foundation level, must have normally width equal
to five times the size of the test plate.

• The test pit should preferably have steps to go into the pit for setting marking reading.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
c) Loading Arrangement : The loading to the test plate may be applied with the
help of a hydraulic Jack. The reaction of the hydraulic Jack can be taken by any of
two methods-
i. Gravity loading method
ii. Reaction truss method

ir
lS
• When load is applied to the plate, it sinks to settle where settlement of plate is

pa
measured with the help of at least two dial gauges Which are mounted on
independent datum bar

s
Ja
.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
d) Setting of Plates : The test plate shall be placed over a fine sand layer of max.
thickness 5mm so that the center of plate coincides with the center of the reaction
girders / beam
• A minimum seating pressure of 0.7 t/m2 Shall be applied removed before starting the
load test.

ir
lS
pa
e) Load Increments : Apply the load to soil in cumulative equal increment up to 10
t/m2 or 1/5 of the estimated ultimate bearing capacity Whichever is less.

s
Ja
f) Settlement and Observation : Settlement should be observed for each
increment of load as interval of 1, 2.25, 4, 6.25, 9, 16, 25 mins and there after at
every one hour interval to the nearest of 0.02 mm.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• In case of clayey soils, the time – settlement curve shall be plotted at each load stage
and load shall be increased to next stage either when the curve indicates that the
settlement has exceeded 70 – 80% of probable ultimate settlement or at the end of 24
hour period.
• For soils other than clay, rate of settlement get appreciably reduced to a value 0.02

ir
mm / min

lS
• The next increment of load shall then be applied and observation is repeated

pa
• The test shall be continued till a settlement of 25mm or (50 mm extreme / special

s
case) such as in dense gravel, gravel and sand mix is obtained or till failure, whichever

Ja
is earlier.
• When settlement does not reach 25mm, the test should be continued to at least ‘two
times’ the estimated design pressure.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
g) Load Settlement Curve and Ultimate Bearing Capacity :
• A load settlement curve is plotted out to arithmetic scale, standard nature of which
for different soils is as follows
A = loose to medium cohesionless soil
B = Cohesive soil
C = Partially cohesive soil

ir
D = Dense cohesive soil

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Curve A : Is typical for loose to medium less soil which is straight line in early stages
but flattens out in later stage and there is no clear point of failure.
• Curve B : Is for cohesive soil which is not quite straight in early stages and leans
towards settlement axis as the settlement increases
• Curve C : Possess characteristics of both curve A and B

ir
• Curve D : Is for pure dense cohesionless soil.

lS
pa
Note : For curve B and D no difficulty is experience in observing ultimate bearing

s
capacity as the failure is well defined

Ja
• However in case of curve A and C, where yield point is not well defined, settlement
curve is plotted on Semi - log scale.
• IS code does not specify any FOS, hence in order to determine the safe bearing
capacity it is taken as 2 - 2.5

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Determination of Ultimate Bearing Capacity as per Shear
Criteria
• Case (A) For Clays : In clays bearing capacity is approximately independent of
width of footing hence –
quf = qup
• quf = Ultimate bearing capacity for footing

ir
• qup = Ultimate bearing capacity for plate which is determined from load intensity Vs

lS
settlement curve

pa
• Case (B) For Sand : In sandy soil, bearing capacity is proportional to the width of the

s
footing

Ja
quf = qup Bf
Bp
• Bf = Width of footing
• Bp = Width of Plate
Note : To compute safe bearing capacity, FOS of 2 - 2.5 is applied over bearing capacity
computed above
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Determination of Safe Settlement Pressure using PLT as per
Settlement Criteria
• let Sf be the permissible settlement of footing prescribed by Codal agencies then by
using following empirical relation
2
sf Bf Bp +0⋅3
= (For dense sand)
sP BP Bf +0.3

ir
lS
For clays

pa
sf Bf
=

s
sP BP

Ja
For silts (n = 0.5)
sf Bf n+1
=
sP BP

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Using above relationship for a particular soil, find the permissible settlement of
the plate (Sp) and then using load intensity settlement curve, read the safe
bearing pressure for the plate (qup) which is further used to find safe bearing
pressure for footing (quf) by use of following relationship –
qaf = qap for clays

ir
Bf

lS
qaf = qap for sands
BP

pa
qaf = Allowable bearing pressure for footing

s
qap = Allowable bearing pressure for plate

Ja
Note : The above computed pressure is allowable pressure or safe pressure in
which further FOS is not required because permissible settlement for footing, given
by is code is safe settlement.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A plate load test is conducted on a cohesionless soil with a test plate having
width Bp (cm) and settlement of this plate Sp (cm) is obtained at the same load
intensity as on foundation. A footing having a width Bf (cm) is to be constructed as
foundation. What is the settlement Sf (cm) experienced by this footing?
[IES 2004]
a) Sf =Sp {[Bf (Bp +30)] / [Bp (Bf +30)]}2.

ir
lS
b) Sf =Sp {[Bp (Bf +30)] / [Bf (Bp +30)]}2

pa
c) Sf =Sp [Bf / Bp]

s
d) Sf =Sp [Bp / Bf]

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. In a plate test, how is the ultimate load estimated from the load settlement
curve in a log – log graph? [IES 2005]
a) Directly.
b) By drawing tangents to the curve at initial and final points
c) By the secant method
d) At 0.2 percent of the maximum settlement

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A 30 cm Square bearing plate settles by 8 mm in the plate load test on
cohesionless soil when the intensity of loading is 180 kN/m2.The Settlement of a
shallow foundation of 1.5 m square under the same intensity of loading will be
nearly [IES 2020]
a) 30 mm
b) 26 mm

ir
lS
c) 22 mm.

pa
d) 18 mm

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The plate load test was conducted on a clayey strata by using a plate of 0.3m x
0.3m dimensions, and the ultimate load per unit area for the plate was found to be
180 kPa. The ultimate bearing capacity (in kPa) of a 2 m wide square footing would
be [GATE 2017]
a) 27
b) 180.

ir
c) 1200

lS
d) 2000

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A 300 mm square bearing plate settles by 15 mm in plate load test on a cohesive soil
when the intensity of loading is 0.2 N/mm2 . The settlement of a prototype shallow
footing ‘1 m’ square under the same intensity of loading is [SSC JE 2013]
a) 15 mm
b) 30 mm

ir
c) 50 mm

lS
d) 167 mm

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. For determining the ultimate bearing capacity of soil the recommended size of
square bearing plate used in plate load test is 30 – 75 cm with minimum thickness of-
[ SSC JE 2010 ]
a) 20 mm
b) 25 mm.

ir
c) 50 mm

lS
d) None of the above

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Housel Approach to find Ultimate Bearing Capacity
• According to Housel, the failure load is function of area and perimeter of plate /
foundation and it is also influenced by soil properties.
• In this method, PLT is conducted on two rigid plates of different size at same Df
• let A1 and P1 be area and perimeter of the 1st plate and Q1 is failure load on 1st plate then
Q1 = A1 m + P1 n _________ (i)

ir
Where, m and n are constants which depends on type of soil

lS
• Let A2 and P2 be area and perimeter of 2nd plate and Q2 is failure / ultimate load on 2nd

pa
plate corresponding to the given settlement

s
Q2 = A2 m + P2 n _________ (ii)

Ja
From (i) and (ii) m and n are computed
• If a sea of footing is Af and Perimeter of footing Pf then Ultimate load of failure of
foundation
Q f = Af m + P f n
Qf
• Ultimate bearing
Use code "JASPALLIVE" capacity
for instant quf =on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
maximum discount
Af
 PENETRATION TEST

• This test involves the measurement and resistance to penetration of sampling spoon,
cone or other shaped tools under dynamic or static loadings.

ir
lS
• The resistance is then empirically correlated with some of the engineering properties
of soil such as density index, consistency, bearing capacity etc.

s pa
Ja
• The two commonly used test are-
a) Standard Penetration test
b) Cone Penetration test

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Standard Penetration test (IS 2131)

• This test is used to determine,

i. Relative density / density Index
ii. Angle of shearing resistance

ir
iii. Unconfined Compressive Strength

lS
iv. Pile load capacity

pa
v. Ultimate bearing capacity on the basis of shear center

s
Ja
vi. Allowable bearing pressure on basis of settlement criteria

Note : This test is suitable for medium to dense sand, on clays due to dynamic loading
remolding may occur and excess pore water pressure may setup whereas in loose
saturated sand & liquefaction may Occur.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• This test is performed in a clean hole, 55 to 150mm in diameter
• A casing or drilling mud is used to support the side of the hole
• A thick wall split spoon Sampler 50.8 mm Outer diameter and 35mm inner diameter
is driven into the undisturbed soil at the bottom of hole under the blows of 63.5 kg
drive weight with 75 cm of free fall.
• The split tube samples commonly known as spoon sampler resting on bottom of the

ir
bore hole is allowed to sink under its own weight.

lS
• It is then seated 15 cm with the blows of hammer falling through a height of 75 cm

pa
• Thereafter the spoon Sampler is further driven by 30cm.

s
• The no. of blows required to affect each 15cm penetration is recorded

Ja
• The first 15 am of drive may be considered to be seating drive
• The total no. of blows required for second and third 15 cm of penetration is termed
as ‘Penetration Resistance Number’

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• If the split spoon sampler is driven less than 45cm (total), then the penetration
resistance of last 30cm is considered
• The entire sample may sometimes sink under its own weight when very soft sub soil
stratum is considered / encountered, Under such conditions it may not be necessary
to give any blow to the sample and SPT value would be indicated to zero.

ir
• SPT value is not considered in fraction

lS
• The test is repeated at every 2m to 5m interval or at the change of stratum

pa
• The observed SPT number may be required to be corrected for the following

s
Ja
i. Overburden pressure correction
ii. Water table / Dilatancy / fine's correction

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Overburden Pressure Correction

• In granular soil, overburden pressure effects the penetration resistance

• If two soils, having same relative density, but different confining pressure are tested,
the one with a higher confining pressure gives a higher penetration number as the

ir
confining pressure in cohesionless soil increases with depth

lS
• The penetration number for soil at shallow depth is underestimated and that at a

pa
greater depth is overestimated.
• For uniformity, the numbers obtained from field test under different effective

s
Ja
overburden pressure are corrected to a standard effective overburden pressure
350 500
N1 = N0 ′ or
σ0 +70 1.42σ′0 +100
𝜎0′ = Effective overburden pressure (kN/m2)
The above correction is applicable for, 𝜎0′ ≤ 280 kN/m2 and for dry and moist sand
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Note : The N value for cohesionless soil corrected for overburden pressure as per
PECIC is given by
N1 = No Cn
• Cn = Normalizing correction factor

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Ratio of N1 / No should be between 0.45 - 2
• If this ratio is more than 2, then N1 should be divided by 2 to obtain the design
value used in finding the bearing capacity of soil
• Overburden pressure correction is applied first and then dilatancy correction is
applied.

ir
Dilatancy Correction

lS
• Silty fine sand ,fine sands below the water table develops pore pressure which is

pa
not easily dissipated.

s
• Pore pressure increases the resistance of soil, then penetration number (N) also

Ja
increases.
• This correction is applied when the observed value of number after first
correction exceeds 15
1
N2 = 15 + N1 − 15
2
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• This correction is required only when water table is at or above the test level, i.e.
if water table is below the test level this correction is not required
• Final corrected value of penetration number is average of corrected value of
penetration number at different levels
NA + NB + NC + ⋯ + Nn
Nfinal =

ir
n

lS
pa
• If it is conducted at different level say A, B, C, D, ……. N , the above analysis is

s
done.

Ja
• At last check is applied that all the corrected SPT number should be in the limits
as follows
Nfinal ± 0.5Nfinal

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• If any of the value NA, NB …… Nn has more than 50% variation on either side of
final Navg , that value is discarded average is found from remaining values of SPT
number

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Ultimate Bearing Capacity as per Shear Criteria

• The final corrected average SPT number is related to the friction angle and relative
density which is further expressed either graphically or in tabular form
• Using fiction angle bearing capacity factor (Nc , Nq , N𝛾) can be determined hence

ir
ultimate capacity can be found using any of analytical theory

lS
• Relationship between SPT value and relative density is as follows -

s pa
SPT (N) - Value Relative Density

Ja
0–4 Very loose
4 – 10 Loose
10 – 30 Medium
30 – 50 Dense
> 50 Very dense
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Determination of Allowable bearing pressure / Safe
Bearing pressure as per settlement criterion

• Empirical relationship can be used, to find allowable bearing pressure on the basis of
SPT Number.

ir
lS
i. Peck Hanson Equation

pa
• The net allowable bearing pressure or net safe settlement pressure is given by-

s
𝑞𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0 ⋅ 41𝐶𝑤 𝑆 𝑁 (kN/m2)

Where,
Ja
S = Permissible settlement of foundation in mm as given by IS code
N = Final corrected average SPT number
CwUse=code
Water table
"JASPALLIVE" correction
for instant factor
maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 1 Dw
Cw = 1 +
2 Df+ B

0.5 ≤ Cw ≤ 1

ir
0 ≤ Dw ≤ Df + B

lS
pa
Note : Here depth of water table is measured from ground surface

s
Ja
ii. Teng’s Equation
• The net allowable bearing pressure is given by-
B+0.3 2
qa net = 1.4 S N − 3 Cw CD
2B

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Where,
S = Permissible settlement (mm)
B = Width of the footing
N = Final corrected average SPT number
CD = Depth correction factor
Df
CD = 1 + ≤2

ir
B

lS
Cw = Water table correction factor

pa
1 Dw
Cw = 1+

s
2 B

Ja
0.5 ≤ Cw ≤ 1
0 ≤ Dw ≤ B
Note : Here, depth of water table is measured from foundation level
• Teng's equation also includes the effect of depth in combination of safe bearing
pressure.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 IS Code Method
• Is code recommends use of Teng's equation with some modification to find safe
bearing pressure for footing.
B+0.3 2
qa net = 1.38 S N − 3 Cw kN/m2
2B
• Is code recommends use of Peck Henson equation to find safe bearing pressure

ir
for raft

lS
qa net = 0.88 Cw NS kN/m2

pa
• For permissible settlement of 25mm

s
qa net = 22 Cw N kN/m2

Ja
• If water is much below the foundation level
qa net = 22 N kN/m2

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Unconfined Compressive Strength of cohesive soil

Consistency qu (kN/m2)

ir
Very Soft Medium Stiff Very Stiff Solid

lS
soft

pa
SPT (N) <2 2-4 4-8 8 - 15 15 - 30 > 30

s
Ja
value

qu < 25 25 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 200 200 - 400 > 400

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Standard penetration resistance in very stiff clays lies between [SSC JE 2010]
a) 2 and 4
b) 4 and 8
c) 8 and 15
d) 15 and 30.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. What is the drive weight and height of free fall in the case of standard
penetration test according to IS 2131 – 1981? [ SSC JE 2019 ]
a) 63.5 kg and 60 cm
b) 63.5 kg and 75 cm.
c) 65 kg and 60 cm
d) 60 kg and 70 cm

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Static Cone Penetration test (CPT)

• The static cone penetration test, simply termed as CPT is a simple test that is used in
place of SPT particularly for soft clays fine to medium sand deposits
• This test is also termed as DUTCH CONE TEST
• The test assembly consist of a cone with an apex angle of 60° and base area of 10 cm2

ir
lS
• The sequence of operations of penetrometer are as follows –

pa
i. The cone of the friction jacket is in stationary position

s
ii. The cone is pushed into the soil by the inner rod to a depth of ‘a’ at a steady rate of

Ja
20 mm / Sec
• The trip resistance qc called cone or point resistance is computed as (qc = Q/A) where Q
is force read on pressure gauge

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
iii. The Sounding rod is pushed further to a depth ‘b’ this has effect of pushing both
friction jacket and cone assembly together. The total force Qt required for this is
again noted
• The force required to push friction jacket (Qf) is obtained as Qf = Qt – Q
• The side or skin friction fs = Qf / Af where Af is surface area of friction jacket

ir
lS
Note : a and b are normally taken to be 40 mm however their minimum value is 35 mm

s pa
iv. The outside mantle tube is pushed down to distance (a + b) bringing cone and

Ja
friction Jacket to original position.
• The above procedure is continued till the proposed depth of sounding is reached
• CPT gives a continuous record of variation of both cone resistance and friction
resistance of soil, however it does not give yield value of any Sample.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Note : It is unsuitable in gravel and very dense sand owing to difficulty in pushing the
Cone
• Data from CPT is used to calculate the point bearing resistance and skin friction
resistance of pile foundation
• In granular soil relationship between qc and N is further established.

ir
lS
Type of soil qc / N , qc (kg/cm2)

pa
Sandy gravel or gravel 8-10

s
Ja
Coarse sand 5-10
Fine to medium sand 3-4
Silty sand 2

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Match the type of test (list-I) with the objective of the test (list-II) [SSC JE 2018]
List-I List-II
a) Standard penetration test 1) Grain Size Analysis
b) Hydrometer test 2) Shear Strength
c) Proctor test 3) Bearing Capacity
d) Vane test 4) Compaction

ir
lS
a) A-3 , B-1 , C-4 , D-2.

pa
b) A-3 , B-1 , C-2 , D-4

s
c) A-4 , B-2 , C-3 , D-1

Ja
d) A-2 , B-1 , C-4 , D-3

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Settlement of Shallow Foundation

• Total settlement (St) in general case for any type of soil is given by -
St = S i + Sc + S s

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Immediate or elastic settlement ‘Si’ which takes place immediately or over a short
time (approx. about 7 days) after the load is place is termed as ‘Initial
compression’
• In clay, it is also known as ‘Distortion Settlement’ and is due to change in the
shape of soil skeleton without any change in water content.
• In saturated clay immediate settlement is computed using elastic theory

ir
• It is sometimes considered small compared to the longer term consolidation

lS
settlement hence neglected

pa
• In granular soil immediate settlement accounts almost the entire Settlement

s
Ja
• In inorganic clays primary consolidation accounts for most of settlement
• In organic soil, secondary consolidation assumes greater significance
• The theory of elasticity can be used to determine settlement caused by load
acting over flexible or rigid area of different geometrical shape and is given by

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 μ2
Si = qB 1 − If
E

ir
Where, Si = Vertical settlement

lS
B = Width of foundation

pa
µ = Poisson's ratio

s
Ja
E = Young's Modulus of elasticity
If = Influence factor for settlement which depends upon Shape and
rigidity of foundation

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 If If
Shape Flexible Foundation
Centre Corner Average Rigid
Foundation
Circle 1 0.64 0.85 0.86
Square 1.2 0.56 0.95 0.82

ir
lS
Rectangle (L/B 1.36 0.68 1.2 1.06

pa
=1.5)

s
• In a flexible footing, the contact pressure i.e. pressure at the interface between

Ja
the footing and soil is uniformly distributed
• A Uniform pressure produce a dish shaped pattern of displacement in clay soil

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Influence factor for immediate settlement footing depends on its [IES 1999]
a) Size and shape
b) Rigidity alone
c) Location and size
d) Size, shape, rigidity and location.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• For a rigid footing the settlement is more or less uniform over the area of contact
• Since a uniform contact pressure produces dish shaped settlement pattern the
contact pressure must be more near the edges of loaded area and less near the
center in order to produce uniform settlement.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
• Because of variation in modulus of elasticity of granular soil, the immediate
settlement cannot be accurately found in such soils
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• In these soils, E increases with confining pressure and thus it increases with depth
• Further E varies across the width of the loaded area, it is more near center than
near edges
• As a consequence the distribution of pressure will be uniform below flexible
footing, but deformation will be form inverted dish pattern
• For a rigid footing where settlement is uniform, the contact pressure is more near

ir
the center than near the edge

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ALLOWABLE SETTLEMENT
• Settlement can cause Cracks in masonry walls and interior plaster walls of building
• It can cause a structure to tilt, which may become noticeable in high building or can
avoid the function of structure to fulfilled in in many way
• Settlement can be of different patterns under different conditions and the effect
caused on the structure will depend on the type of settlement

ir
lS
• If the structure settles uniformly it is not likely to suffer damage

pa
• A structure with a very rigid raft or mat foundation will experience uniform
settlement

s
Ja
• A structure is said to undergo differential settlement, if one of its past settles more
than the others
• The difference in total settlement between any two points is called ‘DIFFERENTIAL
SETTLEMENT’

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Angular distortion is the ratio of differential settlement between two columns ‘𝛿’ to the
spacing between them ‘l’
𝛿
• Angular distortion of =
l
• differential settlement may also lead to the uniform tilt, when the entire structure rotates
as its consequences

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• It is relatively easy to estimate the total settlement and is very difficult to estimate
differential settlement

• In granular soils, the minimum differential settlement can in some cases be close to
maximum total settlement whereas in clay the differential settlement is much less than
total settlement

ir
lS
pa
• Maximum differential settlement, generally does not exceed 75% of the maximum total
settlement in granular soil, while in clay it nearly exceeds 50% of maximum total

s
Ja
settlement

• Higher total settlement is permissible in clay than in Sand

• It is due to difference in rate of settlement in sand and clay

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The contact pressure distribution under a rigid footing on a cohesionless soil would
be [IES 2003]
a) Maximum at edges and minimum at center
b) Zero at edges and maximum at center.
c) Zero at center and maximum at edges
d) Uniform throughout

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. In a rigid footing on a cohesive soil, the contact pressure distribution is
[SSC JE 2019]
a) Uniform
b) Non-uniform with maximum at the center and minimum at the end
c) Non-uniform with maximum at the ends and minimum at the center

ir
d) linear

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A circular raft foundation of 20 m diameter and 1.6 m thick is provided for a tank
that applies a bearing pressure of 110 kPa on sandy Soil with Young's Modulus ES = 30
MPa and 𝜇 = 0.3 . The raft is made of concrete EC = 30 GPa and 𝜇 = 0.15 . Considering
the raft as rigid, the elastic settlement is- [GATE 2014]
a) 50.96
b) 53.36.

ir
lS
c) 63.72

pa
d) 66.71

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Deep Foundation

• In situation where soil is poor at shallow depth, in order to transmit the

load safely, the depth of foundation has to be increased till a suitable soil
stratum is met.

ir
lS
• In view of increased depth, such foundations is called DEEP FOUNDATION.

s pa
Ja
• Piles, Pier, well are examples of Deep foundation.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Deep Foundation

Pile Well / Caisson Footing

ir
lS
Df

pa
• If > 1, it is termed as deep foundation.
B

s
Df
• If > 15, it is termed as very deep foundation.

Ja
B
• In deep foundation load is supported partly by frictional resistance around the
surface and rest by bearing at the base of foundation.
• While constructing shallow foundation in open excavation, the disturbance in soil is
minimal. However in case of deep foundation disturbance of soil extends to a larger
zone along the length of deep foundation.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Pile Foundation
• A pile is a relatively small diameter shaft which is driven or installed into the ground
by suitable means.
• The piles are usually driven in groups to provide foundation for structure.
• The Pile group may be subjected to vertical loads, horizontal loads or a combination

ir
of both.

lS
• Piles have been classified on the basis of the following-

s pa
i. Material Used for Construction

Ja
(i) Timber Pile (ii) Steel Pile
(iii) Concrete Pile (iv) Sand Pile

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
ii. Cross Section
(i) Circular Pile (ii) Square Pile
(iii) Hexagonal Pile (iv) I-Section Pile
(v) H-Section Pile

ir
lS
iii. Shape

pa
(i) Cylindrical Pile (ii) Tapered Pile

s
Ja
(iii) Under-reamed Pile

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• These piles are considered useful in expansive soil where the use of shallow spread
footings is not feasible due to excessive shrinkage or swelling behavior of such soils.
• A further development of these piles is multi-under reamed piles, in which when the
number of bulbs is increased, the carrying capacity of pile also increases.

iv. Mode of load transfer

ir
lS
• End Bearing Pile : These piles rest over stiff or hard strata

pa
and load carrying capacity is due to end bearing action

s
or point resistance.

Ja
• The length of these piles depends on portion of hard
strata.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Friction / Hanging Pile : such piles are driven in soft clay
or loose sand extending to greater depth. The load carrying
capacity of these piles is due to skin friction action.
The length of friction piles may be 10 - 20m

ir
lS
• Bearing and Friction Pile : If piles are driven in medium

pa
to dense / stiff soil, then load carrying capacity is due

s
to combined action of end bearing action and skin friction action.

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
v. Method of Forming :
• Pre Cast Pile
• Pre Stressed Pile
• Cast in Situ

ir
lS
vi. On the Basis of Function

pa
a) Laterally Loaded Piles :

s
Ja
• Piles are also used to resist horizontal load, as in case of foundation for retaining wall,
bridge abutments etc.
• As the horizontal load acts perpendicular to the pile axis, these piles are known as
laterally loaded piles.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
b) Batter Piles :
• In case of large lateral loads piles are driven at an angle and are termed as Batter Piles,
which serve better than vertical Piles.

ir
c) Compaction Piles :

lS
• Short piles are sometimes used for compacting loose sand deposits, which get densified

pa
by vibration set up on driving are termed as Compaction piles.

s
Ja
d) Tension Piles :
• Piles are sometimes used to resist uplift loads and are thus in tension, hence known as
Tension / Uplift piles.
• They are suitable to be provided in swelling Soils For eg : Black Cotton Soil
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
e) Anchor Piles :
• Piles can also be used to provide anchorage against horizontal pull as in case of
anchored bulk heads termed as Anchor Piles.

ir
f) Sheet Piles :

lS
• It is used to retain earth fills and provided below hydraulic structures.

s pa
g) Fender Pile :

Ja
• These are used to anchor the structure against tidal waves or floating objects in water.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
vii. On the basis of method of installation :
a) Driven Piles
b) Bored Piles
c) Vibrated Piles

ir
d) Jetted Piles

lS
pa
a. Driven / Displacement Pile :

s
Ja
• These Piles are driven through hammer action, such piles are essentially pre cast, made
of metal / wood
• In driven piles, end bearing resistance and skin friction resistance both are efficiently
developed.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
b. Bored Piles :
• Bored piles may be pre cast or cast in situ. These piles are less efficient than driven piles.

• Based on this criterion, piles can be considered to fall into two classes-

ir
a) Displacement Piles

lS
b) Non Displacement Piles

s pa
• If during the installation of the pile, a large volume of soil is displaced laterally and

Ja
upwards such a pile is termed as ‘DISPLACEMENT PILE’ In loose sand such pile densifies
the sand up to a distance of about 3.5 times the diameter of pile from center.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Selection of Pile type
• The selection of the type of pile to be used depends upon several factors-
a) Type of structure and load it carries
b) Location of the site
c) Soil condition and position of water table

ir
d) Required pile length and structural capability of pile

lS
e) Economy

s pa
Ja
• The selection of material of the Pile would depend upon the magnitude of structural
load.

• For light load timber pile can be used and for heavy loads only steel or RCC Piles are
considered
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Pile Load Capacity
• For satisfactory behavior of pile foundation, it must be safe in shear failure and
settlement failure criterion (same as that of shallow foundation)
• The load capacity of the pile can be estimated by several methods as follows-
a) Static analytical Pile load method

ir
b) Dynamic Pile driving method

lS
c) Pile load test

pa
d) Correlation with penetration test data

s
Ja
a) Static Analytical Pile load method
• When a compressive load is applied at the top of pile, it tends to move vertically
downward relative to the surrounding soil.
• As a result, the applied load is distributed as friction load along a certain length of pile
from the top.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• As the load at top is increased, the friction load distribution will extend more and move
towards the tip of pile till a certain extent the entire length of pile is involved in
generating friction resistance.

• This is termed as Ultimate skin friction resistance

ir
lS
• load in excess of this, begins to be transferred to the soil at the base of pile and is

pa
termed as point resistance / base / end bearing resistance at the point where pile fails
by punching shear failure.

s
Ja
• The maximum load which pile can support through combined resistance is skin friction
and end bearing is termed as ‘ULTIMATE LOAD CAPACITY (Qu)’ of the pile.

Qu = Qeb + Qsf
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• If Qeb >> Qsf the pile is termed as end / point bearing pile and if Qsf >> Qef the pile is
termed as friction pile.
• The relative proportion of load carried by end bearing and skin friction depends on the
shear strength and elasticity of soil.
Note : It is being observed that-
i. When the ultimate skin friction resistance is mobilized only a fraction of ultimate
point load is mobilized

ir
lS
ii. When the ultimate point load resistance is mobilized the skin friction resistance is

pa
decreased to a lower value than its peak.

s
Qu = Qeb + Qsf

Qu = qeb . Ab + qsf . As
Ja
As = Surface area of pile upon which skin friction acts
Ab = Area of cross-Section of pile on which bearing resistance acts
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Note : For tapered pile ‘Ab’ may be taken as the cross sectional area at the lower one-
third of the embedded length
qeb = Unit load / toe / end bearing resistance
qsf = Average skin friction resistance

Case (i) : Cohesive Soil

ir
• For the Pile in cohesive soil point bearing is generally neglected for individual pile

lS
action, since it is negligible as compared to frictional resistance

pa
• The unit skin friction may be taken equal to the shear strength multiplied by a

s
reduction factor 𝛼 or m

Ja
qeb = C Nc
Here, Nc = 9 qeb = 9C Qu = 𝛼 cത As + 9CAb

𝛼 or m = Adhesion coefficient or reduction factor value of which depends upon type of

clay and its value can be determined by pile load test.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Consistency N - Value Value of 𝜶 Value of 𝜶
Bored Pile Driven Pile

Soft to Very <4 0.7 1

Soft
Medium 4–8 0.5 0.7

ir
Stiff 8 – 15 0.4 0.4

lS
Stiff to Hard >15 0.3 0.3

s pa
Ja
𝑐ҧ = Average undrained cohesion along the length of pile
C = Average undrained cohesion of soil at tip of pile

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 qu
Note : In absence of any depth both 𝑐ҧ and C may be taken equal to ‘ ’
2
• The allowable load for pile is given by Q = qu
a F

• F = FOS (2.5 – 3)

ir
• If different FOS value are adopted for skin friction resistance and end bearing

lS
resistance, then

pa
α ⋅ Cത ⋅ As 9 ⋅ C ⋅ Ab

s
Ja
Qa = +
F1 F2

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Case (i) : For Cohesionless Soil
Qu = Qeb + Qsf
Qsb = qsf . As
qsf = 𝜇 x Earth Pressure
𝜇 = tan 𝛿

ir
𝛿 = Frictional angle between piles and soil

lS
• Earth Pressure = K 𝜎ത

s pa
1

Ja
• qsf = KγH . tan 𝛿
2

• Qeb = qeb . Ab
1
Qu = KγL . tan 𝛿 As + 𝛾Nq L Ab
2
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Area Circular Square
As 𝜋DL 4BL
Ab 𝜋D2/4 B2

ir
lS
Pile Material 𝜹 Value of K for Value of K for

pa
Loose Sand Dense Sand

s
Steel 20 0.5 1

Ja
Concrete 0.75∅ 1 2
Timber 0.37∅ 1.5 4

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
b) Dynamic Pile Driving Method
• When a pile hammer hits Pile, the total driving energy is equal to the weight of
hammer times the height of drop or stroke.
• In addition to this, in case of double acting hammer, some energy is consumed by
work done in penetrating the pile and by certain losses, moreover in this case
energy is also imparted by steam pressure.

ir
• Following methods are available on this approach –

lS
pa
I. Engineering News Formula

s
Ja
• As per this method, allowable load on pile is given by-

wH
Qa =
F S+C

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Where,
Qa = Allowable load
H = Height of fall(cm)
F = Factor of safety = 6
S = Final set ( penetration) per blow, usually taken as an average penetration
(cm) per blow for last 5 blows of a drop hammer and 20 blows of steam hammer.

ir
lS
C = Empirical formula

pa
= 2.5 cm for Drop Hammer

s
= 0.25 cm for Single and Double acting Hammer

Ja
Hence,
i. For Drop Hammer :
wH
Qa =
6 S + 2.5
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
ii. For Single Acting Steam Hammer :
It is lifted by steam pressure and is allowed to fall freely
wH
Qa =
6 S + 0.75

ir
iii. For Double Acting Steam Hammer :

lS
w + ap H

pa
Qa =
6 S + 0.25

s
Ja
a = effective area of piston (cm2)
p = mean effective steam pressure (kg/cm2) ( double acting steam hammer is both
lifted and dropped under steam pressure)

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A drop hammer is used to drive a wooden pile. The hammer weight
is 25 kN. and its free falling height is 0.8 m. The penetration in the last
blow is 12 mm. What is the nearest approximation to the load carrying
capacity of the pile according to the Engineering News Formula?
[IES 2014]
a) 125 kN

ir
lS
b) 110 kN

pa
c) 3000 kN

s
Ja
d) 90 kN.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
II. Hilley’s Formula
• This method is recommended by IS code also.
• In this method, allowable load carrying capacity of pile is given by –
W H⋅ηH ηb
Qu =
S+CΤ2
• Where, Qu = Ultimate load on pile
W = Weight of hammer (kg)

ir
lS
H = Height of drop on hammer (cm)

pa
S = Penetration on set (cm) per blow

s
C = total elastic compression (constant)

Ja
C = C1 + C2 +C3
C = Temporary elastic compression of dolly and Packing, pile soil respectively
ηH = efficiency of hammer
= 65% - 100% (65% for Some double acting Hammer and 100 for drop Hammer)
ηb = efficiency of hammer blow
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• The allowable load is given by –
Qu
Qa =
F
F = factor of safety (2-3)

• The great objection of any of the pile driving formula is uncertainty about the relationship
the dynamic and static resistance of soil.
• In case of submerged loose uniform fine sand impact of driving may cause liquefaction of

ir
Soil, thus showing much less resistance than that which will occur under a static load.

lS
• On the same lines, a very dense saturated fine sand may show an increased driving

pa
resistance.

s
• For clay, dynamic formula are useless become the skin friction developed is very much less

Ja
and remolding also takes place.
• Dynamic formula gives no indication about probable future settlement
• It does not take into account the reduced bearing capacity of pile in group
• Weight of pile in inertia effect is neglected.
• In Hilley's formula, a number of constant are involved which are difficult to calculate.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A precast concrete pile is driven with a 50 kN hammer falling through a height of
1.0 m with an efficiency of 0.6. The set value observed is 4 mm per blow and the
combined temporary compression of the pile, cushion and the ground is 6 mm. As
per Modified Hiley Formula, the ultimate resistance of the pile is [GATE 2009]
a) 3000 kN
b) 4285.7 kN.

ir
c) 8333 kN

lS
d) 11905 kN

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
c) Pile Load Test
• This test can be performed either on working pile which forms the foundation of the
structure or on a test Pile. (since, after the test pile cannot be put into service / use it is
a type of destructive test)
• The test load is applied with the help of calibrated jack placed over a rigid circular or
square plate which in turn is placed over the head of pile projecting above the ground
level.

ir
• The reaction of Jack is borne by a truss which may have gravity loading or truss can be

lS
anchored to the ground with the help of anchor piles.

pa
1
• The load is applied in equal increments of about of estimated allowable load
5

s
• The settlement is recorded by the help of three dial gauge (placed at an angle of 120°)

Ja
• Each load increment is kept / applied up to an extent the rate of settlement reduces
0.02mm/hr
• The test pile is loaded until ultimate load is reached, ordinarily the test load is increased
up to 2.5 times the estimated allowable value or a load which causes the settlement
equal to 1/10 th of Pile diameter, which occur earlier.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• The results are reported in terms of load settlement curve either on arithmetic or log
scale.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja
• In case ultimate load cannot be obtained from load settlement curve, the allowable
load is taken as follows-
i. 1/2 to 1/3 of final load which cause the settlement equal to 10% of Pile diameter.
ii. Use code
2/3"JASPALLIVE"
of finalforload which
instant maximum causes
discount a total
on Unacademy settlement of 12 mm
Plus subscriptions.
iii. 2/3 of final load which causes a net settlement of 6mm (residual settlement
after the removal of load)

• This method is more accurate and recommended by IS Code

ir
lS
• This method can also be used to find the allowable load on pile using settlement

pa
criteria.

s
Ja
• In order to separately find both end bearing resistance and skin friction resistance
cyclic plate load test is performed.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
d) Co-relation with SPT (N) value and CPT resistance value :
a) Relation with SPT (N) value
i. According to Meyerhoff, for driven piles (Displacement type)
Qup = qeb . Ab + qsf . As
Qup = 400NAb + 2N ഥ . As

ir
lS
ii. For Driven Pile (Non displacement type) (H Pile)

pa
1
Qup = Qeb + Qsf
2

s
1
ഥ ). As

Ja
Qup = 400 N. Ab + (2N
2
iii. For bored piles,
1
Qup = (Qup)Displacement
3
400 2
Qup = N Ab + N ഥ . As
3 3
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
b) Relation with CPT resistance
i. For driven pile (Displacement type)
Qup = Qeb + Qsf
𝑞ഥ
Qup = qe Ab + 𝑐 As
2

ir
ii. For driven pile (Non displacement type)

lS
1

pa
Qup = Qeb + Q
2 sf

s
𝑞ഥ
Qup = qe Ab + As

Ja
𝑐
4
iii. For Bored pile
1
Qup = (Qup)Displacement
3
qc 𝑞ഥ
Qup = Ab + 𝑐 As
3 6
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Negative Skin Friction
• Piles installed in freshly placed fills or soft compressive deposits are subjected to a
downward drag, a consequence of consolidation of soil after pile are installed.
• This downward drag on pile surface when the soil move down relative to the pile is
termed as ‘NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION’
• This negative skin friction may also develop if the fill material is loose, Sand deposit or

ir
lS
due to lowering of the ground water table which increases the effective stress, thus
causing consolidation of the Soil.

pa
• It may also be observed due to placement of surcharge over the ground surface due to

s
Ja
dynamic load on Soil.
• A small relative movement between the soil and the pile of Order of about 10 mm, may
be sufficient for the full negative skin friction to materialize.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• In bearing Piles, where settlement of pile is negligible, negative skin friction becomes
a pile capacity problem, but for piles in compressive soil whose pile capacity is
contributed by both point resistance and skin friction, the problem of negative skin
friction should be considered as settlement problem.

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• This magnitude of negative skin friction for a single pile in filled up soil deposit may
be given as-
a) For Cohesive Soil,
Fn = 𝛼 Cത P Lc

Where, 𝛼 = Adhesion factor

ir
𝐶ҧ = Average cohesion of compressible layer

lS
Lc = Length of pile in compressible layer

pa
P = Perimeter of pile

s
Ja
b) For Cohesionless Soil,
1
𝐹𝑛 = 𝑘 𝑃𝛾 𝐿2𝑐 tan 𝛿
2

Where, k = Lateral earth pressure coefficient

1 2
F =UseAngle of friction between the pile and soil ( 𝜙 − 𝜙)
2 3
code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A square plate section 30 cm x 30 cm and length 10m penetrates a deposit of
clay having C = 5 kN/m2 and the mobilizing factor m = 0.8 . What is the load carried
by the pile by skin friction only ? [IES 2004]
a) 192 kN
b) 75 kN
c) 60 kN

ir
lS
d) 48 kN.

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Negative skin friction in a soil is considered when the pile is constructed through
a [GATE 2005]
a) Filled material.
b) Dense coarse sand
c) Over consolidated stiff clay

ir
d) Dense fine sand

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Group Action of Pile
• If applied load is large and more number of piles are used, then either piles will act
individually or in the group depending upon the spacing in between the piles.
• If c/c spacing is 2.5D to 4D, then soil may get compacted between piles and entire
wedge of size (B X B) may act as a single pile such a action is called ‘GROUP ACTION
OF PILE’

ir
lS
• In group action, base area and surface area both will increase.
• In group action, the depth of stress zone extends to greater depth than in individual

pa
action of Pile therefore, settlement due to consolidation in group action is more than

s
settlement in individual action of pile.

Ja
• The minimum no. of pile required for group action is 3
• The pile group may be triangular, circular, rectangular or polygon however square Pile
group is Preferred

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Group action depends up on C/C spacing between Piles.

i. For end bearing pile spacing is (2.5 - 3.5)D

ii. For friction pile spacing is (3 – 4)D
iii. For pile in loose sand spacing is kept 2D

ir
lS
• If the spacing is governed as above then load carrying capacity of pile group in sand

pa
comes to be greater than sum of load carrying of all the piles, whereas in case of clay,

s
it depends upon properties of soil and spacing.

Ja
• If piles are to be driven, then pile driving mechanism should start from center and
proceed outward i.e. It means central pile is to driven first and processing piles are
driven in radially outward direction as in this process resistance in pile driving will be
less and hence it would be more economical.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Determination Of Load Carrying Capacity of Pile Group
i. For Cohesive Soil

𝑄ug = 9CB2 + Cത 4BL

ir
lS
pa
ii. For Cohesionless Soil

s
Ja 1
Quy = γLNq B2 + kγL tan∅ 4BL
2
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Group Efficiency
• It is defined as ratio of ultimate load carrying capacity of pile group to the sum of
ultimate load carrying capacity of all the piles under individual action
Q ug
ηg =
𝑛 ⋅ 𝑄up

ir
lS
Qup
Note : If ηg > 1, then Qsafe = n

pa
F

s
Therefore, In design ηg should be≥ 1

Ja
• Disturbance of soil during installation of pile and overlap of stresses between
adjacent piles may cause the group capacity to become less than the sum of
individual capacity i e. ηg < 1

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• In driven piles, where the soil around the piles get densified as in loose to medium sand,
ηg may be more than 1.
• In this case, group tends to behave like a block or like equivalent single pile.
• The ηg depends mainly on the spacing between Piles, type of soil in which Pile is
installed and manner of pile installation (i.e. driven, bored)
• ηg can also be computed empirically as Using :

ir
lS
a) Converse Labarre Formula

pa
𝜃 𝑛−1 𝑚+ 𝑚−1 𝑛
𝜂𝑔 = 1 − { }
90 𝑚𝑛

s
𝑑

Ja
Here, 𝜃 = tan−1
𝑆
m = no. of rows
n = no. of piles in rows
d = diameter of piles
S = Spacing of piles
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
b) Feld’s Rule
• According to this rule the value of each pile is reduced by 1/16th on account of effect
of nearest pile in each diagonal or straight row of which the pile in question is a
member

ir
lS
𝜂𝑔 = 87 ⋅ 5%

s pa
𝜂𝑔 = 80 %
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Efficiency of a pile group is defined as [IES 1995]

Load carried by the largest pile in the group

a) Load carried by the smallest pile in the group
Maximum load carried by a pile in the group
b) Minimum load carried by a pile in the group

ir
Minimum load carried by a pile in the group
c)

lS
Maximum load carried by a pile in the group
Average load carried by a pile in the group

pa
d) Load carried by a single pile
.

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The group efficiency of pile group [GATE 2000]

a) Will be always less than 100%

b) Will be always greater than 100%
c) May be less than 100% or more than 100%.

ir
d) Will be more than 100% for pile group in cohesionless soils and less than 100%

lS
for those in cohesive soils

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The load carrying capacity of an individual friction pile is 200kN . What is the total
carrying capacity of a group of 9 such piles with group efficiency factor of 0.8?
[IES 2005]

a) 1800 kN

ir
b) 1640 kN

lS
c) 1440 kN.

pa
d) 900 kN

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statements.
1. In case of pile groups in cohesive soil, block failure occurs for smaller spacing
between the piles.
2. According to Feld’s rule for determining pile group efficiency, the load carrying
capacity of each pile is increased by 1/16 th owing to the effect of the nearest
pile

ir
3. In medium dense sand, settlement of a pile group is more than the settlement of

lS
single pile.

pa
Of these statements [IES 1995]

s
Ja
a) 1 and 2 are correct
b) 1 and 3 are correct.
c) 2 and 3 are correct
d) 1,2 and 3 are correct

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Group Settlement Ratio
• For estimating the settlement of pile group in sand, pile load test is used { interpolation
of load settlement curve is done }
• Settlement of no. of pile groups, consisting of driven piles, with the settlement of
individual pile in sand, for the same load per pile after being compared can be expressed
in terms of settlement of an individual pile and is termed as ‘GROUP SETTLEMENT RATIO’
given by-

ir
2
Sg 4B + 2.7

lS
=
Si B + 3.6

s pa
Where, B = Width of Pile group (m)

Ja
Sg = Settlement of Pile group
Si = Settlement of individual Pile
Note : The above ratio is for same load Q per pile
• Sg in sand Varies in the range of 1 – 16 , irrespective of width of pile
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Determination Of Settlement of Pile Group in Clay
• The settlement of a pile group in clay cannot be estimated from the data of load test on
a single pile, because of time effect, the effect of remolding of Soil due to pile driving
and the scale effect, which are different for the single test pile and group of pile
• In this case, approach used for settlement of Pile group is ‘Equivalent Raft Approach’
• Depending on the subsoil conditions, several assumptions are being made to identify

ir
lS
the location of equivalent raft over which the pile are assumed to transfer the vertical
load acting on them.

pa
Case(i) when Pile are end Bearing

s
Ja
• It means the soil below the base of pile is stiff / dense where as above the base of pile
is loose / soft
• In this case, skin friction is negligible and equivalent raft may be assumed at the base of
pile group.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 ir
lS
pa
• In this settlement is computed as-

s
Ja
a) Assume equivalent raft at base of Pile group
b) Identify thickness of compressible soil ( Ho )
c) 𝜎0′ at CC
′ Q
d) Increase in effective stress Δ𝜎 =
B+2nZ 2
H0 CC σo′ + Δσ′
e)codeΔH
Use = for instant
"JASPALLIVE" logmaximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
1+e0 σ′o
Case (ii) : when Piles are driven through uniform clay deposit and pile group act as a
friction pile group
• Let the top layer is soft, of length L1 bottom layer is stiff and is embedded up to the
length of L2
• In this case, end bearing resistance and skin friction resistance both will be developed.
2
• The equivalent raft in this is case assumed to be present at L from base of top layer
3 2

ir
remaining procedure is same.

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Guidelines to Design a Pile Group
i. Length : For friction pile group length may be 10 - 20 m whereas for end bearing pile
group, it is equal to depth of hard strata.

ii. Diameter : It is kept in range of 0.3 - 0.9 m.

ir
lS
iii. Spacing : It is kept in range of 2.5D - 4D ( generally )

s pa
iv. No of Piles in Group : Generally square pile group [(3 x 3), (4 x 4), (5 x 5)] is preferred

v. Group Efficiency : It should be ≥ 1 Ja

• Note : In end bearing pile, Qup = Qeb
In friction
Use code "JASPALLIVE" pile,
for instant Qupon =Unacademy
maximum discount Qsf Plus subscriptions.
 Negative Skin Friction in Pile Group
• When pile group passes through a soft, unconsolidated stratum, the magnitude of
negative skin friction on the group Fng is given as higher of the value obtained through
following relationship-

ir
lS
s pa
Fng = n ⋅ Fn
Ja
Fng = Cത u ⋅ LC Pg + γLC Ag
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Note : The second relationship is computed on the basis of block shear failure along the
perimeter of pile group which includes the volume of soil enclosed in the group ( A Lc )
• The effect of negative skin friction on the FOS with respect to estimate load capacity of
pile or a pile group can be considered as

Note : Qu = Qeb + Qsf (for cohesionless soil)

ir
• Qeb = qeb . Ab => qeb = q . Nq => q = 𝛾 L

lS
• qeb = 𝛾 L Nq

pa
• qeb 𝛼 L

s
• From the above relationship it can be analyzed that the unit point resistance increases

Ja
in direct proportion to the embedded length of pile
• However, field observation indicate that these values increases only up to a limited
depth; beyond which it remains constant

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• This depth is called the ‘Critical Depth of Pile’
• This phenomenon is due to ‘ARCH EFFECT’ in the granular soil.
• The critical depth depends on the angle of shearing resistance of soil and size of pile
• Its value may vary from about 15D in loose to medium sand to 20D in dense sand
where D is pile diameter or width
• It is also recommended that maximum value of unit point resistance qeb be 11,000 kN /

ir
m2 in normal Silica Sand or 5000 kN / m2 for Calcareous Sand.

lS
• ‘Arching’ occurs when there is a difference of the stiffness between the installed

pa
structure and the surrounding Soil.

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Qsf = qsf . As
qsf = k . 𝜎𝑎𝑣𝑔 ⋅ tan 𝛿
𝛾𝐿
qsf = k . tan 𝛿
2
qsf ∝ L

ir
lS
s pa
• From the above relationship it can be analyzed that qsf increases with depth, but in

Ja
actual it does so only up to critical depth which varies from 15 – 20 times the pile
diameter.
• Below the critical depth, the value of 𝜎ത and the value of qsf remains constant
• The maximum value of qsf should be limited to 100 kN / m2 for straight piles in normal
silica sand up to 20 kN / m2 for calcareous sand
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statements regarding negative skin friction in piles
1. It is developed when the pile is driven through a recently deposited clay layer.
2. It is developed when the pile I driven through a layer of dense sand.
3. It is developed due to a sudden drawdown of the water table.
Which of these statements is/are correct? [IES 1995]

ir
a) 1 alone

lS
b) 2 alone

pa
c) 2 and 3

s
d) 1 and 3.

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. In the case of a pile foundation, negative skin friction may occur at a load which is
[IES 2001]
a) Lower than the designed load
b) Higher than the designed load
c) Equal to the designed load

ir
d) Of any magnitude.

lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The ultimate load capacity of a 10 m long concrete pile of square cross-section 500
mm x 500 mm driven into a homogeneous clay layer having undrained cohesion value
of 40 kPa is 700 kN. If the cross-section of the pile is reduced to 250mm x 250mm and
the length of the pile is increased to 20 m, the ultimate load capacity will be
[IES 2010]
a) 350 kN

ir
b) 632.5 kN.

lS
c) 722.5 kN

pa
d) 1400 kN

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A pile of 0.50 m diameter and of length 10 m is embedded in a deposit of clay. The
undrained strength parameters of the clay are cohesion = 60kN/m2 and angle of
internal friction = 0. The skin friction capacity (kN) of the pile for an adhesion factor 0.6
is [GATE 2008]
a) 671
b) 565.

ir
c) 283

lS
d) 106

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Piles Subjected to Uplift Loads
• Structure such as tall towers, Silos, Chimneys, off Shore platforms and dry docks are
usually provided with pile foundation to resist the large uplift pressure (due to water)
and overturning moments

• Piles used for this purpose are called as uplift or tension Piles

ir
lS
• The uplift capacity of pile is calculated in a manner similar to pile subjected to

pa
compressive load.

s
Ja
• Uplift piles are invariably provided with an enlarged area at the base inform of bulb or
ball.

• Pile develop resistance to pull out only from the skin friction develop along the
embedded length and point bearing is not included but the weight of pile is included in
uplift resistance.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• Case (i) Pile in Clay
Qut = qsft As + Wp
Where,
qsft = Unit skin friction in tension
As = Embedded area of pile shaft

ir
Wp = Weight of pile

lS
qsft is taken equal to qsf in compression for undrained conditions

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
• When the base of pile is enlarged in form of bulb or a ball the smaller of two values is
considered given by-
ഥ s K + Ws + Wp ----------- (1)
Qut = Cu A
Or,
Qut = 2.25 𝜋 (Db2 – D2) Cu + Wp ------------------ (2)

ir
Where,

lS
ഥ s = Surface area of vertical cylinder above the base
A

pa
Db = Diameter of base

s
D = Diameter of pile shaft

Ja
K = Coefficient
Ws = weight of soil included in the region between pile shaft and cylinder above
the base

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Type of Soil K
Soft Clay 1 – 1.25
Medium Clay 0.7
Stiff Clay 0.5
Fissured Clay 0.25

ir
Note : The (i) equation is on basis of failure assumed through full mobilization of friction

lS
resistance along the cylindrical surface above the base diameter and eq (ii) is based on
bearing capacity failure of Base

s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A single pipe, 50 cm in diameter and 16 m long, is driven in clay having an
average unconfined compressive strength of 100 kN /m2 . The ultimate load
carrying capacity of the pile, neglecting end bearing if any, and assuming shear
mobilization of 0.75 around the pile, is nearly [IES 2013}
a) 840kN
b) 900kN

ir
lS
c) 940kN.

pa
d) 1000kN

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Stabilization of soil
Methods of stabilization is grouped into two-
(a) Modification or improvement of a soil property of the existing soil

ir
(compaction, drainage)

lS
pa
(b) Modification of property with the help of admixture (Mechanical
stabilization, Bitumen, lime, cement chemical, electrical, thermal

s
Ja
stabilization).

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Stabilization of soil
(i) Mechanical stabilization:
It involves two operations:-

ir
lS
(a) Changing the composition of soil by addition or removal of certain
constituents.

pa
(b) Densification or compaction.

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Stabilization of soil
(ii) Cement stabilization:
• The soil stabilized with cement is know as soil cement.

ir
• The amount of cement required is in range of 5-15% be weight of dry

lS
soil.

pa
• for sand, it is 7-15%

s
Ja
for silt, it is 12-15%
for clay, it is 12-20%

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Stabilization of soil
(iii) Lime stabilization:
• On addition of lime to soil, two types of chemical reaction occurs-

ir
(a) Alteration in the nature of absorbed layer through base exchange

lS
phenomenon.

pa
(b) Cementing or pozzolanic action.

s
• Lime reduces the 𝐼𝑝 of highly plastic soil. It increases the optimum

Ja
moisture content and decreases the compacted density but strength
durability increases.
• Normally, 2-8% of lime may be required for coarse grained soil and 5-
10% for plastic soil.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statement:
Lime stabilization of soil leads to
1. Decrease in shrinkage limit
2. Increase in plastic limit

ir
lS
3. Decrease in liquid limit

pa
4. Flocculation of clay particles
Which of the above statements are correct?

s
Ja
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1, 2 and 4
(c) 1, 4 and 3
(d) 2, 4 and 3.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Stabilization of soil
(iv) Bitumen stabilization:
• The bituminous material when added imparts binding action or water

ir
proofing action or both in soil.

lS
• Depending upon these action & nature of soil bitumen stabilization is

pa
further classified as-

s
Ja
(a) Soil bitumen.
(b) Sand bitumen.
(c) Water proof mechanical stabilization.
(d) Oiled earth.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Stabilization of soil
(v) Chemical stabilization:
• Calcium chloride-

ir
It acts as a type of flock foaming reagent and helps in compaction of

lS
soil.

pa
• Sodium chloride-

s
Ja
Its action is similar to calcium chloride, it attracts & retains moisture
and reduces rate of evaporation.
• Sodium silicate-
It is used in combination of other chemicals like; Ca𝐶𝑙2 , 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙2 etc. for
stabilization of soil.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Stabilization of soil
(vi) Stabilization of heat:
• Heating a fine grained soil to a temperature of 400-600°𝐶 causes irreversible

ir
changes in clay mineral.

lS
• the soil becomes non-plastic, less water sensitive & non-expansive.

s pa
Ja
(vii) Electrical stabilization:
• The stability or shear strength of fine grained soil can be increased by draining
them with passage of direct current through them.
• This process also termed as Electro-osmosis.
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Which technique of stabilization for the sub-base is preferred for a
heavy plastic soil?

ir
(a) Cement stabilization

lS
(b) Mechanical stabilization

pa
(c) Lime stabilization.

s
Ja
(d) Bitumen stabilization

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration
• The exploration must be preceded by the site reconnaissance.
• The information required is

ir
➢The order of occurrence and extent of soil & rock strata.

lS
pa
➢The nature & engineering properties of soil and rock formation.

s
➢Location of GWT and its variation.

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration
▪ Depth of exploration iv) Base of retaining wall: 1.5 the base width or
• It depends upon the type of structure weight, 1.5 times exposed height of face, which ever is
size, shape and deposition of loaded area. greater.

• It is generally safe to assume significant depth v) Floating basement: depth of construction.

ir
as depth of 10% or 20% overburden pressure
vii) dams: 1.5 bottom width of earth dam, 2

lS
residual.
times height of bed to crest from concrete

pa
• The depth of exploration for different works dams.

s
are as follows-

Ja
vi) road, cut, fills: one meter where little cut or
i) Isolated spread footing/raft 1L : 1.5B fills is required, can be extended upto 2m for
deep cut.
ii) Adjacent footing with clear spacing less than
2B : 1.5L vii) Borrow area: Convenience of excavation or
thickness available.
iii) Pile foundation: 10-30 m or more or atleast
ix) Prom the consideration: 15m in general of
1.5code
Use width of structure.
"JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
weathering.
Q. Consider the following statements:
In subsoil exploration program the term ‘significant depth of exploration’ is
upto
1. The width of foundation

ir
2. Twice the width of foundation

lS
3. The depth where the additional stress intensity is less than 20% of

pa
overburden pressure

s
4. The depth where the additional stress intensity is less than 10% of the

Ja
overburden pressure
5. Hard rock level
Which of these statements is/are correct?
(a) 1, 3 and 5 (b) 2, 3 and 5
(c) 1 and 4. (d) 2 and 4
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration
▪ Method of site exploration
(i) Open excavation

ir
lS
(ii) Boring (Auger boring, Auger & shell boring, wash boring,

pa
percussion boring, rotary boring)

s
(iii) Subsurface sounding

Ja
(iv) Geophysical method

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration
(i) Open excavation
• Test pit and trenches can be used for all type of soils.

ir
lS
• Soil can be inspected in their natural condition & samples disturbed

pa
or undisturbed can be conveniently taken.

s
• The cost of open excavation however increases with depth.

Ja
• They are generally considered suitable for shallow depth up-to 3 m.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration
(ii) Boring
a) Auger Boring
• These are used in other cohesive & other soft soils above water table.

ir
• Hand Auger are used up-to depth of 6 m & mechanical Augers are used for

lS
greater depth & they can also be used in Gravelly soil.

pa
• Sample recovered from these soil brought up by augers are badly disturbed &

s
are useful for identification purpose only.

Ja
b) Auger and shell boring
• Cylindrical Auger & shell with cutting edge on teeth at the lower end can be
used for making the borings.
• Auger are suitable for soft to stiff clay, shell for very stiff & hard clays & shell
Usepumps for forsandy
code "JASPALLIVE" soils.
instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration
c) Wash Boring
• It is a fast & simple method for advancing holes in all types of soils.

ir
• Boulders & rocks cannot be penetrated by this method

lS
• This method consists of first driving a casing through a hollow drill, rod with a sharp chisel &

pa
water is forced under pressure through the drilled rod.

s
• The cuttings are forced up on the ground and are further tested.

Ja
d) Percussion Boring
• Soil & rock formation are broken by repeated blows of heavy chisels by cable or drilled rod.
• Water is added to the hole during the boring if not already present to form the slurry.
• It is suitable for all types of soil, boulders and rod.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration
e) Rotary Boring
• It is very fast method of advancing a hole in both rocks & soils.

ir
lS
• A drill bit fixed to the lower end of drill rods is rotated by a suitable

pa
mechanism.

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following statements:
1. The soil obtained from the wash boring is a representative sample.
2. Recovery ratio will be heigh during drilling in sound rock.

ir
3. Hollow stem augers are sometimes used to drill holes in silty sand.

lS
Which of the following statement is/are correct?

s pa
(a) 1 only

Ja
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 3 only

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration
▪ Soil sample
It is classified in two categories:
(i) Disturbed sample – Soil structure gets modified or destroyed during the sampling operation.

ir
lS
(a) representative sample
The natural moisture content & proportion of mineral constituent can be preserved in the

pa
sample termed as Representative Sample.

s
(b) non-representative sample

Ja
If during sampling in the addition to the alteration in the original soil structure, soil from
the other layer gets mixed up or mineral constituents gets altered, the sample is termed as
Non-Representative Sample.
(ii) Undisturbed sample – Original soil structure is preserved & the material properties have not been altered.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration

Type of test Type of sample required

Natural water content undisturbed

ir
lS
density undisturbed
Specific gravity Representative or undisturbed

pa
Grain size distribution Representative or undisturbed

s
Atterberg limit Representative or undisturbed

Ja
Coefficient of permeability Undisturbed
Coefficient of parameters Undisturbed
Shear strength parameter undisturbed

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Which of the following tests CANNOT be done without undisturbed
sampling?
(a) Shearing strength of sand

ir
lS
(b) Shearing strength of clay.

pa
(c) Determination of compaction parameters

s
(d) Atterberg limits

Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration
• The extent of disturbance of the sample, due to sampler depends
upon three features:

ir
a) Cutting edge

lS
b) Inside wall friction

pa
c) Non-return valve

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration
• Inside Clearance (𝑪𝒊 )
𝐷3 − 𝐷1
𝐶𝑖 = 𝑋 100
𝐷1

ir
• Outside clearance (𝑪𝟎 )

lS
𝐷2 − 𝐷4
𝐶0 = 𝑋 100
𝐷2

pa
• Area ratio (𝑨𝒓 )
𝐷2 2 − 𝐷1 2

s
Ja
𝐴𝑟 =
𝐷1 2
• 𝐶𝑖 = 1 − 3 %
• 𝐶0 = 0 − 2% (it should not be greater than 𝐶𝑖 )
• 𝐴𝑟 ≯ 20% , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• 𝐴𝑟 ≯ 10% , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Consider the following properties for a soil sample:
1. Area ration should be low
2. Cutting edge should be thick

ir
lS
3. Inside clearance should be heigh

pa
4. Outside clearance should be heigh

s
The properties necessary for a good quality soil sampler would include:

Ja
(a) 1 and 4. (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration
• Recovery ratio (𝐿𝑟 )
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝐿𝑟 =

ir
𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

lS
𝐿𝑟 = 1 => good recovery

pa
𝐿𝑟 < 1 => compression while sampling

s
Ja
𝐿𝑟 > 1 => Expansion/ swelling while sampling

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. A soil sample has inner and outer radii of 25 mm and 30 mm
respectively. The area ratio of the sampler is:
(a) 24%

ir
lS
(b) 34%

pa
(c) 54%

s
Ja
(d) 44%

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration
• Type of sampler
(I) Open drive sampler – it consists of a seamless open end steel tube

ir
with a cutting edge.

lS
(II) Piston sampler – it has two separate parts: a) sampler cylinder; b)

pa
piston cylinder

s
Ja
(III) Rotatory sampler – it is a double walled tube sampler with an inner
removable liner.
(IV) Block/chunk sampler – block or chunk can be obtained from open
excavation like test pit, shaft etc.

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. The correct sequence of the increasing order of disturbance of soil
samples obtained from chunk, piston, split spoon and remoulded
sampler is:
(a) Piston sampler, chunk sampler, split spoon sampler, remoulded

ir
lS
sampler

pa
(b) Chunk sampler, piston sampler, split spoon sampler, remoulded
sampler.

s
Ja
(c) Piston sampler, chunk sampler, remoulded sampler, split spoon
sampler
(d) Chunk sampler, piston sampler, remoulded sampler, split spoon
sampler

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration
(iii) Sounding & penetration test:
a) Standard penetration test (SPT)

ir
b) Static cone penetration test (CPT)

lS
c) Dynamic cone penetration test

pa
Correlation between dynamic cone resistance & SPT values can

s
Ja
be referred as follows when 50mm diameter cone is used:
𝑁𝑐𝑑 = 1.5 𝑁 for depth up to 3m
𝑁𝑐𝑑 = 1.76 𝑁 for depth up to 3-6 m
𝑁𝑐𝑑 = 2 𝑁 for depth > 6m

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration
d) Pressure meter test
There are two basic types of pressure meters:
1. The Menard pressure meter (MPM), which is lowered into a preformed borehole.

ir
2. The self boring pressure meter (SBP), which forms its own its own bore hole & thus

lS
causes much less disturbance to the soil prior to the testing.
Note:

pa
• relationship between Menard’s modulus of elasticity (𝐸𝑚 ) & young’s modulus of
elasticity (E) :

s
𝐸𝑚

Ja
𝐸=
𝛼
• In clayey soil, undrained shear can also be determined as follows:
𝑃𝑖
𝐶𝑢 =
𝑞
e) Plate load test
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
Q. Match the list 1. (field test) with list 2. (parameters measured) and select the correct answer:

List-1 List-2

ir
A. Plate load test 1. Total and frictional resistance

lS
B. Standard penetration test 2. Load intensity and settlement values

pa
C. Static dutch cone penetration test 3. 𝑁𝑐𝑑 values

s
Ja
D. Dynamic penetration test 4. SPT value

Code
A B C D
(i) 2 4 3 1
(ii) 4 2 3 1
(iii) 2 4 1 3.
(iv) 4 2 1 3
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration
(iv) Geophysical method
The major methods of these category are-

ir
(a) Gravitational method

lS
(b) Magnetic method

pa
(c) Seismic refraction method

s
𝑑 𝑉2 − 𝑉1

Ja
𝐷=
2 𝑉2 + 𝑉1
Where, 𝑉2 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
𝑉1 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
D = depth of boundary between two strata
Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration

ir
lS
s pa
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.
 Sub-soil exploration
d) Electrical resistivity method
The mean resistivity is given by,

ir
lS
𝐸

pa
𝜌 = 2𝜋𝐷 = 2𝜋𝐷𝑅
𝑙

s
Ja

Use code "JASPALLIVE" for instant maximum discount on Unacademy Plus subscriptions.