Section I

1- Religious Reformers
Background
Q: Why were there attempts to revive Islām in the sub-continent during the eighteenth
and early nineteenth century? [7]
• The economic and intellectual breakdown of the society alarmed the reformist Muslims
to revive Islām.
• Shāh Walī Ullāh was one of the Muslim reformers, who thought Muslims were ignorant
about the Islam and teachings of the Holy Qur´ān.
o So, he emphasized on the Quranic teachings.
o He translated the Qur´ān into Persian- a contemporary court language, under
the title ‘Fat’ḥ ur-Rehmān’.
• During the early 19th century, Punjab was under the Sikh rule and it was difficult for the
Muslims to freely practice their religion.
o Sikhs converted mosques to stables, Āzān and prayers were banned.
• Sayyid Aḥmad Shahīd Barelvī wanted to liberate Muslims of Punjab from Sikhs’
oppression.
o He thought that Muslims cannot regain glory if un-islamic forces would not be
beaten, that’s why he launched an armed Jihād movement against the Sikh rule.
• Ḥājī Shari‘at Ullāh wanted to spread Islam through Ferāizī movement because Muslim
peasants of East Bengal were indulged in Hindu superstitions.
o The movement was started in East Bengal and it insisted the Muslims to perform
their religious obligations (Ferāiz).
o Hindu landlords were alarmed by this movement.

Shāh Walī Ullāh (1703-1762 A.D.)

Q: Who was Shāh Walī Ullāh? [4]

• Shāh Walī Ullāh was a Muslim reformer, born on 1703
A.D., in Delhi.
• His real name was Qutb ud-dīn who was popularized with
the name of Shāh Walī Ullāh because of his services
rendered to the people of Indian subcontinent.
• His father’s name was ‘Abd al-Rahīm who was the founder
of Madrassa Rahīmiyyah where Shāh Walī Ullāh studied.
• He died in 1762, but his mission was continued by his
sons.
Q: Describe the achievements of Shāh Walī Ullāh? [4]
• Shāh Walī Ullāh translated Qur´ān into Persian- contemporary court language so that
most people may know and act upon the teachings of Qur´ān.
• He wrote fifty-one books in Arabic and Persian to explain the true teachings of Islam.
o Among the most famous are Izālat al-Khafā and Ḥujjatullāh al-Bālighā. Izālat
al-Khafā was an account on first four caliphs, written in a way that was
acceptable to both Shias and Sunnis.
• To counter the growing Maratha power, Shāh Walī Ullāh called upon Aḥmad Shāh
Abdālī from Afghanistan, who defeated Marathas in the third battle of Pānīpat (1761).

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 1

Q: Why did Shāh Walī Ullāh have such important influence on the revival of Islam in the
sub-continent? OR [7]
Q: Why did Shāh Walī Ullāh wish to revive Islam in the sub-continent? [7]
• Shāh Walī Ullāh- born in 1703 in Delhi, was the pioneer figure to work for the
resurgence of Islam in the sub-continent.
• He was the first one to state that Muslims’ downfall was due to neglecting the principles
of Islam.
• He was one of the Muslim reformers who thought Muslims were ignorant about Islam
and teachings of the Holy Qur´ān.
o So, he emphasized on the Quranic teachings. Hence, he translated the Qur´ān
into Persian- contemporary court language under the title ‘Fat’ḥ ur-Reḥmān’.
• He wrote fifty-one books in Arabic and Persian to explain the true teachings of Islam
among Muslims of the sub-continent.
o Among the most famous of his works are Izālat al-Khafā- a biography of four
caliphs which tried to eliminate the sectarian i.e., Shiite and Sunni differences
among the Muslims.
o Ḥujjatullāh al-Bālighā determined the problems of the Muslim community.
• He also advised Sufis and Ulemas to sort their differences and sent out his students to
different places to spread the message of harmony and unity.
• He advised the Muslims not to waste extravagant amount of money on marriages,
births, deaths, and other ceremonies.
• He urged the traders and the businessmen to adopt fairer system of making money.
• To counter the Maratha power Shāh Walīullāh called upon Aḥmad Shāh Abdālī from
Afghanistan, who defeated Marathas in the third battle of Pānīpat (1761).

Sayyid Aḥmad Shahīd Barelvī (1786-1831 A.D.)

Q: Who was Sayyid Aḥmad Barelvī? [4]

• A Muslim reformer, born in 1786 in Rai Barailī near
Lucknow.
• He studied in Madrassa Rahīmiyyah and was influenced
by the teachings of Shāh Walī Ullāh.
• His father died when he was quite young so he had to get
into practical life and thus joined the army of Āmir khān.
• He went to Saudi Arabia in 1821 and was greatly
influenced by the teachings of Sheikh ‘Abd al-Wahāb.
• He founded the Jihād Movement on his return in Punjab
because it was under oppressive Sikh rule.
• He fought with the army of Ranjīt Singh from 1826 to
1830.
• He was finally betrayed and killed in the battle of Bālākot.
Q: Describe what happened at the battle of Balakot. [4]
• It took place in 1831.
• Syed Ahmad Barelvi was killed along with Shah Ismail, his commander.
• Syed Ahmad had hoped to liberate Kashmir and Hazara.
• Balakot was thought to be safe as it was protected on three sides by mountains.
• Syed Ahmad was betrayed by local leaders (mainly Yar Muhammad Khan) who told
the Sikhs a way through the mountains to Balakot.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 2

 • Sikhs led by Ranjit Singh launched a surprise attack who outnumbered Syed Ahmad’s
forces.
• 600 of Syed Ahmad’s forces were killed.

Q: Describe Jihād Movement? [4]

• It was founded by Sayyid Aḥmad Shahīd Barelvī to free Muslims of Punjab from
oppressive Sikh rule of Rājah Ranjīt Singh.
o Ranjīt Singh’s rule denied any kind of religious liberty.
o Āzān and prayers were banned for Muslims.
o Mosques were turned into stables.
• He raised an army of volunteers Mujāhidīn and defeated Sikhs in number of battles
from 1826 to 1830.
• Jihad was mainly dependent upon local Pashtuns where Barelvī wanted them to
renounce their customs and accept the Sharia.
• The traditional Khans were replaced by Wahabi-style reformist ulama (Islamic
scholars) and a system of Islamic taxes was established to finance the Jihād.
• He was killed in battle of Bālākot by the betrayal of his fellow man Yār Muḥammad
Khān.

Q: Why did Sayyid Aḥmad Barelvī call for Jihād to overthrow Sikh rule in the early 19th
century? [7]
• It was the time when East India Company had already annexed Bengal and Northeastern
territories of India. It was then time to come for Northwestern Muslim territory.
• Punjab at that time was under the oppressive Sikh rule and Sikhs were under the
friendship treaty with East India Company.
• Sayyid Aḥmad Barelvī believed to end the difficulties for Muslims and for that he
identified that Sikh rule was one of the major difficulties for Muslims.
• Sayyid Aḥmad Barelvī went to Hajj in 1821 and returned to Delhi in 1823 with a clear
view on Jihād.
• He was the man of action and thus sought an armed struggle against Sikhs.
• He thought that Muslims cannot regain glory if un-islamic forces would not be beaten
that’s why he launched an armed Jihād movement against Sikh rule.
• During the early 19th century, Punjab was under Sikh rule (Ranjīt Singh was the ruler)
and it was difficult for the Muslims to practice their religion.
o Sikhs converted the mosques to stables.
o Azan and prayers were banned.
o Bādshāhī mosque was turned into a stable and its access was denied to Muslims.
• Sayyid Aḥmad Shahīd Barelvī wanted to liberate the Muslims of Punjab from Sikhs’
oppression.

Ḥājī Shari‘at Ullāh (1781-1840 A.D.)

Q: Who was Ḥājī Shari‘at Ullāh? [4]

• Ḥājī Shari‘at Ullāh was a Muslim reformer born in 1781 in Farīdpur district in East
Bengal.
• He remained in Saudi Arabia for 19 years.
• He was also influenced by the teachings of Sheikh ‘Abd al-Wahāb like Sayyid Aḥmad
Shahīd.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 3

 • When he came back to East Bengal, he saw Muslims were
indulged in Hindu superstitions and were not performing
their religious obligations.
o So, he started Farāizī movement to involve
Muslims to attend their religious obligations.
o and to improve the socio-economic conditions of
Muslims.
• He died in 1840 but his mission was continued by his son
Muḥsin ud-dīn who was also called Dādū Miān.
Q: Describe the achievements of Ḥājī Shari‘at Ullāh in reviving Islam? [4]
• Ḥājī Shari‘at Ullāh worked for revival of Islam in East Bengal.
• He declared the area as Dār ul-Ḥurb and in such areas Friday and Eid prayers are not
offered.
• He organized the Muslim cultivators, made them aware of their rights and united them
against harsh treatment meted out by Hindu Landlords.
• He started Farāizī movement to involve Muslims to attend their religious obligations.
• Ḥājī Shari‘at Ullāh died in Dhākah in 1840, his reform movement was continued by
his son Moḥsin ud-dīn (Dādū Miān).
o he introduced the idea of Jihād in the movement.The movement confined to
Bengal and ended soon.
o The movement continued till 1860 by his son Dādū Miān.

Q: What was the Farāizī Movement? [4]

• It was founded by Ḥājī Shari‘at Ullāh in Bengal (1781-1840) to revive Islam and to
restore Muslims’ pride.
• Hindu practices had crept into Muslims’ worship.
• He emphasized on praying for past sins and promising to live a righteous life ahead in
the future and to perform religious obligations.
• He declared the area as Dār ul-Ḥurb and in such areas Friday and Eid prayers are not
offered.
• The movement continued till 1860 by his son Dadū Miān.

Q: Why did Ḥājī Shari‘at Ullāh start his Farāizī movement? [7]
• Ḥājī Shari‘at Ullāh believed that Muslims had distanced themselves from Islamic
teachings due to growing non-Muslim influence in various parts of India, especially
Bengal.
o Thus, he wanted Muslim to observe religious obligations which is called Farāiz
in Arabic.
• Muslims of Bengal had suffered a lot of hardships from both British and rich landlords
(Zamindārs)- beneficiaries of British.
o So, he declared Bengal as Dār al-Hurb. The literal meaning of which is the
“house of war”. It refers to any place where Islam cannot be practiced. It also
refers to a place which is under the rule of non-Muslims where Friday, Eid, and
congregational prayers cannot be offered till it is liberated and becomes Dār al-
Islām.
• The idea of Jihād against non-Muslims was supported by Ḥājī Shari‘at Ullāh.
• Bengali Muslims were facing coercive policies from Hindus and British.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 4

 o These policies include the oppression in which Muslims were restricted to
ordinary jobs.
o The access to education and employment was also limited to them.

Q: Who was Tītū Mīr? [4]

• Tītū Mīr’s real name was Sayyid Mīr Niṣār.
• He was Bengali Freedom fighter and was a disciple of Sayyid Aḥmad Shahīd.
• He too was a man of action just as his teacher and mentor Sayyid Aḥmad Shahīd.
• He was horrified by the sufferings of the West Bengal Muslim farmers.
• They were being humiliated in various ways i.e. Beard tax on Muslims.
• He organized the farmers to stand against oppressive Hindu landlords who were being
supported by the British.
• He proclaimed himself as King and raised an army of 15,000 followers.
• He built a bamboo fort at Narkelbariā in October 1831 and defeated British forces
which were sent to destroy it.
• The Mīr’s forces could not withstand the second attack of the British in which they had
better army including cavalry and cannons.
• He was defeated and killed after five days of fierce battle with British.

Q: How Titu Mir protected the interests of Muslim farmers in the subcontinent in the
early nineteenth century? [7]
• Titu Mir advocated jihad against ‘non-Islamic actions’.
• Titu Mir raised awareness of the sufferings of Muslim farmers in West Bengal during
1830s.
• Titu Mir gave Muslim farmers a cause to fight back the sufferings they encountered.
• Titu Mir organised a rebellion against zamindars.
• Titu Mir advised Muslim farmers to not pay the tax on beards.
o Krishnā Devā Rāi, was a zamindār who imposed beard tax on Muslims.
• Titu Mir set up his own Bamboo fort/commune near Calcutta at Narkelberia with a
small army of 15000 followers.

Q: Who were Zamindār? [4]

• Zamindārs were landlords and tax collectors.
• They were wealthy and some of them had their own private armies.
• After the death of Aurangzeb, they were resisting to accept rule of any new emperor.
• Muslims were oppressed by Zamindār from 1800’s onwards.
• Krishnā Devā Rāi, was a zamindār who imposed beard tax on Muslims.
• Tītū Mīr was a great Bengali freedom fighter who led the farmers against the
oppressions of zamindars.
• He advised Muslims not to pay any of such taxes.

Long Questions
Q: How important was Shāh Walī Ullāh in the spread of Islam in the sub-continent
before 1850? Explain your answer. OR [14]
Q: Was the work of Shāh Walī Ullāh the most important factor in the revival of Islam in
the sub-continent during the 17th and 18th centuries? Give reasons to your answers. [14]

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 5

Q: Did Shāh Walī Ullāh contribute more to the spread of Islam than anyone else in the
sub-continent before 1850? Explain your answer. OR [14]
Q: Was the work of Sayyid Aḥmad Barelvī the most important factor in the revival of
Islam in the sub-continent during the 17th and 18th centuries? Give reasons to your
answers. OR [14]
Q: Did Ḥājī Shari‘at Ullāh contribute more to the spread of Islam than anyone else in
the sub-continent before 1850? Explain your answer. OR [14]
Q: Who of the following was the most important in the spread of Islam during the 17th
and 18th centuries?
i- Shāh Walī Ullāh; ii- Sayyid Aḥmad Shahīd; iii- Ḥājī Shari‘at Ullāh
Explain your answer with reference to all three of the above [14]

Shāh Walī Ullāh was one of the first Muslim thinkers to state the reasons of Muslims’
downfall and the later movements were the off shoots of Shāh Walī Ullāh’s work.

Shāh Walī Ullāh was the pioneer figure to work for the resurgence of Islam and was
the first one to state that Muslims downfall was due to neglecting the principles of
Islam. Shāh Walī Ullāh was one of the Muslim reformers who thought Muslims were
ignorant about Islam and the teachings of the Holy Qur´ān. So, he emphasized on the
Quranic teachings. He translated Qur´ān into Persian- a contemporary court language
so that most people may know and act upon the teachings of Qur´ān. He wrote fifty-
one books in Arabic and Persian to explain the true teachings of Islam. Among the most
famous are Izālat al-Khafā and Ḥujjatullāh al-Bālighā. Izālat al-Khafā was an account
on first four caliphs, written in a way that was acceptable to both Shias and Sunnis.
Ḥujjatullāh al-Bālighā determined the problems of the Muslim community. It explains
as to how Islam is suitable to all races, cultures, and people of the world.

Muslim society was divided into many factions i.e. Shi‘ah, Sunnī which was one of the
reasons of the decline of the Muslims. He tried to bring both the factions together and
also advised Sufis and Ulemas to sort their differences. He also sent out his students to
different places to spread the message of harmony and unity. He advised the Muslims
not to waste extravagant amount of money on marriages, births, deaths, and other
ceremonies. To counter the Marathan power Shāh Walī Ullāh called upon Aḥmad Shāh
Abdālī from Afghanistan, the later defeated the former in the third battle of Panipat
(1761).

Not only Shāh Walī Ullāh but Sayyid Aḥmad Shahīd Barelvī was also an important
figure who revived Islam in Indian subcontinent. He believed to end the difficulties for
Muslims and for that he identified that Sikh rule was one of the major difficulties for
Muslims. During the early 19th century, Punjab was under Sikh rule and it was difficult
for the Muslims to practice their religion. Sikhs converted the mosques to stables, Azan
and prayers were banned. Sayyid Aḥmad Shahīd Barelvī was a man of actions and
wanted to liberate the Muslims of Punjab from Sikhs’ oppression. He went to Hajj in
1821 and returned back to Delhi in 1823 with a clear view on Jihād. He thought that
Muslims cannot regain glory if un-islamic forces would not be beaten that’s why he
launched an armed Jihad movement against Sikh rule.

Ḥājī Shari‘at Ullāh was also an important figure who wanted to spread Islam through
Farāizī movement (1781-1840). The movement was started in Bengal and it insisted

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 6

 the Muslims to perform their religious obligations (Farāiz). At that time Muslims of
Bengal were peasants and were working together with local Hindu landlords
(Zamindār). He wanted that the Muslims should not indulge themselves into
superstitions based on Hindu traditions. He emphasized on praying for past sins and
promising to live a righteous life ahead in the future. He declared the area as Dār ul-
Ḥurb and in such areas Friday and Eid prayers should not be offered. He organized the
Muslim cultivators, made them aware of their rights and united them against harsh
treatment meted out by Hindu Landlords. Ḥājī Shari‘at Ullāh died in Dhaka in 1840,
his reform movement was continued by his son Moḥsin ud-dīn (Dādū Miān), he
introduced the idea of Jihād in the movement. The movement confined to Bengal and
ended soon.

Conclusively, it can be said that Shāh Walī Ullāh was the most important Muslim
reformer among all because his efforts were not confined to a particular place i.e. Sayyid
Aḥmad Shahīd was confined to Punjab and Ḥājī Shari‘at Ullāh to East Bengal.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 7

 2- Mughal Downfall/Decline of Mughal Empire

Q: Describe the Mughal rule? OR Q: Describe the Mughals? [4]

• It was founded by Babur in 1526 at the 1st battle of Panipat. Though his reign remained
very short for 4 years and he died in 1530 by the poison of his own men.
• Mughals fought with each other for throne yet they excelled in literature i.e., Tuzuk-e-
Babari, architecture i.e., Taj Mahal, music i.e., Tan sen, etc.
• After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, weak ancestors had taken the control who were
corrupt, inefficient, and luxury oriented.
• The process of Mughal decline was ended in 1757, when Marathas captured Delhi but
the final blow was blown in the mutiny of independence in 1857 where Bahadur Shah
Zafar (The last Mughal emperor) was defeated and sent to exile in Rangoon (Now
Burma/Myanmar).
Q: Describe Aurangzeb’s religious policies? [4]
• He was a staunch Sunni and an orthodox Muslim who faced hostilities within and
outside his religion.
• He re-imposed Jizya1.
• He banned Satti2.
• He tried to fix the length of the beard Muslims had to keep.
• He also burnt Hindu temples and converted Sikh Gurdwara near Badshahi mosque into
stables.
• According to many historians, he had no religious tolerance.
Q: Describe what Marathas did? [4]
• They (Marathas) lived in the southern state of Deccan.
• They were devoted Hindus and were popular for their guerrilla fighting.
• Under Shivaji, the ruthless Marathas’ influence spread and with both decline of Mughal
emperor and rise of Marathas, their control extended over central India.
• Aurangzeb spent 25 years fighting with Marathas in the state of Deccan but failed. This
attempt bankrupted the Mughal Empire and historians say that Aurangzeb did not even
had the cart to go at Eid gah to offer prayers.
• Bajirao (a famous Maratha general) attacked Delhi in 1737 at the 1st battle of Delhi and
then captured it in 1757 in 2nd battle of Delhi by defeating Najib-ud-Dawlah.
• Ahmad Shah Abdali was invited by Shah Wali Ullah to fight with Marathas because
Mughal had no powers at that time.
• Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated Marathas in 1761 in the third battle of Panipat.
Q: Who was Ahmad Shah Durrani? [4]
• He was also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali.
• He was an Afghan leader, a military genius who had excellent tactical skills.
• He was enlisted as a young soldier in the Afghan military and rose quickly to the
position of commander.
• He proclaimed Kingship after the death of Nadir Shah Afshar in 1747.
• Shah Wali Ullah invited him to come to India to protect the Mughals from Marathas.
• The victory brought Punjab, Kashmir and Multan under Afghan control.
• He could not consolidate the victory in India and went back to Kabul.

1
It is a tax by non-Muslims for his security in a foreign land and was abolished by Mughal ruler Akbar earlier).
2
It is a Hindu custom in which a widow is to be burned with his husband at his cremation ceremony.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 8

Q: How did Aurangzeb come to power in 1658 A.D.? [7]
• Aurangzeb did not let his father Shāh Jahān (real name is Shihāb al-dīn Muḥammad
Khurram) continue to reign. His father fell ill, and it was thought that he will not
survive. When Shāh Jahān recovered, he was imprisoned in Agra fort where though he
was not mistreated and was being looked after by his daughter Jahān Āra until his death
in 1666, he was not called upon to govern.
• Shāh Jahān declared Dārā as his successor in 1657 but with Aurangzeb’s military
genius Dārā was defeated. Dārā fled to Punjab where he was not given entry then he
fled to Afghanistan where one of his old friends betrayed him. He was later captured
and killed by Aurangzeb on a pretext of idolatry and apostasy from Islam. His head was
sent to Shāh Jahān in Agra fort.
• Four sons of Shāh Jahān were governors of large provinces i.e., Dārā Shikoh- the
governor of Multan and Kabul but was resident at Shāh Jahān’s court, Murād Baksh-
the governor of Gujrat and Malwa, Shāh Shuja´- the governor of Bengal, Bihar, and
Orissa, and Aurangzeb- the governor of Deccan, fought with each other and Aurangzeb
had ultimately taken control by defeating and killing his brothers.
Q: Why were the Marathas defeated after the decline of the Mughal Empire? [7]
• They (Marathas) lived in the southern state of Deccan.
• They were devoted Hindus and were popular for their guerrilla fighting.
• Aurangzeb spent 25 years fighting with Marathas in the state of Deccan but failed
• In 1737, they defeated Mughals in 1st battle of Delhi and plundered Delhi and in 1757,
Marathas captured Delhi in 2nd battle of Delhi and controlled vast lands which were
previously part of Mughal Empire.
• This vast land was not easy to control and administer by the Marathas. So, local rulers
came to the picture and Maratha families started showing loyalty to the local leaders
than Peshwa (Maratha Leader).
• Shah Wali Ullah organized an opposition to the Marathas. He called all the Muslims to
come together to save Mughal Empire.
• Ahmad Shah Abdali was also called upon who came and defeated Marathas in 1761 at
the 3rd battle of Pani Pat.
• It was the technical expertise of Ahmad Shah Abdali which made him victorious.
• Thousands of Marathas were dead on that day including the Peshwa’s heir.
• So, this defeat ended the Maratha ambitions.
Q: Why the Mughal Empire declined following the death of Aurangzeb? OR [7]
Q: How did the successors of Aurangzeb contribute to the downfall of Mughal Empire?[7]
• The Mughal rulers after the death of Aurangzeb became weak, luxury oriented, corrupt
and inefficient and left the administration to their ministers who sought for their own
vested interests.
• There was no law of succession for which the ancestors of Aurangzeb fought with each
other. Aurangzeb’s son Moazzam (Bahadar Shah I) defeated and killed his brothers
Azam and Kam Baksh to take control of the throne. He lived for 5 years and died in
1712. His four sons also fought with each other for the throne but Jahandar killed his
brothers, though he was also killed a year later.
• They were more interested in drinking, dancing, music and poetry rather than
administration.
• Fighting the wars became expensive and resulted in loss of treasury.
• Military was stretched and loyal to Mansabdars and not to the King for which the army
became inefficient.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 9

 • The vastness of the empire with less interest and efficiency in the administration
became a reason for the decline of Mughal Empire.
• The provinces which were far from the center i.e., Oudh, Bihar, Orissa and Deccan
declared independence.
• The foreign invasions of Nadir Shah in 1739 and Ahmad Shah Abdali looted the
Mughal Empire.
• Soldiers were inefficient for the Empire because1st of all they lacked training and
secondly, they were not being paid regularly.
Q: Why was Jizya tax opposed by Hindus in Aurangzeb’s rule? [7]
• Firstly, Jizya tax was abolished by Emperor Akbar more than hundred years prior to its
reimposition.
• So, Hindus who were living happily without paying anything to the govt. did not like
an extra financial burden for which they were previously relieved by Akbar.
• The tax was reintroduced in 1679 by Aurangzeb.
• Hindus protested the tax because they thought it as Aurangzeb’s religious gimmick to
convert Hindus to Islam.
• They either have to pay heavy Jizyā tax, or they have to become Muslims to get relief
because this was not applied to them.
• Some Hindus thought it as Aurangzeb’s political gimmick to control them.
• Hindus either have to come to war against him who had one of the largest armies among
all the Mughal rulers or they have to come to terms with Aurangzeb.
Long Questions
Reasons of Mughal Downfall
Q: ‘The policies of Aurangzeb was the main reason for the decline of Mughal empire.’ Do
you agree or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. OR [14]
Q: Were invasions by the Persians and Afghans the main reason for the decline of Mughal
empire. Explain your answer. OR [14]
Q: ‘Was the British expansion in India the most important reason for the decline of
Mughal empire? Explain your answer. OR [14]
Q: Was the in-fighting between Aurangzeb’s successors the most important reason for
the break-up of the Mughal empire? Explain your answer. OR [14]
Q: ‘The spread of Marathan power was the main reason of decline of the Mughal empire.’
Do you agree or disagree? Explain your answer. OR [14]
Q: Were the weak and greedy characteristics of Aurangzeb’s successors the most
important reason for the collapse of the Mughal empire? Explain your answer. [14]

There were many factors contributing to the downfall of the Mughal Empire.
Reasons of Mughal Downfall
1. Aurangzeb’s policies
• Intolerant attitude towards non-Muslims thus, imposed Jizya on them which was
previously abolished by the Akbar.
• He destroyed no. of Hindus temples and harsh treatment was meted out with them and
Sikhs. Satti was banned.
• Being a staunch Sunni, he banned many cultural practices, i.e., painters, musicians, and
dancers who had become the part of Muslim culture as well.
• High taxation was imposed because he had to bear the expense of large army.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 10

 • He had to fight with Rajputs which ended the Mughal friendship with them created by
Akbar.
• Vastness of Empire became one of an issue which could not be controlled by his
descendants.
2. Infighting between Aurangzeb’s greedy successors.
• It was one of the most important causes of decline of the Mughal Empire.
• There was no law of succession for which the ancestors of Aurangzeb fought with each
other.
• Aurangzeb himself became emperor by defeating his rivals in the battle.
• In pursuance of not to repeat the same he divided the empire to his three sons but he
could not succeed.
• Aurangzeb’s son Moazzam (Bahadar Shah I) defeated and killed his brothers Azam and
Kam Baksh to take control of the throne. He lived for 5 years and died in 1712. His four
sons also fought with each other for the throne but Jahandar killed his brothers, though
he was also killed a year later.
• Moral degeneration had set in and rulers, nobles, and officers were used to drinking,
dancing, music, and poetry rather than administration and statesmanship.
3. Arrival of the British
• They were ambitious to take the control of whole India which pushed the Mughals into
a final decline.
• British extended their territories through superior administration and better
organization.
• British had superior weapons with trained and disciplined army.
• British were clearly superior in weaponry because of the industrialization.
• British army had better techniques of fighting.
• They also possessed a string naval force for which they could control the three coastal
presidencies of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta.
• In 1803, British took over Delhi and placed Shah Alam-II under their protection.
4. Spread of Marathan Power
• Aurangzeb had fought for 25 years in Deccan with Marathas but culd not defeat them
till his death.
• They were known for their guerrilla fighting skills and their devotion to Hinduism.
• Their influence spread under the brave leadership of Sivaji.
• In the 18th century they organized themselves in central India and in 1737 Bajirao
(Maratha general) defeated Mughals outside Delhi in 1st battle of Delhi and captured
the strategic town of Malwa in 1738.
• They captured the Red fort in Delhi in 1757 at the 2nd battle of Delhi and placed a
puppet Mughal ruler there.
• In 1761, on the request of Shah Abdul Aziz, Ahmad Shah Abdali came and defeated
Marathas through his military genius in 3rd battle of Panipat.
5. Invasion by Persians and Afghans
• The decline of Mughal Empire attracted the foreign powers to attack India for
plundering.
• The 1st armed invasion came from Persians when Nadir Shah Afshar attacked India in
1738-39 and because of the weak Mughal army, they captured the empire’s wealth. It
was only a successful plundering expedition.
• Nadir Shah Afshar came at the outskirts of Delhi defeated Muhammad Shah Rangilla’s
army in no time and cleverly took the crown jewel Koh-i-Noor from the emperor.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 11

 • In between 1747 and 1769, Afghans under the leadership of Ahmad Shah Abdali
attacked India for ten times. By 1749, he gained control of the Punjab and by 1756 he
added Kashmir and Multan to it.
• Mughal Empire was so weak that Shah Abdul Aziz has called Ahmad Shah Abdali to
protect from Marathas in 1761.
• Though they were able to attack India for no. of times, they could not consolidate their
victories and had to go back to Kabul.
6. Vastness of the Empire
• Mughal Empire reached to climax at the time of Aurangzeb.
• The empire was extended from Afghanistan in West to Assam in the East, and from
Kashmir in the North to Assam in the South.
• It was such a vast government that one emperor could not take control of the
administration.
• The vastness was the reason that Aurangzeb used Mansabdars to run the government at
distant places. But, Mansabdars used the soldiers they recruited for their own vested
interests.
• The far-off provinces i.e., Oudh, Bihar, Orissa, Deccan and Bengal declared
independence.
• Within 50 years after the death of Aurangzeb, Mughal Empire shrank to 100 miles in
width and 300 miles in length.

Conclusively, it can be argued that spread of Marathan power was the main reason for the
decline of Mughal Empire because had Mughals able to befriend the Marathas, the process of
their decline could have been either avoided or slowed down.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 12

 3- British Arrival in India
The English had always desired to trade with India. Their main interest was to trade spices,
cotton, opium, jute, and conversion to Christian faith, but the British were not the 1st Europeans
to trade with India because in 1498 Portuguese explorer Vasco de Gamma visited India and
established a base in Goa in 1510.
The Timeline
• 1600: Queen Elizabeth I, granted a charter to British East India Company, giving it a
monopoly for all British trade east of Africa.
• 1608: First serious effort made by the British for trade with India through Captain
Hawkins who requested the Mughal Emperor Jahāngīr to set up a factory in Sūrat. The
request was turned down (pressure by the Portuguese).
• 1612: Another request was made through Sir Thomas Roe, which was accepted by
Jahāngīr through Prince Khurram (Future emperor Shāh Jahān) and thus the company
setup its factory at Sūrat.
• 1615: British Company had a minor battle with Portuguese to remove them from India.
• 1640: British built fort (head office) at Madras.
• 1664: Shifted headquarters to Bombay.
• 1681: they got a charter to keep warships, soldiers, and weapons for the defence of their
factories.
• 1690: British founded the town of Calcutta.
• 1691: Aurangzeb fought with the British because he suspected the East India Company
of issuing their own coins and avoiding taxes thus defeated them. Now British must pay
a huge fine if they wanted to trade in India.
• After acquiring all the important coastal strategic bases in India, the company made
some changes in their policies and started to get involved in the administration of India.
• 1751: Brief war broke out between British and Dutch, which was won by British.
• 1757: Battle of Plassey was fought between Nawab of Bengal, Sirāj ud Daulā and EIC,
which Robert Clive who was leading the company army became victorious.
• 1764: Battle of Buxar was fought between Nawāb of Oudh-Shujā ud-Daula, Nawab of
Bengal-Mīr Qāsim, Mughal ruler Shāh Ālam II and EIC- led by Hector Munro, in which
the later was victorious.
• 1773: Act of parliament was passed because of the EIC merchants’ exploitation of the
local traders through which British government was embarrassed.
• 1784: the British government passed the India Act- Pitts India Act and took direct
control of the Indian possessions. It appointed a Governor-General, who would control
of the three presidencies (Bombay, Madras and Calcutta).
• 1798: Subsidiary alliance was introduced in 1798 by Lord Wallesley.
• 1803: EIC lost control to British as the later took Delhi from the former.
• 1843: British annexed Sindh. The battle was fought between Charles Napier and
Ameers of Sindh.
• 1846: First Anglo-Sikh war, also called as Battle of ´Alīwāl, Sikhs lost the war and
accepted defeat through Treaty of Lahore.
• 1848-49: Second Anglo-Sikh war and British annexed Punjab.
• 1857: Violent uprising against British, which was crushed.
• 1858: British took direct control of India.
• 1873: East India Company dissolved.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 13

 Short Questions

Q: What was the East India Company? [4]

• It was a trading company founded by John Watts and George White to pursue trade
with South and South-East Asian nations.
• It was granted the charter of trading rights in 1600 by Queen Elizabeth I.
• In 1612, the company was permitted by Mughal Emperor Jehangir to trade in India.
• They made huge profits and shifted their headquarters to Bombay in 1664.
• Trading post was established in Calcutta in 1690.
• They began to acquire military power in 18th century.
• First formal victory was in the battle of Plassey by Robert Clive in 1757.
• In 1858, British took direct control of India.
• In 1873, East India Company dissolved.
Q: Who was Robert Clive? [4]
• He was hired as a clerk in East India Company who reached to his zenith as a brilliant
commander.
• His 1st victory was at the battle of Arcot against Nawab of Carnatic in 1751.
• In 1757, at the battle of Plassey, he defeated Nawab Siraj-ud-daula of Bengal with the
help of Siraj’s most trusted army general i.e., Mir Jafar.
• His third victory was against French at Pondicherry in 1761.
• After his return to Britain, he was charged with allegations of corruption though he was
acquitted from all the charges, he committed suicide in 1774 at the age of 49.
Q: Describe Battle of Plassey? [4]
• The battle was fought between Nawab Siraj-ud-daula of Bengal and Robert Clive who
was a commander of EIC.
• Robert Clive had 3000 soldiers whereas Siraj-ud-daula had 18,000 men.
• With the help of treacherous Mir Jafar (most trusted military general in Siraj-ud-daula’s
army) and his military genius, he defeated the Nawab.
• He (Robert Clive) himself assumed the position of Governor and Mir Jafar was made
as a Nawab of Bengal.
• This victory was the foundation of British rule in India.
Q: What was the Black Hole tragedy? [4]
• Important ports of Calcutta were being fortified by the British which was against the
treaty signed both by the British and Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula.
• Thus, to punish EIC, Nawab Siraj-ud-daula marched Calcutta in June 1756 and
captured British residents in a small room in very hot summers.
• 23 residents out of 64 were found dead in the morning due to suffocation of hot
summers.
• Thus, this was annotated as “Black Hole Tragedy”.
Q: Who was Tipu Sultan? [4]
• He was the son of Haider Ali who was a Sultan of Mysore ruled from 1761 to 1782.
• Tipu Sultan ruled from 1782 to 1799.
• He was the staunch enemy of British and defeated them in 2nd Anglo-Mysore war with
the help of French.
• He succeeded in signing the treaty of Mangalore from the British in 1784 after the 2nd
Anglo-Mysore war.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 14

 • He was defeated by British in 3rd Anglo-Mysore war in 1789 and had to accept the
humiliating treaty of Sirangapatam.
• He was again defeated in 4th Anglo-Mysore war which was fought between Lord
Wellesley and Tipu Sultan. In this war, British had made alliance with Marathas and
Nawab of Hyderabad.
• Tipu Sultan was killed in this war.
Q: Who was Mir Qasim? [4]
• Nawab of Bengal in 1760.
• Succeeded Mir Jafar, who was his father-in-law.
• With the support of EIC.
• He confiscated lands and wealth of people in Bengal to give to the British.
• Eventually he tried to stop British influence in Bengal.
• 1764 Mir Qasim fought Hector Munro at Buxar, but was defeated.
Q: Describe what happened at the battle of Buxar. [4]
• In 1764 British forces/Hector Munro fought the Indian army at Buxar/Baksar.
• The Nawab of Bengal/Mir Qasim, Shah Alam II, Nawab of Oudh were on the Indian
side.
• There were (1000) British casualties and (6000) Indian casualties.
• The battle confirmed British authority over Bengal.
• The war was ended by the Treaty of Allahabad in 1768.
• The East India Company took control of Bengal/Bihar/Oudh/Orissa.
• Robert Clive was reappointed as Governor of Bengal.
Q: What is Pitts India Act? [4]
• It was a parliamentary act by the British Prime Minister William Pitt in 1784.
• According to the act EIC’s Board of Directors were then replaced with the Board of
Control.
• This Board of Control would have 6 men including Secretary of State of India and the
chancellor of Exchequer.
• The powers of Governor Generals were then increased and he was to be appointed
through a royal decree by Queen.
Q: What is Permanent Settlement Act? [4]
• This act is also known as the Permanent Settlement of Bengal.
• It was an agreement between EIC and Bengali Landlords to fix land revenues.
• It was introduced in 1793 by Lord Cornwallis.
• This act remained in place until the Charter Act of 1833.
• This act was a failure in the long run because income of the company decreased as
revenues remained fixed while expenses increased over time.
Q: Describe annexation of Sindh? [4]
• British troops were sent in Afghanistan to maintain a check over growing Russian
power but only one soldier was sent alive to tell the story to British by the Afghanis.
• Thus, to regain the damaged esteem of the British they annexed Sindh.
• Sindhi Ameers were in the treaty of friendship with British and were living a peaceful
life.
• Charles Napier, the army general provoked Sindh Ameers for which the later attacked
British residency in 1843.
• British were already waiting so they seized the moment and attacked Sindh Ameers.
• They were defeated and Sindh was annexed in 1843.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 15

Q: Describe annexation of Punjab and NWFP? [4]
• Punjab and part of NWFP was being ruled by Ranjit Singh and till the time he was alive
British never tried to annex Punjab and NWFP.
• It was in favour of British that Ranjit Singh must control this region because it was
vulnerable to Russian growing power and Power of Ranjit Singh had neutralized the
situation.
• But after the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839, there emerged the political crisis.
• Sikhs violated the treaty of Friendship and attacked British in which former were
defeated in 1st Sikh war in Aliwal in 1846 and they were forced to sign the treaty of
Lahore.
• Sikhs again violated the treaty in 1849 at 2nd Sikh war in which they were defeated and
Punjab was finally annexed.
• In Northern Punjab, the state of Kashmir was bought by Gulab Singh and he was made
Maharaja of Kashmir for his repute to the British.
Q: What was Suttee? [4]
• It was a Hindu religious tradition in which widow of a dying husband has to be burnt
alive on the pyre at her husband’s cremation ceremony.
• British ignored this practice initially as high caste Hindus were in army and civil
services.
• In 1813, the practice was made as voluntary which would be banned if allowed by the
religion or if the widow is with age less than 16, intoxicated or pregnant.
• It was outlawed in Bengal in 1829 and finally the practice was banned in whole India
by Governor General Lord Bentinck.
• Practice remained legal in some of the princely states.
Q: Who were Thuggee? [4]
• They were the organized group of professional robbers and murderers in central and
upper India.
• They claimed that they were serving the Goddess Kali (the goddess of destruction).
• They would join the travellers with ease and comfort and would win their trust.
• After which they would rob them and mercilessly kill them.
• People were terrified by them and EIC had to take action.
• In 1830, thuggees were eradicated once and for all by Governor General of India
William Bentinck and his chief William Henry Sleeman.
Q: Who was Warren Hastings? [4]
• He was an English statesman who rose to the position of Governor General.
• He was appointed as first Gov-Gen of Bengal in 1772 and later of India in 1784.
• He was a patron of arts but his main task was to maximize the powers of EIC.
• He introduced number of reforms in administration, revenue, judiciary, commerce and
finance.
• He extended British control by defeating Marathas in Anglo-Marathan wars and against
Haider Ali (the Sultan of Mysore) between 1778 and 1782.
• Hastings took bribes and forced the rulers of the princely states to give him money.
• He was called back to Britain to face the charges of corruption. The trial went on for
seven years but he was acquitted from all the charges but his reputation was ruined
during these years.
Q: Who was Lord Wellesley? [4]
• He was a British administrator and appointed as the 5 Governor-General of India in
th

1798.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 16

 • He persuaded the local princes and the rulers to sign subsidiary alliance.
• Wellesley defeated Tipu sultan and Nawabs of Oudh and took control of their
territories.
• He was renowned as the father of civil services in India for founding a college (Fort
William College) in Calcutta in 1800 to train civil servants.
• He enacted Censorship Act in 1799.
Q: What is subsidiary alliance? OR [4]
Q: How did Wellesley expand British rule in India? [4]
• Subsidiary alliance was started by Lord Wellesley-the 5 Governor-General of India.
th

• In a subsidiary alliance, princely rulers were not allowed to make any negotiations or
treatise with other states.
• They were not allowed to have their own independent militia or force.
• They would be given protection by the East India Company for which they had to pay
the subsidiary forces.
• And, if the ruler failed to pay the taxes, a part of his territory would be taken as penalty.
Q: What was the doctrine of Laps? [4]
• In 1852, Governor General Lord Dalhousie introduced this doctrine.
• Under this doctrine, if a ruler dies leaving no heir behind, that specific state would be
annexed by the EIC.
• The states of Sitara, Nagpur, Oudh, and Jhansi were annexed under this doctrine.
• The state of Oudh was forcefully annexed by EIC even though there were many male
heirs left by the dying Nawab of Oudh in 1756.
• This forceful annexation of Oudh later became one of the reasons of the war of
independence.
Q: Why were the British eager to come to India? OR [7]
Q: Explain why the East India Company got involved in the sub-continent during the
seventeenth century? OR [7]
th
Q: Why did the Indian sub-continent attract the British in early 17 century? OR [7]
Q: Explain appeal of India to the East India Company during the early 17th century? [7]
• The arrival of Vasco da Gama in Calcutta on May 20, 1498 opens a sea route from
Europe to the East. After that India became the centre for attraction for the Europe's
trade.
• East India Company was founded by John Watts and George White in 1600 AD to
pursue trade with South and South-East Asian Nations.
• The British entered in Indian sub-continent at first as traders seeking spices. Spices
were the primary way of preserving meat in Europe prior to the modern age.
• Along with spices they had the desire to spread Christianity in sub-continent.
• The British landed on Indian Subcontinent at the port of Surat, August 24, 1608 AD for
the purpose of trade, but after seven years they got Royal order (i.e., Farman) to
establish a factory at Surat.
• Over the years, numerous trading posts were established along the east and west coasts
of India, and considerable English communities developed around the three presidency
towns of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras. They majorly traded in Silk, Indigo Dye,
Cotton, Tea, and Opium.
• The trade was very profitable for the Britain as 10% of the British revenue was coming
from India.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 17

Q: How did Robert Clive lay the foundation of British rule? [7]
• In 1750s, the company began to fortify their important posts in Calcutta which went
against the agreement made with Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-daula.
• The angry Nawab tried to stop the British with force but couldn’t do it. The black hole
incident happened at the same time in which out of 64, 23 died in the prison due to
summer and suffocation.
• In June, 1757, battle of Plassey was fought between Siraj-ud-daula and Robert Clive in
which Mir Jaffar who was the key army general of Siraj-ud-daula deceived the later
and thus the result came in favour of Robert Clive.
• The company rewarded him as the first governor of Bengal. He demanded huge sums
from the Nawabs and the company directors later accused him of taking bribes and
governing badly.
• The battle increased the reputation of EIC in general and Clive in particular.
• It was also a success to EIC because they then controlled the profitable trade in Bengal.
• Clive’s reputation further increased by his success at battle with French in 1761 at
Pondicherry.
Q: Why Britain was so successful in extending their control of the subcontinent between
1750 and 1850? [7]
• From 1750’s British started expanding its forces to make local rulers accept the
former’s power.
• It started from the battle of Arcot in 1751 when Nawab of Carnatic was defeated by
Robert Clive.
• Later in 1757, Robert Clive defeated the larger army of Nawab of Bengal ‘Siraj-ud-
daula’ which was the foundation of British control in India.
• Robert Clive’s third victory was against the foreign power French which was defeated
in the battle of Pondicherry in 1761.
• In 1764, British defeated the alliance of Mir Qasim ( Son-in-Law of Mir Jafar), Shah
Alam-II (a Mughal emperor) and Nawab of Oudh in the battle of Buxar and showed
them the British superiority.
• Vast lands were taken under British control.
• They enforced their own and better system of administration i.e., introduction of
Governor Generals to have better control on the Indians.
• Industrial revolution made British technologically more advanced because of which
they had better means of communication i.e., built the network of roads and railways
and lastly, superior weapons.
• Better mediums of communication made far flung areas more accessible; trading links
with the port cities increased which increased the volume of trade.
• The major reason for the British was that they believed in themselves.
Q: Why did the British build railways in India during the 19th century? [7]
• Steam powered locomotive was introduced in England in 1825.
• British engineers constructed the railway lines all over the world.
• For the very first time, it was introduced in India in 1853 which went from Bombay to
Thane.
• This helped British industry by transporting raw material to the ports and manufactured
goods to all over the world.
• It also helped in maintaining the law and order by quick transport of the troops.
• This also helped British spreads Christianity in different parts of sub-continent.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 18

 • As time is money for the Business man so quick access of different places gave them
huge profits.
• It also helped the locals as they could now meet their relatives living in the far-flung
areas.
• Alongside railways, British ran telegraph lines by which messages could be sent to
distant places which helped British central administration in Calcutta.
Q: How successful were the British attempts to take control of lands in the sub-continent
between 1750 and 1850? OR [14]
Q: How successful was Indian resistance to British attempts to take control of lands in
the sub-continent between 1750 and 1850? Explain your answer. OR [14]
Q: How far was Indian resistance to British expansion in the sub-continent successful
before 1850? [14]
st
1 successful attempt by Indians: Tipu Sultan with his strong army having 50 cannons,
100,000 cannon balls, 10 muskets, rockets and lots of handguns won the 2nd Anglo-Mysore
battle and British had to sign the treaty of Mangalore in 1784.
2nd successful attempt by Indians: Titu Mir whose real name was Mir Nisar claimed to be a
King and enthroned himself in a bamboo fort.
• He raised an army of 15,000 followers and defeated the British army in 1831.
3rd successful attempt by Indians: Ranjit Singh was untouched by the British as far as he
remained alive till 1839.
• He was made in charge of the territories to the north of River Sutlej.
• British knew that it is only because of Ranjit Singh they can check the growing Russian
Powers in Central Asia.
1st British Success-Battle of Plassey: The battle was fought between Nawab Siraj-ud-daula of
Bengal and Robert Clive who was a commander of EIC.
• Robert Clive had 3.000 soldiers whereas Siraj-ud-daula had 18,000 men.
• With the help of treacherous Mir Jafar (most trusted military general in Siraj-ud-daula’s
army) and his military genius, he defeated the Nawab.
• He (Robert Clive) himself assumed the position of Governor and Mir Jafar was made
as a Nawab of Bengal.
• This victory was the foundation of British rule in India.
nd
2 British Success- Battle of Buxar: In 1764, British defeated the alliance of Mir Qasim (Son
of Mir jafar), Shah Alam-II (a Mughal emperor) and Nawab of Oudh in the battle of Buxar and
showed them the British superiority.
3rd British Success- Battles with Marathas: Warren Hastings extended British control by
defeating Marathas in Anglo-Marathan wars and against Haider Ali (the Sultan of Mysore)
between 1778 and 1782.
4th British Success-4th Anglo-Mysore War: Lord Wellesley made an alliance with Nizam of
Hyderabad and Marathas and defeated Tipu Sultan in 4th battle of Mysore in 1799.
5th British Success-Pitts India Act: According to the act EIC’s Board of Directors were then
replaced with the Board of Control which would have 6 men including Secretary of State of
India and the chancellor of Exchequer. The powers of Governor Generals were then increased
and he was to appointed through a royal decree by Queen.
6th British Success-Entrance in Delhi: In 1803, British entered Delhi and forced Shah Alam-
II (a Mughal emperor) to accept their suzerainty.
7th British Success- Annexation of Sindh: Amirs of Sindh were provoked by Charles Napier
and thus the former broke the treaty of friendship, attacked British and were defeated. So, Sindh
was annexed in 1843.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 19

8th British Success-Annexation of Punjab and NWFP: After the death of Ranjit Singh, Sikhs
broke the treaty of friendship and lost for two times in 1st and 2nd Sikh battles and thus both
Punjab and NWFP was annexed in 1849.
Note: If the period in the question is till 1856 then include the following point.
9th British Success-The doctrine of Laps: Under this doctrine, if a ruler dies leaving no heir
behind, that specific state would be annexed by the EIC. The states of Sitara, Nagpur, Oudh
and Jhansi were annexed under this doctrine. The state of Oudh was forcefully annexed by EIC
even though there were many male heirs left by the dying Nawab of Oudh in 1756.
Conclusion: British were successful in gaining control to many parts of the sub-continent. The
Indians failed in their resistance against British. The British did not control many lands directly
but by the local rulers such Nawabs of Oudh and Nizams of Hyderabad.
Q: Did educational reforms have a more important effect on the Indians than the social,
religious and economic ones introduced by the British during the years 1773 to 1856?
Explain your answer. OR [14]
Q: Was the work of Christian missionaries the most important reason why the Indians
opposed British attempts to westernize them between 1750 and 1850? Explain your
answer. [14]
• British took pride in their education system and it was off their education system that
they were experiencing the advancement in science and technology i.e. industrial
revolution.
• The British launched English as a court language by replacing Persian and Arabic.
• Thomas Macaulay was the master mind of imposing European style of education. Thus,
the British imposed ‘Minutes on Education Policy 1835’.
• It promoted western values.
• Several schools throughout India were setup.
• Co-education was started which was against the culture and traditions of Indians.
Social Reforms:
• Muslim women were forced to abandon seclusion i.e. Purdah.
• Suttee was banned by the British which was taken as an attack on the Hindu religion.
• British also eradicated thuggee which was also a Hindu ritual of killing their rival. This
was the ritual of the followers Kali the goddess.
• Female infanticide (killing baby daughters) was abolished by the EIC in 1795 and
declared the act as a murder.
• Encouragement of widow re-marriage was also criticized.
Christian missionaries
• Christian missionaries were allowed to preach freely in India by 1833.
• They spread western knowledge of lifestyle and considered themselves as superior to
local people.
• Missionary schools were setup in major towns.
• Christian literature was freely distributed in the sub-continent.
• A new community as Anglo-Indian was emerged in India.
• Bible was introduced in local schools.
• The introduction of railways and telegraph also westernized India, as people’s lifestyle
was now more inclined towards Europe.
Conclusion: Christian missionary was the important reason because religious beliefs and
practices were very important for the Indians. They could go to any extent if anyone will
try to bring change in it.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 20

 Source A Questions

Q1: According to source A, what reasons are suggested for the British victory at the Battle
of Plassey in 1757? [3]

The question is about the British in India

Source A: Nawab Siraj-ud-Duala opposed the growing British power in Bengal in
1757. Robert Clive, commander of the British East India Company’s troops that had
just retaken Calcutta from the Nawab, began to re-establish control of Bengal. Clive
was heavily outnumbered by the Nawab’s forces, but persuaded Mir Jafar, the Nawab’s
commander, to switch sides and not fight when the two armies met. The Nawab opened
the battle with heavy gunfire which went on until it started to rain heavily. Clive’s
troops covered their cannon and muskets to protect them from the rain, whilst the
Nawab’s troops did not. When the rain cleared, Clive attacked. The Nawab’s troops
retreated. 22 of Clive’s soldiers were killed and 500 of the Nawab’s soldiers were killed.

Answer: Mīr Ja´far was persuaded by Robert Clive to switch sides and not to fight
when two armies meet each other. Nawāb’s opening fire was off no use because Clive
cleverly protected his cannon and muskets from the rain. The battle ended up in
disasterous defeat of Sirāj ud Daula with his 500 men dead and 22 of Clive’s soldiers.

Q2: According to Source A what difficulties did the Indian cotton industry face during
the 19th century? [3]

The Indian cotton industry

Source A: At first the East India Company and the British Parliament discouraged
Indian production of cotton goods in order to encourage the growing cotton industry in
Great Britain. British policy developed during the nineteenth century to allow Indian
people to grow raw cotton in order to supply material for the cotton factories of Great
Britain. Orders were sent out to force Indian skilled workers to work in the East India
Company’s factories. The East India Company was given legal powers to control
production in the villages and communities of Indian weavers. Very high tariffs
excluded Indian silks and cotton goods from Great Britain but British goods were
admitted into India free of duty.

Answer: Discourage the Indian cotton goods production which went in favor of British
industry. Indian farmers were only allowed to grow the raw cotton and to supply it to
British looms. Skilled workers had to work in the EIC factories. Indians were met with
dual standards as of very high tariffs restricted Indian silk and cotton from entering
Britain but no duty on British goods reaching India.

Q3: According to source A why did many people die at fort William in 1756? [3]
Fort William, Calcutta, 1756
Source A: On the evening of 20 June, some 64 prisoners including two women and
several wounded soldiers were marched at sword point to the filthy dungeon at Fort
William. This was a little cell, measuring 18 feet by 14 feet 10 inches, designed for no
more than three petty criminals. The heat at this time of year was suffocating. Prisoners
trampled on each other to get nearer one of the two tiny windows or to the small amount
of water they had been left. Their guards mocked them as the prisoners gasped for air

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 21

 and pleaded for mercy. At 6 am the next morning, when the door was opened, dead
bodies were piled up inside.
• Several soldiers among prisoners were already wounded.
• Dirty conditions in the cell infected the soldiers wounds.
• Prisoners might die due to suffocation, lack of water, cell and over crowding.
• Guards had no interest in prisoners’ welfare.
Source B Questions

Q1: What does source B tells us about the British East India Company? [5]

A painting of a British official of the British East India Company riding in Indian procession in 1825

• British officer is shown as a largest figure means they are superior.

• Indians are shown small means they are downgraded in every aspect of life.
• Local rulers are at horse-back means they are following British.
• Large horse showing superiority of British.
• British soldiers carrying weapons also showing superiority.
• Better organization of EIC is shown by the graceful uniforms.
Q2: How does source B help us understand Indian concerns about the building of
railways in India during 19th century? [5]

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 22

 • I can see that a train- a new means of travelling, has been dislodged from the track
which looks dangerous and unsafe to travel.
• The accidents like this might cause injuries and in some cases deaths.
• These accidents were frequent in India because it was a new source of travelling where
tracks were not built with full safety.
• Inhabitants of India were fearful of railways because of frequent incidents like this.
• Some Indians were also worried because they thought that British were trying to change
their way of life.

Q3: What can we learn from source B about famine in the sub-continent during British
control? [5]

• I can see from source B that food is being given to a weak man and lots of others are
waiting in the queue.
• I can infer that a famine has broken in the subcontinent.
• A British official in the bowler hat is standing tall who is supervising the matters.
• He looks in total control of the situation. This also suggests that British were involved
in the relief work.
• The problem of hunger was widespread among all the ages and they were waiting for
the remedy.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 23

 4- War of Independence
Macaulay’s minute on Education

What is Macaulay’s minute on Education?

One 2nd February 1835, British historian and politician Thomas
Babington Macaulay presented his ‘Minute on Indian education’
that sought to establish the need to impart English education to
Indian natives.

Thomas Macaulay

Background

• British education policy in colonial India was initially almost non-existent as their sole
purpose was to make profit through trade and other means. Gradually, the importance
of education was appreciated, and the company started building a few institutes of
higher learning. These learning centers taught Indian subjects in languages like
Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian. Persian was the court language too.
• The Charter Act of 1813 was the first concrete step towards modern education in the
country. This act set aside an annual sum of Rs. One lakh to be used in educating the
‘subjects.’
• One must note that missionaries were already present in the country, and they were
involved in this field as well. However, the chiefly imparted religious education and
their primary motive was Christianizing the ‘heathen’ natives.
• After the Charter Act, there was a split among the British regarding the mode of
education to be imparted to Indians. While the orientalists believed that Indians should
be educated in their own languages and taught their own scriptures and texts, the other
group decided that English education was the best kind to be imparted.
• It was in the midst of this that Macaulay landed in India in June 1834, as the President
of the General Committee of Public Instruction (GCPI).
• Macaulay was a proud Englishman convinced of his own nation’s greatness and
achievements, which he considered the best whether it was in the sciences or the arts.
Nothing wrong with that, except that he was perhaps too prejudiced to see things from
a different perspective. His famous minute will reveal his scant regard for anything
Indian.

Macaulay’s views about Indians

1. He lampooned Indian knowledge and languages and thought them completely

worthless. For instance, he said of Indian literature:
“…a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of
India and Arabia.”

2. He also believed that western science was far superior to Indian knowledge. “It is, I
believe, no exaggeration to say that all the historical information which has been

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 24

 collected from all the books written in the Sanskrit language is less valuable than what
may be found in the paltriest abridgments used at preparatory schools in England.”

Macaulay’s minute on education

1- Macaulay wanted the government to spend money only on imparting western

education and not on oriental education. He advocated the shutting down of all colleges
where only eastern philosophy and subjects were taught.
2- He also advocated that the government try to educate only a few Indians, who would
in turn teach the rest of the masses. This is called the ‘downward filtration’ policy.
3- He wanted to create a pool of Indians who would be able to serve British interests
and be loyal to them. This class would be “Indian in blood and color, but English in
tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect.”
4- Macaulay’s proposals were promptly accepted by Lord William Bentinck, but he
cleverly deferred its implementation until he was to relinquish his post as governor-
general. Bentinck perhaps wanted to avoid a backlash from some quarters. He,
nevertheless, did not shut down oriental learning completely as proposed by Macaulay.
5- Macaulay’s proposals were officially sanctioned in March 1835. In 1837, English was
made the court language. In 1844, high government posts were open to Indians.
6- Later the Wood’s Dispatch in 1854 regularized British efforts for education in
India.
7- In his minute, he had said that a day could come when the vernacular languages
would die a natural death. Today, he has been proved wrong. The number of people
who use these languages are increasing by the day. The literature in these languages is
also expanding and evolving.
8- He has of course been successful in creating a class of Indians who have taken to
the English language enthusiastically. Many in the country use it as a first language
although this number is small.
Consequently, it can be argued that moral victory is with the Indians in this English versus
native debate. Whether Macaulay was able to make Englishmen out of Indians is debatable,
but the English language has been conveniently Indianized and altered to such an extent that
sometimes it is hardly discerned by the native English!

Causes of war of independence of 1857

Q: What were educational reforms of British? [4]
• To be there for a longer period, British had to educate Indians on English terms. So,
English education was started in 1835.
• Persian and Sanskrit was replaced by English as court and official language.
• Co-education was started in India.
• Western system of education was launched i.e., roll call registers, arrangement of
classes, etc. for which the people of India thought that they were being westernized.
Q: What were social reforms of British? [4]
• The introduction of re-marriage of Hindus were not welcomed because they thought
British were hitting their ancestral faith and Indians have always been reluctant to
change.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 25

 •
Female infanticide3 bill was launched in 1795 which was opposed by the Hindus.
•
New way of life i.e., Telegraph, railway and new roads was not acceptable to backward
Hindus.
• Seclusion i.e., Purdah was abandoned.
Q: What were religious reforms of British? [4]
• Prior to 1813, missionary activity and religious education was forbidden in India.
• Christianity was launched with full zeal and zest by the Act of 1813. People feared that
they would be forcibly converted to Christianity.
• Propaganda literature was distributed among the masses.
• Suttee was banned and declared as a punishable crime by Lord William Bentinck in
1829 which alarmed Hindus of high caste as this was the direct interference in their
religion.
• Christian missionaries attacked on the personality of Prophet Hazrat Muḥammad
P.B.U.H. i.e., William Muir wrote controversial book on the life of Prophet Hazrat
Muḥammad P.B.U.H.
• Missionary schools were opened in the sub-continent to promote Christianity before
the age of puberty.
• They gradually developed a belief that they are a superior race who are on a civilizing
mission.
Q: What is charter Act of 1813? [4]
• It was an act of parliament of the United Kingdom that renewed the charter issued to
the British East India Company.
• Company’s rule continued in India however its commercial monopoly was ended
except for the trade of tea, opium, and trade with China.
• The crown allotted 100,000 rupees for the improvement of literary and scientific
knowledge.
• It also permitted Christian missionaries to propagate English and preach their religion.
• This act expressed the Crown’s sovereignty over British India.
Q: What were economic reforms of British? [4]
• East India Company earned huge sums of money from the local rulers as ransom.
• Many higher officials were charged of corruption in Bengal such as Warren Hastings
(Governor-General of Bengal and later of India) and Robert Clive (Governor-General
of Bengal) though both got acquitted from the case, their reputation was ruined.
• British destroyed the local industry by promoting their own finished goods.
• External and Internal trade of India was controlled by EIC.
• EIC bought raw material from India on cheap prices and sold finished goods to India
on high prices.
• Craftsmen were happy because of working on the machines (development through
industrialization).
• Landowners and farmers were unhappy due to high taxation and if they would not pay
the taxes their lands would be confiscated for auction as a penalty.
• Some tax collectors were corrupt who collected more for themselves.
• With high taxations, the salary of the sepoys (infantry) was kept low which also started
resentment in the soldiers.

3
Killing or burying a female child at her birth is called female infanticide.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 26

 • Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement of land taxes which fixed tax rates for
agricultural land. According to this act, state demand was fixed at 89% of rent and 11%
to be retained by Zamindars.
• The Punjab and Oudh Tenancy Act was passed in 1868, which gave tenants ownership
of lands they had lived on and cultivated for a requisite period.
Q: What were political reforms of British from 1757 till the start of 20th century? [4]
• British introduced Pitts India Act which was their internal organizational matter
through which they made their administration more effective in Indian sub-continent.
• They also introduced subsidiary alliances according to which princely rulers were not
allowed to make any negotiations with other states, cannot have their own
militias/force, had to pay the subsidiary forces and if the ruler failed to pay the taxes, a
part of his territory would be taken as penalty.
• They also introduced Doctrine of Lapse through which if a ruler dies leaving no heir
behind, that specific state would be annexed by the EIC.
• British Parliament’s Charter Act of 1833 considered the beginning of legal reform
in the subcontinent. It codified the laws according to British model of Justice.
• To appease the upper classes, the Indian Councils Act, passed in 1861, added more
members to legislative councils in the provinces.
• Indian Penal code in 1861 by Lord Macaulay.
• Frontier Crimes Regulations in 1871. The laws it codified were different from the
rest of the subcontinent i.e., internal disputes would be settled by jirgas, or tribal
councils of elders.
• The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 reduced freedom of expression in newspapers
printed in non-English languages.
• The Indian Councils Act, passed by Parliament in 1892, increased membership in
the central and provincial legislative councils in the Punjab and Sind, but not in
Baluchistan or the frontier area.
Q: What were the short-term causes of the war of Independence? [4]
• Most of the soldiers in East India Company were Indians i.e., Muslims, Sikhs, or Hindus
and the officer class was exclusively British which created a clear divide.
• Christian missionaries were sent to barracks or Indians would be called to churches for
preaching and ultimately their conversion to Christianity.
• Salaries of Indian soldiers were low, and they had no chance for promotion to officer’s
rank.
• British announced to launch a greased cartridge so that the gun powder may be kept
dry. These cartridges had to be bitten off before loading. There were rumours that the
cartridges were greased by the cow or pig fat. On confirmation of the news, sepoys
refused to use these cartridges as the sepoys were either Muslims for whom the pigs are
forbidden (harām) or Hindus for whom the cows are holy. Though it was ordered at the
end that these cartridges would only be used by the British soldiers and Indians would
use the cartridges which would be greased by vegetable lubricant.
Q: Describe the battle of Kānpur? OR [4]
Q: What happened at Kānpur in 1857? OR [4]
Q: Who was Nānā Sāhib? [4]
• Troops under the leadership of Nānā Sāhib joined the rebels in 1857 at Kānpur and
killed their British officers and any Europeans they could find there.
• Nānā Sāhib had a personal grievance with the British as the later had stopped the
former’s pension.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 27

 • British managed to hold a defensive position for three weeks but then on assurance of
safe passage by Nānā Sāhib, they surrendered.
• Nānā Sāhib opened fire and killed almost all the soldiers including 300 women and
kids.
• Only 4 soldiers and 100 women and children were survived which were kept as
prisoners.
• Nānā Sāhib killed these prisoners when British reinforcements came which caused an
emotion of revenge among the British who tortured the captives and then hung them,
but they failed to capture Nānā Sāhib.
Q: Who was Rānī Laxmī bā’ī / Rānī of Jhānsī? [4]
• Her real name was Mānīkarnikā Tāmbe.
• She was a great horse rider and fighter.
• She was the Rānī of Jhānsī which remained the main centre of opposition for British.
• She was assisted by Tātiyā Tope who was a great Indian general.
• She was killed in the battle of Gwālior.
• Tātiyā Tope was later captured and executed. With the defeat of Lakshmī bā’ī, the last
hope of Indian opposition dies and British felt relief.
Q: Describe the events of War of independence? [4]
• Mangal Pāndey- soldier in British army protested biting the cartridge and rebelled in
March 1857 rebelled against British.
• After Mangal Pāndey many sepoys in Mīrut refused to bite the cartridges, they were
court-martialled and sent to prison.
• They were later freed by their fellow soldiers. The Mīrut cantonment was sacked,
British and European soldiers were put to death.
• Indian soldiers then marched Delhi and captured it.
• Mughal emperor Baḥādur Shāh Zafar II was made as leader who acted as the symbol
of resistance of Indians against British.
• As the revolt grew, Indians managed to capture Mathūrā, Kānpur, Jhānsī, and
Allāhābād.
• In September, British took Delhi back.
• Baḥādur Shāh Zafar II surrendered and his three sons Mirzā Mughal, Mirzā Abū Bakr,
and Mirzā Sultān were killed by the British.
• Baḥādur Shāh Zafar II was sent to exile in Rangoon (Now Burma).
• Lucknow was also taken back.
• Last resistance against the British was by Lakshmī bā’ī who was assisted by Tātiyā
Tope- a great Indian general.
• In June 1858, Lakshmī bā’ī - dressed as a man in the battle was killed and with her
death last hope of Indian resistance diminished.
Q: How state of Oudh was one of the reasons of war of Independence? [7]
Forceful annexation of Oudh
Forceful annexation of the state of Oudh in 1856 was a
very important reason for the war of independence. Doctrine of lapse was
Oudh had the treaty of friendship with the British, yet mishandled.
the state was forcibly taken from them under the pretext
Many of EIC soldiers were
of misrule. from Oudh
According to the law if a ruler of the state dies without
leaving any heir able behind, his lands will be taken by British did not take into
the EIC. In case of Oudh, the Nawab of Oudh has left confidence any Indian while
enacting this law.
many heirs behind but even then, the lands were
confiscated by EIC.
SYED TAQI KARAMAT 28
 Many of the soldiers in EIC were from Oudh which could not see such a mistreatment
to their King. When this law was being enacted British law makers did not consult any
Indian which was the main issue because if a ruler is not concerned with the people,
he/she is ruling there will be a definite outburst. The states of Sitārā, Oudh, Jhānsī, and
Nāgpūr were captured under this law.
Causes of Failure of Indians in war of Independence of 1857
Q: Why did the war of independence of 1857 fail? OR [7]
Q: Explain the reason for the failure of war of independence of 1857? OR [7]
Q: Why did the Indians not achieve independence in 1857? OR [7]
Q: Why did the war of independence of 1857 not succeed? OR [7]
Indians could not succeed in the war of independence • No unity among
because 1st of all they did not have unity among themselves. themselves; fought
There was no single plan to work upon, different groups for vested interests.
• Gulāb Singh Dogrā
fought in different regions and for their own vested reasons
sent 2000 troops to
i.e., Muslims wanted to take their pride back by installing help British.
Mughal rule, Regional local rulers wanted to have their own • Absence of
independent self-rule and Sikhs wanted to have independent leadership- 82-year-
Punjab. There was no sense of nation or national patriotism old Baḥādur Shāh
i.e., Punjab and Sindh were conquered and annexed by the Zafar II led the forces
troops from Central India and Bengal. So, on rebellion of who himself was
troops, it was not surprising that Punjab did not support the confined to Delhi.
rebels. Gulāb Singh Dogrā, Maḥārājā of Kashmir had sent • British strength i.e.,
2000 troops to help British in this war. So, the local loyalties Military,
organizational,
were with the British.
diplomatic, and
Communicational.
Another reason for the failure of Indians in the war of independence was absence of
leadership. War did not spread in all the corners of country because there was no proper
leadership to rely on, Baḥādur Shāh Zafar II was made as their commander, but he was
only confined to Delhi and was an old man of 82 years. Ḥazrat Maḥal led the rebel
forces in Lucknow, Nānā Sāhib and Tātiyā Tope in Kānpur, and Mānīkarnikā (Rānī
Laxmī bā’ī / Rānī of Jhānsī) in Jhānsī and Gwālior. There was no link between them
and no common cause to share. There was no concept of nationalism and patriotism
within the sub-continent and every community wanted to serve for their own cause.
Lastly British strength proved to be the main reason for the War of independence which
was fought for 16 months and ended in August 1858. British proved better than the
Indians firstly because of the better weaponry and advancement in technology due to
industrial revolution and secondly, they were more organized and stable country of the
world at that time. They had reputation of good discipline in the battlefield. They had
adopted better modern methods of fighting. They had better diplomats and politicians
who had successfully taken the control of other areas.
Long Questions
Q: Was religion the most important reason for the war of independence in 1857? Give
reasons to your answer. [14] OR
Q: ‘The introduction of the social reforms by the British, such as education, caused the
war of independence in 1857’. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answers. [14] OR
Q: Was the introduction of ‘Doctrine of Laps’ in 1852 the most important reason for the
war of independence of 1857? Explain your answer. [14] OR

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 29

Q: Was the greased cartridge incident the most important cause of the war of
independence of 1857? Explain your answer. [14] OR
Q: ‘Religious factors were most important than any other factor in causing the war of
independence of 1857’. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. [14] OR
Q: ‘The establishment of English as the official language of the sub-continent in 1834 was
the main reason for the war of independence in 1857’. Do you agree or disagree? Give
reasons for your answer. [14]

There are many causes of war of independence which can be further divided into long-
term and short-term causes.
Start with whatever is mentioned in the question
• Write long term causes as described above…
o Educational reforms
o Social reforms
o Religious reforms
o Economic reforms
o Political reforms before 1857
• Short Term Causes (as described above)
Consequently, it can be said that economic reforms were the main cause of war of
Independence because had Indians been given the chance to flourish economically, they
would not have rebelled against British in any case.
Q: Was an absence of leadership the main reason why the war of independence in 1857
failed? Explain your answer. [14] OR
Q: ‘The strength of the British army was the sole reason for the failure of the war of
independence by 1858’. Do you agree? Give reasons to your answer. [14] OR
Q: ‘A lack of unity and coordination was the main reason for failure of the war of
independence by 1858’. Do you agree? Explain your answer. [14]
It has been debated over the years among the historians that if it should be called as
‘War’ because it was spread only to few places i.e., Mīrut, Lucknow, Allāhābād,
Kānpur, Gwālior, Jhānsī, etc. Some say that it should be called as mutiny because of
its low intensity of spread in the sub-continent. There were many reasons of Indian
failure in the War of independence.
Indians could not succeed in the war of independence because 1st of all they did not
have unity among themselves. There was no single plan to work upon, different groups
fought in different regions and for their own vested reasons i.e., Muslims wanted to
take their pride back by installing Mughal rule, Regional local rulers wanted to have
their own independent self-rule and Sikhs wanted to have independent Punjab. There
was no sense of nation or national patriotism i.e., Punjab and Sindh were conquered
and annexed by the troops from Central India and Bengal. So, on rebellion of troops, it
was not surprising that Punjab did not support the rebels. Gulāb Singh Dogrā, Maḥārājā
of Kashmir had sent 2000 troops to help British in this war. So, the local loyalties were
with the British. The British army always relied heavily on the local troops which were
being supervised by the British officers. There was no planning, training of troops and
arrangement of supplies on regular basis.
Another reason for the failure of Indians in the war of independence was absence of
leadership. War did not spread in all the corners of country because there was no proper
leadership to rely on, Baḥādur Shāh Zafar II was made as their commander, but he was
only confined to Delhi and was an old man of 82 years old. Ḥazrat Maḥal led the rebel
forces in Lucknow, Nānā Sāhib and Tātiyā Tope in Kānpur, and Mānīkarnikā (Rānī

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 30

 Laxmī bā’ī / Rānī of Jhānsī) in Jhānsī and Gwālior. There was no link between them
and no common cause to share. There was no concept of nationalism and patriotism
within the sub-continent and every community wanted to serve for their own cause.
Lastly British strength proved to be the main reason for the War of independence which
was fought for 16 months and ended in August 1858. British proved better than the
Indians firstly because of the better weaponry and advancement in technology due to
industrial revolution and secondly, they were more organized and stable country of the
world at that time. They had reputation of good discipline in the battlefield. They had
adopted better modern methods of fighting. They had better diplomats and politicians
who had successfully taken the control of other areas.
Consequently, it can be argued that British strength was the main reason of Indian
failure because assuming had Indians been able to neglect their mutual differences for
a single ambition, they wouldn’t still match the British Strength i.e., Military strength,
Rapid transport of troops to distant places, communication between two posts through
telegraph lines, better diplomacy, etc.
Source A Question
Q: What have most historians say about the war of Independence? [3]
Source A: The revolt of 1857 was the most severe outburst of anger and discontent
accumulated in the hearts of various sections of the Indian society ever since the
inception of British rule in Bengal, following the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and the
Battle of Buxar in 1764. British historians called it a “Sepoy Mutiny” and the Indian
historians termed it as the “First War of Independence”. Jawaharlal Nehru in his book
“Discovery of India” described it as the Feudal Revolt of 1857 and added that “it was
much more than a military mutiny and it rapidly spread and assumed the character of a
popular rebellion and a war of Indian Independence”.
Answer: British historians considered it as “Sepoy Mutiny”. Indian historians termed
it as “the war of independence”. Jawahar Lal Nehru termed it as “Feudal Revolt of
1857” and said that it was not kore than a military mutiny.
Source B Question

Picture taken from National Army Museum India ‘Hudson’s Horse at Rhotuck’, 1857
Q: According to source B what can you tell about the war of independence? [5]
Answer: I can see from the picture that Major Hudson on the horse back is fighting
hard with the Indians. I can infer that harsh resistance is being given the Indians as the
fight is at its peak. I can also see by falling Indians that they are now losing this fierce
battle and control is going to be in the hands of British who ultimately won this war on
all the fronts in June 1858.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 31

 5- Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān
Early Biography
Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān was born in 1817 in Delhi. He came from a wealthy family and his
father gave him high quality education. When he was just 18 years old, Sir Sayyid was already
skilled in Arabic, Persian, Mathematics, and Medicine. He was also introduced as the most able
writer of the subcontinent. In 1838, his father died. He became a judge in Delhi in 1846. When
the war of Independence broke out in 1857, he was working as Chief Judge in Bijnaur and had
saved the life of British women and children during the fighting. In return for his loyalty the
British gave him estate with large income but he refused. His Belief that armed uprising against
the British was pointless made him unpopular to many Muslims. He was appointed as Chief
Justice in Murādābād and was later transferred to Ghāzipore. In 1864. he was transferred to
‘Aligarh where he played an important part in education of Muslims in the subcontinent by
establishing a school and college. In 1876, he retired from his work to concentrate on running
the college and devoting himself to improve the position of Muslims through education. He
died on 27 March 1898.
Q: Why did Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān wish to develop better understanding with the British
following the war of independence of 1857? OR [7]
Q: Explain why Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān tried to improve relations between the Muslim
community and the British? [7]
Sir Sayyid wanted to improve relations with British at a time when -> To improve socio-economic
there was a resentment among Muslims against the British rule. But conditions of Muslims.
-> To increase the political
all this was due to misunderstanding between the two communities1. awareness among Muslims
Muslims thought that British had taken over the rightful rule from -> To get advancement in science
them. This was the reason because of which Muslims had hated and and technology.
boycotted everything associated with British including modern and -> Muslims thought British had
taken their rightful rule.
English education. Muslims did not associate themselves with English -> British thought, Muslims were
language because they thought that it was a British gimmick to spread responsible for WOI.
Christianity. -> British wanted to spread
Christianity.

British on the other hand, held Muslims responsible for the uprising of the war of independence
of 1857 because firstly Bahadur Shah Zafar was the leader chosen to represent the war,
secondly most of the soldiers from Oudh- a Muslim state who had resentment against British
because of Doctrine of Lapse, rebelled against British in war of independence.
Sir Sayyid also tried to improve the relations between the two to improve the already aggravated
social and economic position of Muslims by encouraging them to receive Western education
and take up posts in the civil service and army. He sought that by increasing the political
awareness among Muslims will make them aware of the threat to from the Hindu policy of
cooperation with the British. Sir Sayyid also wanted to get benefits from British rule,
particularly in areas of science and technology to improve the lives of the masses.
Q: Why did Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān found the ‘Aligarh movement? [7]
He was worried about the position of the Muslims who were at continuous decline in education
and socio-economic conditions. Muslims considered Britain as invaders who took Muslims’
rightful position. Sir Sayyid knew that if Muslims had to come out of these conditions, they
must accept the Britain and their ways of education. So, he introduced “‘Aligarh Movement”
to;
i- Improve relations between Muslims and the British.
ii- Improve socio-economic positions of the Muslims
iii- Increase political awareness among the Muslims.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 32

He wanted to remove the doubts from the minds of the British about the Muslims and their
disloyalties towards the Britain. He also wanted the Muslims to consider the Britain as
usurpers. For which he wrote books and pamphlets i.e. ‘the loyal Mohammedans of India’ and
‘causes of Indian revolt’. He wanted the Muslims to compete Hindus and to get better position
in British hearts for which he introduced educational reforms by introducing Mohammedan
Anglo Oriental School (MAO) in 1875 in town of ‘Aligarh in Uttar Pradesh. It was the model
which Sir Sayyid wanted other schools to copy because it was based on western system of
education which included the separate classes, roll call registers, introduction of English as
language.
He wanted Muslims to take modern education system so that they can take the higher posts in
the civil services and army which the Hindu community had already started getting. He was
also worried about the lack of political awareness among the Muslims. So by education he
believed that Muslims would get knowledge and ways to handle the political pressure and will
ultimately adapt to changing political conditions.
Contribution of Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān
Long Questions
Q: Was the attempt to achieve a better understanding with the British the most important
contribution that Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān made to the Muslim cause during the 19th
century. Explain your answer? OR [14]
Q: ‘Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān’s political beliefs had a greater impact on the Muslims than
any of his beliefs’. Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons to your answer. OR[14]
Q: Was the development of Western education system the most important contribution
of Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān in developing the Muslim cause during the 19th century.
Explain your answer? OR [14]
Q: Were the religious views of Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān his most important contribution
in developing the Muslim cause during the 19th century? Explain your answer. OR[14]
Q: Was the Two Nation Theory the most important contribution of Sir Sayyid Aḥmad
Khān? Explain your answer. [14]
Attempts to achieve a better understanding between the British and the Muslims:
• He carefully studied and analyzed the decline of Muslims in political power, social
status and economic well-being. He came to the conclusion that Muslims were being
handicapped because of the misunderstanding which had cropped up between the
British and Muslim rulers.
• Muslims opposed and hated the British and everything associated with the British.
• Muslims kept away from modern education and English language which the British
were trying to enforce in India.
• On the other hand, the British held the Muslims responsible for the revolt of 1857 and
considered them (Muslims) to be their real enemies.
• The result of this mistrust was that Muslims were being crushed in every way.
Therefore, Sir Sayyid tried to remove this misunderstanding by addressing both the
British and Muslims.
• He wrote books i.e., Essay on the causes of Indian revolt and Loyal Mohammedans to
impress upon the British the real cause of 1857 uprising.
• To Muslims Sir Sayyid explained that Christians and Christianity should not be hated
for which he had written the book i.e., Tābiyan al-Kalām for similarity among Islam
and Christianity.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 33

 • He specially stressed that Muslims should came towards modern education, the lack of
which was causing continual set back to the Muslims of India and that’s why he founded
scientific society.

Western Education System

• Sir Sayyid gave much importance to modern education and his efforts and contribution
to Muslim’s education and his efforts and contribution to Muslim education is very
important.
• He opened schools at several places where he was posted.
• He established Scientific Society and printed the ‘Aligarh Institute Gazette.
• He visited England in 1869 on his own expenses to observe the working of British
Universities.
• Most important achievement in education sector was the founding of M.A.O College at
‘Aligarh in 1877.
• Sir Sayyid founded the Mohammedans Educational Conference whose objective was to
discuss and solve the education problems of Muslims in the sub-continent.
• His efforts for Muslim education served double purpose. It helped the Muslims to get
good jobs and raised their status in society. It also helped in removing the mistrust
between the British and the Muslims. Therefore, education was the most important
aspect of Sir Sayyid’s services in the Muslims of India.

Political beliefs of Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān

• In the start he had a view that Hindus and the Muslims were one nation and he declared
both the nations as two eyes of a beautiful bride. But as the time passed his thought
process evolved and then he believed that under the European system or democratic
government the Muslims of India would always be at the mercy of Hindu majority. So,
he suggested “Two Nations Theory” which later became the basis of the creation of
Pakistan.
• He suggested separate electorate for Muslims.
• He advised the Muslims not to join Congress.
• He opposed the system of competitive examinations for government posts because
Muslims were much behind the Hindus in education.
• In 1867, Sir Sayyid strongly opposed the replacement of Urdu with Hindi as court and
official language.
• He founded ‘Indian Patriotic Association’ in which all the communities of India joined.
• He also founded the ‘Mohammedans Defense association’ in reaction to Indian
National Congress and worked to get due rights of the Muslims.
• In 1877, he became the member of Imperial council for two years.
• He also remained the member of Punjab service commission and was also nominated
as member of ‘viceroy’s Legislative Council’ in 1878.
• He was awarded the title ‘Sir’ by the British Govt.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 34

Religious views of Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān
• Convincing the Muslims, Sir Sayyid was aware that the British knew very little about
Islam.
• On a visit to England, he was so offended by an English book, “Life of Moḥammad”
on the life of the Prophet (PBUH) which was written by an English writer William Muir
that he immediately wrote his own work named as ‘Khutbāt e Aḥmadiyya’ correcting
the many errors.
• Sir Sayyid was aware that Muslim in India knew very little about Christianity. He tried
to overcome this by writing “Tābiyyan al-Kalām” in which he pointed out the
similarities between Islam and Christianity.
• He also wrote exegesis of Qur’ān i-Karīm in 7 volumes.

Two Nation’s Theory

Sir Sayyid’s beliefs evolved with the time as in the first phase he considered Muslims and
Hindus as to one and declared the two communities as two eyes of the beautiful bride but then
after seeing the Hindus’ attitude towards Muslims and also that he wanted democracy to
flourish in the sub-continent where Muslims were in minority he introduced ‘Two Nation’s
Theory’ as he wanted Muslims to be treated as a separate nation so that Muslims can get their
due rights. This theory gave hope for the Muslims to get separate homeland in the future.
Consequently, it can be argued that his ‘Two Nation’s theory’ was one of the most important
contribution because it was the belief through which Muslims came together and struggled for
a separate homeland and got that in the end.
Shorty Questions
Q: What was “The loyal Mohammedans of India”? [4]
• To convince the British in 1860 Sir Sayyid wrote “The Loyal Mohammedans of India”.
• It was the part of his campaign to bring about better relations with British.
• In this work he defended Muslims of the accusations that they were disloyal towards
the British and listed the name of those Muslims who remained Loyal to the British
during the uprising.
• He called on the government to consult Indians before taking important decisions.
Q: What was “Causes of Indian revolt”? [4]
• In this pamphlet he pointed the reasons for the uprising.
• He impressed upon the British that they were unable to understand the Indians and
accused Muslims wrongly on the uprising of 1857.
• This Pamphlet was circulated freely among the British officials in India and the copies
were also sent to England where it was studied carefully.
• He also cleared the misunderstanding among the British that the word “Nadhārat”,
being used by Muslims was not an insult but it came from Arabic word “Naṣir” which
means helpers.
Q: What was the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental School? [4]
• It was setup by Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān on May 24, 1875, in a small town in ‘Aligarh
located in Uttar Pradesh on the pattern of English Public School.
• The British did not allow it to be affiliated with Muslim University.
• It offered both Western, Indian education and Islamic education.
• It became more than just an educational institute in the years to come.
• It became a symbol of unity among the Muslims.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 35

 • Many of the future leaders i.e., Liāqat ‘Alī Khān studied in here.
Q: Describe Hindi-Urdu controversy? [4]
• Hindus smeared a campaign against Muslims in 1867 in Benaras that Urdu should be
replaced by Hindi as an official language.
• Muslims specially Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khan were shocked because of Urdu’s religious
importance to Muslims as firstly its script resembled to that of Arabic in which Quran
was written and secondly Quran had already been translated in this language.
• Hindu members of scientific society4wanted the journal to be published in Hindi.
• This belief that Hindus were working for their own vested interests and were even not
ready to accept Urdu as an official language led him to his famous Two Nation’s
Theory.

4
Established by Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān at Ghazipur to translate English, Arabic, and Persian writings into urdu.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 36

 6- Languages of Pakistan
Q: Punjabi Language and its promotion by the Govt. [4]
• Punjabi is the mother language of the most populated province of Pakistan.
• Research work on Punjabi language and literature is being done in the universities.
• The poets like Munir Niazi, Dr. Anwar Sadeed, Habib Jalib and Ustad Daman have
been promoted by the Govt.
• Punjabi channels i.e. Sach, waseb, etc have been on aired on the television.
• Punjabi plays have been broadcasted by the Television and the Radio in Pakistan.
Q: Sindhi Language and its promotion by the Govt. [4]
• It is the language of the second most populated province of Pakistan.
• Sindh literary Board was setup by the Govt. in 1948.
• Bazm-i-Talib-i-Maula in 1954.
• Sachal Sarmast Academy was setup.
• Urdu and Sindhi were declared as the national languages of Sindh in 1972.
• TV and Radio are broadcasting the programmes in Sindhi language to promote the
language.
• Sindhi folk songs are being remixed according to present likings.
Q: Pushto language and its promotion by the Govt. [4]
• Its importance can be noted by the fact that it was used to resist the foreign rule in
colonization phase of subcontinent.
• Academy of Pushto was setup in 1954 for the promotion of the language.
• The institute under the leadership of Maulana Abdul Qadir developed first Pushto
dictionary.
• It is being taught at college and university level.
• TV Channels such as Khyber has been launched for the promotion of language.
• TV plays have also been on aired in Pushto language.
Q: Balochi language and its promotion by the Govt. [4]
• Balochistan have been the most neglected province since inception of Pakistan.
• But the language is not the particular entity neglected by the Govt.
• PTV Quetta has been setup through which many programmes have been translated.
• Baloch Literary Association has been setup to promote the language.
• Newspapers like “Awaam” and monthly magazines like Omaan, Sangat, Mashatak
were issued in Balochi.
• Urdu translations of Balochi writings have been published by the Academy of letters.
Q: Why have regional languages been promoted by the Pakistan govt. since 1947? [7]
Regional languages have been spoken by multitude in Pakistan -> might lead to cultural
which is why it could not have been ignored by the government from riots.
the start. Had it been ignored by the govt. it might have sparked the -> Most representatives of
fire of mutiny as it speaks for the people’s culture and is a source of NA are from Punjab.
pride for the people speaking it. -> Punjab; the largest
Punjabi is the language of the largest province according to province w.r.t population.
-> Sindhi language; the
population. Fifty percent of National Assembly is composed of the first one to adopt Arabic
representatives from Punjab. So firstly, it could not have been script.
ignored by its own representatives and secondly it might lead to riots -> Pushto; the symbol of
as seen in case of East Pakistan. Sindhi language was the 1st one to resistance against British
adopt the Arabic script which gives a sense of pride to Muslims and Raj.-> Baluchi; to assure them
affiliates itself with Islam. Shāh ‘Abdul Latīf Bhitāi and Sachal the cultural importance as
Sarmast wrote in Sindhi language, so it was important to promote it. a cultural unit in country.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 37

 Pushto which was spoken in Khyber Pakhtun Khwah was the symbol of resistance against
British in the subcontinent through the poetry of Khushhāl Khān Khattak and Reḥmān
Bābā. Baluchistan is the largest province of Pakistan with respect to area. Baluchistan was
given the status of province in 1970 after the dissolution of one unit. So, the govt. had to
assure to the people of Baluchistan the pertinence and importance of the Baluchi language
as a cultural unit of the country.

Q: Urdu was chosen as the National language mainly to promote national unity. Do you
agree? Explain. [14]

There are many reasons to choose Urdu as national language of Pakistan.

It was closely associated with the Pakistan movement throughout its struggle with British
and Hindus. One of the objectives of Muslim league’s formation was the protection and
promotion of Urdu language. Quaid i-Āzam knew the importance of this language and was
keen to promote it and that’s how after the inception of Pakistan, he knew that common
language like Urdu was the source of one nation for the inhabitants of both East and West
Pakistan that’s why he selected Urdu as the national language on the basis “One nation one
language”.

Urdu was chosen as a national language because it was affiliated with the Muslim
community from a long time. Amīr Khasrau is considered to be the 1st Urdu poet who was
served Mamluk and Khilji dynasties from 1253 A.D. to 1325 A.D. It was patronized by the
Mughal rulers and some of them i.e., Bahādar Shāh Ẓafar II were Urdu poets. It was
adopted as the official court language. Muslim reformers had done a lot in promotion and
protection of Urdu language for which they had sacrificed. Sir Sayyid Aḥmad Khān and
Nawāb Muḥsin ul-Mulk launched a movement for its protection after Hindi-Urdu
controversy in 1867 in Benares when Hindus wanted to replace Urdu with Hindi as an
official language.
Quran’s second most important translation after Persian was in Urdu by Shāh ‘Abdul Qādir
son of Shāh ‘Abdul ‘Azīz- son of subcontinent’s most important religious reformer Shāh
Walī Ullāh. This translation at that time was done in Urdu because it was the language
which most Muslims understood and loved. The great poets like Ghālib, Iqbāl, Hālī, and
Mīr composed world class poetry.
The Govt. of Pakistan has promoted other languages too and though these were being
spoken by multitude in the country if one of these was to be chosen as national language it
would have created sense of disharmony among the citizens living in other parts of the
country.
Consequently, it can be argued that firstly Urdu was chosen as national language of
Pakistan mainly to promote national unity because language is the major source of identity
construction for any nation. Had it been overlooked in early years of Pakistan it would have
led to breakup of country. Secondly plethora of Urdu works produced in the country which
counterbalances all the other regional languages.
Q: Promotion of Sindhi was the most important/successful than promotion of other
languages of Pakistan between 1947 and 1999. Do you agree? Explain. [14] OR

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 38

Q: The promotion of regional languages in Pakistan between 1947 and 1999 has been
more successful than promotion of Urdu. Do you agree? Explain. [14] OR
Q: How important was the development of regional languages of Pakistan between 1947
and 1999? Explain. [14] OR
Q: Punjabi was promoted more than any other language ion Pakistan between 1947 and
1999. Do you agree? Explain. [14] OR
Q: Pushto was promoted more than any other language ion Pakistan between 1947 and
1999. Do you agree? Explain. [14] OR
Q: How successful was the promotion of following languages in Pakistan between 1947
and 1999?
i- Punjabi ii- Pushto iii- Sindhi
Explain your answer with reference to all three languages.
The Govt. of Pakistan has done a lot to promote regional languages of Pakistan.
Sindhi is the language of the second most populated province of Pakistan. The history of
this language dates back to 12th century. Sindh literary Board was setup by the Govt. in
1948. Bazm i-Tālib i-Maulā in 1954. Sachal Sarmast Academy was setup in memory of
Sachal Sarmast. Urdu and Sindhi were declared as the national languages of Sindh in 1972.
TV and Radio are broadcasting the programmes in Sindhi language to promote the
language. Sindhi folk songs are being remixed according to present likings. There are many
newspapers in Sindhi publishing from Karachi and Hyderabad.
Punjabi is the mother language of the most populated province of Pakistan. Research work
on Punjabi language and literature is being done in the universities. It is taught as an elective
language in programs of Bachelor and Masters in universities. The poets like Munīr Niāzī,
Dr. Anwar Sadīd, Habīb Jālib and Ustād Dāman have been promoted by the Govt. Punjabi
channels i.e. sach, waseb, etc have been on aired on the television. Punjabi plays have been
broadcasted by the Television and the Radio in Pakistan. Punjabi songs, movies, dramas,
and theatre are famous outside Pakistan.

Pushto’s importance can be noted by the fact that it was used to resist the foreign rule in
colonization phase of subcontinent. Academy of Pushto was setup in 1954 for the
promotion of the language. The institute under the leadership of Maulānā ‘Abdul Qādir
developed first Pushto dictionary. It is being taught at college and university level. TV
Channels such as Khyber has been launched for the promotion of language. TV plays have
also been on aired in Pushto language.

Balochistan have been the most neglected province since inception of Pakistan. But the
language is not the particular entity neglected by the Govt. PTV Quetta has been setup
through which many programmes have been translated. Baloch Literary Association has
been setup to promote the language. Newspapers like “‘Awām” and monthly magazines
like Omān, Sangat, Mashātak were issued in Balochi. Urdu translations of Balochi writings
have been published by the Academy of letters.

Consequently, it can be argued that Punjabi was the one promoted more because firstly
most of the representatives among the policy makers of National Assembly were from
Punjab who gave proper attention to this language and secondly Urdu poets of Punjabi
origin started giving precedence to this language.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 39

 Section II

1- Partition of Bengal- 1905

Bengal (1905-1911)
Bengal East
Bengal
Area (Km²) 366,692 275,938
Population 54 m 31 m
(millions)
Muslims 12 m 18 m
Hindus 42 m 13 m

Reasons of partition
Q: What were reasons of Partitioning Bengal? OR [7]
Q: Why was Bengal partitioned in 1905? [7]
Important points
Bengal was one of the largest provinces of undivided India • Area: 189000 sq. miles.
extended over 189,000 square miles with the population of • Population: 85 million-
above 80 million. The western Bengal including Bihar, and East Bengal (31 million)
Orissa- a Hindu majority province had a population of 54 & West Bengal (54
million (42 million Hindus and 12 million Muslims) whereas million).
the population of Eastern part including Assam was 31 million • B.G. Tilak delivered
provoking speeches.
(13 million Hindus and 18 million Muslims). Its population • Vastness of Province.
was almost 2 times Britain population at that time. • Law and order was
Hindus and Muslims were the two main components of the affected by limited source
Bengal society in which the former was economically, of communication.
politically, and educationally stronger. The INC leaders such • Natural hazards were a
as Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak delivered provoking speeches for the great concern.
• According to Hindus, it
self-rule of India. According to Hindus, partition of Bengal was was British divide & rule
a British motive to distract INC from the self-rule of India. policy.
• Relief for Muslims.
British version on the partition was the vastness of province which could not be
administered by a single governor. Limited sources of communication for which law
and order, tax collection, relief and rehabilitation work got affected. The plight of poor
Muslims living in Western Bengal was deteriorating. Natural hazards in the area were
another concern for the Govt. and the people of Bengal which needed rehabilitation.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 40

Q: Why the Partition of Bengal was opposed by INC in 1905? [7]
Important points
Bengal was one of the largest provinces of undivided India • Area and Population
extended over 189,000 square miles with the population of of Bengal.
above 80 million with more population of Muslims on East • Divide and rule policy
by British.
Bengal. Hindus did not accept the partition because firstly • Grip on political
Hindu landlords of Western Bengal were then going to affairs.
deprive of the facility of taking care of their lands at Eastern • Day of mourning.
• Prosperity to Muslims.
side by poor Muslims.
Secondly, Hindus thought that British were working on “divide and rule policy”. The
division of two major communities would serve their purpose of strengthening the grip
on the political affairs.
Hindus declared the day of partition as “the day of mourning”. They did not like the
Muslim majority province which would bear prosperity to Muslims who had started
trading from Chittagong port. Thus, it was the breakup of monopoly of Hindu
businessmen of Calcutta who controlled the trade of whole Bengal.
Q: Explain, how British reacted to Hindu-led protests against the partition of Bengal b/w
1906 and 1908? [7]
British placed restrictions on publication of newspapers and Important points
->Restrictions on Newspapers,
public meetings. The editors of newspapers and journalists were public meetings.
prosecuted and imprisoned between 1906 and 1908. -> Press act 1908
Press Act of 1908 gave even greater control of newspapers to the -> B.G.Tilak imprisoned in
British Govt. To counter the extremist nationalist activity, this act 1908.
-> Magistrates can confiscate
empowered magistrates to confiscate press property which press property.
published objectionable material. -> Reforms by the British.
B.G. Tilak was imprisoned in June 1908 and was sentenced to 6 years imprisonment.
Other radical leaders of extremist group of INC left the country rather than facing
imprisonment. Soon local prisons were filled with revolutionaries.
Lastly, British realized that strong measures to crush Hindus won’t be sufficient. So, a
better approach should be adopted to win the hearts of moderate Hindus. Lord Minto
was appointed as Viceroy in 1905 who worked with John Morley-the Secretary of State
of Indian Affairs. They initiated reforms named as Minto-Morley reforms to appease
Hindus.
Reasons of Reversal of Partition
Q: Why did British reverse partition of Bangladesh? [7]
Hindus did not accept the partition because firstly Hindu Important points
landlords of Western Bengal were then going to deprive of • Hindu landlords were
the facility of taking care of their lands at Eastern side by against the partition.
• Divide and Rule policy
poor Muslims. Secondly, Hindus thought that British were of British.
working on divide and rule policy. A country-wide • Mob rallies, strikes,
movement against the partition was launched by Hindus. murder attempt on
Mob rallies and shutter-down strikes were observed. Lord Minto.
• Swadeshi movement.
Lawyers of Western Bengal thought their practice would get • Sir John Jenkins
affected. Hindu press had the same stance. The situation advised British Govt. to
became so intense that some British officials were attacked annul the partition.
including Lord Minto who survived a murder attempt.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 41

 In the meantime, Swadeshi movement was launched to boycott British goods.
Provoking speeches were delivered by INC leaders such as Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak.
Hindu titles were returned, and students’ attendance dropped dramatically. British cloth
was burnt on bonfires, and it became a matter of honor for the Hindus to wear locally
purchased goods. People picketed the shops selling foreign goods. Indian workers i.e.,
in Calcutta protested the partition and went on strikes. Soon, sale of British goods
dropped dramatically.
In the Governorship/viceroyship of Lord Hardinge in 1910, Hindus again pressurized
the govt. to annul the partition. They threatened the British Govt. to boycott the
coronation ceremony of King George V which was a British royal tradition. This was
a final blow to the partition of Bengal. Sir John Jenkins, a member of the Viceroy’s
executive council advised the British Govt. to reverse their decision which was finally
announced by King George V himself in Delhi in 1911.

Long Questions

Q: Partition in 1905 or Reversal in 1911 which were the more important reasons of
partition? Explain.
[14]
Both reasons were very important for Pakistan movement.

Western Bengal, a Hindu majority province had a population of 54 million (42 million
Hindus and 12 million Muslims) whereas the population of Eastern part was 31 million
(12 million Hindus and 18 million Muslims). Its population was two times Britain
population at that time. Hindus and Muslims were the two main components of the
Bengal society in which the former was economically, politically, and educationally
stronger.

The INC leaders such as Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak delivered provoking speeches for the
self-rule of India. Partition of Bengal was a British motive to distract INC from the self-
rule of India. British version on the partition was that the province was geographically
so vast that it could not be administered by a single governor. Limited sources of
communication for which law and order, tax collection, relief and rehabilitation work
got affected. The plight of poor Muslims living in Western Bengal. Natural hazards in
the area were a great concern for the Govt. and the people of Bengal which needed
rehabilitation.

Hindus did not accept the partition because firstly Hindu landlords of Western Bengal
were then going to deprive of the facility of taking care of their lands at Eastern side by
poor Muslims. Secondly, Hindus thought that British were working on divide and rule
policy. Lawyers of Western Bengal thought their practice would get affected. Hindu
press had the same stance. Swadeshi movement was launched to boycott British goods.
Provoking speeches were delivered by INC leaders such as Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak. In
the Governorship of Lord Hardinge in 1910, Hindus again pressurized the govt. to annul
the partition.

Hindus threatened the British Govt. to boycott the coronation ceremony of King George
V which was a British royal tradition. This was a final blow to the partition of Bengal.
Sir John Jenkins, a member of the Viceroy’s executive council advised the British Govt.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 42

 to reverse their decision which was finally announced by King George V himself in
Delhi in 1911.

Consequently, it can be implied here that reasons of partition were the more important
because firstly it lessened the gap between British and Muslims; secondly Muslims then
knew the Hindus’ biased attitude towards the Muslims. It also gave Muslims a hint to
the partition of India.

Q: Bengal was partitioned due to geographical factors. Do you agree? Explain.[14]

There were many reasons of partition of Bengal.

Geographical factor is one of the most important factors of partition of Bengal. Western
Bengal, a Hindu majority province had a population of 54 million (42 million Hindus
and 12 million Muslims) whereas the population of Eastern part was 31 million (12
million Hindus and 18 million Muslims). Its population was two times Britain
population at that time. Hindus and Muslims were the two main components of the
Bengal society in which the former was economically, politically, and educationally
stronger.
For the first time in 1853, Charles Grant proposed the partition of Bengal. In 1854, Lord
Dalhousie complained administrative burden on the governor of Bengal. In 1872, Lt.
Governor, Sir George Campbell submitted a report that one man cannot supervise the
affairs of such a large province. Viceroy Lord Curzon gave the proposals of dividing Bengal
into two parts for the first time in 1903 and then in 1905.
British version on the partition was that the province was geographically so vast that it
could not be administered by a single governor. Limited sources of communication for
which law and order, tax collection, relief and rehabilitation work got affected. The
plight of poor Muslims living in Western Bengal. Natural hazards in the area were a
great concern for the Govt. and the people of Bengal which needed rehabilitation.
The partition was as such that the eastern part would then include Assam and three
districts i.e., Dhaka, Chittagong, and Mymen Singh which were previously the part of
western Bengal. Muslims lagged in every field in united Bengal, but they were now
pleased as this was their chance to grow educationally, socially, economically, and
politically.
The INC leaders such as Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak delivered provoking speeches for the
self-rule of India. Partition of Bengal was a British motive to distract INC from the self-
rule of India. British did not want Indian nationalism to be flourished.
Another view on this is that British wanted to weaken the protests of congress and
Curzon wanted to improve the condition of backward areas. Lord Curzon found the
reality that Bengal presidency was too large that it was impossible to be controlled by
one governor and that’s why he decided to form two provinces.
Consequently, it can be said that the major reason of partition of Bengal is the
geographical one because it is a fact that governments do time to time partition the
larger provinces for better administration. It was also proven to be a relief for the
Muslims of Bengal. Muslims of Bengal who were already in yoke of Hindu landlords
got free and prosperous after the partition.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 43

Q: What was the Swadeshi movement? [4]
• It was Founded by the Hindus in response to partition of Bengal which Hindus saw as
the British policy of divide and rule.
• This movement was actually a boycott of English goods and promotion of local goods.
• British sugar, salt, cloth, and specially cotton suffered due to it.
• British cloth was burnt on bonfires, and it became a matter of honor for the Hindus to
wear locally purchased goods.
• People picketed the shops selling foreign goods. Indian workers i.e., in Calcutta
protested the partition and went on strikes.
• Soon, sale of British goods dropped dramatically.

Source A

Q: Following paragraph is the answer of a misconception, what was that? [3]

Source A: “Bengal region was notoriously under-governed." According to Hardy, Curzon did
not intend to divide Hindus, who were the majority in the West, from Muslims, the majority in
the East but only Bengalis.”
Ans: An extremist faction of Indians thought that British’s intrigue of dividing Bengal was
only abiding by their divide and rule policy, and they were not interested in better
administration of the province.
Source B

A mass meeting of Muslims in Dhaka on September 4, 1906 in favor of the partition of Bengal

Q: What can u infer from the picture about the partition of Bengal? [5]
Ans: I can see mass Muslim gathering in Dacca where a leader is addressing to the meeting.
People look enthusiastic who are raising the slogans. It looks like an organized gathering. I can
infer from the picture that Muslims have gathered at a single place to support the decision taken
by the British. For Muslims of East Bengal, it was a blessing because Hindu landlords have
ruled them brutally where all the petty works were being done by them. There was less
infrastructure at East Bengal.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 44

 2- Shimla Deputation- 1906
Q: Why Shimla Deputation went to Viceroy? [7]
The Shimla deputation was unique, because for the first time Muslims ->Hindu majority
were anxious to take their share in the political activities as a separate would undermine the
identity. Indians were not satisfied with Indian Council Act of 1892. Muslim minority.
John Morley- Secretary of State for India, announced in 1906 that ->To represent
demands of Muslims.
Government wanted to increase the members of legislative councils and ->Aid for Muslim
their powers. This announcement created an anxiety among the university.
Muslims of the sub-continent. Muslims’ concern was that the Hindu ->To establish a
majority would undermine the Muslims integrity who are in minority. political platform.
The matter of concern for Muslims was the holding of combined -> Separate
electorate for
election on a more extended scale. Muslims will hardly get a single seat Muslims
in scenario such as this. So, deputation wanted to purely represent -> Socio-economic
demands of the Muslim community. improvement of
Muslims.

Another purpose of the delegation was to get a silent permission form the Government to
make a political platform for the representation of Muslims. Delegation also wanted the
Muslims to get higher education so that they can improve their socio-economic conditions
and increase political awareness, for which they wanted financial aid for a Muslim
university. Last but not the least was Muslims’ demand of separate electorates, which was
presented through the deputation, which later proved to be the foundation of all future
constitutional amendments for India.
Q: What was Shimla Deputation? [4]
Archbold- principal of M.A.O college contacted Viceroy’s secretary on 10th August 1906.
He informed Mohsin ul-Mulk that the Viceroy was ready to meet the deputation. Finally, a
delegation consisting of 35 leaders of Muslim community meet the viceroy, under the
leadership of Sir Āghā Khān, in Simla on 1st October 1906. The deputation presented their
demands to the viceroy which were;
o Rights of separate electorates should be given to the Muslims.
o Muslims should be given three more seats in central legislature.
o Quota should be given to the Muslims in civil services.
o Muslims should be given representation in universities senates and syndicates.
o An aid should be given to the Muslims for the establishment of a Muslim
university.
Viceroy Lord Minto assured the Muslim delegation that as long as he is associated with
the administrative affairs of the country, their national rights would be preserved.
Q: What was the Attitude of Congress against Simla Deputation? [4]
• Congress alleged that the deputation was engineered by the Government to resist the
activities of nationalists.
• A newspaper, Amritā Bazār Patrikā-close to congress, launched a propaganda that the
deputation was the part of British policy of divide and rule.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 45

 • To prove the conspiracy theory, Congress leaders had referred to a certain letter written
by Archbold to an unknown person of Aligarh.
• There was no single solid evidence available to prove that the deputation was the part
of British policy.
• It also seems illogical as if it had been launched by the Government, then why Mohsin-
ul-Mulk borrowed a sum of four thousand rupees from King and King Company at the
interest rate of 7% to meet the expenses of the Shimla deputation.
Q: What was the response of Jinnah on Shimla Deputation? [4]
• Jinnah- who was the part of moderate faction of Congress along with Mehtā, Gopāl
Krishnā Gokhāle, and Dādābhāī Naorojī was dissatisfied with the Shimla deputation.
• He wrote a letter to the editor of a newspaper ‘Gujratī’, asking what right the members
of this delegation had to speak for Indian Muslims, as they were unelected and self-
appointed.
• When many of the same leaders met the same year in December in Dacca to establish
a new political platform (party)-AIML, Jinnah was opposed to that as well.
• Jinnah was opposed to separate electorate because he believed it will divide the nation,
but he was elected in Imperial legislative council in 1909 on the same principle.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 46

 3- Formation of Muslim League- 1906
Q: What were the reasons of establishment of Muslim League? [7]
From the very start of its existence, the Congress had clearly shown its interest to safeguard
the rights of Hindus, alone. The prediction of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khān soon proved to be the
fact that, “Hindus and Muslims are two different nations who have different ideologies.” All
India Muslim League was established with following reasons;
1- Indifferent attitude of the Congress towards Muslims: as it was a pre-dominantly
Hindu body.
2- Educational and economic Backwardness: Muslims had lagged far behind from the
Hindus in education and economic progress.
3- Hindi-Urdu controversy & protection of Urdu language: The Hindi-Urdu
controversy began with the demand of Hindus to replace Urdu by Hindi as an official
language in Devanagri Script. It showed the biased attitude of Hindus towards Muslims.
4- The success of deputation compelled the Muslims to have a separate political
association of their own.
5- To save Muslim entity: The belief uttered by Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khān that the Muslims
were somehow a separate entity. So this platform will work for the safety and integrity
of Muslims in Indian subcontinent.

Q: What were the objectives of All India Muslim League? [4]

The events followed by the Hindi-Urdu controversy and partition of Bengal
strengthened the desire of Muslims to organize themselves politically as a separate
community. The birth of All India Muslim League at Daca on 30th December 1906
came as an expression of that desire.
Objectives of Muslim League
1. To create among Muslims the feelings of loyalty towards British Govt.
2. To safeguard political rights of Muslims.
3. To prevent among Muslims, the rise of prejudicial feelings against the other
communities of India.
Change in the goals/objectives in 1913
Important developments occurred during the first decade of the 20th century like
annulment of the Partition of Bengal and Western aggression towards Muslim countries
i.e., Balkan wars 1911-1913, Demolition of the mosque in Kanpur (1913), etc. which
weakened Muslims’ faith in the British. This led to a major drift in the Muslim League’s
policy.
1. Self-government under the British Crown.
2. Good relations with other communities’ cooperation with any party working for similar
goals. This change brought the ML and Congress closer.

Q: All India Muslim League was established because Hindus had their own political
party. Do you agree? Explain. [14]
There are many reasons for which we can say All India Muslim League was established.

From the very start of its existence, the Congress had clearly shown its interest to
safeguard the rights of Hindus, alone. Some of the Congress leaders adopted a
revolutionary policy to establish Hindu Raj in the sub-continent under the guise of a
national movement. Congress had an indifferent attitude towards Muslims as it was a
pre-dominantly a Hindu body. So, Muslims did not have a political platform to speak
for themselves.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 47

 Educational and socio-economic backwardness was another impediment through which
Muslims had lagged far behind from the Hindus. The prediction of Sir Sayyid Ahmed
Khān soon proved to be the fact that, “Hindus and Muslims are two different nations
who have different ideologies.” The events followed by the Hindi-Urdu controversy
and partition of Bengal strengthened the desire of the Muslims to organize themselves
politically as separate community. This controversy began with the demand of Hindus
to replace Urdu by Hindi as official language in Devanagari Script. It showed the biased
attitude of Hindus towards Muslims. The birth of All India Muslim League at Dacca on
30th December 1906 came as an expression of that desire.
The success of Shimla Deputation also compelled the Muslims to have a separate
political association of their own. This deputation was a silent permission from Lord
Minto for the formation of a political platform for Muslims. Ultimately, belief uttered
by Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khān that the Muslims were somehow a separate entity through
two Nation’s theory was proved to be true and thus became one of the reasons of
AIML’s formation.
In February 1906, Liberal party had won the elections which was generously lenient to
Indian Muslims. They decided to include more Indians in legislative councils for which
Muslims had to come up through their separate party. The resolution was passed by All
India Educational Conference on 30th December 1906. A committee was formed to
prepare its draft constitution. Sir Āghā Khān was appointed as President and Sayyid
Ḥassan Balgarāmī was appointed as secretary while Nawāb Mohsin ul-Mulk and
Nawāb Viqār ul-Mulk were made as joint secretaries with six vice presidents, a Central
Committee with forty members were also constituted. In this way Muslim League was
established and become the sole representative of Muslims.
Consequently, it can be implied that All India Muslim League was established because
of the prior establishment of Congress as it has been evident through Hindu-Urdu
controversy, Partition of Bengal, Shimla deputation, etc. that Congress had a biased
attitude towards Muslims.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 48

 4- Minto-Morley Reforms- 1909
In 1906, Lord Morley, the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs, announced in the British
parliament that his government wanted to introduce new reforms for India, in which the
locals were to be given more powers in legislative affairs. With this, a series of
correspondences started between him and Lord Minto- then Governor General/Viceroy
of India. A committee was appointed by the Government of India to propose a scheme
of reforms. The committee submitted its report, and after the approval from Lord Minto
and Lord Morley, the Act of 1909 was passed by the British parliament. The Act of
1909 is commonly known as the Minto-Morley Reforms.
The following were the main features of the Act of 1909:
• The number of the members of the Central Legislature was increased from 16 to 60 by
adding more non-official members.
• The number of the members of the Provincial Legislatures was also increased. It was
fixed as 50 in bigger provinces of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, and for the rest of the
provinces it was 30.
• Right of separate electorate was given to Muslims.
• At the Center, official members were to form the majority but in provinces non-official
members would be in majority.
• Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs.
• One Indian- Satyendra P. Sinha was nominated to the Executive Council of the
Governor General.
Q: What were Minto-Morley reforms? OR [4]
Q: What were the terms of Indian Council Act of 1909? [4]
Indian Council Act is also called Minto-Morley reforms. In this act, the number of the
members of the Legislative Council at the Center was increased from 16 to 60 by adding
more official members in center and non-official member in provinces. Thus, at the
same time responded to Indians demand of enlarging the council and retained the
control. The number of the members of the Provincial Legislative Councils was also
increased. It was fixed to 50 in the bigger provinces of Bengal, Madras, and Bombay,
and 30 for the rest of the provinces. The most important clause for the Muslims was the
acceptance of their right of separate electorate.
Q: How did congress respond to Minto-Morley reforms? [7]
As a matter of fact, the Indian National Congress was divided into ->Division of congress.
two factions i.e., the “moderate,” which was led by G.K. Gokhale ->Less powers in
and the “extremist,” led by B.G. Tilak. The moderate faction legislative councils.
->Lesser increase in size
welcomed these Reforms. In the Imperial Legislative Council, of legislative councils.
Gokhale said, “My Lord, I sincerely believe that you and Lord ->Separate
Muslims.
electorate of

Morley have saved the country from anarchy and chaos”.

On the other hand, extremist faction rejected the act of 1909. It was because of Indians
nominal powers in central and provincial legislatures where they cannot make, amend,
or annul any law. They can only express their opinions and advice on important matters.
Secondly, Indians wanted more membership in legislative councils so that they could
have more powers which would ultimately lead to self-rule. British already knew that,
so this led them to follow their own policies in which less representation was given to
Indians with no powers in their hands.
Lastly, British had approved for the very first time in the history of the subcontinent
that Muslims can contest elections separately which meant they will be politically,
socially, and economically empowered which was unacceptable to Congress.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 49

 5- Lucknow Pact- 1916
Q: What was Lucknow pact? [4]
• A pact was signed in December 1916, on persuasion of Muḥammad ‘Alī Jinnāh between
Congress and Muslim League for which Sarojinī Nāidu had given him the title of
“Ambassador of Hindu Muslim Unity”.
• This pact provided a platform for both the parties to work together for their political
and constitutional rights after a long time.
• Major development with respect to Muslims was that Hindu-led Congress had accepted
the Muslim demand of separate electorate.
• The Hindu-Muslim unity was not organic because of Two Nation’s Theory so it did not
last long and soon ended.
Q: Why was Lucknow Pact signed between Congress and Muslim league? [7] OR
In December 1916, Muḥammad ‘Alī Jinnāh persuaded INC ->For Future
and AIML to meet at Lucknow. It was decided that both constitution of India
->AIML distanced from
Muslim League and Congress would submit a jointly agreed British b/c of latter’s
scheme of constitutional reforms to the government and policies.
impress upon them to incorporate this scheme in any future -> INC and AIML had a
constitution of India. It was at this occasion that Mrs. Sarojinī common stance.
Nāidu, an eminent Indian Leader, gave Jinnah the title of the -> Muslims wanted to
take in confidence
“Ambassador of Hindu Muslim Unity”. Hindu majority.
All India Muslim League had already changed their goal from loyalty towards British
to self-rule under British India in 1913. The circumstances were such that All India
Muslim League and Congress both had almost a common stance of self-rule for which
it was incumbent upon both communities to work together.
Muslim had then known that if they seriously want to pursue their demands and to
protect their political rights, they had to take the majority (Hindus) in confidence. That’s
how Muslims and Hindus came closer and agreed to sign Lucknow Pact from where
Hindu-Muslim unity had started.
Q: What were constitutional proposals of Lucknow pact? [4]
• One Third seats for Muslims in the Imperial Legislative Council5.
• Separate Electorate for Muslims.
• Half members of the Governor General’s Executive Council to be elected by the
Imperial Legislative Council.
• Half members of the Governor’s Executive Council be elected by Provincial Legislative
Council.
• Commissioned ranks of the army for Indians.
• Expansion of Provincial Legislative Councils.
• Weightage6 to minorities in provinces.
It was a great success for Muslims that Hindus had accepted the Muslim demand of
separate electorate and a greater number of seats in Imperial Legislative Council for
Muslims, but the spirit of Lucknow Pact did not last long. The friendly atmosphere
created by the pact soon waned out and an extremist Hindu element soon took over
Congress.

5
It was also known as Central Legislative Assembly till 1919 because it was a unicameral system but after 1919
it became a bicameral system and then ILC had both upper house (Council of state) and lower house (Central
Legislative Assembly)
6
Importance given to a community in which adjustment is made in order to take account of special circumstances.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 50

 6- India and World War 1 (1914-18)
• The political situation of India after 1911 worsened due to hostility of Hindu-dominated
Congress against Minto-Morley reforms and Muslims against the reversal of partition
of Bengal by King George V.
• Congress and Muslim League had both joined hands together for self-rule and to give
a tough time to their colonial rulers- Britain in 1913. This was the time when Europe
was planning to wage a war against Britain (The World War I).
• Britain at that time could not afford any unrest in India as they wanted to have human
resource for the WWI from a populous India.
• Mr. Jinnah at this time i.e., 1913 was a member of both Congress and Muslim League;
previously he served Congress for many years. Muslim League realized that it was high
time to change its objectives for which they changed their loyalty from the “British
Government” to “British Crown” and supported the idea of self-rule of congress but in
a way which is suitable to India.
• Jinnah became President of All India Muslim League at 1916 session in Lucknow.
• In 1916, when Britain was engaged in a fearsome war with Germany, Indians thought
that it was the right time to put pressure on their colonial authorities and formulated
Lucknow pact. Hindu-Muslim unity after a very long time was evident by this pact.
Hindus in general and Congress in particular agreed for the very first time to have a
separate electorate for the Muslims. This meant that Hindus agreed upon Sir Syed’s
idea of Two Nation’s Theory which soon served as the basis of Pakistan Movement.
• Jinnah played an important role in founding of the All-India Home Rule League in
1916. Along with political leaders such as Annie Besant and B.G.Tilak, Jinnah
demanded ‘home rule’ for India- the status of self-governing dominion similar to
Canada, New Zealand, and Australia.
• Indians played their part in WWI supporting the Britain and expecting great
concessions from the Britain after the War i.e., more political, social, and economical
rights to the Indians.
• Britain could not satisfy the Hindus politically in Montague-Chelmsford reforms as the
representation of Indians in the legislative Assembly was too low.
• British launched Rowlatt Act which was sheer humiliation of Indians. Jinnah resigned
from Imperial Legislative Council because of this unlawful act.
• Indians saw a gruesome attack of General Dyer on Indians in Jallianwala Bagh.
• Britain could also not satisfy the Muslims as well because Turkey sided with Germany
against the Britain in WWI, so they threatened to dismember Caliphate in Turkey. Thus,
Khilafat movement was launched but it could not prove to be fruitful for Muslims and
Britain dismembered Turkey into different states and the revered institution of
Caliphate was abolished.

Q: What was the Defense of India Act 1915? [4]

• It was designed to give British govt. of India special powers to deal with revolutionary
and German-inspired threats during World War I (1914–18), especially in Punjab.
• A special legal tribunal was set up to deal with such cases with no right to appeal.
• By 1918 there were about 800 internees detained under this act.
• The act, being a wartime measure, was to expire six months after the war.
• The extension of its provisions in the Rowlatt Acts of February 1919 started the
agitation that led to the non-cooperation movement of Mahatma Gandhi in 1920–22.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 51

Q: Why did Jinnah leave Indian National Congress? [7]
Jinnah belonged to the moderate faction of Congress along
-> Death of G.K
with Gopāl Krishnā Gokhale, Mehtā, and Dādābhāī
Gokhale and Mehtā in
Naorojī. This faction was undermined by the deaths of
1915.
Gopāl Krishnā Gokhale and Mehtā in 1915. He was further
-> Isolated with the
isolated with the death of Dādābhāī Naorojī in 1917 in
death of Dādābhāī
London.
Naorojī
Jinnah worked for the union of Hindus and Muslims in -> Jinnah criticized
general and All India Muslim League and Indian National Gandhi’s Khilafat
Congress in particular. In 1916 when Jinnah was made the advocacy.
president of All India Muslim League, two organizations -> Gandhi’s proposal of
signed Lucknow pact. Although it was never fully Satyagraha was passed
implemented, it started an era of cooperation between the and he resigned.
Congress and the League. Jinnah played an important role
in founding the All-India Home Rule League in 1916.
Alonginwith
Later leaders
1919, on thesuch
pleaasofAnnie Besant
Rowlatt andJallianwala
Act and Tilak, Jinnah
Bagh massacre, Gandhi called
demanded
for ‘home (non-cooperation
his satyāgrāhā rule’ for Indiamovement)
as self-governing
against the British. Gandhi’s proposal
dominion
gained likeHindu
huge Canada, Newand
support Zealand, andattractive
was also Australia.to Muslims of the Khilafat faction.
Jinnah criticized Gandhi’s Khilafat advocacy which he saw as an endorsement of
religious fanaticism. He regarded Gandhi’s proposal of satyāgrāhā as political anarchy
and believed that self-government should be achieved through constitutional means. At
the 1920 session of Congress in Nagpur, delegates passed Gandhi’s proposal of
satyāgrāhā until India was independent. Thus, Jinnah resigned from Home League and
Congress.
The Silk Letter Movement
Q: What was Silk Letter Movement? [4]

Tehreek-e-Reshmi Rumal refers to a movement organized by the Deobandi leaders

between 1913 to 1920. It was aimed at freeing India from the British rule by allying
with Ottoman Turkey, Imperial Germany, and Afghanistan. The plot was uncovered by
Punjab CID with the capture of letters from Ubaidullah Sindhi, one of the Deobandi
leaders then in Afghanistan, to Mahmud al Hasan another leader in Persia. The letters
were written in silk cloth, hence the name was called as “the silk letter movement”.
With the onset of World War I, Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi and Maulana Mehmud
Hasan (principal of the Darul Uloom Deoband) had proceeded to Kabul in October
1915 with plans to initiate a Muslim insurrection in the tribal belt of India. For this
purpose, Ubaid'Allah was to propose that the Amir of Afghanistan declares war against
Britain while Mahmud al Hassan sought German and Turkish help. Hassan proceeded
to Hijaz. Ubaid Allah, in the meantime, was able to establish friendly relations with
Amir. As the plans unfolded in what came to be called the Silk Letter movement,
Ubaid'Allah was able to establish friendly relations with Amir. At Kabul, Ubaid'Allah,
along with some students who had preceded him to make way to Turkey to join the
Caliph's "Jihad" against Britain, decided that the pan-Islamic cause was to be best
served by focusing on the Indian Freedom Movement. The Berlin-Indian committee
(which became the Indian Independence Committee after 1915) also resulted in an
Indo-German-Turkish mission to the Indo-Iranian border to encourage the tribes to
strike against British interests. This group met the Deobandis in Kabul in December
1915. The mission, along with bringing members of the Indian movement right to

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 52

 India's border, also brought messages from the Kaiser, Enver Pasha and the displaced
Khedive of Egypt, Abbas Hilmi expressing support for Pratap's mission and inviting
the Amir to move against India The mission's immediate aim was to rally the Amir
against British India and to obtain from the Afghan Government a right of free passage.
But after the leakage of the plan, the top Deobandi leaders were arrested—Hadhrat
Mahmudul-Hasan (also known as Shaykh al-Hind) was arrested from Makkah and
together with Hadhrat Husayn Ahmad Madani, was exiled to Malta, from where, he
was released in his later stages of T.B.
In January 2013, The President of India, Pranab Mukherjee released a commemorative
postage stamp on the Silk Letter Movement to acknowledge and appreciate the
sacrifices of such groups for the Indian independence movement.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 53

 7- The Khilāfat Movement
Short Questions
Q: What was All-India Khilāfat conference? [4]
• The conference was held in Delhi in November 1919.
• It was led by ‘Alī brothers (Maulānā Muhammad ‘Alī Jauhar and Maulānā Shaukat
‘Alī).
• Maulānā ‘Abul Kālām Āzād and Gāndhī represented Indian National Congress.
• Gāndhī hoped to unite Hindus and Muslims in his non-violent movement against
British.
• Maulānā ‘Abul Kālām Āzād had already warned the conference that David Lloyd
George- Prime minister of United Kingdom will punish Turkey for fighting against the
Britain in WWI.
• The conference passed a resolution agreeing to send a delegation to Britain to tell them
about the strength of Muslim support for Khalifa.
Q: What was the Khilāfat movement? [4]
• Khilāfat movement was started in 1919 to support and protect the institution of
caliphate in Turkey.
• Maulānā Muḥammad ‘Alī Jauhar, Maulānā Shaukat ‘Ali, and Maulānā ‘Abul Kālām
Āzād were three main proponents of this movement.
• Three Khilāfat conferences were held in this regard.
• On the agreement of the conference meeting, a delegation went to meet Lloyd George-
British Prime Minister in 1920 to persuade him for fair treatment of Turkey.
• In the meanwhile, ‘Alī Brothers and Maulānā ‘Abul Kālām Āzād declared India as Dār
al-Ḥarb (House of war) and Muslims migrated to nearby Dār al-Amān i.e., Afghanistan
in Hijrat movement.
• Muslim League and Jinnah stayed away from this movement to focus on Khilāfat
movement.
• Khilāfat movement ended in 1924 with Khilāfat’s abolition by Mustafā Kemāl ‘Aṭā
Turk- founder of modern Turkey.
Q: What were demands of Khilāfat movement? [4]
• Khilāfat conferences were held in November and December, 1919 and the demands
were as following;
i- Turkey should not be split up in parts.
ii- Muslims sacred places not to be harmed.
iii- Caliphate not to be abolished.
• These demands were expressed to the British by a delegation sent to the England.
British Prime Minister refused to entertain the demands, which led Maulānā Shaukat
‘Alī, Maulānā Muḥammad ‘Alī Johar and Maulānā ‘Abul Kālām Āzād to form Khilāfat
Movement.
Q: What was Hijrat Movement? [4]
• ‘Ulemā of the sub-continent i.e., Maulānā Muḥammad ‘Alī Johar, Maulānā ‘Abul
Kālām Āzād, Maulānā ‘Abdul Bārī Farangī, and Maulānā ‘Abdul Majīd Sindhī
declared sub-continent as Dār al-Ḥarb (House of war).
• Muslims were asked to migrate to a nearby peaceful country which was Afghanistan.
• Nazims were appointed in every big city and central office was established in Delhi
known as Khuddām e-Muhājirīn to motivate Muslims for migration.
• So, about 18,000 people decided to migrate.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 54

 • When the immigrants went in multitude towards Afghanistan, they closed their borders.
• Muslims who had left everything and sold their properties at home became homeless.
• All India Muslim League opposed the movement as they wanted Muslims to stay back
and fight for the Khilāfat Movement’s cause.
• Majority Ulemā i.e., Ashraf ‘Alī Thānvī, Allāma Ināyat Ullāh and leaders of public
opinion like Jinnāh did not approve it and stayed away from this movement to focus on
Khilāfat movement.
• It was an unplanned movement based only on emotions and had not taken into
consideration the realities of Afghanistan.
• This movement deteriorated Muslims’ plight however it reinforced the commitment of
Muslims’ sacrifice for the principles, teachings, and ideology of Islam.
Q: What was non-cooperation movement of Gāndhī? [4]
• The Non-cooperation movement was a political campaign launched on 4 September
1920, by Mahātmā Gāndhī to have Indians revoke their cooperation from the British
government, with the aim of persuading them to grant self-governance.
• This came as result of the Indian National Congress (INC) withdrawing its support for
British reforms following the Rowlatt Act of 18 March 1919.
• The movement was one of Gāndhī’s first organized acts of large-scale satyāgrāhā.
• In this movement, through non-violent means, or Ahimsā, protesters would refuse
o to buy British goods,
o adopt the use of local handicrafts,
o and picket liquor shops.
o In addition to promoting "self-reliance" by spinning Khādī, buying Indian-made
goods only, and boycotting British goods.
• Gāndhī's non-cooperation movement called for the restoration of Khilāfat movement
in Turkey and the end to untouchability.
• The non-cooperation movement was ended suddenly after the Chaurī Chaurā incident
on 4 Feb 1922.
Q: What was Moplah uprising? [4]
• In 1921, a violent uprising started by the extremely religious Muslims peasants living
in South India.
• The Moplahs were angry by the Hindu landlords and the British.
• In August, 1921, 10,000 Moplahs at Tirur attacked and destroyed a police station and
seized the arms and ammunition.
• They also destroyed the Hindu properties including temples.
• Thus British suppressed the uprising and killed more than 4,000 Moplahs.
• Only 100 British causalities were observed in this uprising.
• Hindu groups who were already opposed to Hindu-Muslim unity began to forcibly
convert Muslims to Hinduism.
Q: What was Chaurī Chaurā incident? [4]
• The Chaurī Chaurā incident occurred at Chaurī Chaurā village in the Gorakhpur
district of the United Province, (modern Uttar Pradesh) in British India on 4 February
1922.
• A large group of protesters, participating in the Non-cooperation movement, clashed
with police, who opened fire. In retaliation the demonstrators attacked and set fire to a
police station, killing all of its occupants.
• The incident led to the deaths of three civilians and 23 policemen.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 55

 • Gandhi was concerned about the increasing level of violence and called off his Non-
cooperation movement which upset many congress leaders specially Muslims.
• It had greatly weakened the Hindu-Muslim unity and ultimately the Khilafat movement.
Q: What was Gāndhī’s Satyagraha? [4]
• This term was coined by Gāndhī in which ‘Satya’ means ‘truth’ and ‘Grāhā’ means
‘insistence or holding firmly to or knot’ so, ‘holding firmly to truth’ means
‘satyāgrāhā’.
• Someone who performs it is called ‘satyāgrāhī’.
• It is a particular form of non-violent resistance or civil resistance.
• This theory even influenced Martin Luther King Jr. and James Bevel in their campaigns
during civil rights movements in the United States and Nelson Mandela’s struggle
against apartheid in South Africa.
Q: What is Fatwa Tark-e-Mawālāt? [4]
The Jamiat-ul-Ulemā i-Hind issued a Fatwa of Tark-e-Mawālāt. The following points
were included in it:
• Renunciation of all Government titles.
• Boycott of legislature and court.
• Withdrawal of students from educational institutions.
• Resignation from government posts.
• General civil disobedience.
As a result of proclamation of this decree (fatwa), hundreds of thousands people
returned the titles and stopped sending their children to government schools and
colleges. All those highly educated young men who could have risen to high
government positions bade farewell to their bright future and accepted ordinary jobs in
the private sector. The vacuum created in government offices was joyfully filled in by
Hindus, while the Muslim government employees willingly accepted starvation for the
sake of the Muslim cause.
Q: Why did Muslims help British in World War I? [7]
The predicament for Muslims was that British wanted Muslims’
-> Muslims helped
help in World War I against Germany between 1914 to 1918. British to get
Muslims too wanted to help the British so that due political and constitutional leverages.
constitutional leverages can be taken from the British. At the same -> And also wanted to
time Muslims also wanted to help Turkey- the only independent help Turkey
Muslim country at that time which was siding Germany against -> Promises were taken
British. Muslims always kept caliphate of Turkey in high regard not to harm the caliphate
and did not want this caliphate to be abolished. British promised -> British wanted
Muslims to fear Hindus.
the Muslims that the caliphate would not be harmed but, after the -> Muslims were fearful
WWI British decided to punish Turkey for supporting Germany by looking at the result
against British in the war. of great game.
During WWI Muslims thought that British wanted them to fear Hindus because of their
majority so that they cooperate with British as the later are the ones who can guarantee
them their constitutional due rights. Many Muslims acted upon this fear and joined British
forces which was criticized by ‘Abul Kālām Āzād.
The situation of Muslim countries specially Iran and Afghanistan because of the Great
Game between Russia and Britain was severely out of Muslims’ hands. This was another
fear among the Muslims of Indian subcontinent to cooperate with strong British.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 56

Q: Why was Khilāfat movement emerge? [7]
During the world war I the Indian Muslims were in a very awkward position, because they
had a deep-rooted devotion to the caliphate. They had profound respect for this holy
institution. Therefore, their support to the British Government ->deep rooted love
was subject to the safeguard and protection of the holy places for caliphate.
and on the condition that Turkey will not to be deprived of its -> protection of
territories. But the British Government could not fulfill both of
holy places.
these promises. The Treaty of Sevres in 1920 was imposed on -> fear of turkey’s
Turkey and its territories like Samarnā, Thrace, and Anātoliā dismemberment.
were taken from it and distributed among European countries. -> Treaty of Sevres
A wave of anger swept across the Muslim World and the Indian -> Demands to
Muslims rose against the British Government. British P.M
Muslim leaders like Maulānā ‘Abdul Kālām Azād, Maulānā Muhammad ‘Alī Johar,
Maulānā Shoukat ‘Alī and others reacted against the British Government policy and were
put behind the bars. Thus, Muslims organized a mass movement, which came to be known
as Khilafat Movement. The aims of this movement were
i- Turkey should not be split up in parts.
ii- Muslims sacred places not to be harmed.
iii- Caliphate not to be abolished.
These demands were expressed to the British by a delegation sent to the England. British
Prime Minister refused to entertain the demands, which led Maulānā Shaukat ‘Alī,
Maulānā Muḥammad ‘Alī Johar and Maulānā ‘Abul Kālām Āzād to form Khilāfat
Movement.
Q: Why was Khilāfat Movement failed by 1924? [7]
Some historians said that the base of Khilāfat Movement’s ideology was wrong. It was
failed because the members were more concerned with the fate of Khalifā than the people
of Turkey. Khalifā being a sacred entity was revered by the Muslims. For them Khilāfat
movement was more important than paying heed to protect their socio-economic
conditions. -> Members were more
The Failure of Hijrat Movement which was one of the off shoot of concerned of Khalifā
Khilafat Movement was a set back. Ulemā of the sub-continent than the people of
declared sub-continent as Dār al-Ḥarb and Muslims were asked Turkey.
to migrate to a nearby peaceful country which was Afghanistan. -> Failure of Hijrat
So, about 18,000 people decided to migrate. Muslim League Movement.
-> Gāndhī’s non-
opposed the movement as they wanted the Muslims to stay back cooperation movement.
and fight for the Khilāfat Movement’s cause. When the -> Chaurī Chaurā
immigrants went in multitude towards Afghanistan, they closed incident.
their borders. The Muslims who had left everything and sell their -> Abolishment by
properties at home became homeless. Kemāl Aṭa Turk.
Gāndhī’s Non-Cooperation movement strengthened the Khilāfat Movement and had
shaken the British Govt. But it had gone violent when Chaurī Chaurā incident took place.
23 policemen were burnt alive in a police station by a mob in Chaurī Chaurā village of
Gorakhpur district. Gāndhī called-off the movement undecidedly after this event. British
Govt. decided not to accept any off Khilāfat committee’s demands. All important leaders
i.e. ‘Alī brothers, Gāndhī and others were imprisoned. Final blow came when Turks
themselves abolished the seat of caliphate. Mustafā Kemāl Aṭa Turk abolished the kingship

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 57

 and established democracy. The Khalifā was deposed and exiled in 1924. The movement
failed without achieving anything.
Long Questions
Q: The Khilāfat Movement was founded because Muslims feared the break-up of Turkey
in 1st world war? Explain your answer. [14] OR
Q: Were concerns about British policies towards Muslims were the most important
reason for the foundation of Khilāfat Movement? Explain your answer. [14] OR
Q: The Khilāfat movement was founded mainly due to deep seated fears among the
Muslims about anti-Muslim British policies. Explain why you might agree and
disagree?[14]
There were many reasons for the emergence of Khilafat movement.
Muslims had a mistrust because off the way the West and British treated the Muslim
countries. In the same way Muslims of the sub-continent did not trust the British because
off the way they were treated in WWI and because of Rowlatt Act. The only independent
Muslim country at that time was Turkey. Muslims have already seen the influence of Russia
and Britain in Persia and Afghanistan in the Great Game. Muslims thought that British
wanted Muslims to fear Hindus because of latter’s majority and that’s how British can get
Muslims cooperation whenever it is needed.
In 1918, Maulvī Faẓl ul-Ḥaq- the President of Muslim League stated that every instance of
collapse of the Muslim Powers of the world will have negative impacts on the Muslims of
sub-continent. Maulānā ‘Abul Kālām Āzād sharply criticized the Muslims who cooperated
with British in WWI. Muslims kept caliphate of Turkey in high regard and did not want
this caliphate to be abolished. The treaty of Versailles set out which split the Germany into
two countries i.e., New Germany and Poland. Turkey was an ally of Germany, so they had
a fear of the abolishment of the caliphate.
Right from the start of WWI i.e., in 1914, Muslims were in a predicament that Turkey was
supporting Germany against British and what will be the fate of Muslims if Britain will win
this war. Another fear for Muslims was that in India they can be forced to fight in WWI
against their Muslim brethren. Muslims fears of treatment of Turkish caliphate after the
WWI were answered positively by the British. But, in treaty of Versailles and Sevres, along
with punishment to Germany and Austria, British plans of punishing the Turkish empire
and abolishing the caliphate were unfolded.
Muslim had a deep respect for the seat of caliphate, Sultān of Turkey was the Caliph and
the custodian of sacred places of Islam and Arabia. His name was pronounced in Friday
sermons throughout the Muslim world out of respect for Khalifā. The sanctity and respect
for caliphate system was because of the reverence of rightly guided caliphs from 632 A.D.
to 661 A.D. Therefore, Muslims felt it as their moral and religious duty to save the Khilafat
institution.
Conclusively, it can be implied that deep seated fears about the anti-Muslim British policies
was the most important reason for the foundation of Khilāfat movement. This argument
can be augmented by the British attitude towards Muslims in either the Great Game or their
attitude towards caliphate of Turkey.
Q: Was the Chaurī Chaurā incident of 1922, the most important reason for the failure of
Khilāfat Movement? Explain your answer. [14] OR
Q: Was the abolition of the institution of the Caliphate in 1924 the main reason of the
Khilāfat Movement? Explain your answer. [14] OR
Q: The Khilāfat Movement failed by 1924 because of poor leadership. Do you agree? Give
reasons for your answer. [14] OR

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 58

Q: Was the migration to Afghanistan (Hijrat Movement), the most important reason why
the Khilāfat Movement failed? Explain your answer. [14] OR
Q: The Khilāfat Movement failed by 1924 because Gāndhī with drew his support. Do you
agree? Give reasons for your answer. [14] OR
Q: Was the Moplah uprising in 1921 the main reason for the end of the Khilāfat
movement? Explain your answer. [14]
There were many reasons for the failure of Khilāfat movement.
1- Chauri Chaura incident
2- Non-cooperation. Movement
3- Moplah uprising
4- Hijrat movement
5- Abolishment of Caliphate by Mustafa Kamal
Conclusion: Consequently, it can be argued that abolishment of caliphate by Mustafa Kemal
Atta Turk was said to be the most important factor in failure of Khilafat movement because
how would a movement be flourished when the cause itself is vanished.

Source A Question
Q: What can you conceive about non-violence movement through source A? [3]
Source A: Non-violence is the law of our species as violence is the law of brute. The spirit
lies dormant in the brute, and he knows no law but that of physical might. The dignity of
man requires obedience to a higher law- to the strength of the spirit… it does not mean
meek submission to the will of the evildoer, but it means the putting of one’s whole soul
against the will of the tyrant.
Ans: It was a movement which had its roots in ‘ahimsa or non-violence’. Gāndhī believed
in non-violence, and he had associated it with the humankind and that violence is the law
of brute and non-violence is the law of justice. We Indians are in search of justice that’s
why we must focus on non-violence.
Source B Question
Q: What can you infer from the picture given below. [5]

(Description of picture)- I can infer from the picture that there is a huge crowd means people
are supporting the Khilafat movement. Right most corner shows Gāndhī sitting with people
protesting here. Gāndhī with his non-violence movement is supporting the Khilāfat movement.
This has been the last stages of Hindu-Muslim unity started in Lucknow pact in 1916 for a
mutual interest of self-governance in India.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 59

 8- Montague-Chelmsford Reforms
Short Questions
Q: What were Mont-Ford reforms? [4]
• In November 1917, John Montague- secretary of state of India and Lord Chelmsford-
viceroy of India carried a fact finding tour of India.
• Bicameral legislature (system of two houses) was proposed by the central legislature
i.e., council of state (Upper House) and Legislative Assembly (Lower House).
• Number of members in assemblies were increased i.e., council of state would have 60
members with 33 elected members and Legislative assembly would have 145 members
with 103 elected members.
• Number of voters was increased to 5.5. million.
• Three Indian ministers were included in Viceroy’s Executive Council.
• Separate electorate was granted to Musliums and Sikhs.
• It was decided that after ten years the constitutional reforms were to be reviewed again.
• System of diarchy was introduced by Govt. of India Act 1919.

Q: What is the System of Diarchy? [4]

• It was launched by the British for the first time in Montague-Chelmsford reforms at
provincial level.
• This act divided the powers into two subjects transferred and reserved subjects.
• The powers of transferred (unimportant) subjects or portfolios were given to Indian
ministers. They administered the portfolios of agriculture, local govt., education, health,
forests, public works, etc.
• The reserved (important) subjects or portfolios were to be administered by British
governors. Subjects under them include, police, justice, revenue, power resources, press
and publication, etc.
• So, British controlled the Indians by retaining important portfolios.
Q: What is Rowlatt Act? [4]
• Rowlatt act was an extension of Defense of India Act 1915.
• It gave the powers to the police to arrest anyone without warrant
• and detain him without the right to bail.
• People could not hold meetings.
• They could be tried privately by three high court judges and had no right to appeal.
• It had tragic results as it caused uproar in India, strikes and demonstrations took place.
• The protests were so violent that British thought it could prove to be another war of
1857.
Q: What is Jallianwala Bagh massacre? [4]
• The protests against Rowlatt act were going on in whole Punjab.
• Another version is that Sikhs were celebrating their Vaisakhi event in Jallianwala Bagh
in Amritsar.
• 20,000 People gathered there.
• General Dyer was appointed to control the law and order situation.
• Army closed the door and opened fire, resultantly 400 people were killed and 1200
injured by the attack.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 60

 • Hunter Committee was setup to investigate General Dyer’s actions and he was
reprimanded by the British, but his cadre (rank) was enhanced which aggravated the
Indian rage towards the British.
• He was murdered by Indian freedom fighter Udham Singh in retaliation of Jallianwala
Bagh massacre in 1927.
Q: Why were the Montague-Chelmsford reforms opposed by Indians in 1919? OR [7]
Q: What was the response of Hindus and Muslims towards Mont-ford Reforms? [7]
The reforms kept power in the hands of British, Indians were -> Minimal powers given
given minimal powers. Viceroy could veto any decision and to Indians.
can introduce any law. Indians who fought with British in -> Greater concessions
World War-I expected greater concessions. Indians thought were expected after
that even though they have provided thousands of men to fight WWI.
against British aggression in First World War, British have -> Moderates supported
ignored them in these reforms. it.
Congress and Muslim League who had recently come closer -> Separate electorate
to each other and were striving for self-rule did not accept the was not accepted in true
proposals. The reforms were condemned in the joint session letter and spirit.
-> Diarchy provided
of congress in 1918, only the moderates supported it, who
actual powers to British
were soon excluded from the party. The British had not governors.
accepted the separate electorate in true letter and spirit.

Though British had extended the members of legislative assemblies and more members
would now be added in the assemblies through elections i.e., 103 out of 145 members,
they retained the powers through diarchy in which powers through important subjects
were vested to British governors.
Q: Why was India not granted self-rule in 1919? [7]
Britain was economically weekened after the 1st world war. -> Britain economically
All colonial nations were demanding independence from their weekend.
colonizers i.e., Morocco, Algeria and, Tunisia from France. -> All colonial nations
British thought that its political position in the world would be were demanding
weakened if it would submit to India’s demand of independence.
independence. -> Important for British
It was important for British navy as well. Britain had already navy.
-> Control of strategic
established strategic ports to control the trade in the region. ports to control the trade
Thousands of British i.e., Businessmen, Missionaries, and in India.
civil servants lived in India and had now formed a separate -> Indians meted out with
Anglo-Indian community which could not be left behind. harsh treatment.
Indians were meted out with harsh treatment i.e. Jallianwala
bagh incident, Rowlatt Act, etc. That’s why Britain did not
give in to India’s demand of independence.

Long Questions

Q: The Montague-Chelmsford reforms were the most important one than any other
political development between 1909 and 1919? Do you agree or disagree? Explain your
answer. [14] OR
Q: How successful were political developments in finding a solution to the problems in
the sub-continent between 1909 and 1919? Explain your answer? [14] OR

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 61

Q: Lucknow Pact of 1916 was the most important attempt by either the Muslims, Hindus,
or the British government in seeking a solution to the problems in sub-continent between
1909 and 1919. Do you agree? Explain. [14]
In November 1917, John Montague, secretary of state of India and Lord Chelmsford,
viceroy carried a fact finding tour of India. After the talks with the local leaders they
come up with a constitutional solution of India’s problems. Report suggested the
following;

i. Bicameral legislature (system of two houses) was proposed by the central legislature
i.e., council of state (Upper House) and Legislative Assembly (Lower House).
ii. Number of members in assemblies were increased i.e. council of state would have 6o
members with 33 elected members; Legislative assembly would have 145 members
with 103 elected members.
iii. Number of voters was increased to 5.5. million.
iv. Three Indian ministers were included in Viceroy’s Executive Council.
v. Separate electorate was granted to Musliums and Sikhs.
vi. It was decided that after ten years the constitutional reforms were to be reviewed again.
vii. System of diarchy was introduced by Govt. of India Act 1919.
The transferred (unimportant) subjects or portfolios i.e. agriculture, local govt.,
education, health, forests, public works, etc were given to Indian ministers. The
reserved (important) subjects or portfolios i.e. police, justice, revenue, power resources,
press and publication, etc were under the control of Governors who were British.
These reforms were not acceptable to both Muslim League and Congress because both
hoped for greater concessions. The Viceroy and Governors were given more executive
powers than Indian ministers through system of diarchy. They could even appoint
Indian ministers and dissolve assemblies so the administrative control was in the hands
of British. Consequently, the Govt. of India Act 1919 did not resolve the constitutional
problem within India.
Important developments occurred during the first and second decade of the 20th century
like Minto-Morley reforms which increased the number of members in legislative
assemblies and have given a separate platform for the Muslims to contest elections.
Hostility of Muslims towards British grew firstly through the annulment of the Partition
of Bengal and secondly by Western aggression towards Muslim countries, Balkan wars,
Demolition of the mosque in Kanpur (1913), etc. This weakened Muslim faith in the
British and ultimately led to a major drift in the Muslim League’s policy. This change
of policy brought the AIML and INC closer.
Hindus had their own reasons for antagonism such as partition of Bengal which
according to them was a political gimmick of British to let the Indians away from the
self-rule. They had a view that British was pursuing their ‘divide and rule policy’
through division of two major Indian communities i.e., Muslims and Hindus. Muslim
had then known that if they seriously want to pursue their demands and to protect their
political rights, they had to take the majority (Hindus) in confidence. That’s how
Muslims and Hindus came closer and agreed to sign Lucknow Pact from where Hindu-
Muslim unity had started. It was a great success for Muslims that Hindus had accepted
the Muslim demand of separate electorate and a greater number of seats in Imperial
Legislative Council for Muslims was agreed upon, but the spirit of Lucknow Pact did
not last long. The friendly atmosphere created by the pact soon waned out and an
extremist Hindu element soon took over Congress.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 62

 British also extended the Defense Act of 1915 through Rowlatt Act in 1919. It gave
the powers to the police to arrest anyone without warrant and detain without the right
to bail. People could not hold meetings. They could be tried privately by three high
court judges and had no right to appeal. It had tragic results as it caused uproar in India,
strikes and demonstrations took place. The protests were so violent that British thought
it could prove to be another war of 1857.

Consequently, it can be implied that Lucknow Pact is the most important political
development from 1909 to 1919 because firstly for the very first time in the history of
subcontinent, Muslim’s demand of separate electorate was accepted by the Hindus and
secondly it was right for the first time Hindus were united with Muslims.

Q: Were the Montague-Chelmsford reforms the main reason for the outbreak of violence
across India in 1919? Explain your answer. [14] OR
Q: Was the introduction of Rowlatt act in 1919 the sole cause of violence in India during
1919 and 1920? Explain your answer. [14]

In November 1917, John Montague, secretary of state of India and Lord Chelmsford,
viceroy carried a fact finding tour of India. After the talks with the local leaders they
come up with a constitutional solution of India’s problems.

Report suggested a bicameral legislature at center with upper house as the council of
state and lower house as the Legislative Assembly. The major shift of British political
maneuvering was the inclusion of more elected members so Legislative assembly
would have 145 members with 103 elected members. At provincial level, Diarchy was
introduced which distributed the powers into reserved (British Governors) and
transferred (Indian Ministers) subjects through which British retained the power. The
right of the separate electorate which was previously given only to Muslims was now
extended to Sikhs too. The number of voters was increased to 5.5 million.

The reforms kept power in the hands of British, Indians were given minimal powers.
Viceroy could veto any decision and make and introduce any law. Indians who fought
with British in World War-I expected greater concessions. Congress and Muslim
League who had recently come closer to each other then and were striving for self-rule
did not accept the proposals. The reforms were condemned in the joint session of
congress in 1918, only the moderates supported it, who were soon excluded from the
party. The British had not accepted the separate electorate in true letter and spirit.

Rowlatt act was an extension of Defense of India Act 1915. It gave the powers to the
police to arrest anyone without warrant and detain him without the right to bail. People
could not hold meetings. They could be tried privately by three high court judges and
had no right to appeal. It had tragic results as it caused uproar in India, strikes and
demonstrations took place. The protests were so violent that British thought it could
prove to be another war of 1857.

The protests against Rowlatt act were going on in whole Punjab. Another version is
that Sikhs were celebrating their Vaisakhi event in Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar.
20,000 People were gathered there. General Dyer was appointed to control the law and
order situation. The army closed the door and opened fire, resultantly 400 people were

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 63

 killed and 1200 injured by the attack. General Dyer’s act was reprimanded by the
British but his cadre was enhanced which aggravated the Indian rage towards the
British. He was murdered by Indian freedom fighter Udham Singh in retaliation of
Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1927.

Consequently, it can be said that Montague-Chelmsford give rise to the oppressive

feelings towards Indians which also caused the opposition of Rowlatt Act and
ultimately killings in Jallianwala massacre.

Source A Questions
Q: According to source A what message is being conveyed by Jinnah? [3]
Source A: What we want is true political freedom of the people, not posts and positions in
government. Secondly, the unusual haste displayed in passing the Rowlatt Act before the new
Council, and contrary to universal opinion, only goes to illustrate the policy of the government.
And when, in the Punjab, this universal opposition against the Rowlatt manifested itself
through constitutional methods, it fell to the lot of the lieutenant-governor to dishonestly
characterize it as ‘open rebellion’.
Ans: Jinnah demanded political freedom in true letter and spirit. He clears to the British that
we do not want posts and positions in the government but a true political freedom which
British is reluctant to pay heed to. This is because of struggle against Rowlatt act, people
had gathered in Punjab, but it was characterized as ‘open rebellion’.

Source B Questions

Q: What does source B tell us about the incident of Jallianwala Massacre? [5]

Ans: I can infer from the picture that General Dyer can be seen in the picture with Malacca
stick in his hand which is the symbol of command in the army. It can also be inferred that
British forces have opened fire on Indians who have not held any firearms. This means that
Indians have been mercilessly killed by the British forces. All the gates of Jallianwala Bagh
were closed so that the visitors may not flee from the site and more causalities can be observed.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 64

 9- Events from 1923 to 1929

Q: What was Swaraj party? [4]

• Swaraj party was setup on 1st January 1923 by Indian politicians and members of Indian
National Congress.
• Inspiration was taken by the concept of swaraj which means self-government.
• Most important leaders of this party were Chittaranjan Dās (President) and Motilāl
Nehru (Secretary)-Father of Jawāharlāl Nehru. Jinnāh also joined this party after
winning the elections of 1923 unopposed from the Bombay seat.
• The aim of this party was to use Legislative Assemblies’ setup through Montague-
Chelmsford Reforms to work for India’s freedom.
Delhi Muslim Proposals-1927
Q: What were Delhi Muslim Proposals? [4]
Considering separate electorates to be the main hindrance in improving Hindu- Muslim
relations, Quā’id i-Āzam proposed that if the Hindus had agreed to provide certain
safeguards, the Muslims would give up this demand. Consequently, the proposals were
formally approved at a conference held by Muslims in 1927 at Delhi, and are now called
“The Delhi-Muslim Proposals”. Following are the safeguards that were proposed:
i. The formation of a separate province of Sindh.
ii. Introduction of reforms in the NWFP and in Baluchistan.
iii. Fixed seats in proportion to the population of different communities in Punjab and
Bengal.
iv. One-third Muslim representation in the Central Legislature.
v. For communal matters, no bill or resolution would be passed if 3/4th of the members
of the community would not accept it.
Q: What was the response of Delhi Muslim Proposals by AIML and INC? [4]
• These proposals were to be accepted or rejected in toto.
• Muslims largely agreed to give up the separate electorates in form of the reservation of
seats.
• All India Muslim League was divided into two groups i.e., Shafī League and Jinnāh
League mainly from Punjab.
• Shafi League did not accept the idea of giving up separate electorate.
• Unfortunately, the Congress first accepted but later rejected the proposals.
The Simon Commission-1927
Q: What was the Simon report? [4]
The conservative Govt. set up an early commission of seven British members under the
chairmanship of Sir John Simon. Lord Birkenhead- Secretary of the State for India was
worried that if Labor party (supporter of nationalism in India) would win the future
elections, they would give away too many powers to Indians. The commission reported in
1930 which stipulated;
• Federal system
• Diarchy was abolished in provinces and all the portfolios will then be handed over to
provincial ministers.
• Powers of central govt. and provincial governors i.e., British to be reduced. Yet,
emergency powers of British governors were retained.
• Right to vote should be extended to more people.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 65

 • Separate electorate for Muslim was granted.
• 1/3rd representation in central legislature not granted.
• Sindh would be the part of Bombay presidency.
• Special status of NWFP remained the same.
• Round Table conferences were announced to setup a new constitution in India.
Report was unacceptable for Both Congress and Muslim League. Yet, Shafī League
accepted the commission’s report on a plea that British should not be left alone at center.

Q: Why was the Simon Commission sent to India? [7]

The Govt. of India Act 1919 stated that a commission would be ->A constitutional
set up after ten years to look into the constitutional reforms setup commission had to setup
in the act. Hindu-Muslim cooperation was just a dream at that w.r.t Mont-Ford reforms
time because after the failure of Khilafat movement, where after 10 years.
Muslims blamed Gandhi for its failure because he suddenly -> Indians were not happy
with Mont-Ford reforms.
withdrew from his non-cooperation movement and therefore from -> Fear of defeat of
Khilafat movement. Major parties in India have already rejected conservative party in
the Govt. of India Act 1919 so it was decided to review this act coming elections.
before its due time.
Lord Birkenhead- the Secretary of the State of India feared a defeat of Conservative party
in upcoming elections. If it gets defeated, then Labor party will succeed who will
investigate Indian matters more leniently and sympathetically as they were pro-nationalist.
Thus, a commission of seven men was sent to India under Sir John Simon in 1927. John
Simon and the members of commission were carefully selected in a way that these members
should not be in any way lenient towards Indian nationalism. The commission proposed for
the future constitution of India.

Q: Why was the Simon Commission Report rejected? [7]

The report was rejected in toto by all the major Indian parties. Important Points
There was no inclusion of Indian member in this commission so ->There was no Indian
both INC and AIML called it “all white body”. Lord Birkenhead member in the
did not include Indians in the commission because he considered commission.
the disunity among the Indians main impediment towards the -> Clauses were not
accepted in toto by any
constitutional efforts of commission. This was looked upon as an party.
insult and majority parties rejected the reports. ->Muslims’ demand of
The clauses of the report were partially accepted by political 1/3rd representation in
parties. For example, INC wanted a federation with a strong central legislature was not
center, but AIML wanted a federation with weak center where accepted.
-> No separation of Sindh
more powers are vested in provinces (provincial autonomy). from Bombay presidency.
Disappointments for Muslim League were manifold. Commission -> No reform work in
did not recommend one-third Muslim seats in central legislature. NWFP and Baluchistan.
It rejected the Muslim demand of separating Sindh from Bombay -> Emergency powers
Presidency. It had also not favored to have reforms in NWFP and were retained by British
governors.
Baluchistan. Lastly British Governors had also retained the
emergency powers.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 66

 Source A Question
SourceA: The offer of the hand of friendship from Congress is more valuable than any
concessions which the British Govt. is willing to make. The public meetings of the citizens
of Bombay firmly declares that the commission which has been announced is unacceptable
to the people of India as it denies the right of the people of India to participate on equal
terms in framing the future constitution of the country. It contains no Indian representation.
Indian throughout the country should have nothing to do with the commission at any stage
or in any form. We are not satisfied with the status of just being petitioners to this
commission.
The Simon Commission
Q: According to source A, why was there opposition to Simon commission of 1927? [3]
Ans: There was no Indian representative on the Simon Commission. The British valued
friendship with Congress more than their concessions. Congress was not on equal terms
with British in framing the new constitution and it was not satisfied with being only
petitioner to the commission.
Source B Question

Q: How does source B helps us to understand Indian concerns about the Simon
Commission of 1927? [5]
Ans: The conservative Govt. set up a commission of seven men under the chairmanship of
Sir John Simon. All the members were British, so there were protests in whole India as the
commission was considered as an insult. Banner tells us that he was an uninvited guest, so
he should go back to Britain. He was very unpopular so he and his commission members
were not welcomed and thus it was demanded that they should go back to Britain.
Nehru Report-1928
Q: Describe the Nehru Report? [4]
After the boycott of Simon commission, Lord Birkenhead, Secretary of State for Indian
Affairs, challenged the Indians, “If they have any political capability and competence then
they should form a unanimous constitution and present it to us and we will implement it.”
It was presented by Motilal Nehru in All Parties Conference in 1928. It called for
immediate dominion status7 for India. The proposals were as under;

7
Dominion status means that India would be independent and political equal of British and would be the part
of commonwealth and British Monarch would be the head of the state.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 67

 • India would be a federation with residuary powers8 vested in Center.
• There would be a bicameral legislature i.e., Upper House-Senate and Lower House-
House of Representatives.
• Adult suffrage9 for the lower house of central legislature and provincial assemblies.
• No separate electorate or weightage for any community as it awakens communal
sentiments. So, joint electorate should be introduced.
• Protection of minorities by reserved seats in central legislature.
• No reserved seats of Muslims in Punjab and Bengal. However, reserved seats will be
given to Muslims in provinces where their population is at least 10%.
• Muslims should have 1/4th representation at the centre.
• Sindh to be separated from Bombay presidency if it is financially viable.
• Reforms should be introduced in NWFP.
The report was not acceptable to Muslims. Thus, Muslim members of the Committee did
not sign it.
Q: What were Jinnah’s amendments to Nehru report? [4]
Jinnah represented Muslim League in the fourth session of All Parties Conference which
was convened to review the Nehru report. Jinnah presented following amendments.
• Muslim representation in Central Legislature should be no less then 1/3rd.
• If adult suffrage will not be established, Punjab and Bengal should have seats reserved
for Muslims based on population.
• There would be a federal constitution where residuary powers are to be vested in
provinces.
• Sindh to be immediately separated from Bombay Presidency.
• There should be reform work in NWFP and Baluchistan.
The committee rejected these amendments and thus it was considered as parting of ways
between Indian National Congress and All India Muslim League.
Jinnah’s 14 points-1929
Q: Why did Jinnah produce his 14 points? OR [7]
Q: Why was the Nehru report rejected? [7]
The report ignored political interests of Indian Muslims because important leadership to
speak for Muslims was not there. Jinnah was in England to look after his terminally ill wife.
Sir Ali Imam could not attend the meeting due to bad health. So Muslims were being
represented by Shoaib Qureshi and others who were not important leaders of Muslims.
INC was ignoring what they have previously accepted i.e., separate electorate and one-third
seats in the central legislature. Jinnah tried to advocate the Hindi-Muslim unity once again
by proposing amendments in January 1929. The amendments were;
i- One-third Muslim seats in both houses of central legislature i.e., Council of
state and central legislative assembly.
ii- If adult suffrage will not be established, Punjab and Bengal should have
seats reserved for Muslims based on population.
iii- Residuary powers to be vested in provinces.
iv- Making NWFP and Sindh as separate provinces.

8
Residuary powers are the powers which is retained by any government authority after certain powers have
been delegated to other authorities.
9
Right of sane citizens under a set age limit to vote in elections.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 68

Q: What were Jinnah’s 14 points? [4]
Jinnah’s proposals were rejected when put to vote in All Parties Conference. The Congress
managed to get the majority vote in favour of the Report. They asked the Government to
make a constitution till December 31 according to the recommendations of Nehru Report
and threatened that otherwise the party would start a mass movement for the attainment of
Swaraj. It was also decided that January 26 would be celebrated as the Independence Day.
Jinnah considered it as the “parting of the ways” and once the “Ambassador of Hindu-
Muslim Unity” was now convinced that the Hindu mindset in India was bent upon pushing
the Muslim minority to the wall.
The fourteen points were;
i. Federal constitution with the residuary powers rested in the provinces.
ii. Provincial Autonomy to all the provinces.
iii. Adequate and effective representation of minorities in every province.
iv. In central legislature, Muslims representative shall be not less than one-third.
v. Provision of Separate Electorates for all communal groups.
vi. Territorial re-distribution shall not in any way, affect the Muslim majority in
Punjab, Bengal, and N.W.F.P.
vii. Religious Liberty
viii. No bill hall be passed if opposed by three-fourth of any community.
ix. Sindh should be separated from Bombay Presidency.
x. Reforms should be introduced in the NWFP and Baluchistan.
xi. Muslims should be given adequate share in the services of State.
xii. Protection of Muslim's culture and Language.
xiii. No cabinet, either central or provincial shall be formed. Without being a
proportion of at least one-third Muslim Ministers.
xiv. No change shall be made in the constitution of state except with the
concurrence (agreement) of State constituting the Indian Federation.
Long Questions
Q: Which of the following was the most important of the Pakistan Movement? [14]
i. The Simon Commission
ii. The Nehru Report
iii. Jinnah’s 14 points
Explain you answer.
Discuss these reforms as given above with comparative language and topical vocabulary.
Conclusively, it can be implied that fourteen points of Jinnah were more important as they
were accepted in the long run, and they gave a platform to the Muslim League for the future
struggle for the independence.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 69

 10- The Round Table Conferences (1930-32)
Short Questions
Q: What was Salt March by Gandhi? [4]
• Britain’s Salt Act of 1882 prohibited Indians from collecting or selling salt-a staple in
their diet.
• Indian citizens were forced to buy it from their British rulers, who, in addition to
exercising a monopoly over the manufacture and sale of salt, also charged a heavy salt
tax.
• The Salt March took place from March to April 1930 in India.
• It was an act of civil disobedience led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi to protest
British rule in India.
• During the march, thousands of Indians followed Gandhi from his religious retreat
(hermitage) near Ahmedabad to the Arabian sea coast, some 240 miles apart.
• The nonviolent march and other similar marches resulted in the arrest of nearly 60,000
people including Gandhi himself.
Q: What was the First Round Table Conference? [4]
• The conference was held from November 1930 to January 1931 in London.
• 89 delegates attended the meeting. 16 from three main British political parties, 57 from
British India, and 16 from Indian princely states.
• The conference was attended by all i.e., Muslim League, liberals, and representatives
of the Muslim states except Indian National Congress.
• Gandhi continued with his civil disobedience movement and landed in prison.
• Without Congress, which was the representative of majority people in India, the
conference could not make any progress.
Q: What were the clauses accepted by delegates in 1st RTC? [4]
British decided to discuss the recommendations of Simon Report by inviting all the
political parties and minority groups at a Round Table Conference to discuss the future
constitution of the country.
The delegates acceded to the following points;
o Federal Govt. with proper division of power between Centre and provinces.
o Sindh was to be made a separate entity.
o Reforms to be introduced in NWFP.
o Princely states acceded to join a federation provided their rights were
recognized.
o British accepted that a responsible govt. must be setup in provinces.
Q: What was Gandhi-Irwin pact? [4]
The Gandhi–Irwin Pact was a political agreement signed by Gandhi and Lord Irwin-
Viceroy of India, on 5 March 1931 before the Second Round Table Conference
in London. Both leaders agreed on the following terms.
• Discontinuation of the Salt March by the Indian National Congress.
• Participation by the Indian National Congress in the Second Round Table
Conference.
• Withdrawal of all ordinances issued by the Government of India imposing curbs on
the activities of the Indian National Congress.
• Withdrawal of all prosecutions relating to several types of political offenses i.e.,
Rowlatt Act except those involving violence.
• Release of prisoners arrested for participating in the Salt March; and

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 70

 • Removal of the tax on salt, which allowed the Indians to produce, trade, and sell
salt legally and for their own private use.
Q: What was 2nd Round Table Conference? [4]
• It took place in London between Sep and Dec 1931.
• By this time labor govt. had collapsed and was replaced by conservative party.
• Conservative party was never in a mood to get out of India.
• Gandhi took a strong stance in which he claimed that he being the sole spokesman and
Congress to be the only representative of people of India, will speak for all Indians
including Muslims. Muslim leadership led by Allama Iqbal and Jinnah was infuriated
by this stance.
• It also did not recognize the minority problems in which Gandhi claimed that
untouchables are Hindus who cannot be treated as ‘minority’ and that there should be
no separate electorate as it would lead to a communal problem In India.
• It also did not accept that Jinnah’s 14 points should be included in future constitution
of India.
• It failed for two important reasons which were;
o Labor party which was in favor of Indian Nationalism in the past, lost power
o and secondly a coalition govt. was not willing to reach a compromise.
• Thus nothing was achieved in this conference except NWFP and Sindh were to be made
provinces with separate governors.
Q: What was the Communal Award? [4]
• After the failure of 2nd Round Table Conference, it was announced on 16 Aug 1932
th

by the British P.M Ramsay McDonald.

• It gave the right of separate electorate to all the minority groups of India.
• Muslims were given weightage in Hindu dominated provinces.
• Muslims were not happy as it had reduced their majority in Punjab and Bengal. There
was 57% population of Muslims in Punjab but reduced to only 49% seats in legislature.
There was 55% population of Muslims in Bengal but reduced to only 48% seats in
legislature.
• The consolation for the Muslims was that British separated Sindh from Bombay
presidency.
• Muslim League passed a resolution in its favor in the larger interest of the country.
• Congress launched a campaign against it. Gandhi protested as the Award declared
untouchables as minority. He undertook fast unto death.
Q: What was 3rd Round Table Conference? [4]
• Third Round Table Conference was again called upon in December 1932 which was
not attended by Congress.
• Surprisingly Jinnah was not invited even though he was living in London. British
considered him a troublemaker.
• Muslim delegates were led by Agha Khan and Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah.
• Only 46 delegates attended in which most of the main political figures of India were
not present.
• The only importance of this conference was that a white paper was submitted to the
British govt. which carried recommendations from all three conferences.
• Govt. of India Act 1935 was enforced on the basis of this white paper, which became
the future constitution of India and Pakistan till 1950 and 1956 respectively.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 71

Q: Why was it necessary to hold three Round Table Conferences? [7]
After the disagreement on Simon Commission, Lord Birkenhead ->Failure of Nehru
Report.
invited Indians to reform the constitutional problems by -> Failure of Jinnah’s
themselves. Both the communities tried to reform through Nehru 14 points.
Report and Jinnah’s 14 points but could not be agreed upon. The -> Gulf between
gulf between Muslim League and Congress widened and Jinnah Hindus and Muslims
decided to keep it that way because Hindus’ biased mentality widened.
-> Clause of Simon
towards Muslims was evident after Nehru Report. This lack of Commission.
unity between two communities made it worse for the British to -> Labor party was in
move forward and that’s why there was a threat of widespread favor of Indian
violence. Nationalism.

Constitutional hinderances between these two communities made way for the British to
discuss the recommendations of Simon Report by inviting all the political parties and
minority groups at a Round Table Conference to discuss the future constitution of the
country. New labor govt. (Led by Ramsay McDonald) installed in 1929 gave a new
hope to Indians because they were in a favor of Indian nationalism. Indians wanted full
independence but British wanted to have a hold on India.
Q: Why were Round Table Conferences unsuccessful? [7]
Indian National Congress did not attend the 1st Round Table ->INC didn’t attend 1st
Conference because British were still not interested in promising RTC.
the immediate dominion status to India. Gandhi continued its -> Gandhi was
civil disobedience movement and ended up in prison. So First imprisoned.
-> Gandhi and INC
Round Table Conference was inconclusive because majority claimed to speak for
party was not present. whole India in 2nd RTC,
Viceroy Lord Irwin met Gandhi and motivated him to go for never accepted by
another Round Table conference. Gandhi took a strong stance Jinnah rd
and AIML.
which was based on the Nehru report; he claimed INC to speak -> 3 RTC was neither
attended by INC nor by
for whole India and refused to recognize the problems of AIML.
minorities. Muslims representatives led by Muhammad Ali -> 3rd RTC was
Jinnah and Allama Iqbal were infuriated by Gandhi’s stance. attended by only 46
Thus, this conference i.e., 2nd Round Table Conference was also delegates.
a failure.
Third Round Table Conference was again called upon in December 1932 which was
neither attended by Congress nor by Jinnah. Only 46 delegated attended the conference.
The only importance of this conference was that a white paper was submitted to the
British govt. which carried recommendations from all three conferences. Govt. of India
Act 1935 was enforced on the basis of this white paper, which became the future
constitution of India and Pakistan till 1950 and 1956 respectively.
Q: Why was 2nd Round Table Conference of 1931 unsuccessful? [7]
Indian National Congress did not attend the 1st Round Table ->INC pressurized British
Conference because British were still not interested in promising by not attending 1st RTC.
-> Lord Irwin through Irwin
the immediate dominion status to India. Both Viceroy Lord Pact involved Gandhi in 2nd
Irwin and Indian representatives after their return from the 1st RTC.
-> Gandhi claimed to be the
Round Table Conference motivated Gandhi to stop his non- sole spokesman of India,
cooperation movement and to attend the 2nd Round Table Jinnah did not approve it.
Conference.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 72

 Some politicians i.e., Winston Churchill objected Irwin to talk -> A coalition Govt. was
to someone who has been imprisoned for opposing British not willing to reach a
rule. Gandhi-Irwin talks were successful in which Irwin compromise for Indian
acceded to release most of the prisoners and Gandhi accepted nationalism.
to call off the non-cooperation movement and to attend the 2nd -> Jinnah’s 14 points
were not considered.
RTC. Gandhi also accepted to withdraw from his demand of -> Gandhi stayed on their
complete independence in return to a promise that there will claim of Nehru report.
be a federal India in which major say would be of Indians.
It took place in London between Sep and Dec 1931. It failed for two important reasons
which were; Labor party which was in favor of Indian Nationalism in the past, lost
power and a coalition govt. was not willing to reach a compromise. Gandhi took a
strong stance in which he claimed Congress to be the only spokesman of India, did not
recognize the minority problems, did not accept that Jinnah’s 14 points should be
included in future constitution of India. Thus nothing was achieved in this conference
except NWFP and Sindh should have separate governors.
Long Questions
Q: The Round Table Conference of 1930 achieved more than those of 1931 and 1932. Do
you agree or disagree? Explain your answer. OR [14]
Q: The First Round Table Conference was the most successful of all three. Do you agree
or disagree? Give reasons for your answer. OR [14]
Q: How successful were the Three Round Table Conferences of 1930-32? Explain your
answer. [14]
There were both successes and failures to the Round Table Conferences.
Discuss three RTCs as above
Consequently, it can be said that 3rd Round Table Conference was the most successful
of all three Round Table Conferences because it managed to issue white paper on the
basis of all three RTCs which later became the source of Govt. of India Act 1935.
Source B Question
Q: What does source B tells us about the negotiations during the Round Table
Conference between 1930 and 1932? [5]

I can infer from the picture that the driver of the car is John Bull who represents British
interests. It is a bumpy road, so negotiations are difficult. Indians want to take control from
the British who were reluctant to give it to Indians. With reference to brake of the Car,
British feared that progress towards change might happen quickly. Political leaders of India
were reluctant to attend the Round Table Conferences as the decision of taking control of
India has already been made by the British.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 73

 11- The Government of India Act 1935
Q: What was the Govt. of India Act 1935? [4]
rd 10
After the 3 Round Table Conference, British govt. issued a white paper based on
three round table conferences. Govt. of India Act 1935 was passed in August 1935
based on this white paper. Main provisions are;
1- Federation
• A federal system in the sub-continent which enabled the Princely states to
participate in law making. Federation increased the powers of Indians yet the
subjects of defence and foreign affairs remained in the hands of British.
• This act divided the powers between Center and Provinces. There were three
lists of subjects i.e.,
o Federal List (59 items-Center will deal it)
o Provincial List (54 items-To be dealt by provinces)
o Concurrent List (36 items-Both center and provinces can legislate)
o Residuary powers were vested in the Viceroy.
2- Diarchy
• The system of diarchy which was previously introduced in provinces had then
been introduced in the center.
• Reserved subjects were to be controlled by Governor-General with the help of
three counsellors. These subjects were Defense, external affairs, ecclesiastical
(church-related), police, taxation, power resources, justice, and tribal affairs.
• Transferred subjects were to be administered by Governor-General with the
help of council of ministers (not more than 10). The subjects in list included
local government, forests, education, health, etc.
• However, Governor-General had special powers to interfere in transferred
subjects.
3- Bicameral Legislature
• It would be a parliamentary system with bicameral legislature i.e. two houses
(Lower House=The central legislative assembly and Upper House=the council
of the state).
• Federal assembly or the central legislative assembly had a term of five years.
• Both houses had representatives of princely states. These representatives were
to be nominated by the rulers of princely states and were not elected.
• Bicameral legislature was also introduced in some provinces like Bengal,
Madras, Bombay, Bihar, Assam, and United provinces.
• Muslims got 1/3rd representation in Federal Legislature.
4- Provinces
• It granted great deal of provincial autonomy i.e., provinces can legislate and
advice.
• Governor was the head of executive in provinces who would be advised by the
council of ministers.
• Powers of governors were curtailed yet they had powers of emergency. They
can interfere in the matters of law and order and also had the powers to veto a
bill.

10
White paper is an authoritative document which is a research-based document that presents information,
expert analysis and solution to a problem.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 74

 • Three new provinces i.e. Sindh, NWFP, and Orissa were created. Now the total
no. of provinces in British India were 11.
• Burma was carved out of India.
5- Federal Court
• It was established at Delhi for the resolution of disputes between either
provinces or between Center and provinces.
• It will have 1 Chief Justice and not more than 6 judges.
6- Elections and Size of electorate
• This act introduced direct elections for the 1st time in India.
• Voting rights were extended from 3% to 14% of the total population.
• Size of electorates was increased and then 35 million people could vote
including 5 million women.
7- Other points
• Federal Railway Authority was setup to control Indian railways.
• The act provided for the establishment of Reserve Bank of India.
• The act provided for the establishment of federal, provincial, and joint Public
Service Commissions.
It was sharply criticized by both INC and ML because real powers were still retained
by the British i.e., Viceroy had the powers to veto any law made by the provinces.
Q: Why was the Govt. of India Act 1935 so important to the future of the sub-
continent?[7]
->Last constitutional
It was the last constitutional reforms in sub-continent by the reform
British to hand over the powers to Indians. The act was federal -> Autonomy to provinces
and parliamentary in structure which provided provincial -> Veto powers in viceroy
autonomy to provinces; they were self-governing units except hands.
emergency and veto powers were still in the hands of viceroy. -> Membership of Indians
Membership of Indians were greatly increased in both upper in L.A greatly increased.
(council of state) house and lower (legislative assembly) -> right to vote was
increased to 14% of total
house. population
It was envisaged that 14% of the total population of Indians -> Three new provinces
can vote i.e., Almost 35 million people including 5 million Sindh, NWFP, and Orissa.
women had the right to vote. Though much of the total -> Source of future
population was still deprived of the voting right, it still was negotiations b/w Indians
better than nothing. Three new provinces of Sindh, NWFP, and the British.
and Orissa (now total number of provinces were 11) also -> Future constitution of
India and Pakistan.
increased the provincial autonomy.
It became the basis of discussion between the Indians and the British and thus paved
the way for independence of India in 1947. It also became the future constitution of
Pakistan and India till 1950 and 1956 respectively.
Q: Why did Indians reject the Govt. of India Act 1935? OR [7]
The Govt. of India Act was opposed by all the main political -> Indians demanded self-
parties of India specially INC and ML. The first and foremost independence, not given
reason was that Indians demanded self-independence which was to them.
not granted to them. Secondly emergency powers were retained -> Emergency powers
by the Governors and viceroy could still veto any bill. So, the retained by Governors.
powers Indians were expecting, not given to them. Indians -> Power to veto bills
objected on retaining the subjects of defence and foreign affairs retained by Viceroy.
by Viceroy.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 75

 System of diarchy which remained a failure in provinces in Govt. -> Subjects of defense and
of India Act 1919, it was then introduced in this act. No safeguard foreign/external affairs
was given to minorities and rights of Muslims were also not retained by Viceroy.
-> System of diarchy, seen
properly guarded. According to Govt. of India Act 1935 though as failure in govt. of India
the number of voters were increased from 3% to 14% of total Act 1919, launched again.
population but still 3/4th of the population did not have the right -> 3/4th population was still
to vote. Jawahar Lal Nehru called it as “the charter of slavery”. not given right to vote.
Mr. Jinnah called it as a “thoroughly rotten and totally -> No safeguard to
minorities.
unacceptable”.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 76

 12- Elections of 1937
Q: How successful were the provincial elections held in India in 1937? Explain. [10]
Successes for Congress
• Congress was able to form the government in seven provinces and a year later, eight
out of 11 provinces.
• Congress was invited to form the ministries in provinces of Bihar, Orissa, Madras,
United provinces, Central provinces, Bombay, and Assam.
Successes for Muslim League
• It was the first elections fought by the Muslim League which helped unify the party
which was divided in late 1920s.
• Party learned to contest the elections.
• They then knew that League had more support in Muslim minority areas.
• Muslim League realised that they had an image problem i.e., the leadership was
composed of the aristocrats and princes of the princely states whereas the majority
Muslims were poor.
Fewer Successes for Congress
• Congress which claimed to be the sole representative of India only won 707 seats out
of 1585.
• It only won 26 Muslim seats which were about five percent of the total Muslim seats.
• Congress alienated the Muslim League, because of which future negotiations were
hampered.
Fewer successes for Muslim League
• Out of 489 Muslim seats, M.L won only 116 seats.
• Won most of the seats in Hindu majority areas but completely failed in Muslim majority
areas.
• In Punjab, it won only two seats out of 86 Muslim seats. Most of the seats were won by
the unionist party.
Conclusively it can be argued that though elections were comprehensively lost by
Muslim League, it had given them a chance to rethink their policies and the reasons of
losing the elections. So that by addressing the issues they can do better in the future
elections.
Q: What were the outcomes of the provincial elections of 1937? [4]
Congress which claimed to be the sole representative of India only won 707 seats out
of 1585. It only won 26 Muslim seats which were about five percent of the total
Muslims. Out of 489 Muslim seats, M.L won only 116 seats. They won majority seats
in Hindu majority areas but completely failed in Muslim majority areas. In Punjab, it
won only two seats out of 86. Most of the seats were won by the unionist party. Muslim
League realised that they had an image problem i.e., the leadership was composed of
the aristocrats and princes of the princely states whereas the majority Muslims were
poor.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 77

 13- The Congress Rule (1937-1939)
Q: What was the Wardha Scheme? [4]
• Wardha scheme was introduced by the Congress education ministries in 8 out of 11
provinces.
• Teaching was to be in Hindi language according to this scheme.
• It also aimed to encourage Hindu culture and religion.
• Hindu personalities/heroes were projected in the text books.
• Spinning of cotton cloth on the wheel was made a part of curriculum.
• All students were expected to bow before the portraits of Gandhi in Central Provinces.
• Attempts were made to convert Muslims to Hindus.
Q: What was Vidya Mandir scheme? [4]
• It was an educational policy introduced by Dr. Zakir Hussain- an educationist and
politician who was closely associated with Gandhi and later became President of India
in 1967.
• The scheme was bent upon converting non-Hindus to Hinduism and erasing their
separate cultural identity.
• It was compulsory to bow before Gandhi’s picture in school assemblies and sing hymns
in his praise.
• Temple education was added to school curriculum till elementary level.
• Muslims resented and pulled their children out of schools as this would sway Muslim
children away from Islam.
Q: What was Bande Mātaram / Vande Mātaram? [4]
• Vande Matram was a poem written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (a Bengali) in 1870s
in his novel ‘Anandnath’.
• It was a nationalist song in which Hindus were encouraged to expel Muslims from
Hindustan.
• The poem was first sung by Rabindranath Tagore in 1896 session of INC.
• First two verses of this poem were adopted as a National song of India in 1937 by
Congress Ministries.
• It was made compulsory to sing the song before the start of business and in provincial
assemblies. It was also sung in the morning assemblies.
Q: What was the ‘Day of Deliverance’? [4]
• It was celebrated on 22 December 1939. Jinnah called on the Muslim community to
celebrate the end of Congress rule.
• He appealed to all local and provincial district Muslim Leagues to hold public meetings
to support this declaration and appealed for these gatherings to be held calmly.
• Congress objected this celebration.
Q:Why was the Congress Rule of 1937-39 so hated by the Muslims? OR [7]
Q: Explain why the Muslim community objected to the rule of the Congress party
between 1937 and 1939. [7]
Congress had formed the government in 8 out of 11 provinces. It targeted -> Targeted Muslims identity
Muslim identity and culture in the eve of Hindu Nationalism. Muslims and culture.
-> Vande Matram as National
were upset due to Hindu policies like Vande Matram was introduced as Anthem.
a National Anthem which was about expelling Muslims from India. -> Hindi as medium of
instruction.
Wardha scheme (educational scheme) was introduced which made Hindi -> Bowing to portrait of
as the medium of instruction, removed religious education, made cotton Gandhi.
-> Temple education was
spinning as the part of curriculum to motivate practical education. added
-> Conversion of Muslims to
Hinduism.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 78

 According to Vidya Mandir scheme, students must bow to portraits of -> Azan was banned
Gandhi and tom sing hymns in his respect. Temple education was Pigs were thrown in
mosques.
added to school curriculum for which Muslims pulled their children ->Cow slaughter was
out of schools. The scheme was bent upon converting non-Hindus to banned.
Hinduism specially Muslims.
Muslims were killed and abused by Hindus. Organized attacks on the mosques. Cow
slaughter was banned and Muslims were forbidden to eat beef. Azan was banned and
pigs were thrown in the mosques. Muslims felt that if they would launch complaint
against such atrocities, they would not get justice. So, anti-Muslim riots became
frequent and houses of Muslims were set on fire. Flag of Indian National Congress was
hoisted with the Union Jack on it which showed that there were only two powers in the
sub-Continent i.e., Hindus and British.
Q: ‘The main reason why congress rule (1937-39) was so hated because of the
introduction of the Wardha Scheme.’ Do you agree? Explain. OR [14]
Q: ‘The main reason why congress rule (1937-39) was hated so much by many Muslims
because of the introduction of the Bande Matram.’ Do you agree? Explain. OR [14]
Q: Was the introduction of Wardha Scheme the main reason why Congress rule (1937-
39) was disliked by the Muslim community? Give reasons for your answer. OR [14]
Q: Do you agree that the celebration of ‘the Day of deliverance’ in 1939 was justified?
Give reasons for your answer. [14]
Congress targeted Muslim identity and culture in the eve of Hindu Nationalism after
the elections of 1937. Muslims hated them so much that Quaid asked the Muslims to
celebrate this day i.e., 22nd December 1939 as a day of deliverance.
One of the main reasons was the introduction of Wardha and Vidya Mandir scheme by
the Congress education ministries in 8 out of 11 provinces. Wardha scheme was
introduced by the Congress education ministries in 8 out of 11 provinces. Teaching was
to be in Hindi language according to this scheme. It also aimed to encourage Hindu
culture and religion. Hindu personalities/heroes were projected in the text books.
Spinning of cotton cloth on the wheel was made a part of curriculum. All students were
expected to bow before the portraits of Gandhi in Central Provinces. Attempts were
made to convert Muslims to Hindus.
Vidya Mandir Scheme was an educational policy introduced by Dr. Zakir Hussain- an
educationist and politician who was closely associated with Gandhi and later became
President of India in 1967. The scheme was bent upon converting non-Hindus to
Hinduism and erasing their separate cultural identity. It was compulsory to bow before
Gandhi’s picture in school assemblies and sing hymns in his praise. Temple education
was added to school curriculum till elementary level. Muslims resented and pilled their
children out of schools as this would sway Muslim children away from Islam.
Vande Matram was another source of Muslim hatred towards Hindus. It was a poem
written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (a Bengali) in 1870s in his novel ‘Anandnath’.
It was a nationalist song in which Hindus were encouraged to expel Muslims from
Hindustan. The poem was first sung by Rabindranath Tagore in 1896 session of INC.
First two verses of this poem were adopted as a National song of India in 1937 by
Congress Ministries. It was made compulsory to sing the song before the start of
business and in provincial assemblies. It was also sung in the morning assemblies.
Hindu Nationalists have made Muslims’ life miserable as they were killed and abused
by Hindus. Organized attacks on mosques. Cow slaughter was banned and Muslims
were forbidden to eat beef. Azan was banned and pigs were thrown in the mosques.
Muslims felt that if they would launch complaint against such atrocities, they would

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 79

 not get justice. So, anti-Muslim riots became frequent and houses of Muslims were set
on fire. Flag of Indian National Congress was hoisted with the Union Jack on it which
showed that there were only two powers in the sub-Continent i.e. Hindus and British.
Viceroy Lord Linlithgow himself observed oppressions of Hindus on Muslims on many
instances. So, Muslims had developed a strong fear about cultural and religious
traditions of Muslims in case of Hindu dominated rule.
Conclusively it can be argued that Wardha Scheme was the most important reason for
the hatred of Muslims towards Hindus because it was a direct hit on Muslims’ identity,
culture, and religion which is something can’t be tolerated.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 80

 14- Pakistan Movement (1940-1945)
1- August Offer (August-1940)
Q: What was August Offer? [4]
• August Offer was an offer made by Viceroy Linlithgow in the Battle of Britain in 1940
at Shimla. It promised
o the expansion of Viceroy’s Executive Council by including more Indians,
o the establishment of an advisory war council,
o giving full weightage to minority opinion,
o and the recognition of Indians’ right to frame their own constitution after the
end of the war.
• In return, it was hoped that all parties and communities in India would cooperate in
Britain’s efforts in World War II.
• However, this proposal was rejected by the Congress and Muslim League.
Q: Why was August offer rejected? [7]
The British were already engaged in their war against ->Period was not favorable for
Germans, the period was not favorable for addressing addressing legislative issues.
legislative issues in India. Therefore, Linlithgow stated that the -> Congress rejected the offer
and asked for complete
constitutional future of India could be resolved in the future freedom.
once the war was over by establishing a constituent assembly. -> Gandhi saw it as widened
the gulf between Nationalist
The Congress Working Committee meeting at Wardha on 21st India and British.
August 1940 eventually rejected the offer, and asserted its -> M.L did not accept it as it
demand for complete freedom from the imperial power. didn’t give clear assurance for
establishment of independent
Gandhi viewed it as having widened the gulf between country for Muslims.
Nationalist India and the British.
Having not taken the idea of independent state for Muslims seriously, Linlithgow
supposed that what Jinnah actually wanted was a non-federal arrangement. To allay
Muslim fears of Hindu domination the 'August offer' had been accompanied with the
promise that a future constitution would take the views of minorities into consideration.
The Muslim League did not accept the offer, as it did not give a clear assurance for the
establishment of independent state for Muslims.
2- Lahore Resolution (March-1940)
Q: What was Lahore Resolution? [4]
• The resolution was held in Muslim League’s annual session at Minto Park, Lahore on
22nd March 1940.
• Mr. Jinnah, who presided the annual session was not in favour of separate homeland till
1939 (the end of congress-rule).
• He wanted Muslims to live in a federation having autonomous provinces.
• But after congress rule, he believed that Hindus and Muslims are two separate and
distinct nations and therefore the only chance open for their existence was to allow them
to live in separate states.
• So, A.K Fazlul Haq (then Chief Minister of Bengal) put forwarded the demand of
contiguous Muslim majority provinces in the North-West and East of India to be
grouped together to form an independent Muslim state.
• The demand was unanimously passed in this session and called as “Lahore Resolution”.
Hindu press called it as “Pakistan Resolution” in sarcastic way.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 81

Q: What is the importance of the Lahore Resolution? [7]
First of all, the resolution was passed unanimously which showed the unity among
Muslims over the demand of a separate Muslim homeland. This idea of partition took
the Muslims under one banner and objective i.e., the independent country.
Muslim League which was formed in Dhaka and was already ->Unanimously approved.
popular in Bengal, this resolution increased the popularity of -> Muslims grouped under
one banner.
Muslim League in the provinces of Punjab, Sindh, and NWFP. ->Increased the popularity
Thus, Muslim league became the true representative of the of Muslims.
Muslims and Jinnah “the sole spokesman”. -> Muslim League became
It helped Muslim League to observe that who among the true representative of
Muslims.
Muslims were against the formation of an independent Muslim -> Who among Muslims
state in India. The All India Azad Muslim Conference gathered were opposing the idea of
in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for an independent Pakistan.
India, in response to the Lahore Resolution. Members included -> Muslims wanted to
silence nationalist
several Islamic organisations in India, as well as 1400 Muslims.
nationalist Muslim delegates. The pro-separatist All-India -> Murder of C.M Sindh.
Muslim League worked to silence these nationalist Muslims of All India Azad
Conference who stood against the partition of India, often using “intimidation and
coercion”. The murder of the Chief Minister of Sind Allah Baksh Sumro who was also
founder of All India Azad Muslim Conference made it easier for the All-India Muslim
League to demand the creation of a Pakistan.
3- The Cripps Mission (March 1942)
Q: What was the Cripps mission? [4]
• The conditions of the sub-continent were such that the British were engaged in World
War II and had lost political and economic superiority.
• Japanese had advanced to South-east Asia till Burma.
• British could not open another front within sub-continent in such difficult days.
• In these condition British played a gimmickry to send Sir Stafford Cripps (member of
cabinet) to India in 1942 to appease the people of India with attractive promises of
independence.
o India would be given dominion status after the war.
o A constituent assembly would be elected which would frame new constitution
of India.
o In new constitution, provinces could opt out of the federation at any time.
o The cultural, religious, and regional rights of minorities would be protected.
o Till the end of the war, the portfolios of defence and finance would remain in
British hands.
o The political parties were to wholly accept or reject the proposals.
Q: Why was the Cripps mission of 1942 failed / unsuccessful? OR [7]
Q:2 Why did Congress and the Muslim League oppose the Cripps mission in 1942? [7]
Actually Quaid-i-Azam and other Muslim League leaders were ->Cripps was traditional
convinced that Cripps was a traditional supporter of Congress and supporter of Congress.
-> He was impressed by
thus could not present an objective solution to the problem. On the Gandhi.
arrival of Cripps, Jinnah made it clear that he was a friend of -> He attended the meeting of
Congress and would only support the Congress’ interests. Congress Congress.
-> Openly supported Congress
leaders themselves accepted that Cripps was their man. On his first interests.
visit to India, Cripps in fact attended the meetings of the Congress -> Congress rejected, did not
provide for full independence.
Working Committee. He also visited Gandhi and was so much

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 82

 impressed by him that he wore white khadi suit. He openly -> The idea of Provinces to
ridiculed the Muslim League’s demand for Pakistan when he opt out of federation was
not acceptable to Congress.
said, “we cannot deny 25 crore Hindus desire of United India -> Congress did not trust
only because 9 crore Muslims oppose it.” Jinnah called these British; Gandhi was not
proposals as “unsatisfactory” and said that it would “take the convinced from day one.
Muslims to gallows”.
Congress rejected the proposals because it demanded immediate independence and full
control of India. They were not ready to wait till the end of the war. The idea of province
opting out of the federation was not acceptable to Congress at all. Congress was not
sure to trust British to deliver their promise after the war. Gandhi called these proposals
as “post- dated cheque on a failing bank”.
4- Quit-India Resolution (August 1942)
Q: What was the Quit-India resolution? [4]
• On August 8, 1942 the Quit India Resolution was passed at the Bombay session of the
All India Congress Committee (AICC) after Gandhi’s speech.
• Almost the entire Indian National Congress leadership (at least 60,000), and not just at
the national level, was imprisoned without trial within hours after Gandhi’s speech.
• Many Indian businessmen were profiting from heavy wartime spending and did not
support Quit India.
Q: Why was Quit-India movement failed? [7]
Small-scale violence took place around the country and the British ->British arrested thousands
arrested tens of thousands of leaders, keeping them imprisoned until of Congress leadership.
1945. In terms of immediate objectives, Quit India movement failed -> Weak coordination and
lack of clear-cut program of
because of heavy-handed suppression, weak coordination, and the Congress.
lack of clear-cut program of action. -> Militant students paid
Many militant students paid more attention to Subhas Chandra attention to Neta ji, who was
supporting axis-working
Bose-Neta ji, who was in exile and supporting the Axis-supporting with Japan.
Japanese. The only outside support came from the Americans, as -> Hindu Mahasba and
President Franklin D. Roosevelt pressured Prime Minister Winston Communist party strongly
opposed it.
Churchill to give in to Indian demands. Netaji Subhash Chandra -> Jinnah’s opposition led
Bose organized the Indian National Army with the help of the Muslims to support British.
Japanese and conducted a guerrilla war against the British -> Only support was from
American president.
authorities.
The parties like Hindu Mahasba and the Communist party of India strongly oppose the
Quit-India movement. Muhammad Ali Jinnah’s opposition to the call led to large
numbers of Muslims cooperating with the British, and enlisting in the army.
5- Gandhi-Jinnah talks (1944)
Q: What were Gandhi’s proposals in Gandhi-Jinnah talks? [4]
• Gandhi wanted immediate support from the Muslim League to oust the British and
said that idea of partition could be addressed later after the independence.
• A referendum might be held in Muslim majority provinces to see if they wish to be
separate.
• Punjab and Bengal have to be divided because there are majority non-Muslim
districts in these provinces.
• Gandhi insisted to be acknowledged as the sole representative of all India
(regardless of religious identity) which was the same naïve demand he put
forwarded in 2nd Round Table Conference and negated the Two Nation theory.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 83

 • Gandhi wanted the key portfolios of defence, foreign affairs, and finance to lie with
the central govt.
• Gandhi did not accept Two Nation’s Theory which was the political basis for All
India Muslim League.
Q: Why did Gandhi-Jinnah talks failed in 1944? OR [7]
Q: Explain why the Gandhi-Jinnah talks of 1944 did not reach an agreement? [7]
• Talks were held in 1944 when Gandhi was released from jail on health grounds by Lord
Wavell. Both the leaders met at Jinnah’s place in Bombay. Multitude was expecting a
consensus in the talks but it failed.
o Quaid-e-Azam rejected the proposal, first of all because he did not trust Gandhi.
o Secondly, he wanted independence and partition simultaneously.
o Gandhi and Jinnah disagreed over the ‘Two-Nation Theory’ which had become
official Muslim League policy.
o He also objected to Gandhi’s demand of being called as sole representative of
all India.
o Jinnah insisted on the point that key portfolios of defence, foreign affairs, and
finance should be with provincial and not to the central govt.
• Quaid knew that Muslims in general and Muslim League in particular would have a
weaker position if British would leave India at this stage.
Q: ‘Disagreement over the future role of central government in the subcontinent was the
main reason for the breakdown of the Gandhi–Jinnah talks in 1944.’ How far do you
agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]
• May agree that the disagreement over the future role of central government in the
subcontinent was the main reason for the breakdown of the Gandhi– Jinnah talks in
1944:
o Gandhi wanted central government to have control over defence, foreign
affairs, and finance.
o Jinnah thought such matters should be in the hands of local government
and/or provinces.
• counter-arguments might include:
o Gandhi felt that partition should not be discussed until after the British left
India. Jinnah wanted partition before the British left as Congress were
unlikely to agree to it once the British had gone.
o Gandhi considered himself to be speaking for all of India. Jinnah reminded
him that, as a Hindu, Gandhi was only the spokesman of Congress.
o Gandhi and Jinnah disagreed over the ‘Two-Nation’ Theory which had
become official Muslim League policy.
6- The Shimla Conference (1945)
Q: What was Shimla conference of 1945? [4]
• It was called on by viceroy Lord Wavell in July, 1945 soon after the World War II
ended.
• British were intended to leave but they wanted an agreement to hold after they leave
India.
• Both leaders of Muslim League and Congress were invited in the negotiations.
• The wishes put forwarded were;
o To form an interim govt. of India consisting of equal no. of Congress and
Muslim League in the Viceroy’s Executive Council.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 84

 o There would be 13 members, 5 each from Muslim League and congress, 1 from
Sikh community, 1 from Scheduled Castes and 1 from other communities.
Failure
Viceroy wanted one Muslim seat to be given to a non-leaguer from Punjab and
Congress demanded this seat as there were few Muslims who supported Congress.
Jinnah did not agree to the demand and thus conference failed. It did not have any
impact on the creation of Pakistan.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 85

 15- Pakistan Movement (1945-47)
1- Elections of 1945/46
Q: Describe the 1945/46 Elections? [4]
• Labour party succeeded in elections after defeating Winston Churchill’s conservative
govt. and Clement Atlee became Prime Minister.
• Lord Wavell conducted the elections in India of central and provincial assemblies on
P.M’s demand so that an executive council of the Indians can be set up.
• Both INC and M.L took part in the elections with different objectives i.e., congress
fighting for undivided India and M.L for divided and independent India.
• INC got 91% of non-Muslim votes whereas M.L won 87% of Muslim votes.
o M.L won all 30 seats reserved for Muslims and Congress 57 out of 102 seats of
Central Legislative Assembly.
o M.L won total 425 seats of 495 reserved seats for Muslims and emerged as the
largest party of Muslims.
o Congress won a total of 923 seats in the provincial legislatures and emerged as
largest party of India.
Q: Why did M.L perform better in the 1945 elections? [7]
The reasons behind such a success were that Quaid-i-Azam had ->Quaid organized the
organized the party from the grass roots. Party branches increased party from grass root.
-> branches increased.
after the 1937 elections. The chief ministers of Punjab and Bengal
->C.M of Punjab and
formally joined Muslim League. Mr. Jinnah led the election Bengal joined M.L.
campaign himself addressing massive gatherings across the Indian -> M.L tickets were
provinces. League tickets were awarded to most suitable candidates awarded top suitable
and funds were disbursed wisely. candidates.
-> Experience through
ML also had gained experience in the by-elections and the party
previous elections.
now knew how to contest elections. Image of the party was restored -> image was restored.
when leadership shifted from aristocrats and princes to true leaders ->Lahore resolution
of the people. The Congress rule from 1937-39 was also a proved to be uniting force
nightmare for the Muslims facing religious restrictions and threat for Muslims.
-> Emotional Muslim
to their culture. The 1940's Lahore Resolution proved a uniting
voters.
force for the Muslims who were now thinking differently.
After failures of Gandhi-Jinnah talks in 1944 and the Simla Conference in 1945, the
communal divide was much greater. The general election of 1945/46 was a litmus test to
gauge the political divide in India. Therefore, Muslim voters were charged with emotions;
men, women, and students had set examples of sacrifices and dedications. They played
pivotal role in bringing ML with surprising victory.

2- Cabinet Mission Plan

Q: What was the Cabinet Mission Plan? [4]
• Three member delegation, composed of Sir Stafford Cripps, Sir Pethic Lawrence, and
Mr. A.V. Alexander was sent to India in March, 1946 to hold talks with INC and M.L.
• It proposed an All India Commission by an interim Govt. who would decide if there
should be one or two states in India after British would leave India.
• On rejection by both INC and M.L, the mission again proposed that India would be a
federation with three groups of territories i.e.
o the Hindu majority territories (UP, CP, Bihar, Madras, Bombay and Orissa)

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 86

 o the western Muslim provinces (Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan and NWFP)
o and Bengal and Assam.
• M.L accepted the plan but INC rejected it and thus the plan failed.
Q: Why did the cabinet mission fail? [7]
The proposal given by Cabinet mission of an All-India Commission ->Both INC and AIML
by an interim Govt. who would decide if there should be one or two were stuck to their
objectives.
states in India after British would leave India was not accepted by -> INC said they would not
both INC and M.L who were stuck to their objectives i.e., INC wanted be bound to this plan.
undivided and independent India but M.L wanted divided and ->Nehru believed groupings
independent India. will make weak center.
-> Nehru’s speech rejected
Another point of difference was that the Congress took a position that it.
a sovereign constituent assembly would not be bound to the plan. -> INC was against
Jinnah insisted that it was binding once the plan was accepted. Nehru groupings on the basis of
believed that groupings would make a weak centre. religion.

Nehru's speech on 10 July 1946 rejected the idea that the provinces would be obliged to
join a group and stated that the Congress was neither bound nor committed to the plan.
While the Muslim League agreed to the proposals and did not wish any changes, the
Congress party did not agree to all the proposals and said they would not be bound to the
plan after the departure of British from the sub-continent. It was against the idea of
grouping provinces on the basis of religion. It also argued for a stronger centre.
3- Direct Action Day
Q: What was the Direct Action Day? OR [4]
Q: What was Great Calcutta Killing? [4]
• British were aiming to leave India in August, 1946.
• M.L had a fear that if British would leave India without settling the question of Pakistan,
then Hindus would dominate Muslims.
• So, in 1946, M.L passed a resolution asking Muslims ready for independence.
• On 16th August, M.L called for a Direct Action Day to show Muslim strength.
• Communal riots spread in various parts of India.
• In the Great Calcutta Killing, 4000 people were killed.

4- June 3rd Plan

Q: What was the 3rd June Plan? [4]
Lord Mount Batten was sent to India in 1947 to mark a plan for the British to leave India.
Plan was made public on 3rd June, 1947 and final transfer of powers to be made on August,
1947. The key points of the plan were;
• The powers will be transferred to two independent states i.e., Pakistan and India.
• Govt. of India Act 1935 would be the interim constitution of two Govts.
• Both states would have a dominion status and Executive would be answerable to their
respective constituent Assembly.
• Muslim majority provinces were asked, whether to stay with India or Pakistan.
• It divided the financial and military assets between Pakistan and India.
• Muslims accepted the plan which meant they had only 7 weeks to deal with the
problems of partitioning British India.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 87

 5- Radcliffe Award
Q: What was the Radcliffe Award? [4]
• It is also known as Boundary Commission.
• It was headed by Sir Cyril Radcliffe to establish the new borders of India and Pakistan,
particularly Punjab and Bengal.
• The award had four assistants i.e., two nominated by M.L and two by INC.
• The results were announced on 16th August, 1947, two days after Pakistan’s creation.
• M.L was disappointed that Calcutta was given to India though it was surrounded by
Muslim states.
• Similarly, in Punjab, both Ferozepur and Gurdaspur were given to India although these
were Muslim majority areas.

6- Independence Act
Q: What was the Independence Act? [4]
th
• It was passed on 15 August.
• It stated that from that day onwards India would be partitioned into two Dominion states
i.e,. India and Pakistan.
• Each state would be free to make any laws as they wish.
• The Govt. of India act 1935 would serve as the interim constitution for both the states.
• Pakistan adopted 14th August and India 15th August as their independence day.

Long Questions
Q: ‘The declaration of the Day of Deliverance in 1939 was Muhammad Ali Jinnah’s
greatest achievement in the years 1939 to 1947.’ Do you agree or disagree? Explain your
answer. OR [14]
Q: Was the success of labour party in winning the British General Elections in 1945 the
most important reason why the sub-continent of India was partitioned in 1947? Explain
your answer. OR [10]
Q: Were the Gandhi-Jinnah talks the most important factor during the 1940s that led to
the partition of the sub-continent in 1947? Give reasons for your answer. [14]
There were many factors which led to the partition of India.
Day of Deliverance
• Congress targeted Muslim identity and culture in the eve of Hindu Nationalism after
the elections of 1937.
• Muslims hated them so much that Quaid asked the Muslims to celebrate this day i.e.,
22nd December 1939 as a day of deliverance. It was the day when Congress ministries
resigned because it could not come up to the terms with British.
Importance of Lahore Resolution
• First of all, the resolution was passed unanimously which showed the unity among the
Muslims over demand of a separate Muslim homeland. This idea of partition took the
Muslims under one banner and one objective i.e., the independent country.
• Muslim League which was formed in Dhaka and was already popular in Bengal, this
resolution increased the popularity of Muslim League in the provinces of Punjab, Sindh,
and NWFP. Thus, Muslim league became the true representative of the Muslims and
Jinnah “the sole spokesman”.
Crips Mission and Jinnah

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 88

 • Jinnah and other Muslim League leaders were convinced that Cripps was a traditional
supporter of Congress and thus could not present an objective solution to the problem.
• On the arrival of Cripps, Jinnah made it clear that he was a friend of Congress and
would only support the Congress’ interests.
• Congress leaders themselves accepted that Cripps was their man. On his first visit to
India, Cripps in fact attended the meetings of the Congress Working Committee. He
also visited Gandhi and was so much impressed by him that he wore white khadi suit.
• He openly ridiculed the Muslim League’s demand for Pakistan when he said, “we
cannot deny 25 crore Hindus desire of United India only because 9 crore Muslims
oppose it.” Quai-e-Azam called these proposals as “unsatisfactory” and said that it
would “take the Muslims to gallows”.
Gandhi-Jinnah Talks
• Talks failed because firstly Jinnah did not trust Gandhi and secondly, he wanted
independence and partition simultaneously whereas Gandhi wanted independence first
and then partition.
• Jinnah knew that Muslims in general and Muslim League in particular would have a
weaker position if British would leave India at this stage.
• He also objected to Gandhi’s demand of being called as sole representative of all India.
Jinnah insisted on the point that key portfolios of defence and finance should be with
provincial and not to the central govt.
Elections of 1945/46
• The reasons behind such a success were that Quaid-i-Azam had organized the party
from the grass roots.
• Party branches increased after the 1937 elections.
• The chief ministers of Punjab and Bengal formally joined Muslim League because of
charismatic personality of Jinnah.
• Mr. Jinnah led the election campaign himself addressing massive gatherings across the
Indian provinces. League tickets were awarded to most suitable candidates and funds
were disbursed wisely.

Conclusively, it can be implied that Lahore Resolution was more important as they were
accepted unanimously by all Muslim s and now Muslims have gathered under the banner
which mattered for Pakistan movement.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 89

 16- Dr. Allama Muhammad Iqbal & Ch. Rehmat Ali
Q: Who was Dr. Allama Muhammad Iqbal? [4]
• He was a Poet, Philosopher and Politician who was born in Sialkot on Nov 9, 1877.
• He was graduated in Lahore, obtained degree of Law from England and doctorate in
Philosophy from Germany in 1908.
• In 1922, he was made knight by King George V and was given the title of ‘Sir’.
• In 1926, he was elected in Punjab Assembly and made a great impact on legislation at
the provincial level.
• In 1927, he was appointed as a general secretary of Muslim League (Sir Shafi group).
• In 1930’s he attended Round Table conferences.
• In 1930, he chaired a meeting of Muslim League in Allahabad which is known as
Allahabad address.
• He died in April, 1938 and was buried outside Badshahi mosque.
Q: Why was Dr. Allama Iqbal an important influence on the struggle for a separate
homeland of Pakistan? [7]
• He was the greatest poet, politician and philosopher.
• In 1922, he was made knight by King George V and given him the title of ‘Sir’.
• In 1926, he was elected in Punjab Assembly and made his impact on legislation at the
provincial level.
• In 1927, he was appointed as a general secretary of Muslim League (Sir Shafi group).
• In 1930’s he attended Round Table conferences.
• In 1930, he chaired a meeting if Muslim League in Allahabad which is known as
Allahabad address.
• He presented the idea of separate Muslim state by amalgamating Muslim majority
provinces in North-west.
• He was the 1st prominent Muslim leader to advocate the partition of India and creation
of separate Muslim state.
• He is called the “Architect of Pakistan” because of the idea he has given.
• He had given this idea to preserve the culture and faith of the Muslims.
• He made Two Nation’s Theory as the basis of Pakistan.
• In 1933, Ch. Rehmat Ali’s scheme was built upon his ideas of separate state for
Muslims.
• His ideas were the basis of ‘Lahore Resolution’ in 1940.
Q: What is Allahabad address? [4]
• In 1930, he chaired a meeting if Muslim League in Allahabad which is known as
Allahabad address. Few demands of which are;
o He wanted the Muslims of the sub-continent to go for a separate homeland.
o He argued that Islam has given a code of conduct to the Muslims which unites
them to form one nation and for which they have to pursue.
o The Muslims have to be recognized as one nation and under a federal system
Muslim majority areas i.e., Punjab, NWFP, Sindh, and Baluchistan should be
amalgamated to form one separate state in keeping with view “Two Nations’
Theory”.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 90

 o It is interesting to note here that he did not include Kashmir and Bengal into this
scheme11.
Q: Why was Allahabad address needed at that time? [7]
• There were many reasons which caused Muslims to think about the separate homeland
and compelled to protect the rights of the Muslim.
• Firstly, he gave the idea and concept about a separate homeland in this address because
the Muslim were a nation and had a right that they got the identification and passed
their lives in order to the Islamic principles.
• There was a two branched attack on the Muslim interests. On the one side, Hindus were
creating the restrictions in the way of the Muslim and hurting the feeling of the Muslim
to propose the Nehru report as the ultimate constitution for India.
• On the other side, the British government totally ignored the Muslim’s rights and other
facilities were not being provided to them.
• They were ignored in every field of life, especially in education and government.
• In that critical condition, Allama Muhammad Iqbal realized that these eccentric
problems of the Muslims in North West India needed to be addressed.
Q: Why was Dr. Allama Muhammad Iqbal asked to chair the Muslim League at
Allahabad in 1930? [7]
• Muslims had a confidence in him and he was one of the most respected leaders of the
Muslims at that time.
• He was called the “Architect of Pakistan” because of the idea of separate Muslim state
provided by him in this meeting.
• He was a zealous nationalist and was an advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity in 1920’s.
• Later on, he persuaded the Muslims that a joint effort has to put forward to challenge
the Congress dominance because of their attitude towards Muslims.
• He had inspired many Muslim leaders of Muslim league and gave them an insight to
protect the culture and faith of the Muslims.
• In 1933, Ch. Rehmat Ali’s scheme was built upon his ideas of separate state for
Muslims.
• His ideas were the basis of ‘Lahore Resolution’ in 1940.
• His poetry was the source of inspiration for the Muslims of India.
Q: Who was Ch. Rehmat Ali? [4]
• Ch. Rehmat Ali left India in 1930 to study law at Cambridge University.
• He attended Round table conferences as an observer.
• He believed in separate independent Muslim homeland.
• He wrote a short pamphlet “Now or Never” which had proposed the name of
‘PAKISTAN’.
• He was considered less important than Allama Iqbal.
• Jinnah did not agree with his idea and called it premature.

11
Some Historians believe that he did not include Bengal because of a geographic distance between
northwestern Muslim majority states and Bengal and Kashmir as it was being ruled under a Prince.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 91

Q: How did the name ‘PAKISTAN’ originate? [4]
• Ch. Rehmat Ali along with three of his Cambridge colleagues proposed a name
‘PAKISTAN’ in his short pamphlet name ‘Now or Never’.
• The literal meaning of ‘PAKISTAN’ is ‘’the land of pure.
• They argued that India should be partitioned and a new independent state has to be
formed with Punjab, NWFP, Sindh and Baluchistan as its provinces.
• In the word ‘PAKISTAN’, P stands for Punjab, A stands for Afghania (North western
provinces), K stands for Kashmir, I is Indus or it is a reference word to connect ‘Pak’
with ‘Stan’, S stands for Sindh, and TAN stands for Baluchistan.
• Aslam Khattak, his colleague at Cambridge and a signatory to the pamphlet claimed to
invent the name of ‘PAKISTAN’.
Q: Was the work of Allama Iqbal more important to the Pakistan Movement than that
of Ch. Rehmat Ali? Explain your answer. OR [14]
Q: Did Allama Iqbal contribute more to the Pakistan Movement than Rehmat Ali?
Explain your answer. [14]
• Both contributed in shaping Pakistan movement in their own way.
• He was a great poet, politician and philosopher.
• In 1922, he was made knight by King George V and was given the title of ‘Sir’.
• In 1926, he was elected in Punjab Assembly and made his impact on legislation at the
provincial level.
• In 1927, he was appointed as a general secretary of Muslim League (Sir Shafi group).
• In 1930’s he attended Round Table conferences.
• In 1930, he chaired a meeting of Muslim League in Allahabad which is known as
Allahabad address. Few demands of which are;
o He wanted the Muslims of the sub-continent to go for a separate homeland.
o He argued that Islam has given a code of conduct to the Muslims which unites
them to form one nation and for which they have to pursue.
o The Muslims have to be recognized as one nation and under a federal system
Muslim majority areas i.e. Punjab, NWFP, Sindh and Baluchistan should be
amalgamated to form one separate state in keeping with view “Two Nations’
Theory”.
o It is interesting to note here that he did not include Kashmir and Bengal into this
scheme. Some Historians believe that he did not include Bengal because of a
geographic distance between northwestern Muslim majority states and Bengal
and Kashmir as it was being ruled under a Prince.
• He was the 1st prominent Muslim leader to advocate the partition of India and creation
of separate Muslim state.
• He is called the “Architect of Pakistan” because of the idea he has given.
• He had given this idea to preserve the culture and faith of the Muslims.
• He made Two Nation Theory as the basis of Pakistan.
• In 1933, Ch. Rehmat Ali’s scheme was built upon his ideas of separate state for
Muslims.
• His ideas were the basis of ‘Lahore Resolution’ in 1940.
• Ch. Rehmat Ali left India in 1930 to study law at Cambridge University.
• He attended Round table conferences as an observer.
• He believed in separate independent Muslim homeland.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 92

 • He wrote a short pamphlet “Now or Never” which had proposed the name of
‘PAKISTAN’.
• It is interesting that he did not include Bengal anywhere in his acronym.
• He was considered less important than Allama Iqbal.
• Jinnah did not agree with his idea and called it premature.
• In 1947, he accused Jinnah for abandoning important Muslim communities such as
Agra, Delhi and Lucknow.
• He also accused Jinnah to accept a divided Bengal.
• Jinnah ignored the attacks and concentrated on establishing Pakistan.
• Ch. Rehmat Ali’s views were different from Allama Iqbal as the former wanted a
separate independent state and later wanted just a separate state.
• He was considered as less important than Allama Iqbal because 1stly his views were
considered as premature by Jinnah he was being followed by the multitude in the sub-
continent.
Conclusion: Objectively and according to the evidence provided above we can say that
Allama Iqbal contributed more to Pakistan Movement because he was the leader who
predicted the creation of Muslim homeland and also, he was the one who inspired the
leaders like Jinnah to focus on the materialization of his dream.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 93

 17- Achievements of Jinnah
Q: How successful was Pakistan/the govt. of Pakistan in solving the problems of partition
during 1947 and 1948? Explain your answer. OR [14]
Q: The govt. of Pakistan was totally successful in solving the problems of partition during
1947 and 1948. Do you agree? Explain your answer. [14]
Achievements
• Setting up a Relief Fund to rehabilitate the refugees as quickly as possible.
• He encouraged and motivated the people by touring the provinces to contribute to the
cause. People came with both hands to help.
• He declared himself as “Protector-General” of religious minorities.
• Quaid-i-Azam secured membership of Pakistan in the UNO.
• A cabinet was formed and appointed Liaqat Ali Khan as the Prime Minister of the
country.
• A constituent assembly was setup which had two tasks i.e., to act as parliament and
to set a new constitution of Pakistan.
• Karachi was made the capital of the country.
• The people with govt. experienced were moved to Karachi on special trains and
airplanes.
• Offices were opened in hired residential buildings, army barracks, and even in tents.
• The Civil Service Commission was drafted to run the administration smoothly.
• Jinnah’s industrial policy of 1948 encouraged the establishment of industries in
predominantly agricultural economy.
• State bank of Pakistan was established on 1st July 1948.
• Ordinance factory was setup to cope up with the problems of weapons and
ammunition because out of 16 ordnance factories India had not given any to Pakistan.
• British military officers and bureaucracy remained in Pakistan
Problems
• India stopped water at Firozpur and Gurdaspur headworks which irrigated 1.65
million acres of land on the plea that Pakistan should pay for this water. A temporary
solution was sought when India agreed on releasing the water on temporary basis till
Pakistan finds alternate resource of water. This dispute was not resolved till 1959.
• 750 million rupees were to be given to Pakistan according to agreed division of
16:5 but only 200 million rupees were given to Pakistan initially; another 500 million
rupees were given on insistence of Mr. Gandhi. 50 million rupees were never paid.
• There was a shortage of properly qualified and experienced govt. officers to run the
government.
• The issue of Kashmir could not be resolved, and war was initiated in 1948 which was
ended by the interference of UNO.
• Due to migration, millions of people were made homeless and could not be settled
in a short period of time.
• Military assets given to Pakistan in ratio of 36:64 were old, damaged, and unusable.
• The Issue of Kashmir and other princely states were raised in front of UNO but
could not be resolved.
• Jinnah only survived for thirteen months after the creation of Pakistan; it was a death
blow to the newly formed government.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 94

 18- Early Problems of Pakistan
1. Refugee Problem
Q: Explain why the sub-continent was faced with a refugee problem in 1947? OR [7]
Q: What was Refugee Problem? [4]
• Tensions between Hindus and Muslim grew in 1946 and 1947, killing of people
increased from April to June 1947.
• Things worsened after the announcement of Boundary Award in August 1947. Millions
of people were suddenly living in someone else’s homeland and had to migrate and a
largest migration in the history of mankind occurred in which 10 million people
migrated i.e., Muslims moved into Pakistan and non-Muslims into India.
• Some moved willingly and some were forced across the border to create more
difficulties to handle such large refugees.
• Attacks on trains and caravans led to extreme violence and mostly between Muslims
and Sikhs of Punjab.
• Many historians believe that Hindus and Sikhs had an organized program of killing the
Muslims. For example, in some of non-Muslim princely states, troops supported the
attacks on Muslims.
• It was estimated that almost one million men, women, and children had died and
another 20 million were made homeless because of partition.
• Logistical problems were created for refugees because they were in such huge no.
which could not be accommodated on the logistic resources Pakistan had.
• Resettling the millions of Muslims who had lost everything was a cumbersome task
which was very expensive as well.

2. Formation of Govt.
Q: What was the problem of formation of Govt. by the newly independent states? [4]

Formation of the govt. was one of the most difficult tasks for the newly independent
country.
• Quaid-i-Azam became the first Governor-General and Liaqat Ali Khan became the
Prime Minister of the country.
• A constituent assembly was setup which had two tasks i.e.,
o to act as parliament.
o to set a new constitution of Pakistan.
• Karachi was made the capital of the country.
• The people with govt. experience were moved to Karachi on special trains and
airplanes.
• Offices were opened in hired residential buildings, army barracks, and even in tents.
• There was no proper office staff available to support the govt. officers.
• There was no office furniture, typewriter, and other equipment but with the courage and
determination, necessary offices were managed to setup under the leadership of Quaid-
i-Azam.
• The civil service rules were drafted to run the administration smoothly.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 95

 3. Division of Armed forces and Military Assets
Q: Describe the problem of the division of military Assets? [4]

• It was necessary to divide military assets among the two new independent countries,
yet it was an incredibly difficult task because military is the power or a strength of a
country which no-one would want to give away.
• India did not give Pakistan the military equipment because of the growing threat of war
over Kashmir and India had assumed that the equipment would be used against her.
• Assets, equipment, and weapons had to be divided in a ratio of 36:64 between Pakistan
and India respectively.
• All big ordnance factories were in India and the Indian govt. refused to part with them.
Out of 16 ordnance factories, none was given to Pakistan.
• Indian govt. agreed to pay 60 million rupeesin lieu of handing over the ordinance
factories, which was used by the Pakistani govt. to build an ordnance factory at Wah.
• The material sent to Pakistan was old, unstable, obsolete, and unusable.
• Field Marshal Anchinleck who was supervising the division of military assets resigned
before completing the task.
• Pakistan was on very week footing in respect of military strength at the time of partition.
4. Division of Financial Assets
Q: Describe the problems of the division of the financial Assets? [4]
• The British divided all the financial assets in the ration of 17:5 respectively to India and
Pakistan.
• Pakistan was to be paid 750 million rupees out of 4 billion rupees from reserve bank.
• 200 million rupees were paid to Pakistan, but the remaining was stopped.
• On Gandhi’s insistence a further 500 million rupees were given to Pakistan.
• Remaining 50 million rupees is still to be paid to Pakistan.
5. The Canal Water Dispute
Q: What was the Canal Water Dispute? [4]
One of the major causes of Pakistan’s frustration towards India is “The Canal Water
Dispute”.
• Partition of Punjab is directly related to the problem.
• West Pakistan is a fertile country yet has a dry climate for which it depends mostly
upon the canal water which draw water from the rivers Indus, Chenab, and Jhelum.
• The Problem of Pakistan was that most of the headworks i.e., Firozpur and Gurdaspur
(control the flow of water through canal or river) lay in the part of India after partition
of Punjab.
• Though Indian govt. promised that it would not interfere the flow of water towards
Pakistan, they shut down the water towards Pakistan from the Firozpur headwork in
Punjab which put in danger 1.65 million acres of irrigational land.
• Indians demanded that Pakistan should pay for the water, and they had also claimed
that because the headworks were in their territory so it is their authority and will as to
whatever they want to do with it.
• Pakistan argued that it had the right to water as its economy depends on it.
• Pakistan called for international court of Justice to sort out the matter, which was
refused by India.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 96

 • The matter was temporarily solved in May 1948.
• India agreed to allow water from East Punjab to West Pakistan but only if Pakistan
would in the meantime find alternative source of water.

6. Accession of Princely states

• Lord Mount Batten had already told the leaders of the Princely states before partition
that they would not be granted independence, but they must choose between India and
Pakistan.
• Most of the states either chose India or Pakistan but for some the decision was difficult
to make.
Hyderabad
• Hyderabad was the largest of the Princely state in the sub-continent. The state had the
non-Muslim majority but the ruler (who was called Nizam) was a Muslim and the
people being ruled were very happy from him.
• It favored to join Pakistan, but Indian govt. was determined not to allow them to join
Pakistan.
• Indian govt. started pressing the Nizam to join India.
• Nizam did not want to join India but later came to an agreement of India would only
take care of the portfolios of defense, foreign affairs, and communications.
• In August 1948 Nizam of Hyderabad filed a complaint against India before UNO
(United Nations Organization) but before it could be heard, Indian troops entered,
dismantled the state, and annexed it with India.
Junagarh
• It was a small state on the coast which was 300 miles from Karachi.
• Like Hyderabad, the population was non-Muslim, but its prince was Muslim.
• It announced that it would join Pakistan, but India sent the troops to surround the state
and supply was cut down.
• Soon, the state was short of food. Then in Nov 1947, Indian troops invaded and took
control of the area.
• Pakistan protested to United Nation about the illegal occupation of the state, but the
matter remains unresolved.
Kashmir
• Kashmir’s 85% population was Muslim, but the Maharaja of Kashmir (Hari Singh) was
non- Muslim.
• He neither wanted to join India nor Pakistan because he was seeking independence.
• The Muslims in Srinagar and other areas started protesting for which Maharaja turned
towards India for help.
• The help from India came on the agreement of Kashmir’s accession with India.
• Pakistan also sent troops to help Kashmiri Muslims, but it ended in a ceasefire in 1948
by the interference of UNO.
• Indian Prime Minister promised to hold a referendum in Kashmir which has not been
held until now.

7. Geographical Problem
• Most countries have natural borders such as mountains, rivers, or seas which are the
clear indicators of a country to end but this was not the case with Pakistan.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 97

 • The country was split into two separate parts i.e., East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and
West Pakistan (now Pakistan) with almost 1600 kms from each other.
• This vast distance between the two countries also meant that there was a significant
difference between the outlook of people, language, and culture of these two separate
parts.

8. Social Problems
• Pakistan is the country with diverse ethnic communities such as those living in Sindh
are Sindhis, people living in Punjab are Punjabis then Balochis and Pathans.
• All of them have diverse and unique culture, language, and way of living. So, it was
very difficult for such unique and diverse communities to live under one umbrella.
• The credit goes to Quaid-i-Azam who once and for all said that we are one nation and
one language we have and that is Urdu which will be our official language.
• Bengalis protested for long on this language issue because they were in majority but
were still deprived of having their language as second official language after Urdu. In
1956. Bengali had to be incorporated as an official language of Pakistan.
• At the time of inception of Pakistan, it had a literacy rate of 16% which was again a
major social problem for a new country.

Long Questions

Q1: Which of the following was the most difficult problem to overcome following the
creation of Pakistan in 1947?
I. Formation of Govt.
II. Division of the armed forces and military assets
III. The Refugee crisis
Explain your answer with reference to all three of the above. OR [14]
Q2: Was the Refugee issue the most important problem facing the newly formed govt. of
Pakistan in 1947? Give reasons to your answer. OR [14]
Q3: The formation of Govt. was the most important problem facing the newly formed
govt. of Pakistan in 1947? Explain your answer. OR [14]
Q4: The Canal Water Dispute was the most important problem facing the newly
established Govt. of Pakistan in 1947? Do you agree or disagree? Explain your
answer.[14]
Note: Start from a generic statement such as “Pakistan was created on 14th August 1947 and
right from the start it had to counter a long list of problems. It was not easy to deal with
problems yet with determination, zeal and strong will Pakistan fought with these problems”.
Then write sequentially as described in the question about the “problem of Formation of Govt”
then about “Division of the armed forces and military assets”, then “The refugee crisis” and in
the last provide a small concluding paragraph which can be as following;
Conclusively, it can be argued that formation of the govt. was the most important problem
faced by Pakistan because had this been dealt seriously and a strong political government was
formed, Pakistan would have countered the other problems more efficiently.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 98

 Section III
1- The Initial years of Pakistan (1948-1958)
Short Questions
Q: What was PRODA? [4]
• The act PRODA (The Public and Representative Officers Disqualification Act) was
passed in 1949 when Liāqat ‘Alī Khān was Prime Minister and Khawājah Nāzim ud-
Dīn was Governor-General.
• It was promulgated to eliminate corruption and misuse of power.
• Complaints could be forwarded to Governor-Generals or Provincial-Governors.
• The Governors would forward it to judges to hold an inquiry and anyone found guilty
would then be debarred from the office for an appropriate period of time as suggested
by the courts.
• In actual, this act allowed for political victimization and thus repealed by the assembly
of Malik Ghulām Muḥammad in Sep 1954.
Q: What are the key points of Objective Resolution? [4]
• The Basic Principles Committee formed by the 1st constituent Assembly presented the
Objective Resolution.
• Some of its clauses/key points are;
o Sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to Almighty Allah alone.
o The authority which He has delegated to the state of Pakistan is through its
people.
o The state shall exercise its power through the representatives of the people.
o Principles of Democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance, and social justice as
enunciated by Islam will be fully observed.
o Muslims shall be enabled to organize their lives in accordance with the
teachings and requirements of Islam as set out in the Qur´ān and the Sunnah.
o Minorities will have freedom to freely profess and practice their religions and
develop their cultures.
o Pakistan shall be a federation with autonomous units.
Q: Describe the constitutional crisis of 1950? [4]
• First report of Basic Principles Committee was presented before the constituent
Assembly on 28th Sep 1950.
• The resolution was openly opposed by the East Pakistanis because of its
recommendation of equal representation in central legislature even though they were
more in population i.e., 55% of total population.
• They also opposed the decision of Urdu as an official language which is against the
democratic principles.
• They also wanted provincial autonomy where more powers are vested in the provinces.
• Ulema also considered the draft as un-Islamic.
• So, Liāqat ‘Alī Khān withdrawn the draft in Nov 1950.
Q: Describe Liāqat-Nehrū pact/the Minorities pact? [4]
• This pact was signed between Prime minister of Pakistan- Liāqat ‘Alī Khān and Prime
minister of India- Jawāhar Lāl Nehrū.
• It was aimed to stop minorities’ movement at eastern border of Pakistan.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 99

 • The pact resolved to provide religious freedom and protection to the minorities of both
countries so that they can be encouraged to stay in their respective countries.
• However, and on the contrary, the minority groups did not trust the pact and continued
to migrate across the borders.
Q: What was the Rawalpindi conspiracy case? [4]
• There was a danger that a government can be overthrown through a military coup
intended by some military officers in March 1951 against the government of Liāqat ‘Alī
Khān.
• General Ayūb Khān discovered this conspiracy, conspirators were arrested, tried, and
court martialed.
• There were fifteen conspirators including General Akhtar khān and Faiz Aḥmad Faiz-
a famous poet.
• This was the start of military intervention in the Pakistani politics.
Q: What was the ‘One unit’ scheme? [4]
• The scheme was first announced in 1954 by P.M Muḥammad ‘Alī Bogrā when he said
all the ten princely states and 4 provinces will be merged into one single administrative
system.
• Later, an acting governor in 1955 passed an order of unified provinces of West Pakistan.
• In this order all the states and the 4 provinces i.e. Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, and KPK
(then NWFP) was amalgamated in one unit i.e., a single province.
• The scheme benefited the West Pakistan as they had 10 percent less population than
East Pakistan yet they were enjoying an equal representation which was an edge over
East Pakistan because it would restrict East Pakistan to gain majority in the Assembly.
• The scheme was very unpopular in East Pakistan as it did not benefit it.
Q: Describe the Constitution of 1956? [4]
• The second constituent assembly passed the bill on February 1956 and it was finally
adopted on 23rd March, 1956.
• It was a compromise between two major political groups Muslim League (political
party) and United Front (an alliance of 4 parties i.e. Awāmi Muslim League, Krishak
Sramik Party, Nizām Islām Party and Ganatantri Dal).
• Some of its clauses are;
o Pakistan was declared as an Islamic republic.
o A president would be a Muslim and above 40 years of age who would be elected
by both the central and provincial legislatures.
o It would be his duty to elect P.M and his cabinet.
o He will have the emergency powers by which he could dissolve the assemblies
but on the advice of the Prime Minister.
o National Assembly would have equal no. of seats from East and West Pakistan.
• Iskandar Mirzā became the president of Pakistan.
• The constitution lasted for only two and a half years and was scrapped in 1958 when
Gen. Ayūb Khān declared the Martial Law.
Q: What was the SEATO? [4]
• The abbreviation of SEATO is “Southeast Asia Treaty Organization”.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 100

 • It was established in Sep 1954 to check the growing communist power of Soviet Union
in Southeast Asia.
• It stated that if any member country was attacked by a communist country, it can seek
help from other member countries.
• Pakistan suggested to setup a permanent army for such an attack but could not succeed.
• The member countries include USA, UK, France, Philippines, Thailand, New Zealand,
and Australia.
• Pakistan joined in 1955.
• It could not help Pakistan in wars of 1965 and 1971 so Pakistan left it in 1972.
Q: What was CENTO? [4]
• CENTO (Central Treaty Organization) was Previously named as Baghdad pact and was
established by Iraq and Turkey in 1955.
• It was later named as CENTO in 1959 when Iraq left the organization because of
military coup against monarchy.
• CENTO was a US-sponsored military bloc which aimed to check the growing influence
of Soviets in middle east.
• The member countries include USA, Pakistan, Iran, Turkey, and UK.
• Like SEATO, CENTO did not have a combined army and it could also not help Pakistan
in wars of 1965 and 1971 with India.
• It was dissolved in 1979 because of Iranian revolution.
Q: Why was their political instability at the inception of Pakistan? OR [7]
Q: Why governments changed so many times between 1951 and 1958? [7]
Pakistan did not inherit the skilled politicians and with the ->Death of Jinnah
death of Jinnāh and later with the assassination of Liāqat ->Assassination of Liaqat
‘Alī Khān, the situation aggravated. So both the Ali Khan
->Seven PMs changed in 7
personalities which led Pakistan to independence and years
played a key role in strengthening the democratic political ->Constituent Assembly
milieu of the country. dismissed in 1954
Seven Prime Ministers changed within the period of seven ->BPC could not come up to
years from 1951 to 1958.The country went into the hands the task

of the inexperienced and selfish politicians. Constituent assembly which was given the
task to provide 1st ever constitution to the country was dismissed by Governor General
Ghulām Muḥammad in 1954.
Basic principle committee was formed which had two functions firstly to act as
parliament and secondly to make a constitution. BPC formed the Objective resolution
which remained the preamble for almost every constitution of the country, could not be
adopted at first but then it was adopted which was taken as the guiding principles to set
a new constitution for the country. It could not solve the constitutional problems in the
country because 1st draft which was presented in Sep 1950 was not agreed upon.
Q: Why was the new constitution not agreed upon? OR [7]
Q: Why was it so difficult to agree upon a new constitution? [7]
Different opinions were circulated in the political circles on the constitution of 1956.
Adaptation of Objective Resolution was a great success towards constitution making.
The basic principles committee was given the task of constitution making which had
given its first report in Sep 1950 but majority opposed it because of equal representation

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 101

 of both East and West Pakistan as East Pakistan had greater population than West
Pakistan.
st
East Pakistan also opposed Urdu as the only national ->1 BPC report was
language of the country and demanded to include Bengali objected.
as a second national language of the country. Powers of the -> Representation issue
president and centre had to be reduced in order to guarantee -> Language issue
provincial autonomy. Thus Liāqat ‘Alī Khān withdrew the -> Powers of the center
constitutional proposals and Pakistan had to wait for had to be reduced.
another 6 years to have its own constitution. -> withdrawal of 1st BPC

Q: Why was there a constitutional crisis in 1954-55? [7]

Prime Minister Muḥammad ‘Alī Bogrā was in favour ->P.M Bogra was in favor of
of the Parliamentary system but Governor General parliamentary system against
Governor General Ghulam
Ghulām Muḥammad opposed him. On 21st Sep, 1954 Muhammad
Bogra got an important bill passed by the parliament -> important bill passed to reduce
in which it was binding for a Governor General to take the powers of Gov. Gen.
advice of the ministers. -> Parliament repealed PRODA.
-> Ghulam Muhammad was
The parliament also repealed the PRODA (Public and abroad, on his arrival he dismissed
Representative Officers Disqualification Act) which Bogra and his cabinet.
was an act against the corrupt politicians and govt. -> Challenged by Tamiz ud din
officials. Ghulam Muhammad was abroad when all of (Speaker) in Sindh court; decision
this was happening thus on his return he dismissed the in favor of Bogra.
-> Appeal by Gov. Gen in federal
Bogra government. court; decision in favor of G.G.
Speaker of the assembly, Maulvī Tamīz ud-dīn challenged his decision in the Sindh
court, which decided in favour of Prime Minister Muḥammad ‘Alī Bogrā and he was
re-instated to his seat. Ghulām Muḥammad filed an appeal in federal court (then
Supreme Court) which gave its verdict in favour of Governor General. The one unit
scheme initiated by Bogrā was one of the other reason for which East Pakistan turned
against him.
Q: Why was martial law imposed on Pakistan in 1958? [7]
Firstly, Pakistan did not have the team of skilled politician ->No skilled politicians after
after Quā´id e Āẓam and Liāqat ‘Alī Khān. After Quā´id’s the death of Jinnah and Liaqat
death, Liāqat ‘Alī Khān was so overwhelmed with Ali Khan.
-> Flawed policies and vested
internal and external issues that he could not check the interests of politicians.
growing power of corrupt local politicians which -> Political instability.
rendered the country in unsafe hands. After the -> Five P.Ms changed in 3
assassination of Liāqat ‘Alī Khān, country was years.
completely being controlled by inexperienced and selfish -> Constitutional crisis in
1954.
politicians like Malik Ghulām Muḥammad and Iskandar -> Constituent Assembly
Mirzā. Their flawed policies and vested interests added could not do its work of
fuel to fire. Resultantly, political instability and constitution making
uncertainty increased. Iskandar Mirzā dismissed five -> Opposition by East
Prime ministers in his tenure of almost three years. There Pakistan.
-> Opposition by Ulama.
was a political crisis in 1954 when a rift was created -> Ahmadi crisis.
between Muḥammad ‘Alī Bogrā (Prime minister) and -> Difficulties created by
Malik Ghulām Muḥammad (Governor-General). India.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 102

 Secondly, there was a constitutional crisis in the country since inception. Basic principles
committee presented Objective Resolution before the constituent Assembly on 28th Sep
1950 which was openly opposed by the East Pakistanis because of its recommendation of
equal representation in central legislature even though they were more in population i.e.,
55% of total population. The opposition of East Pakistan was also because of the decision
of Urdu as an official language and less provincial autonomy. Ulema also considered the
draft as un-Islamic. The constitutional crisis was such in Pakistan that the constituent
assembly could not set up an early constitution. It was only after 9 years that Pakistan
promulgated its first constitution and came out of the dominion status.
Thirdly, India created difficulties for Pakistan throughout this time period. It delayed to
hand over the Pakistan’s share of financial and military assets. Issue of Kashmir could not
be settled between the two countries. Pakistan had to pay more attention to defense because
India stormed Pakistan over Kashmir issue. Indian Premier Jawāhar Lāl Nehrū never
fulfilled his promise of holding plebiscite as prescribed by UN in Kashmir. India shut down
two head works of Fīrūz Pūr and Gurdās Pūr which supplied water to Pakistani Punjab.
Pakistan was mainly dependent on the agriculture. Therefore, there was a danger of drought
within the country.
Long Question
Q: Who off the following contributed the most to Pakistan’s domestic policies between
1948 and 1958;
1. Liāqat ‘Alī Khān
2. Khawāja Nāẓim ud-dīn
3. Malik Ghulām Muḥammad
4. Iskandar Mirzā
Explain with reference to all four above. [14]
All off the these personalities have their own importance regarding their domestic
policies.
Liāqat ‘Alī Khān was the 1st P.M of Pakistan from Aug 1947 till Oct 1951. In the early
years there were problems of formation of govt, the refugee crisis and the problem of
their accommodation and logistics, problem of division of military and financial assets
and the canal water dispute. Because of these problems, govt. in its initial days could
not concentrate on education, health, agriculture and industry. Liāqat ‘Alī Khān started
from constitutional development and formulated objective resolution with its prime
focus on Islamic principles and human rights. The constituent assembly was formed,
main task of which was to formulate a proper constitution of Pakistan. He introduced
PRODA (The Public and Representative Officers Disqualification Act) to eliminate
corruption but in real it allowed the ruling elite to remove only those who were not
approved by them. Liāqat ‘Alī Khān managed to run the economy smoothly and
produced surplus budget for the new estate. He could not check the growing popularity
of the regional politicians. Some Army officers were not happy with the govt and
planned a coup but with the help of Gen Ayub Khan, “The Rawalpindi conspiracy case”
was resolved and the conspirators were tried and imprisoned. Liāqat ‘Alī Khān was
assassinated in Oct, 1951.
Khawāja Naẓim ud-dīn was 2nd Governor General and 2nd Prime minister who assumed
the seat of Gov. Gen after three days of Quāid’s death and seat of Prime minister after
assassination of Liāqat ‘Alī Khān on the advice of Malik Ghulām Muḥammad.
Constitution making was one of the main issues of the time so constituent Assembly
had setup the Basic Principle’s committee to address to constitutional problems of
Pakistan. Objective resolution was passed in his era, when he was a Gov-General.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 103

 PRODA (Public and Representative Officers Disqualification Act) was passed in his
days of Gov-General to creep the govt from corrupt politicians and govt, officials. Some
army officers were unhappy and planned a coup to take over the govt. (Rawalpindi
Conspiracy Case), but the matter was handled by P.M and Gen. Ayūb Khān efficiently.
After the murder of Liāqat ‘Alī Khān, Tensions increased between East and West
Pakistan because of economic disparities, food shortages, language issue, so the support
of M.L in East Pakistan reduced.
Malik Ghulām Muhammad persuaded Khawāja Nāẓim ud-dīn to become the 2nd Prime
Minister after the death of Liāqat ‘Alī Khān and himself assumed the office of Governor
General. He setup a planning commission to look into economic conditions of the
country and launched a 6 year plan for Pakistan to bring economic development in all
sectors. A planning board was setup to review the policies and developments that had
taken place. Severe problems of food shortages and drought from 1951 to 1953, riots
which were not only limited for food shortages but against Aḥmadīs as well as Ẓafrullāh
Khān (foreign Minister) was also an Aḥmadī hampered the developments in this phase.
Ghulam Muhammad dismissed Khawāja Nāẓim ud-dīn in 1953 and Muḥammad ‘Alī
Bogrā was made as Prime Minister of the country. Constitutional crisis of 1954
happened in his era in which P.M Muḥammad ‘Alī Bogrā wanted to have maximum
powers but Gov. General Ghulām Muḥammad did not want these powers to be in the
hands of P.M. so he dismissed the P.M. The decision of this dismissal of P.M was
challenged in the court by Speaker Maulvī Tamīz ud-dīn, Sindh high court decided in
favour of P.M but the decision was challenged in the federal court (Supreme Court of
that time) which gave the decision in favour of Gov. General. He became ill in the
meanwhile and thus resigned from his post in 1955.
Iskandar Mirzā was a retired military general who assumed the office of Gov. General
after the resignation of Ghulām Muḥammad in 1955. He introduced one unit policy in
1955 in which four provinces and various states of West Pakistan were merged into one
unit. He dismissed Bogra and appointed Ch. Muḥammad ‘Ali as P.M. who was forced
to draw a constitution quickly, so a second constituent assembly drew Pakistan’s 1st
constitution in 1956. The constitution replaced the office of Governor- General with
the office of President and thus Iskandar Mirzā was made the 1st President of Pakistan.
He introduced the Industrialization and Rural development policies. His era was very
unpopular as 5 P.Ms were changed during his tenure and he also asked the Army chief
to take charge as Chief Martial Law Administrator.
Consequently, it can be said that Liāqat ‘Alī Khān seems to be the most successful as
he took first steps towards political and economic stability. The Objective Resolution
remained the preamble of all the constitutions of Pakistan.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 104

 2- Ayūb Khān (1958-69)
Background

Q: Why did Ayūb Khān come to power in 1858? OR [7]

Q: Why was Martial Law imposed in 1858? [7]

The differences between East and West Important Points

Pakistan grew at a rapid pace. East Pakistan
wanted more share in legislatures because of 1- Political chaos
their majority (55% of total population), but
2- Serious economic
they were given equal representation in the
National Assembly under one unit scheme. problems
This political dominance was resented by 3- Constant threat from India
East Pakistanis because this dominance 4- Army; only organized
ensured economic bankruptcy of East institution
Pakistanis.

Political instability was at rise in the period of Iskandar Mirzā. The presidential powers
of nominating and dismissal of Prime minister given by the constitution of 1956 were
misused by Iskander Mirzā who dismissed five Prime ministers. So, he began to lose
his popularity. A tough time was given by Hussayn Shahīd Suharwardī by uniting the
politicians against Iskandar Mirzā. He challenged Mirzā to hold a popularity test by
voting in the assembly but because of the fear of defeat, Mirzā declared Martial Law
on 7th Oct 1958 and appointed General Ayūb Khān as Chief Martial Law Administrator
(CMLA).
Ayūb Khān had already declined an offer of Ghulām Muḥammad to take over the
country. Now another offer was given by Iskandar Mirzā to him. Constitution of 1956
did not allow President Mirzā or General Ayūb Khān to abrogate the constitution. So,
the validity of this order was challenged in supreme court which was decided in favor
of General Ayūb Khān by chief justice of supreme court Justice Munīr. Thus, he
assumed the power to himself and removed Mirzā from the office on 27th Oct 1958.
Short Questions
Q: Was Ayūb Khān’s takeover legal? [4]
• Constitution of 1956 did not allow President Mirzā or General Ayūb Khān to abrogate
the constitution.
• So, the validity of this order was challenged in supreme court which was decided in
favor of General Ayūb Khān by chief justice of supreme court Justice Munīr.
• ‘Doctrine of Necessity’ was made as the reason for validating this Martial Law.
• Thus, Ayūb assumed the power and removed Mirzā from the office on 27th Oct 1958.

Q: What are the Agricultural Reforms of Ayūb Khān? OR OR [4]

Q: What was Green Revolution? [4]
• Agricultural reforms were called as “Green Revolution”.
• Modernized agriculture by introduction of tractors, High yield variety seeds, chemical
fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 105

 • Under the Indus water treaty, 3 dams were built i.e., Warsak, Mangla, and Tarbela on
rivers of Kabul, Jehlum, and Indus respectively.
• Several perennial canals were built to irrigate the lands.
• Agricultural Development Bank was setup to facilitate farmers.
• Easy loans were provided to the farmers.
• Fair distribution of land holdings i.e., land owner cannot hold more than 1000 acres of
un-irrigated or 500 acres of irrigated land.
• The excess land was given to the poor farmers by the Govt.
• The success rate of the land reforms was poor because of the strong social position of
landed aristocrats.
Q: What are the Industrial Reforms of Ayūb Khān? [4]
• The huge amount of aid was used for industrial development.
• Oil refinery was setup at Karachi to reduce the import cost of oil.
• Mineral Development Corporation was setup to extract minerals.
• Several incentives like leverage in taxes and exports were given to private sector which
was an attraction to manufacturing industry.
• The major development in industries and the beneficiary of these reforms was West
Pakistan, so the disparity between East and West Pakistan grew.
• Only 22 families had controlled 66% of the Pakistan industries through his industrial
reforms.
Q: What are the Social Reforms of Ayūb Khān? [4]
• Ayūb Khān tried to raise the literacy rate by encouraging primary education.
• New curriculum was introduced in schools.
• The government built new schools and colleges.
• Technical education was given to raise the skill base workers.
• University degree courses were launched.
• Scientific education was improved.
• Civil defence training was enhanced.
• He appointed General Āzam Khān- the rehabilitation minister to settle 75,000 refugees
in newly built dwellings of Karachi.
• Scheme for satellite township were launched in all big cities.
• He made Islamabad a planned city.
• He implemented Muslim Family Law Bill/Ordinance to control polygamy and rapid
population increase.
• Family planning clinics were opened.
• He acted for the prevention of hoarding by arresting and fining the profiteers.
• He also fixed the price of milk and other goods to stop profiteering.
• Women got benefitted by the reforms affecting marriage and divorce.
• Mechanism of registration of marriages and divorces was implemented and if someone
wants to be remarried, he/she must take approval from the court.
Q: What are the Constitutional Reforms of Ayūb Khān? [4]
• Constitutional committee was setup in 1961 by Supreme Court.
• The new constitution respected Islam but did not declare Islam as a state religion.
• The Electoral College was very limited i.e. 80,000 initially and later on 120,000 to elect
a president.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 106

 • He introduced Muslim Family Law Bill which abolished polygamy (practice of having
more than one marriage).
• The Arbitration councils were set up in rural and urban areas to deal with the issues
regarding marriages.
Q: What were the Basic Democracies? [4]
• On the first anniversary of his government on 26th Oct 1959, General Ayūb Khān
addressed the nation and introduced Basic Democracies Order under a presidential
order.
• This was initially a five-tier system later Provincial Development Advisory Council-
last tier of the system was abolished, and it became a four-tier system.
• Union or Town council was the lowest tier and Divisional council was the highest tier
of the system.
• People elected the basic democrats in 1959-60 elections on the non-party basis.
• These basic democrats formed the electoral college for the elections of President.
• The no. of basic democrats was 80,000 at start which later raised to 120,000. 95% of
these elected Ayūb Khān as president in a referendum.
• The system of basic democracies was abolished in 1969 by General Yahyā Khān.
Q: Describe the constitution of 1962? [4]
• Ayūb Khān appointed a constituent commission to setup a new constitution which
implemented the constitution on 1st March 1962.
• It was a federal constitution.
• It was a presidential system- most of powers vested into President.
• President has to be Muslim not less than 35 years of age.
• The term of president was to be 5 years.
• He was the executive head of the state who would be elected indirectly by the basic
democrats.
• It was a unicameral legislature i.e., having only one house-National Assembly.
• There were 156 members (later 218, and then 313) of National Assembly who were
elected indirectly by electoral college of basic democrats.
• President nominates the members from within the National Assembly.
• National Assembly has equal no. of seats for both East and West Pakistan.
• No law can be passed without the approval of President.
• Urdu and Bengali were declared as the national languages of Pakistan.
• This constitution was abrogated by General Yahyā Khān in 1969.
Q: What is EBDO? [4]
• Ayūb Khān promulgated two ordinances.
• The first one was PODO (Public office disqualification Order/Act) and the other was
EBDO (Elective Bodies Disqualification Order/Act).
• According to EBDO, politicians were given a choice to either face the trial for misdeeds
or voluntarily abdicate from all political activities for next six years.
• Many politicians like Suharwardī, Makhdūmzādah Ḥassan Maḥmūd and C.E. Gibbon
chose to step down instead of facing the trials.
• Similarly corrupt bureaucrats and police officers were dismissed from the service.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 107

Q: Why do we call the years 1958 to 1969, a “Decade of development/progress”? [7]
Ayūb Khān hired the economic advisors Important Points
which were trained and educated from 1- Hired economic advisors
Harvard University to stabilize the economic from Harvard university.
situation of the country. The huge amount of 2- Industrial development.
aid was used for industrial development. 3- High economic growth 7%.
Several incentives like leverage in taxes and 4- Agricultural Reforms / Green
exports were given to private sector which Revolution- HYV seeds,
was an attraction to manufacturing industry. insecticides, pesticides, built
During the second five year plan from 1960- Dams & barrages, etc.
65, people’s income went up to 14%. 5- Social reforms- Hospitals,
Economic growth rate grew to 7% which was Schools, colleges, family
three times to that of contemporary India. planning, modernized Islam.
Ayūb introduced agricultural reforms which were called Green Revolution. It included
modernization in agriculture through tractors, High yield variety seeds, chemical
fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides. Under the Indus Water Treaty, Pakistan was
funded to build dams and barrages.
In the field of social reforms, new hospitals and medical colleges were set up to provide
better health. High population growth rate was controlled through better policies of
family planning. Tried to raise the literacy rate by encouraging primary education. Most
of these benefits went to the West Pakistan.
Q: Why was Islamabad chosen a new capital of Pakistan? [7]
Ayūb Khān wanted to get closer to the Army Important Points
command headquarters established in 1- Closer to Army headquarters
in Rawalpindi
Rawalpindi as Karachi was far too away from
2- North was economically less
Army headquarters. He wanted to shift the power developed.
from economically developed south to the under 3- Economic influence of
developed North. He also got closer to Punjab Karachi
and KPK which provided most of the troops to 4- Pleasant climate
5- Landlocked city, no danger
the Army. from outside
The economic influence of the commercial Karachi on the government officials was
minimized. Govt. officials started taking interests in trade instead of doing their official
duties which was a clear conflict of interest. The developments in Karachi had left
Northern Pakistan relatively under developed. Pleasant climate of Islamabad also won
over the humid climate of Karachi.
A planned city was easier to build there as it was an abandoned place. Karachi’s location
at Indus Delta Coast was not suitable because it was vulnerable to Indian Navy attacks
and Islamabad a land locked city was at distance from the Indian border. Capital was
officially shifted in 1967.
Q: What was the cause of Ayūb Khān’s fall from the government? [7]
Agricultural reforms created disparity between Important Points
rich and poor farmers. Only 22 families had 1- Disparity b/w rich and poor
controlled 66% of the Pakistan industries 2- Concentration of wealth by 22
families
through his industrial reforms. People were 3- The beneficiary of reforms was
angry by his celebration of “decade of mostly West Pakistan
4- Alleged rigging in Presidential
development”. East Pakistan was also frustrated elections
because most of the beneficiaries of his reforms 5- Humiliating cease fire of 1965
6- Mobilization of masses by ZAB
was West Pakistan.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 108

 Criticism on the rigging of 1st presidential elections of 1965. Concentration of powers
with President was considered undemocratic. Most of the Basic Democrats had
resigned by 1969. He became unpopular because of the humiliating cease fire of 1965.
The cease fire of Ayūb Khān was against the advice of foreign minister of Ẓulfiqār ‘Alī
Bhutto, who in returned resigned as a protest and formed his own political party named
as Pakistan People’s Party in 1967.
Ẓulfiqār ‘Alī Bhutto mobilized masses and launched an anti-Ayūb campaign. Thus, in
1969, eight political parties formed Democratic Action Committee and demanded
general elections and Ayūb Khān failed to negotiate with them and as a result he
resigned in March, 1969.

Q: How did Ayūb Khān try to modernize Islam in his era? OR [7]
Q: Why did Ulema oppose the government of Ayūb Khān? [7]

The constitution of Pakistan in 1962 altered the Important Points

name of Pakistan from ‘Islamic Republic of 1- Name of ‘Islamic Republic of
Pakistan’ was changed to
Pakistan’ to ‘Republic of Pakistan’. This was ‘Republic of Pakistan’.
opposed by and large by everyone especially 2- Ulema criticized Family
religious parties and Jamā‘t-i-Islāmī in Planning.
particular. Maulānā Maudūdī- leader of JI 3- Muslim Family Law Bill
opposed many of Ayūb’s social reforms and which prohibited polygamy,
strictly devised the pattern of
called them non-Islamic. Family planning was divorce, re-marriage was made
criticized by the Islamic parties such as JI difficult, etc.
because according to Ulema, ‘God is Rāziq’ and 4- Grandchild could not inherit
none has the right to prevent children from being the property of his grandfather
born. if his father died.

Maudūdī criticized Muslim Family Law Bill which was promulgated in 1961. It
prohibited polygamy and devised the pattern of divorce. A man wishing to divorce his
wife must go through union council in which the marriage was registered. For re-
marriage a written permission by first wife is needed. It also prescribed minimum
marriageable age limit for male and females.
The family laws also changed the law of inheritance. According to this law, a
grandchild cannot inherit the property of his grandfather if his father died in the lifetime
of his grandfather. Also, speaker of National Assembly could be a non-Muslim.

Long Questions

Q: ‘Agricultural reforms were the most important of Ayūb Khān’s domestic policies
during the decade of development.’ Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons. [14]
Q: Constitutional reforms were the most important of Ayūb Khān’s domestic policies. Do
you agree or disagree? Give reasons. [14]
Q: Social reforms were the most important of Ayūb Khān’s domestic policies. Do you
agree or disagree? Give reasons. [14]
Q: ‘The Economic reforms the most important of Ayūb Khān’s domestic policies during
the decade of progress.’ Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons. [14]
Ayūb Khān came to power after Martial Law was declared in October 1958. He
announced himself as the president of the country and introduced many reforms.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 109

 Agricultural reforms were called as “Green Revolution”. Modernized agriculture by
introduction of tractors, High yield variety seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides and
pesticides. Under the Indus water treaty, 3 dams were built i.e. Warsak, Mangla and
Tarbela. Several perennial canals were built to irrigate the lands. Agriculture
development bank was setup to facilitate farmers. Easy loans were provided to the
farmers. Fair distribution of land holdings i.e. no land owner can hold more than 1000
acres of un-irrigated or 500 acres of irrigated land. The excess land was given to the
poor farmers by the Govt. The success rate of the land reforms was poor because of the
strong social position of landed aristocrats.
The huge amount of aid was used for industrial development. Oil refinery was setup at
Karachi to reduce the import cost of oil. Mineral Development Corporation was setup
to extract minerals. Several incentives like leverage in taxes and exports were given to
private sector which was an attraction to manufacturing industry. The major
development in industries and the beneficiary of these reforms was West Pakistan, so
the disparity between East and West Pakistan grew. Only 22 families had controlled
66% of the Pakistan industries through his industrial reforms.
Ayūb Khān tried to raise the literacy rate by encouraging primary education. New
curriculum was introduced in schools. The government built new schools and colleges.
Technical education was given to raise the skill base workers. University Degree
courses were launched. Scientific Education was improved. Civil defence training was
enhanced. He appointed General Āzam Khān- the rehabilitation minister to settle 75,000
refugees in newly built dwellings of Karachi. Scheme for satellite township were
launched in all big cities. He made Islamabad a planned city. He implemented Family
Law Ordinance to control polygamy and rapid population increase. Family planning
clinics were opened. He acted for the prevention of hoarding by arresting and fining the
profiteers. He also fixed the price of milk and other goods to stop profiteering. Women
got benefitted by the reforms affecting marriage and divorce. Mechanism of registration
of marriages and divorces was implemented and if someone wants to be remarried,
he/she must take approval from the court.
Constitutional committee was setup in 1961 by Supreme Court. The new constitution
respected Islam but did not declare Islam as a state religion. The Electoral College was
very limited i.e. 80,000 initially and later on 120,000 to elect a president. He introduced
Muslim Family Law Bill which abolished polygamy (practice of having more than one
marriage). The Arbitration councils were set up in rural and urban areas to deal with
the issues regarding marriages. A man wishing to divorce his wife must go through
union council in which the marriage was registered. For re-marriage a written
permission by first wife is needed. It also prescribed minimum marriageable age limit
for male and females. The family laws also changed the law of inheritance. According
to this law, a grandchild cannot inherit the property of his grandfather if his father died
in the lifetime of his grandfather.
Consequently, it can be argued that Ayūb Khān’s agricultural policies / Green
Revolution was the most successful because mostly country’s population was directly
and indirectly involved with agriculture. Majority of farmers were poor, having less
land for cultivation. Thus introduction of land reforms benefited the poor farmers

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 110

 Source A Question
Q1: According to source A, why did Ayūb Khān assumed power in 1958? [3]
Source A: The situation at the time of military coup in 1958 was appalling. Corruption,
black markets, smuggling, tax evasion, inflation, an exchange crisis, extreme poverty,
high illiteracy, and the bankruptcy of parliamentary democracy had brought an
intolerable situation. President Ayub Khan imposed honesty, enforced price controls on
basic products, reduced Government expenditures, collected back taxes, spurred
industrial production and, in short, transformed the situation in a favorable way in every
aspect. One cannot wonder that he has now been given voluntarily by the people the
right to maintain the position and the power which he seized in 1958.
Editorial comments in New York Times, 16 February 1960
Answer: Ayūb Khān assumed power because country at that time was facing the
problems of corruption, black marketing, Price hike, extreme poverty, illiteracy, and
political democratic bankruptcy. Ayūb Khān sought to solve these problems through
making a mechanism to control the prices, to launch austerity in Government
expenditures, etc. By seeing what he has done for the country, people voluntarily gave
him the right to govern then.

Source B Question
Q1: What does source B tells us about the foreign policy of Ayūb Khān? [5]

Pakistan president Ayūb Khān and U.S president John F Kennedy waiving to the people
Answer: I can infer from the picture that General Ayūb Khān is standing tall with U.S
president Kennedy in car which shows that both the countries had outstanding
diplomatic relations. Their level of popularity can be seen by the people standing behind
them. Pakistan has been the part and strategic ally of US sponsored SEATO and
CENTO- the organizations setup to cope with soviet influence in southeast Asia and
middle east. Pakistan had their formal diplomatic relations with U.S determined on the
terms of equality.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 111

 3- Yaḥyā Khān (1969-71)
Short Questions
Q: Who was General Yaḥyā Khān? [4]
• Yaḥyā Khān was a military officer, who had fought in British Army in Second World
War.
• Ayūb Khān handed him the power after imposition of second martial law.
• He held the first general elections in united Pakistan (East and West Pakistan) in 1970.
• Yaḥyā Khān started military operation in East Pakistan, and it was his era that the
situation had escalated to such an extent that a 3rd war with India started.
• Pakistan lost this war and consequently East Pakistan got separated from West Pakistan.
Q: What was Operation Searchlight? [4]
• Operation Searchlight was headed by General Yaḥyā Khān in March 1971 to crush
Bengali nationalism flourished by Awami League which might threaten Pakistan’s
unity.
• This operation aimed to target Bengali intelligentsia, Scholars, and Hindus.
• Censorship on press was imposed which was an undemocratic act.
• Thousands of Bengalis were killed and in retaliation they secretly announced the name
of new state ‘Sovereign People’s Republic of Bangladesh’ on radio broadcast.
• Yaḥyā sent more troops to control the situation, but it worsened and ultimately led to
the third war between Pakistan and India in December 1971.
Q: Who was Sheikh Mujīb ur-Reḥmān? [4]
• Sheikh Mujīb ur-Rehmān was the founder of Awami League in 1949.
• He presented his popular 6 points in Feb 1966 which were rejected by the West
Pakistan.
• His party won a huge majority in 1970 elections.
• Sheikh Mujīb ur-Rehmān became the Prime Minister of Bangladesh in 1971.
• He was an autocratic ruler. He and his wife were both killed in a military coup.
Q: What were the six points of Sheikh Mujīb ur-Rehmān? [4]
1. Pakistan should be a federation with the parliamentary form of government formed by
the elections held on the basis of universal adult franchise.
2. Federal government (the centre) would deal with only two subjects i.e. Defence and
Foreign affairs.
3. He demanded two separate and freely convertible currencies for two wings.
4. Power of taxation and revenue collection to be vested in the federating units
(provinces).
5. Two separate accounts for the foreign exchange earnings of the two wings to be formed.
6. East Pakistan should have the paramilitary force of its own.
Q: Why were these demands resisted? [4]
• The demands were rejected because of fear of breaking the nation.
• A loose federation would be formed with weak centre and powerful provinces.
• East Pakistan was more populated- 55% of total population and had every chance of
being more powerful province, but they were given equal representation in National
Assembly.
• It was assumed that Mujīb wanted to establish an independent, fascist, and racist
regime.
• A divided Pakistan would be vulnerable to Indian attack.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 112

Q: What were the grievances of East Pakistan with West Pakistan? OR [7]
Q: Why East Pakistan wished to get separated from West Pakistan? [7]
Right from the inception of Pakistan, Quaid-i- Important Points
Āzam declared Urdu as the only national 1- Bengali was not made as official
language
language because of his belief of ‘One nation 2- More population- less representation
one language’. He believed that more languages in national assembly.
of one nation results in division of the nation. 3- Economic disparity between East and
So, Urdu as an only official language was West Pakistan.
a. Less industrial base of East
resisted by the Bengali nationalists. Secondly, Pakistan.
instead of more population of East Pakistan- b. Economic domination of 22
West Pakistan families.
55% of the total population, they had equal c. Bhola cyclone, 500,00 died
representation in the National assembly. Which d. Less salaries of East
meant that the power was vested in West Pakistanis in all cadres.
Pakistan. 4- Communicational difficulties (1000
miles distance).
5- Mujīb’s six points were not accepted.
There was a visible economic disparity between East and west Pakistan where most of
the economic policies benefited West Pakistan. East Pakistan had a weak industrial
base. 22 families of West Pakistan had dominated the most of Pakistan’s wealth. Floods
and cyclones further aggravated the economic situation of East Pakistan. Bhola
cyclones in 1970 killed as many as 500,000 people in East Pakistan and West Pakistan
remained indifferent (allegedly) to this cyclone. Senior civilian and Army officials were
all from West Pakistan so that the power crux remains in West Pakistan. The salaries
of West Pakistan were also more than that off East Pakistan.They even boycotted
Ayūb’s celebration of ‘Decade of Development’ in 1968/69.
Communication difficulties because of 1000 miles distance between the two units.
Also, Sheikh Mujeeb’s six points were not accepted by the West Pakistan. It was
considered as one of their main deprivations. In 1970 elections, majority party was
Awami League but they were not offered to form the government. Military crackdown
against East Pakistan in 1971 was the last nail in the coffin.

Q: Why did the victory of Awami League in the 1970 elections in Pakistan cause a
constitutional crisis? [7]
Awami League had won a landslide victory in the Important Points
elections of 1970 where they won 160 out of 162 1- Awami League won in East Pak (160
seats in East Pakistan. Pakistan People’s Party of out of 162 seats).
2- ZAB won 81 out of 138 in West Pak.
Zulfiqār ‘Alī Bhutto won 81 out of 138 seats in 3- Yaḥyā and ZAB did not want Mujīb
West Pakistan. So, democratically, and legally to take over NA.
Awami League had to form the government in the 4- Mujīb wanted to include six points in
constitution.
center but, Yaḥyā Khān and Zulfiqār ‘Alī Bhutto 5- Talks failed between Mujīb and ZAB
both were committed not to allow Awami League 6- Yaḥyā urged Mujīb to reconsider
to take over the National Assembly. which never happened.
7- Newly elected Assembly was not
Mujīb ur-Rehmān of Awami League insisted on called and Awami league protested it.
forming the government. Whereas ZAB and 8- Strong center is important for a
Yaḥyā did not allow him to do that. Thus, a federation which was denied in his 6
points.
constitutional crisis was created between East and
West Pakistan. Mujīb ur-Rehmān of Awami League insisted on forming the
government. Whereas ZAB and Yaḥyā did not allow him to do that. Thus, a
constitutional crisis was created between East and West Pakistan. Talks between Mujīb
and ZAB failed because of the mistrust between them. Mujīb wanted to talk about

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 113

 constitutional amendments and ultimately wanted to include his six points to be
reconsidered. Yaḥyā Khan and other politicians of West Pakistan were not ready to
consider six points of Mujīb.
President Yaḥyā Khān urged Mujīb ur-Reḥmān to come to a soft stance on his six points
as strong center is the backbone of a sovereign and strong government which was
denied in his six points, and which might ultimately break Pakistan. The first meeting
of newly elected Assembly was delayed and Awami League started protesting it.

Q: What was India’s involvement in breakup of Pakistan? [7]

Right from the start, India supported members
Important Points
of Mukti Bahini with weapons and training. The 1- India supported Mukti Bahini.
conflict between East and West Pakistan 2- India’s stance over its intervention was
emerged and was at climax when India started the influx of refugees fleeing to India.
3- Pak agencies already estimated the defeat.
its direct involvement in the affairs of East 4- India acquired Pakistan’s 5619 sq. miles
Pakistan. India took a stance that because of and Pakistan only 121 sq. miles.
millions of refugees were fleeing into India after 5- 93,000 Pakistani troops were captured.
6- Pakistan lost half of its Navy, a 3rd of its
the floods we had to intervene. army, and quarter of its air force.

The war lasted for 13 days from 3rd to 16th December 1971. India attacked both East
and West Pakistan and Pak agencies have already estimated their defeat, but they
wanted to minimize the humiliation of loss. India had acquired 5619 sq. miles in Punjab,
Sindh, and Kashmir while Pakistan acquired only 121 sq. miles of Indian territory.
Indian troops in the East reached Dhaka but the bloodshed was avoided because of the
unconditional surrender of Pak forces in the hands of Indian forces. 93,000 Pakistani
troops were captured by India. Pakistan lost half of its Navy, a 3rd of its Army, and
quarter of its air force in this war. 16th December 1971 is still considered as a dark day
in Pakistan’s history.

Q: Why was Pakistan unsuccessful in 1965 and 1971 wars? OR [7]

Q: Why was India successful in 1965 and 1971 wars against Pakistan? [7]
Important Points
Pakistan was unsuccessful in both wars, Firstly, 1- Military strength of Indian Army.
because of military strength of Indian army. 2- Miscalculation of Ayūb Khān in
Secondly, in 1965, Ayūb Khān miscalculated the operation Gibraltar.
3- SEATO and CENTO did not help
Indian preparations for the war and thought that Pakistan.
it would be an easy victory for Pakistan. In 4- India was aided by Soviets in 1971.
operation Gibraltar, Pakistani army infiltrated 5- Mukti Bahini was trained by Indians.
6- Bengalis did not support west Pakistan
Kashmir without taking local Kashmiris in b/c latter was accused of killing
confidence. Thus, local Kashmiris did not Bengali intelligentsia.
support Pakistan in this operation. 7- The 1600 kms distance b/w both
wings.

Pakistan could not receive the western aid in both the wars. US military aid was stopped
for both Pakistan and India whereas Soviet aid continued for India. SEATO and
CENTO did not help Pakistan in these wars. USA and China wanted Pakistan to resolve
the matter on their own.
Number of troops and weapons increased rapidly in the war of 1971. It motivated and
helped Mukti Bahini against Pakistan to win their freedom from West Pakistan.
Bengalis did not support Pakistan because the latter was already accused of killing

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 114

 Bengali intelligentsia. The communicational impediment i.e., 1600 kms distance
between the two wings also played an important role in Pakistan’s defeat because it
could not send re-enforcements in time.

Long Questions

Q: Economic disparity was the most important factor in separation of East Pakistan. Do
you agree? Explain. OR [14]
Q: Economic factors contributed the most towards the separation of East Pakistan in
1971. Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons to your answer. [14]

Economic Factors between East and West Pakistan grew after the inception of Pakistan.

The continuous calamities of floods did not let the industrial base grow in East Pakistan.
Ayub’s economic reforms widened the gap, 22 families of W.P controlled 66% of the
industrial base of the whole Pakistan. 80% of the banking and insurance companies
were controlled by these families. East Pakistan produced world’s 75% of the jute but
the earnings from this crop was spent on West Pakistan rather than East Pakistan.
Politically, East Pakistan wanted a share according to their population which was 10%
more than West Pakistan but unfortunately, they were denied the appropriate share.
Most of the political decisions were being taken in West Pakistan for their own benefits.
East Pakistan did not get the appropriate share in civil services and armed forces.
Mujeeb’s six points were denied. Awami League was not given the right to form the
government even though the party was most successful in the elections of 1970. The
military operation (operation searchlight) was started against the Bengalis in 1971.
Lingual factor was one of the important factors contributing towards the separation of
East Pakistan. One language was introduced at the inception of Pakistan by Jinnah on
the basis of “One Nation One Language” which was opposed by East Pakistan. The
distance of 1600 km between East and West Pakistan resisted the cultural contacts
between the two units. Regular natural calamities i.e. floods and cyclones worsened the
economic conditions of East Pakistan. Bhola cyclone in 1970 killed as many as 500,000
Bengalis. India helped Bangladesh time to time on humanitarian grounds but Pakistan
did not.
Consequently, it can be argued that economic factors may be concluded to be the most
important factors which aggravated the situation and contributed to the separation of
East Pakistan. The situation was taken as the continuity of a colonial rule on them.

Source A Question
Q: What did Yaḥyā khan do to make it up to Ayūb’s mistakes? [3]
Source A: Yahya did not want to leave any doubt to make Pakistanis believe that
elections on the basis of universal adult franchise were being held. Perhaps he
remembered the situation created by Ayub Khan who turned the country’s political life
a mess and left a bad impression about the army. In making his intentions clear Yahya
ordered the Election Commission to get the electoral rolls prepared by end of June the
following year, so that the nation could go to the polls by December 1970.
An excerpt taken from the Article of Dawn on Yahyā’s commitment to hold elections

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 115

 Answer: Yaḥyā Khān ensured to hold the elections on universal adult franchise. He
ordered election commission to get the electoral polls prepared in no time. He wanted
to make it up to political mistakes of Ayūb Khān.

Source B Question

Q: Describe the intentions and aims of East Pakistanis before liberation? [5]
Answer: Women in the Azimpur field look enthusiastic to gain liberation from west
Pakistan. They are holding the gun and standing in a straight line means they are
organizing themselves for the situation to come. They are holding the guns means they
are getting trained to use guns against their enemies. Women are smiling means they
are not taking pressure while getting trained and they are enjoying such military
training. We already know that Mukti Bahini have been trained by Indian army. So,
East Pakistanis were enthusiastic in getting independence from West Pakistan.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 116

 4- Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto (1971-77)
Position held by him: Foreign Minister, Adviser to President, Party Chairman, Chief Martial
Law Administrator, President, and Prime Minister.
Tenure of P.M: Aug 1973 till July 1977
Important development: He had faced the case of murder of Nawāb Muḥammad Khān (Father
of Aḥmad Razā Qasūrī) for two years and sentenced to death by Lahore High court. The
decision was upheld by Supreme Court. He did not plead for pardon, reprieve, or respite from
General Żiā ul-Ḥaq even though he could do that. He was hanged in April 1979
Short Questions
Q: What steps were taken by Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto for re-organization of army? [4]
• Pakistan army wanted to play limited role in politics, so Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto facilitated
the decision of Pak army with few steps.
o He coined the designation of COAS (Chief of the Army Staff) in 1972.
o A new paramilitary force was established to assist the police called the FSF
(Federal Security Force).
• The Famous Shimla agreement was signed with the then Prime Minister of India Ms.
Indirā Gāndhī in 1972 by which 93,000 prisoners of war were released by India.
• Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto improved the image of Pakistan and reduced the military
dependency to show lesser chances of war.
Q: What was Federal Security Force? [4]
• To limit the role of army in politics, Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto introduced a paramilitary force
named Federal Security Force (FSF) in October 1972.
• Its primary task was to assist civil bureaucracy and police in maintaining law and order
so that military intervention can be resisted.
• However, opposition parties called it as private army of Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto who
crushed Bhutto’s rivals.
• It was abolished by Żiā ul-Ḥaq in 1977.
Q: Describe the terms of constitution of 1973? [4]
• The 1973 constitution was drafted in the era of Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto, and it became a
reason for his popularity.
• It provided for Parliamentary form of the Government in which the powers would be
vested in Prime Minister.
• P.M would be an executive head and President would be figure head, both to be elected
for 5 years.
• It would be a bicameral legislature, Upper House i.e. (Senate) and Lower House
(National Assembly).
• Upper House (senate) elections after every 3 years, elected by 4 provincial assemblies.
• Lower House (National Assembly) for 5 years, elected by adult franchise.
• Four provincial assemblies will be elected for 5 years and would be elected by adult
franchise.
• Islamic committee was setup to address Islamic issues and to advise govt. on Islamic
laws.
• President and Prime Minister will be Muslims.
Q: What are the six amendments passed in Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto’s regime? [4]
There were only six amendments made to the constitution in Bhutto’s regime.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 117

 1) First one is Pakistan’s recognition of Bangladesh.
2) Second is declaration of Ahmadis as non-Muslims.
3) Third is the extension in period of preventive detention.
4) Fourth deprived the courts to grant bail to anyone under preventive detention.
5) The Sind and Baluchistan High Court shall cease to function as a common High
Court for the Provinces of Baluchistan and Sind. The President shall, by Order,
establish a High Court for each of the Provinces of Baluchistan and Sind.
6) and last determined the ages of retirement of chief justice of supreme court (65
years) and high court judges (62 years).
Q: Describe Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto’s health reforms? [4]
• Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto established Rural Health Centers (RHC) to provide health facilities
to the rural and far-flung areas of Pakistan and Basic Health Units (BHU) in Urban
areas.
• One RHC was to setup for 60, 000 people in rural areas and one BHU for every 20,000
people in urban areas.
• Fresh doctors are then to give compulsory service in rural areas.
• In his regime new hospitals and medical colleges were established to provide
widespread health care.
• Branding in medicines was discouraged to reduce the cost of medicines through drug
act, 1972.
• He started family planning programs to control growing population of Pakistan and
vaccination programs to control growing infant mortality rate.
• These reforms resulted in improved medical care of Pakistani people which increased
PPP popularity, but shortage of fresh doctors and nurses caused a concern.
• Many multinational pharmaceuticals closed the business because of discouragement in
branding of medicines.
• Distant hospitals and lack of ambulances were one of the main reasons of the failure.
Q: What were Basic Health Units and Rural Health Centers? [4]
• Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto established Rural Health Centers (RHC) to provide health facilities
to the rural and far-flung areas of Pakistan
• and Basic Health Units (BHU) in Urban areas.
• One RHC was to setup for 60, 000 people in rural areas
• and one BHU for every 20,000 people in urban areas.
• A BHU had a doctor with few paramedics
• and a RHC had a doctor, Lady Heath Visitor (LHV) and some paramedics.
• It later became a source of employment for the fresh doctors and medical graduates.
Q: Describe Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto’s agricultural reforms? [4]
• These were introduced to modernize the agriculture by introducing fertilizers,
insecticides, and pesticides and to increase the productivity of the largest economic
sector of Pakistan.
• The land ownership was decreased to 150 acres of irrigated land and 300 acres of un-
irrigated land in 1974.
• It was further lowered down to irrigated 100 acres and un-irrigated 200 acres.
• It was a failure because MNAs divided their lands among their relatives and trustworthy
workers working in their homes and fields.
• Illegal and inappropriate transfer of lands to the relatives and trusted tenants.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 118

 • It resulted in large scale eviction of the tenants which ultimately lowered the crop
growth.
Q: Describe Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto’s administrative reforms? [4]
• Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto dismissed more than 2000 civil servants on charge of corruption
and appointed men of his choice.
• Civil services were categorized based on their salary and divided them into smaller
levels.
• Direct recruitment method was introduced through which nepotism prevailed in the
country.
• Likeable people were given the government jobs.
Q: what were the political steps taken by Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto? [4]
• Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto as a Politician was an immaculate and charismatic personality.
• He won the elections of 1970 from West Pakistan (81 out of 138 seats).
• There was a strong JUI-NAP alliance in NWFP and Baluchistan.
• Bhutto established a coalition with JUI (Jami’at Ulamā i Islām) and NAP (National
Awami Party) and committed to give a freehand in the NWFP and Baluchistan.
• After one year he dismissed the governments of NWFP and Baluchistan which led to
the military operation against Baloch tribal chiefs in Baluchistan for 5 years.
• He wanted to have a provincial autonomy which remained a dream for him.
• He also wanted to have presidential system and interim constitution of 1972 was also
presidential, but it also remained a dream for him because his party protested this. In
1975, extended powers were given to the FSF to pressurize opposition.
Q: Describe Shimla Agreement between Pakistan and India? [4]
• It was signed between Pakistan President Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto and Indian Prime
Minister Indirā Gāndhī in 1972.
• Differences between the countries will be dealt peacefully through negotiations.
• 93,000 prisoners of war were released through this agreement.
• Kashmir would be a bilateral issue and third-party intervention would not be welcomed.
• Both countries will respect each other’s national unity and integrity.
• Both countries will prevent hostile propaganda against each other.
Q: Describe the security of tenure scheme? [4]
• ZAB wanted tenant farmers to have security of tenure.
• He gave tenant farmers the first right of purchase of the land they worked.
• Landowners could not sell the land to a third party who might then evict the tenant
farmers.
• Tenants were encouraged to make improvements on their land as they knew they would
not be evicted.
• Many landowners circumvented the scheme to evict their tenant farmers.
• Landowners had too much power and influence to make the scheme work.
7-Marks Questions
Q: Describe Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto’s industrial reforms? OR [4]
Q: What was nationalization policy of Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto? OR [4]

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 119

Q: Why did Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto’s industrial reforms unsuccessful? [7]
Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto nationalized major industries Important Points
to make them SOEs (State Owned Enterprises)
->SOEs under NERO failed
i.e., Sugar, Oil, Fertilizers, etc. under NERO
because;
(Nationalization and Economic Reform Order
i- Demotivated private sector.
(1972)). Objectives of nationalization include
ii- Foreign investor was reluctant to
generation of funds for development, betterment
invest.
of living standards of the labor class,
iii- Foreign reserved declined.
establishment of labor unions, reduction in Ayūb
iv- No middle / management staff.
Khān’s disparity among the provinces,
v- Civil servants were technically
accountability of Industrial revenues, and
not equipped to run operations.
political popularity of PPP among masses.
vi- worldwide economic recession.
It resulted in demotivation and reluctance of investors to invest in Pakistan. Foreign
reserves declined because confidence of private sector was shattered. The reasons of its
failure were the lack of middle management staff to support the industrialists / investors
and nationalized units were headed by civil servants who had no technical expertise in
running the business. Inefficient people were running the nationalized cause. Lastly,
worldwide economic recession took its toll and due to nationalization, Pakistan suffered a
lot.
Q: Describe Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto’s educational reforms? OR [4]
Q: Why were Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto’s educational reforms failed? [7]
The primary objectives to introduce these reforms Important Points
were to improve the literacy rate and grooming of i-Nationalized schools lowered
individuals (Ethics, social awareness, and socio- the education standards.
economic skills). It assured uniform education, ii- It was opposed by rural
modern curriculum, and eradicate illiteracy. masses.
Objectives also include, nationalization of Private iii- Loss of earning through child
schools, introduction of uniform syllabus in all labor.
provinces, establishment of new schools, free and iv- lack of qualified and efficient
compulsory primary education. For all this Zulfiqār staff.
´Alī Bhutto allocated 13% of the budget which was v- literacy rate only went up to
an extensive amount. 1% in 5 years.
Education reforms were a failure because firstly
formal education was opposed by rural masses. Secondly there was a fear of loss of
earning through child labor among the rural inhabitants by sending the children to
schools. Thirdly standard of education declined by overcrowding and nationalization
of the schools. Fourthly there was a lack of qualified and efficient staff. And lastly there
was slow improvement in literacy rate i.e., only 1% in 5 years.
Q: Why did Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto came to power? [7]
He came to power in Pakistan after separation of East
Pakistan in 1971. Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) of Zulfiqār -> Majority porty in 1970
´Alī Bhutto was a majority party in elections of 1970 in West elections.
Pakistan which had won 81 out of 138 seats of National -> Popular leader among the
Assembly. masses
Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto was the only popular leader then who -> Know how to run the affairs
of govt
could run the affairs of the govt. Also, he had already served -> Morale of army was low
on several important positions such as foreign minister so, he
knew how to run the administration of the country.
SYED TAQI KARAMAT 120
 He inspired his supporters but harshly opposed by the opposition. After the defeat in
East Pakistan, the morale of the army was very low, he fit himself in the system and
won the confidence of the people.
Q: Why did Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto fall from the Govt. after the elections of 1977? [7]
Opposition made allegations of Pre-poll rigging on PPP and
-> Allegations of Pre-poll
of using the Govt. machinery in the elections. It was said that
rigging
Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto used the Govt. officials as his election
-> Govt. Machinery used
campaigners. 9 political parties joined hands together to form
by PPP.
an electoral alliance called PNA (Pakistan National Alliance)
-> Protests and allegations
to give a tough time to PPP. PNA was off the view that they
by PNA.
had no time for preparation as the elections were suddenly
-> Curfew in Lahore,
announced in 1977. PPP won with majority and PNA accused
Karachi, and Hyderabad
the former of rigging and rejected the results.
-> Operation Fair play
Wide range protests were organized in different parts of country for which curfew was
imposed in Lahore, Karachi, and Hyderabad. Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto was forced to kneel
before PNA’s demands because of military watch but that was too late. Żiā ul-Ḥaq
imposed operation fair play and constitution was suspended in July 1977. Several
political leaders were arrested including Zulfiqār ‘Alī Bhutto.
Q: Why was Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto arrested and subsequently executed in 1979? OR [7]
Q: Why Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto’s rule ended in 1977? [7]
He was opposed by the industrialists and business class due -> Opposition by many circles within
the country i.e., Industrialists, Middle
to nationalization. Middle class opposed the educational Class, Ulamā, etc.
reforms due to the decline in standard education. Religious -> Using Govt. machinery for
parties accused Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto of being a secular personal use.
communist. He was accused of using FSF for personal -> Proclamation of Martial Law.
-> Protests by masses.
reasons. Military operation in Baluchistan was also
-> High court’s decision and it being
opposed by masses and political circles of the country. upheld by Supreme court.
Rigging in the elections for which PNA protested. Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto was house
arrested after proclamation of Martial Law at Muree but released after a short while.
Żia ul-Ḥaq promised to hold elections within 3 months and in the meantime, Bhutto
attracted huge masses which poised a threat to Żia ul-Ḥaq. So, case of murder of Nawāb
Muḥammad Khān (Father of Aḥmad Razā Qasūrī) was reopened. He was re-arrested
on 3rd Sep. 1977. A death sentence was given to him by Lahore High Court. The
decision was upheld by the Supreme Court. Bhutto had the chance to appeal for Pardon,
reprieve, and respite but he did not want to take that from Żia ul-Ḥaq. So, on April 4th,
1979, he was hanged till death.
Long Questions
Q: “Constitutional reforms were the most important of Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto’s domestic
policies between 1971 and 1977”. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer? OR[14]
Q: “Industrial reforms were the most important of Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto’s domestic
policies between 1971 and 1977”. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer?OR[14]
Q: in which of the following Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto have most success?
i- Reform and control of the armed forces
ii- Constitutional Reforms
iii- Education and Health Reforms
Explain your answer with reference to all three of the above. [14]

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 121

 Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto’s reforms had its impact in the country.
The 1973 constitution was drafted in the era of Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto, and it became a
reason for his popularity. It provided for Parliamentary form of the Government in
which the powers would be vested in Prime Minister. P.M would be an executive head
and President would be figure head, both to be elected for 5 years. It would be a
bicameral legislature, Upper House i.e. (Senate) and Lower House (National
Assembly). Upper House (senate) elections after every 3 years, elected by 4 provincial
assemblies. Lower House (National Assembly) for 5 years, elected by adult franchise.
Four provincial assemblies will be elected for 5 years and would be elected by adult
franchise. Islamic committee was setup to address on Islamic issues and to advise govt.
on Islamic laws. President and Prime Minister will be Muslims.
Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto established Rural Health Centers (RHC) to provide health facilities
to the rural and far-flung areas of Pakistan and Basic Health Units (BHU) in Urban
areas. One RHC was to setup for 60, 000 people in rural areas and one BHU for every
20,000 people in urban areas. Fresh doctors are then to give compulsory service in rural
areas. In his regime new Hospitals and medical colleges were established to provide
widespread health care. Branding in medicines was discouraged to reduce the cost of
medicines through drug act, 1972. He started family planning programs to control
growing population of Pakistan and vaccination programs to control growing infant
mortality rate. These reforms resulted in improved medical care of Pakistani people
which increased PPP popularity, but shortage of fresh doctors and nurses caused a
concern. Many multinational pharmaceuticals closed the business because of
discouragement in branding of medicines. Distant hospitals and lack of ambulances
were one of the main reasons of the failure.
These were introduced to modernize the agriculture by introducing fertilizers,
insecticides, and pesticides and to increase the productivity of the largest economic
sector of Pakistan. The land ownership was decreased to 150 acres of irrigated land and
300 acres of un-irrigated land in 1974. It was further lowered down to irrigated 100
acres and un-irrigated 200 acres. It was a failure because MNAs divided their lands
among their relatives and trustworthy workers working in their homes and fields. Illegal
and inappropriate transfer of lands to the relatives and trusted tenants. It resulted in
large scale eviction of the tenants which ultimately lowered the crop growth.
Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto nationalized major SOEs (State Owned Enterprises) i.e., Sugar,
Oil, Fertilizers, etc. under NERO (Nationalization and Economic Reform Order
(1972)). Objectives of nationalization include generation of funds for development,
betterment of living standards of the labor class, establishment of Labor unions,
reduction in Ayūb Khān’s disparity among the provinces, accountability of Industrial
revenues, and political popularity of PPP among masses. It resulted in demotivation
and reluctance of investors to invest in Pakistan. Foreign reserves declined because
confidence of private sector was shattered. The reasons of its failure were the lack of
middle management staff to support the industrialists / investors and nationalized units
were headed by civil servants who had no technical expertise in running the business.
Inefficient people were running the nationalized cause. Lastly, worldwide economic
recession took its toll and due to nationalization, Pakistan suffered a lot.
The primary objectives to introduce these reforms were to improve the literacy rate and
grooming of individuals (Ethics, Social awareness, and Socio-economic skills). It
assured uniform education, modern curriculum, and eradicate illiteracy. Objectives also

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 122

 include, nationalization of Private schools, introduction of uniform syllabus in all
provinces, establishment of new schools, free and compulsory primary education. For
all this Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto allocated 13% of the budget which was an extensive
amount. Education reforms were a failure because firstly formal education was opposed
by rural masses. Secondly there was a fear of loss of earning through child labor among
the rural inhabitants by sending the children to schools. Thirdly standard of education
declined by overcrowding and nationalization of the schools. Fourthly there was a lack
of qualified and inefficient staff. And lastly there was slow improvement in literacy rate
i.e., only 1% in 5 years.
Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto dismissed more than 2000 civil servants on charge of corruption
and appointed men of his choice. Civil services were categorized based on their salary
and divided them into smaller levels. Direct recruitment method was introduced
through which nepotism prevailed in the country. Likeable people were given the
government jobs.
Consequently, it can be argued that he was partially successful in his domestic policies,
but his constitutional reforms were the most successful because the constitution of
Pakistan was still enforced although with few amendments.
Source A Questions
Q: According to source A what is the criticism of Bhutto on the govt.? [3]
Source A: I belong to the people and love them. You have created me. My bond with
you must always remain. All the levers are so controlled by government that it can
direct the flow of the wealth into the pockets of whomsoever it pleases. Now those who
control the levers can also profit from the system to make themselves rich. “Power is
money” means that in order to become rich one must enjoy authority or be favored by
persons wielding authority.
Bhutto writing in 1968
Ans: The government is the one who controls the wealth. So, it is the government who can
get itself profited by the system. And the one who has authority or wields authority by
someone else is rich in our country.
Source B Questions

Addressing to an audience in a procession before the elections of 1977

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 123

Q: What can you tell about Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto in source B? [5]
Zulfiqār ´Alī Bhutto’s is confident while addressing to a procession. Thousands of
people have gathered which shows he is popular among the masses. Flags of both his
party and Pakistan are flying in the air refers to him working for Pakistan. Masses are
anxiously listening to him means that he is talking about something important.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 124

 5- General Żiā ul-Ḥaq
General information to be noted to develop your points in the questions
1- He imposed martial law on 7th July, 1977.
2- Zulfiqār ‘Alī Bhutto was released from jail because of his popularity among the masses
but a case of Nawāb Muḥammad Khān’s murder was reopened.
3- ZAB was arrested in Sep, 1977, trialed for 2 years and was sentenced to death in April
1979.
4- ZAB did not take mercy plea from Żiā.
5- Żiā accused PPP’s govt. of misconduct and corruption.
6- He ended the military action in Baluchistan and announced amnesty for tribal chiefs
who chose to surrender.
7- FSF (Federal Security Force) was abolished.
8- Islamization was introduced to run the govt. in a peaceful manner according to the
guidance of Quran and Sunnah.
Q: Why did Żiā ul-Ḥaq introduce his Islamization reforms? OR [7]
Q: Why did Żiā ul-Ḥaq introduce his Islamic reforms between 1977 and 1988? [7]
Żiā ul-Ḥaq introduced Islamization reforms to counter Zulfiqār ->To counter ZAB’s
‘Alī Bhutto’s socialist and anti-Islamic policies. It was also socialist reforms
introduced to win the support of all the religious parties because -> To win support of
major religious parties were the part of PNA (Pakistan National religious parties
-> To get military support
Alliance)-an electoral alliance against Bhutto’s PPP which were
gaining momentum by mass gatherings.
In Dec 1979, the USSR invaded Afghanistan, Żiā took advantage of the situation as he
was both pro-Islamic and anti-communist, so he succeeded in getting the economic and
military support from Saudi Arabia and America by helping Americans in its anti-
Soviet cause and by helping Sunni Taliban backed by Saudi Arabia.
Islamization steps
Q: What were the Islamization steps taken by Żiā? [4]
• A Federal Shariat Court (FSC) was established to review and decide about the existing
n Islamic laws.
• Blasphemy law was imposed for irreverence shown to the Holy Prophet PBUH and the
Holy Quran.
• Council of Islamic ideology was established to advise the govt. on legalities according
to Islam.
• Dress code for women appearing on Tv, women participation sports and certain
occupations i.e., receptionists were restricted.
• Islāmiāt and Pakistan Studies were made compulsory in Schools.
• Extra marks for Hifz-e-Qurans. Arabic was promoted through radio.
Q: What were the Hudood Ordinances? [4]
• Ḥudūd and Quzf ordinance were imposed in 1977 which were the Islamic punishments
on the offences of property, theft, adultery, drinking and slander against innocent
women respectively.
• The Punishment could be amputation of hand for theft, 80 stripes of cane for drinking
alcohol, etc.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 125

 • In 1980 Zakāt and Ushr ordinance were imposed, according to which 2.5% tax (Zakāt)
on saving after a year on a certain amount
• and 10% agricultural tax (Ushr) on its yearly production if rain fed otherwise, it will be
5%.
• Shias protested for auto-deduction of Zakāt because they have their own system of
wealth distribution i.e., Khums.
• These reforms were not successful because it could not be implemented in its true letter
and spirit.
Q: What were the administrative reforms of Żiā? [4]
• Żiā restricted the Independence of Judiciary through military courts on a plea of getting
rapid results.
• PCO (Provisional Constitutional Order) was imposed in 1980 which stated that decision
of the President cannot be challenged in courts.
• Military bureaucratic oligarchy led to several military officials being appointed as civil
servants.
• More than 40 % of diplomats abroad were from the military.
• Majlis i-shūrā was established to guide Żiā about the Islamic Laws.
• He ended the military action in Baluchistan and announced amnesty for tribal chiefs
who chose to surrender. FSF (Federal Security Force) was abolished.
Q: What was the political policy of Żiā? [4]
• To legitimize his rule, Żia held a referendum which was nothing more than a failure
because firstly only 10% of the population voted in it and secondly it was boycotted by
MRD (Movement of Restoration of Democracy)- an alliance of parties to restore
democracy in the country.
• Numerous amendments were made to keep the rule of Żiā long lasting. 8th amendment
was passed which vested all powers to the President of the Country and Prime Minister
became a puppet in hands of president.
• MRD tried its level best but could not let Zia agree on the issue of elections on party
basis and 1985 elections were held on non-party basis.
• Turn-out in the elections was 52% which was mostly won by landlords, tribal chiefs,
and feudal lords.
• A loyal and obedient assembly was formed, and Muḥmmad Khān Junejo became the
P.M. In Dec 1985 martial law was lifted and constitution was restored with fundamental
amendments.
Q: What was MRD? [4]
• In February 1981, Benazir formally established the Movement for the Restoration of
Democracy (MRD).
• This was a group that brought together the PPP with other political parties in the
country: the Pakistan Muslim League (PML), Pakistan Democratic Party, Mazdoor
Kisan Party, National Awami Party, Quomi Mahaz-e-Azadi, Jamiat-i-Ulema-i-Islam,
and the Tahrik-i-Istiqlal.
• The MRD called for a four-point program:
1) an end to martial law,
2) the restoration of the 1973 constitution,
3) parliamentary elections,

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 4) and the transfer of political power from the military to the elected
representatives.
• There was nevertheless much mutual suspicion among the parties in the MRD, thus
couldn’t pressurize Zia.
Q: What was The Afghan Miracle? [4]
• In Dec 1979, USSR (Soviet) attacked Afghanistan.
• Pakistan was against the communist rule, so it allied with US against USSR.
• Pakistan received heavy economic and military aid by the West.
• US funded 3.2 billion dollars to Pakistan for helping refugees for 6 years.
• Another agreement was signed between Pakistan and US for an economic aid of 4.2
billion dollars to Pakistan in 1986 for helping refugees.
• Huge defense budget was announced as Pakistan was also catering huge influx of
Afghan refugees.
Q: What were economic reforms of Żiā? [4]
• Pakistan received more than 7 billion dollars in aid for its support to Taliban fighting
Afghan jihad against soviets and for huge influx of refugees.
• Western aid and remittance by over 2 million overseas Pakistanis became a major factor
for numerous economic reforms.
• They remitted 4 billion dollars yearly.
• Land reforms were introduced in which the land holdings were fixed to 100 acres of
irrigated and 200 acres of unirrigated land.
• Denationalization of nationalized SOE’s (State Owned Enterprises) and ban on further
nationalization which aimed to give confidence to foreign and local investors.
• Interest free loans were provided to industrialists and SMEs (Small Medium
Enterprises). GNP (Gross National Product) rose to 6.23% which was quite high as
compared to the recent past.
• Projects of Pakistan Steel Mill and Karakorum highway were completed in his era.
• Even these reforms could not control the inflation rate.
Q: What was the foreign policy of Żiā? [4]
• Żiā strengthened his relationship with Western countries especially United States
because of the Russian invasion in Afghanistan.
• Relationship between Pakistan and China became stronger as it helped the former in
laying the Karakorum highway, setup heavy Mechanical complex at Taxila and in
nuclear field research.
• Relationship between Muslim countries improved except Iran because of Iranian
revolution based on Shiite belief system.
• Pakistan supplied military manpower to UAE, Lībyā, Saudi Arabia, and Umān.
• Almost 50,000 Pakistani workers were working in Middle East as a direct result of this
policy.
• The west freely supplied weapons to help Afghan Mujahideen, but it then became
common in the streets of Pakistan.
• Żiā’s foreign policy was quite successful except Russia because of its invasion in
Afghanistan where Pakistan was helping Afghan Mujahideen with the help of USA.
Q: What was the eighth amendment? [4]

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 127

 • In 1985, Żiā passed a legislation through the National Assembly which would give
President the powers to dismiss Prime Minister and dissolve National Assembly under
clause 58(2)b without the advice of the P.M.
• All previous acts of Martial law period became law without the right to appeal.
• The President could then appoint Prime Minister, Governors, and other officials.
• This amendment was then used for four times by presidents to remove the legitimate
governments in 1990s.
Q: What was cricket diplomacy initiated by Żiā? [4]
• Cricket is the second-most widely played game in the world after football.
• So, the use of cricket as a political tool to enhance the diplomatic relations between
two cricket playing nations is called cricket diplomacy.
• In 1987, the then Pakistan’s president, Gen Żiā ul-Ḥaq visited India to meet Indian
Prime Minister Rājīv Gāndhī, he consequently watered-down mutual mistrust and
deflected the tensions that they had faced against the Soviet invasions of Afghanistan
and Soviet pressure on India by attending a test match between India and Pakistan in
Jaipur.
Q: What is Geneva Accord? [4]
• Geneva accord was signed on 14th April 1988 between Afghanistan and Pakistan with
US and USSR as guarantors.
• Timeframe was setup to withdraw forces from Afghanistan, 50 % of the forces were to
be withdrawn within 3 months.
• Żiā wanted to have a pro-Pakistan govt. based on the resistance groups in Afghanistan
but Muḥammad Khān Junejo could not persuade in the agreement as it was out of
question for Soviets and thus already harsh relationship between Żiā and Junejo
aggravated.
Q: What is Ojhri camp disaster? [4]
• On 10th April 1988, Ojhri camp disaster happened.
• Ammunition depot in Rawalpindi was mysteriously blown which killed thousands of
people.
• Junejo wanted to conduct an independent inquiry in which he decided to involve the
military officers as well which added fuel to the fire and thus Junejo’s legitimate govt.
was dismissed by using 8th amendment on 28th May 1988 by Żiā.
• Khāqān Abbāsī- father of Shāhid Khāqān Abbāsī (Future Prime Minister) died in the
accident while his son Zāhid Khāqān Abbāsī received head injuries because of which
he went to coma and ultimately died in 2005.
Q: What difficulties did Żiā ul-Ḥaq find in ruling Pakistan during late 1980s? OR [7]
Q: Why did Żiā ul-Ḥaq find it difficult to rule Pakistan during the late 1980s? [7]

Afghan refugees created a big economic problem for • Afghan refugees

Żiā. West supplied weapons which became common in • Sectarianism
streets because of which violence and sectarianism grew • Drug addiction
in the country. Drug addiction rose as Afghan refugees • Ethnic conflicts
were drug addicts and thus the flow of drugs from • MQM’s violent
Afghanistan along with refugees came without hurdle.
methods
Punjabi-Sindhi ethnic conflicts rose which erupted a
law-and-order situation in Sindh. • Provincial differences

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 128

 MQM (Mutahida Qaumi Movement) was established for the rights of Muhājirs in
Karachi which used violent methods to prove themselves as a distinguished entity
within the region and thus Karachi became the center of violence. Provincial differences
grew as Punjab was pro Żiā due to the rise of Nawāz Sharīf. Sindh, NWFP, and
Baluchistan were against Żiā because of Kālābāgh dam issue.
Long Questions
Q: Economic reforms were the most important of Zia-ul-Haq’s domestic policies
between 1977 and 88. Do you agree? Explain. OR [14]
Q: Hudood and Quzf ordinances were the most important of Zia-ul-Haq’s domestic
policies between 1977 and 88. Do you agree? Explain. OR [14]
Q: Administrative reforms were the most important of Zia-ul-Haq’s domestic policies
between 1977 and 88. Do you agree? Explain. [14]
Żiā ul-Ḥaq introduced his domestic policies after the downfall of Zulfiqār ‘Alī Bhutto.
Pakistan received more than 7 billion dollars in aid for its support to Taliban fighting
Afghan jihad against soviets and for huge influx of refugees. Western aid and
remittance by over 2 million overseas Pakistanis became a major factor for numerous
economic reforms. They remitted 4 billion dollars yearly. Land reforms were
introduced in which the land holdings were fixed to 100 acres of irrigated and 200 acres
of unirrigated land. Denationalization of nationalized SOE’s (State Owned Enterprises)
and ban on further nationalization which aimed to give confidence to foreign and local
investors. Interest free loans were provided to industrialists and SMEs (Small Medium
Enterprises). GNP (Gross National Product) rose to 6.23% which was quite high as
compared to the recent past. Pakistan Steel Mill and Karakorum highway was
completed in his era. These reforms could not control the inflation rate which was high
between 1977 and 1986.
Ḥudūd and Quzf (false allegation) ordinance were imposed in 1977 which were the
Islamic punishments on the offences of property, theft, adultery, drinking, and slander
against innocent women. The Punishment could be amputation of hand for theft, 80
stripes of cane for drinking alcohol, etc. In 1980 Zakāt and Ushr ordinance were
imposed, according to which 2.5% tax (Zakāt) on saving after a year on a certain
amount and 5% agricultural tax (Ushr) on its yearly production. Shias protested for
cutting of Zakāt because they have their own system of wealth distribution i.e., Khums.
These reforms were not successful because it could not be implemented in its true letter
and spirit. A Federal Shariat Court (FSC) was established to review and decide about
the existing Islamic laws. Blasphemy law was imposed for irreverence shown to the
Holy Prophet PBUH and the Holy Quran. Council of Islamic ideology was established
to advise the govt. on legalities according to Islam. Dress code for women appearing
on Tv, women participation in sports and certain occupations i.e., receptionists were
restricted. Islāmiāt and Pakistan Studies were made compulsory in Schools. Extra
marks for Hifz-e-Qurans. Arabic was promoted through radio.
To legitimize his rule, Żia held a referendum which nothing more than a failure because
firstly only 10% of the population voted in it and secondly it was boycotted by MRD
(Movement of Restoration of Democracy)- an alliance of parties to restore democracy
in the country. Numerous amendments were made to keep the rule of Żiā long lasting.
8th amendment was passed which vested all powers to the President of the Country and
Prime Minister became a puppet in hands of president. MRD tried its level best but
could not let Zia agree on the issue of elections on party basis and 1985 elections were

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 129

 held on non-party basis. Turn-out in the elections was 52% which was mostly won by
landlords, tribal chiefs, and feudal lords. A loyal and obedient assembly was formed,
and Muḥmmad Khān Junejo became the P.M. In Dec 1985 martial law was lifted and
constitution was restored with fundamental amendments.
In his administrative reforms, Żiā restricted the Independence of Judiciary through
military courts on a plea of getting rapid results. PCO (Provisional Constitutional
Order) was imposed in 1980 which stated that no decision of the President can be
challenged in courts. Military bureaucratic oligarchy led to several military officials
being appointed as civil servants. More than 40 % of the Civil servants abroad were
from the military. Majlis i-shūrā was established to guide Żiā about the Islamic Laws.
He ended the military action in Baluchistan and announced amnesty for tribal chiefs
who chose to surrender. FSF (Federal Security Force) was abolished.
Consequently, it can be argued that economic reforms were the most important one as
the growth rate reached to its peak and Pakistan was fastest growing country in South
Asia.
Source A Question
Q: According to source A what did America and CIA want from Żiā? [3]
Source A: No leader ruled a country in a more precarious situation. Most crucial was
President Żiā’s willingness to allow CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) to funnel
growing amounts of parliamentary support to the Afghan rebels through Pakistan. (CIA
director) Casey, the CIA, and the Regan administration all wanted Żiā to stay in power
and needed to know what was going on inside his government. The CIA situation in
Islamabad was the biggest in the world.
An excerpt taken from Bob Woodward’ book, Veil: The Secret Wars of CIA
Ans: They wanted Żiā to remain in power so that he and his administration who were already
aiding CIA to support Afghan rebels. They also wanted to know what was going on
inside his government.
Source B Question

President Żiā ul-Ḥaq meets Pakistan Cricket team Captain Imrān Khān
Q: What can you tell about Żiā and Imrān meeting in the picture? [5]
I can infer from what I see in the picture that Żiā is standing in a cricket ground as guest
of honor. He seems to be in a very good mood because we can see smile on his face
which reflects as if either Imrān Khān has a won a series or the former is wishing him
good luck for the series to come. Imrān confidently shaking hand with a smile on his
face means that he is respecting Żiā as a president of the country. We can see Intakhāb
Ālam- coach of then Pakistan Cricket Team in the picture who is introducing them both
formally.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 130

 6- Benazīr Bhutto Rule 1988–1990
Short Questions
Q: What was Pucca Qila massacre of 1990? [4]
• On 27 May 1990, Sindh government launched a crackdown in Hyderabad- the center
of MQM because of massive riots and protests by Muhajirs of MQM.
• A shoot-on-sight curfew with article 144 was imposed and police started house-to-
house search in the area.
• Muhājirs protested at this treatment and fighting broke out.
• 31 women and children were killed, leading to retaliations in Karachi, Latifābād, and
elsewhere with over 300 more deaths. This is known as the ‘Pucca Qila massacre’.
Q: What was operation Midnight Jackal? [4]
• In 1989, General Aslam Beg, then Chief of Army Staff, had been at odds on policy
matters relating the handling of the security situation in Afghanistan, immediately after
Prime Minister Bhutto removed Hamīd Gul from the intelligence agency over his
failure to sustained Pakistan's national interests in the country.
• According to the ISI's insider information, it was President Ghulām Ishāq Khān and
Gen. Mirzā Aslam Beg who wanted the administrative changes in the civilian
government to control it in their favor.
• In September 1989, the Internal Wing of the ISI, allegedly working under the directions
from Gen. Aslam Beg, attempted to mount a failed effort to bring the vote of no-
confidence movement in the Parliament in order to remove Benazīr Bhutto, which
would force new nationwide elections in 1990.
• This covert military intelligence program is called Operation Midnight Jackal or simply
known as Midnight Jackal.
Q: What was IJI? [4]
• The Islāmī Jamhūrī Ittehād was a right-wing conservative alliance formed in September
1988 to oppose the democratic socialist Pakistan People’s Party in elections that year.
• The alliance comprised nine parties, of which the major components were the Pakistan
Muslim League (PML), National People’s Party (NPP), Jamā’t i-Islāmī (JI), with PML
accounting for 80% of the IJI's electoral candidates.
• The Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) agency, under director Hamid Gul, had a major
role in forming the right-wing political alliance.
Q: What were the nepotism charges on Benazīr Bhutto? [4]
• Corruption and nepotism had reached its zenith during this era.
• Nuṣrat Bhutto- Mother of Benazīr Bhutto was a minister without a portfolio.
• Benazir’s father-in-law Hākim ‘Alī Zardārī was the chairman of the most important
committee of the parliament i.e., PAC (Public Accounts Committee)- which dealt with
corruption, kickbacks, bribery, embezzlement, etc.
• Āṣif ‘Alī Zardārī- husband of Benazīr Bhutto who was allegedly known to be as Mr.
10% was accused of corruption, bribery, blackmailing and kickbacks.
• Berlin-based Transparency International in its report ranked Pakistan as the second
most corrupt country in the world.
Q: What were successes of Benazir in her 1st term? [4]
• 1st woman P.M of the Muslim world.
• She ended the ban on trade unions and student unions.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 131

 • Political prisoners were released which were imprisoned in Zia’s regime.
• First woman bank was opened in 1989.
• Women for the 1st time were recruited in police, bureaucracy, and high courts as judges.
• Rural electrification program was started.
• Pakistan rejoined commonwealth in 1989.
• An aid of 400 million dollars was given to Pakistan in 1989.
• Rajiv Gandhi-Indian P.M visited Pakistan in 1988 which was the 1st time any Indian
P.M had visited Pakistan.
• She hosted 4th SAARC summit in Pakistan in 1988.
• She started Integrated Research Program on missile development in Pakistan.
• First military satellite “Badr-1” was launched with the help of the Chinese on July 1990.
Q: What problems did Benazīr face in her first term of Prime Minister from 1988-90?[4]
Q: Why did Benazīr fall from office in 1990? [7]
Benazīr Bhutto assumed her office as a P.M for the first time in -> Benazir wanted
December 1988 when crucial decade of cold war was going on. parliamentary
democracy; Khan did not
There was a power struggle between Prime Minister- Benazīr and want this.
President- Ghulām Ishāq Khān. Benazīr wanted to shift semi- -> Unemployment /
inflation
presidential system to parliamentary democracy where all the -> Opposition of IJI
powers will be vested in Prime Minister, but Khān’s constitutional -> Pucca Qila massacre
-> Charges of corruption
power did not let this happen.
Unemployment and labor strikes began to take place which halted and jammed the
economic wheel of the country and Benazīr Bhutto was unable to solve these issues due
to a cold war with the President. Opposition of IJI was another hurdle of PPP in Punjab
where the provincial govt was under the control of IJI. Pucca Qila massacre in
Hyderabad fueled the fire. Thus, in November 1990, after a long political battle, Khān
finally used the Eighth amendment to dismiss Benazīr Bhutto’s government following
charges of corruption, nepotism, and out of control law and order situation.
Benazīr Bhutto Rule 1993–1996
Short Questions
Q: What was the conflict between President Farūq Leghārī and P.M Benazīr? [4]
• Benazir had serious conflicts with President Farūq Leghārī on appointment issue.
• The president had discretionary powers to appoint armed forces’ chiefs and judges of
superior court, but Benazīr wanted to appoint them by herself.
• He was also not happy with the undue interference of Zardārī in governmental affairs.
• Their gulf further enhanced on the issues of the appointment of Army Chief and Benazīr
Bhutto’s attempt to dismiss Chief Justice, Sajjād ‘Alī Shāh.
• Benazīr Bhutto was so much annoyed with the President that she even blamed him for
the murder of Murtaẓā Bhutto.
• Ultimately, due to his differences with the Prime Minister, ever-increasing demand of
the opposition parties to dismiss her, and backing of the Establishment, Leghārī used
Article 58-2 (B) and dissolved the assemblies on November 5, 1996.
Q: What was the family feud of Benazīr Bhutto? [4]
• Benazīr succeeded Zulfiqār ‘Alī Bhutto but had a feud with Nuṣrat Bhutto- her mother
who wanted Mīr Murtazā as head of PPP and successor to Zulfiqār ‘Alī Bhutto.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 132

 • Benazīr Bhutto removed her mother from a leading role in Party politics which
frustrated Mīr Murtazā and he left the country.
• He started his operations in Al-Zulfiqār foundation in which he used to criticize Benazīr
Bhutto’s govt. and expose her husband Zardārī.
• Murtazā was arrested on his return in 1993 on charges of terrorism and mysteriously
killed in a police encounter.
Q: What were the successes of Benazīr Bhutto during 1993-96? [4]
• She entered into cooperative arrangements with UN and sent 5000 troops to Somalia.
• Trade deficit was reduced with the increasing exports of finished goods and decreasing
imports of raw material.
• Rise in foreign exchange reserves by reducing the imports of consumer goods.
• Successful foreign policy with USA in which Pressler amendment was considered as
an unfair treatment with Pakistan.
• Brown amendment was introduced which authorized US government to reimburse
Pakistan for F-16 payments and provided $388 million for military equipment.
• Henry Clinton also visited Pakistan which enabled better US-Pak relations.
Q: What problems did Benazīr face in her 2nd term of Prime Minister from 1993-96?[4]
Q: Why did Benazīr fall from office in 1996? [7]
Corruption and nepotism had reached its zenith during this era -> Benazīr’s father-in-
law was chairman of
where Nuṣrat Bhutto- Mother of Benazīr Bhutto was a minister PAC.
without a portfolio, her father-in-law- Hākim ‘Alī Zardarī was the -> Nuṣrat Bhutto,
chairman of the most important committee of the parliament i.e., minister without
PAC (Public Accounts Committee)- which dealt with corruption, portfolio-> Operation against
kickbacks, bribery, embezzlement, etc. Āsif ‘Alī Zardāri- husband MQM
of Benazīr Bhutto who was allegedly known to be as Mr. 10% was -> Mīr Murtazā openly
accused of corruption, bribery, blackmailing and kickbacks. Berlin- criticized, later killed
-> Zardārī’s corruption
based Transparency International in its report ranked Pakistan as -> Clash between
the second most corrupt country in the world. Leghārī and Benazīr
Furthermore, the law and order situation in Karachi deteriorated rapidly. Para-military
forces launched an operation in the city and MQM (Muttahidā Qaumī Movement) was
badly targeted. Nawāz Sharīf was exploiting the weaknesses of Benazīr Bhutto’s
regime. Her brother, Mīr Murtaẓā Bhutto, also turned against her and started openly
challenging her administrative skills as well as political views. To add fuel to the fire,
Murtaẓā Bhutto was killed in Karachi, and his family accused Benazīr Bhutto and her
husband, Āsif ‘Alī Zardārī, of the murder.
The worst thing, however, for Benazir Bhutto was that President Farūq Leghārī also
turned against her regime. He was not happy with the undue interference of Zardārī in
governmental affairs. Their gulf further enhanced on the issues of the appointment of
Army Chief and Benazīr Bhutto’s attempt to dismiss Chief Justice, Sajjād ‘Alī Shāh.
Benazīr Bhutto was so much annoyed with the President that she even blamed him for
the murder of her brother- Murtaẓā Bhutto. Ultimately, due to his differences with the
Prime Minister, ever-increasing demand of the opposition parties, and backing of the
Establishment, Leghārī used Article 58-2 (B) and dissolved the assemblies on
November 5, 1996.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 133

 Long Question
Q: How successful was Benazīr Bhutto in ruling Pakistan during 1988-90 and 1993-
96?[14]
Though there were not many successes in both of her tenure, some can be talked about.
She was the first women Prime Minister of Pakistan and the 1st PM of the Muslim
world. She restored Political System and democracy in Pakistan by ending ban on trade
and student unions during Ziā’s time. She also released Political Prisoners. Her rule
provided freedom of speech and restored political and democratic system in Pakistan.
She Set up first woman bank and created job opportunities for females and helped
protect their rights in a very male dominated society.
She started Integrated Research Program on missile development in Pakistan. First
military satellite “Badr-1” was launched with the help of the Chinese. Thus, provided
missile system and satellite surveillance to Pakistan Army. She hosted the 4th SAARC
conference in 1988 in Islamabad. All member countries including Rajīv Gāndhī- Indian
Prime Minister attended the conference. Thus, improved relations with India and
created census on major issues like narcotics/drugs.
The unemployment and labor strikes began to take place which halted and jammed the
economic wheel of the country and Benazīr Bhutto was unable to solve these issues due
to a cold war with the President. Opposition of IJI was another hurdle of PPP in Punjab
where the provincial govt was under the control of IJI. Pucca Qila massacre in
Hyderabad fueled the fire. Thus, in November 1990, after a long political battle, Khān
finally used the Eighth Amendment to dismiss Benazīr Bhutto’s government following
charges of corruption, nepotism, and out of control law and order situation.
Among many problems she has faced in her 1st tenure, the most disastrous for her rule
was the power struggle between Prime Minister- Benazīr and President- Ghulām Ishāq
Khān. Benazīr wanted to shift semi-presidential system to parliamentary democracy
where all the powers will be vested in Prime Minister, but Khān’s constitutional power
did not let this happen.
Corruption and nepotism had reached its zenith during this era where Nuṣrat Bhutto-
Mother of Benazīr Bhutto was a minister without a portfolio, her father-in-law was the
chairman of the most important committee of the parliament i.e., PAC (Public Accounts
Committee)- which dealt with corruption, kickbacks, bribery, embezzlement, etc. Āsif
‘Alī Zardārī- husband of Benazīr Bhutto who was allegedly known to be as Mr. 10%
was accused of corruption, bribery, blackmailing and kickbacks. Berlin-based
Transparency International in its report ranked Pakistan as the second most corrupt
country in the world.
Furthermore, the law and order situation in Karachi deteriorated rapidly. Para-military
forces launched an operation in the city and MQM was badly targeted.
Nawāz Sharīf was successful in exploiting the weaknesses of Benazīr Bhutto’s regime
in her 2nd tenure. In Sep, 1994 he successfully launched a train March against her govt
in which he with his supporters travelled from Karachi to Peshawar. Her brother, Mīr
Murtazā Bhutto, also turned against her and started openly challenging her
administrative skills as well as political views. To add fuel to the fire, Murtazā Bhutto
was killed in Karachi, and his family accused Benazīr Bhutto and her husband, Āsif ‘Alī
Zardārī, of the murder.
The worst thing, however, for Benazīr Bhutto was that President Leghārī also turned
against her regime. He was not happy with the undue interference of Zardārī in
governmental affairs. Their gulf further enhanced on the issues of the appointment of
Army Chief and Benazīr Bhutto’s attempt to dismiss Chief Justice, Sajjād ‘Alī Shāh.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 134

 Benazīr Bhutto was so much annoyed with the President that she even blamed him for
the murder of Murtazā Bhutto. Ultimately, due to his differences with the Prime
Minister, ever-increasing demand of the opposition parties, and backing of the
Establishment, Leghārī used Article 58-2 (B) and dissolved the assemblies on
November 5, 1996.
In her desperate attempt to improve economic conditions of the country heavy
borrowing of IMF took place but instead of improving economic performance, it
deteriorated because of corruption, nepotism and increased army spending by 14% due
to Kashmir issue in 1995-96.
Conclusively, it can be implied that her rule was never a successful one because she
could not even get her issues straighten at home. A widespread perception was, that a
person who cannot control the household, how would she control the reins of govt.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 135

 7- NAWĀẒ SHARĪF (1990-1993)
Short Questions
Q: What was the Shari’at Bill? [4]
• Shari’at Bill (proposed 15 amendment) was passed in 1991 to make Qur’ān and
th

Sunnah the law but there was little done to enforce the law.
• The bill was criticized by political opponents and particularly by IJI (Islāmī Jamhūrī
Ittehād) which was an ally of Muslim League in the elections because no concrete
measures were taken to enforce the laws.
• The opposition parties and Parliament claim the Shari’at bill to be an unfair transfer of
power to the government which will hinder the progress of the state and create civil
wars.
• The amendment is deemed a gimmick where religion card is being used for political
gains.
• Moreover, the opposition fears the bill will introduce another rule of Ziā ul-Ḥaq’s
Islamization.
Q: What was the BCCI scandal? [4]
• BCCI bank was founded by a Pakistani Agha Hassan Abedi in 1972.
• BCCI (Bank of commerce and credit international) was the 7th largest bank of the world
operating in Pakistan.
• There were widespread concerns about the bank’s lending practices and when a team
by British accountants inspected the bank, they found huge embezzlements in the bank.
• The Ittefāq industries of Sharīf family was the major customer of this bank.
• Despite of closure of the bank in 1991, it remained operational for several months in
Pakistan.
Q: What was the Cooperative societies scandal? [4]
• Cooperative societies were state owned societies which accepted deposits from
members and provided them with loans for business.
• But this failed due to mismanagement and funds mostly went to Sharif’s family.
• It was discovered that in 1992, billions of rupees went to Sharīf’s Ittefāq Group of
Industries in general and Nawāz’s steel mill in particular.
• Savings of 700,000 people from Punjab and Kashmir were wasted.
• Although loans were hurriedly repaid, Nawāz’s reputation was severely damaged.
Q: What was Kalashnikov culture? [4]
• After the Soviet-Afghan war in which Pakistan had helped Afghanistan, Pakistani
culture had observed the inflow of guns.
• Kalashnikov culture further increased by millions of refugees who crossed the borders
and came to Pakistan.
• Sectarianism (Sunni-Shia) conflicts increased all over the country.
• Guns were easily available for the masses which increased crime, terrorism,
kidnappings, and target killings.
• Another problem associated with the refugees coming to Pakistan was the drug
addiction because Afghanistan was one of the largest producers of opium.

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Q: What was the conflict between Nawāz Sharīf and Ghulām Ishāq Khān? [4]
• Conflicted with President Ishāq Khān in 1993, as he wanted to repeal the 8th
amendment which provided more powers to the president.
• He also wanted to appoint his own army chief, but Khān placed General ‘Abdul Wahīd
Kākar before he could.
• Thus tension and clashes between these weakened the govt.
• It became a major cause of ending Nawāz’s rule and thus a failure.
• On April 18, 1993, the power struggle seemed to be resolved when President Ishāq
Khān, exercising the extraordinary constitutional powers afforded the president by the
Eighth Amendment, dismissed the government of Prime Minister Nawāz Sharīf on
charges of corruption and mismanagement of the economy.
• On May 26, 1993, the Supreme Court ordered that Ishāq Khān's dissolution of the
National Assembly and his dismissal of the prime minister were unconstitutional.
• The continuing political crisis in Pakistan came to an abrupt halt when the prime
minister and president both resigned after two weeks of intense negotiations among the
Nawāz Sharīf government, Benazīr, and the army.
Q: What was yellow cab and public transport scheme? [4]
• The fiasco of yellow cab and public transport scheme happened in 1993, when govt. of
Nawaz Sharif had imported different cars for which import bill was 1000 million US
dollars.
• Loans were taken from four nationalized banks i.e., Habib Bank, the United Bank, the
National Bank of Pakistan, and the first Women’s bank.
• State Bank of Pakistan had given directives to terminate the scheme because there was
little or no chances of full recovery of loans.
Q: What were Nawāz economic policies in his first term? [4]
• After assuming office, Nawāz announced his economic policy under the National
Economic Reconstruction Programme (NERP).
• Unemployment had limited Pakistan's economic growth and Nawāz believed that only
privatisation could solve this problem.
• Nawāz introduced an economy based on privatization notably for banks and industries.
• The privatisation program reversed the nationalization by Zulfiqār ‘Alī Bhutto.
• By 1993, around 115 nationalised industries were opened to private ownership,
including Pakistan National Shipping corporation, National Electric Power Regulatory
Authority, Pakistan International Airlines, Pakistan Telecommunication Corporation,
and Pakistan State Oil.
• This could have boosted the economy but a lack of competition in bidding allowed the
rise of business oligarchs and further widened the wealth gap, contributing to political
instability.
• Nawāz's projects were not evenly distributed, focusing on Punjab and Kashmir
provinces which were the base of his support, with lesser efforts in Khyber Pakhtun
Khwah and Baluchistan provinces, and no benefits from industrialization in Sindh.
• Opponents accused Nawāz of using political influence to build factories for himself and
his business.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 137

Q: Why Nawāz Sharīf fell from office in 1993? [7]
The Prime Minister failed to administer the Yellow cab and public transport scheme in
which taxi drivers would get soft loans for yellow cab cars on easy instalments. People
didn’t return the instalments, causing a major economic crisis to the governments and
invited much criticism from the opposition. State owned cooperative societies accepted
deposits from members and gave them loans in time of need, but this was exploited by
Nawāz and his family ultimately gaining the capital of the people. Though he repaid
loans hurriedly, his reputation began to fall.
Nawāz's economic projects were not evenly distributed, focusing on Punjab
and Kashmir provinces which were the base of his support, with lesser efforts in Khyber
Pakhtun Khwah and Baluchistan provinces, and no benefits from industrialization
in Sindh. Opponents accused Nawāz of using political influence to build factories for
himself and his business. BCCI’s corrupt lending practices in which most of the loans
went to Sharīf family and their business became another reason of Nawāz’s fall from
the office.
Nawāz faced much criticism from opposition parties and even from PML own allies
(IJI) on Shari’at Bill. Kalashnikov culture which was associated with the influx of
refugees could not be controlled. Conflicted with President Ishāq Khān in 1993, as he
wanted to appeal the 8th amendment which reduced president’s powers and wanted to
appoint his own army chief but Khān placed General ‘Abdul Wahīd Kākar before he
could. Thus tension and clashes between these and foundation weakened of govt. It
became a major cause of ending Nawāz’s rule and thus a failure.
Q: What were the successes of Nawāz’s govt. in 1993? [7]
After assuming office, Nawāz announced his economic policy under the National
Economic Reconstruction Programme (NERP). Unemployment had limited Pakistan's
economic growth and Nawāz believed that only privatisation could solve this problem.
Nawāz reversed the nationalization policy of Bhutto and introduced an economy based
on privatization notably for banks and industries. The privatisation programme
reversed the nationalization by Zulfiqār ‘Alī Bhutto. By 1993, around 115 nationalised
industries were opened to private ownership, including Pakistan National Shipping
corporation, National Electric Power Regulatory Authority, Pakistan International
Airlines, Pakistan Telecommunication Corporation, and Pakistan State Oil. This was a
good step in boosting the economy.
He also initiated Ghazi Barotha Hydro Power Project which produced 1450MW of
electricity. Nuclear program and energy were one of the priorities of the Nawaz govt.
Though this resulted in tightening the embargo by USA which blocked French-built
nuclear power plant, it paved the way to establish CHASHNUPP-I (Chashma Nuclear
Power Plant) and upgradation of KANUPP-I (Karachi Nuclear Power Plant).
Water Appointment Accord was started in 1991 which divided the water of the River
Indus System to provinces of Pakistan. A conclusive and successful 4th NFC award
after detailed elaboration and discussion with provinces was declared in 1991 by Prime
minister Nawāz Sharīf. For the first time in the short history of Pakistan, the fourth NFC
Award had recognized the rights of the provinces on natural resources and the provinces
were given royalty and gas development surcharge on oil and gas.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 138

 NAWĀZ SHARĪF (1996/7-1999)
Short Questions
Q: What was the 13th amendment? [4]
• The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan was a short-lived
amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan, adopted by the Parliament of Pakistan in
1997 by the civilian government of Prime Minister Nawāz Sharīf.
• The amendment removed Article 58(2)(b) of the Constitution, which gave the President
the power to dissolve the National Assembly in his discretion.
• The Constitutional Amendment was supported by both the government and the
opposition, and was thus passed unanimously in National Assembly.
• With the enforcing of this amendment, Pakistan's system of government was shifted
from Semi-presidential system to Parliamentary democratic republic system.
Q: What was the Kārgil conflict? [4]
• In April 1999, Muslim Kashmīrī guerrillas crossed the Line of Control and captured the
Indian occupied towns of Kārgil and Drass.
• In May, India launched a counter-attack during which it fired over 250,000 shells and
rockets.
• Two of its aircrafts crossed into Pakistani air space and one was shot down.
• During May and June 1999, Pakistani forces were pushed back and eventually Sharīf
was persuaded by US President Clinton to withdraw all Pakistan forces from Indian
held territory behind the Line of Control.
• The Kārgil conflict proved to be a major blow to Pakistan-India relations.
Q: What was Plane Conspiracy Case? [4]
• Plane conspiracy became an immediate reason for Nawaz dismissal.
• It so happened that when Gen. Musharraf was returning from an official tour to Sri
Lanka his plan was not allowed to land.
• In this time, he replaced Musharraf with the then ISI chief Ẓiā ud dīn Butt. But corps
commanders didn’t accept it and took over Karachi airport with the help of Civil
Aviation Authority (CAA), Prime minister house, and PTV.
• The humiliating practice of Nawāz angered the top part of the army and they retaliated
by dislodging him.
Q: What was economic policy of Nawāz in his 2nd regime? [4]
• Nawāz built Pakistan's first major motorway, the M2, called the Autobahn of South
Asia.
• This public-private project was completed in November 1997 at a cost of US$ 989.12
million.
• The project has used the funds designated for the Peshawar–Karachi Indus Highway,
benefiting Punjab and Kashmir at the cost of other provinces.
• There was particular dissatisfaction in Sindh and Balochistan Provinces, and Nawāz
faced a lack of capital investment to finance additional projects.
• Due to economic pressures, Nawāz halted the national space programme.
• This forced the Space research Commission to delay the launch of its satellite, Badr-
II(B), which was to be completed in 1997.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 139

 • This caused frustration among the scientific community who criticised Nawāz 's
inability to promote science.
• Senior scientists and engineers attributed this to " Nawāz 's personal corruption" that
affected national security.
• By the end of Nawāz 's second term, the economy was in turmoil.
• The government faced serious structural issues and financial problems; inflation and
foreign debt stood at an all-time high, and unemployment in Pakistan had reached its
highest point.
• Pakistan had debts of US$32bn against reserves of little more than $1bn.
• The International Monetary Fund (IMF) had suspended aid, demanding the country's
finances be resolved.
• Nawaz continued to meddle with the stock exchange markets with devastating effects.
• By the time he was deposed, the country was heading for financial default.
Q: What were Nawāz relations with Army? [4]
• From 1981 until 1999, Nawāz enjoyed extremely cordial relations with the Pakistan
Armed Forces, and was the only senior civilian leader to have friendly relations with
the military establishment during that period.
• However, when Chief of Army Staff General Jahāngīr Karāmat advocated for a
National Security Council, Nawāz interpreted this as a conspiracy to return the military
to an active political role.
• In October 1998, three months before the end of his term, Karāmat was forced to resign.
• This was controversial even within Nawaz's cabinet. However, Media Minister Sayyid
Mushāhid Ḥussain felt that Pakistan was "finally becoming a normal democratic
society", not beholden to its military.
• Nawāz promoted General Pervez Musharraf to replace Karāmat, also making
Musharraf Chairman of the Joint Chiefs despite his lack of seniority.
• In August, India shot down a Pakistan Navy reconnaissance aircraft killing 16 naval
officers, the greatest number of combat casualties for the navy since the Indo-Pakistan
Naval War of 1971.
• Nawaz failed to gain foreign support against India for the incident, which newly
appointed Chief of Naval Staff Admiral ‘Abdul ‘Azīz Mirzā viewed as a lack of support
for the navy in wartime.
• Relations with the Air Force likewise deteriorated, when Chief of Air Staff General
Parvez Mehdī Qureshī accused the prime minister of not consulting the air force in
matters critical to national security.
• Two months later, after steadily worsening relations with the Armed Forces, Nawaz
was deposed by Musharraf and martial law was established throughout the country.
Q: Why did Musharraf come to power in 1999? OR [7]
Q: Why did Nawāz fall from power in 1999? [7]
Plane conspiracy became an immediate reason for his dismissal as when the Musharraf
was returning from an official tour to Sri Lanka his plan was not allowed to land. In
this time, he replaced Musharraf with the then ISI chief Ẓiā ud dīn Butt. Corps
commanders took over Karachi airport with the help of CAA, Prime Minister house,
and PTV.
Military started covert operation with the help of local fighters and captures heights of
Kārgil and Drass region in India. Nawāz blamed Musharraf for this and accused
military of hiding this from him. International pressure forced him to withdraw. This

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 140

 created serious differences between civilian govt and the army leading to a military
coup.
General Jahāngīr Karāmat was dismissed by Nawāz due to his suggestions of National
Security Council being considered military intervention in politics. There was a wide
engulf between Nawāz administration, Naval force, and Air force. This mistrust and
dismissal of four star general damaged civil military relationship and paved the way for
a military coup. Thus, General Musharraf declared military rule without applying
martial law in 1999 and after some time allowed Nawāz Sharīf and his family to go into
exile in Saudi Arabia.
Q: How successful was the Nawāz govt. during the years 1990-1993 and 1997-1999? [14]
There were many successes and failures of Nawāz Sharīf in his first and second regime.
Nawāz built Pakistan's first major motorway, the M2, called the Autobahn of South
Asia. This public-private project was completed in November 1997 at a cost of
US$989.12 million. The project has used the funds designated for the Peshawar–
Karachi Indus Highway, benefiting Punjab and Kashmir at the cost of other provinces.
There was particular dissatisfaction in Sindh and Balochistan Provinces, and Nawāz
faced a lack of capital investment to finance additional projects. Due to economic
pressures, Nawāz halted the national space program. This forced the Space research
Commission to delay the launch of its satellite, Badr-II(B), which was completed in
1997. This caused frustration among the scientific community who criticised Nawāz s
inability to promote science. Senior scientists and engineers attributed this to "Nawāz
's personal corruption" that affected national security.
By the end of Nawāz 's second term, the economy was in turmoil. The government
faced serious structural issues and financial problems; inflation and foreign debt stood
at an all-time high, and unemployment in Pakistan had reached its highest point.
Pakistan had debts of US$32bn against reserves of little more than $1bn.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) had suspended aid, demanding the country's
finances be resolved. Nawāz continued to meddle with the stock exchange markets with
devastating effects. By the time he was deposed, the country was heading for financial
default.
The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan was a short-lived
amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan, adopted by the Parliament of Pakistan in
1997 by the civilian government of Prime Minister Nawāz Sharīf. The amendment
removed Article 58(2)(b) of the Constitution, which gave the President the power
to dissolve the National Assembly in his discretion.The Constitutional Amendment was
supported by both the government and the opposition, and was thus passed unanimously
in National Assembly. With the enforcing of this amendment, Pakistan's system of
government was shifted from Semi-presidential system to Parliamentary democratic
republic system.
In April 1999, Muslim Kashmirī guerrillas crossed the Line of Control and captured
the Indian occupied towns of Kārgil and Drass. In May, India launched a counter-attack
during which it fired over 250,000 shells and rockets. Two of its aircrafts crossed into
Pakistani air space and one was shot down. During May and June 1999, Pakistani forces
were pushed back and eventually Sharīf was persuaded by US President Clinton to
withdraw all Pakistan forces from Indian held territory behind the Line of Control. The
Kārgil conflict proved to be a major blow to Pakistan-India relations.
General Jahāngīr Karāmat advocated for a National Security Council, Nawāz
interpreted this as a conspiracy to return the military to an active political role. In

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 141

 October 1998, three months before the end of his term, Karāmat was forced to resign.
This was controversial even within Nawāz 's cabinet. However, Media Minister Sayyid
Mushāhid Ḥussain felt that Pakistan was "finally becoming a normal democratic
society", not beholden to its military. Nawāz promoted General Pervez Musharraf to
replace Karāmat, also making Musharraf Chairman of the Joint Chiefs despite his lack
of seniority.
In August, India shot down a Pakistan Navy reconnaissance aircraft killing 16 naval
officers, the greatest number of combat casualties for the navy since the Indo-Pakistan
Naval War of 1971. Nawāz failed to gain foreign support against India for the incident,
which newly appointed Chief of Naval Staff Admiral ‘Abdul ‘Azīz Mirzā viewed as a
lack of support for the navy in wartime. Relations with the Air Force likewise
deteriorated, when Chief of Air Staff General Parvez Mehdī Qureshī accused the prime
minister of not consulting the air force in matters critical to national security.
Plane conspiracy became an immediate reason for Nawāz dismissal. It so happened that
when Gen. Musharraf was returning from an official tour to Sri Lanka his plan was not
allowed to land. In this time, he replaced Musharraf with the then ISI chief Ẓiā ud dīn
Butt. But corps commanders didn’t accept it and took over Karachi airport with the help
of Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), Prime minister house, and PTV. The humiliating
practice of Nawāz angered the top part of the army and they retaliated by dislodging
him.
Conclusively, it can be said that Nawāz govt was a total failure as he could not either
maintain good relationship with armed forces or could furnish better economy in the
country.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 142

 8- International Relations I
Decade USA USSR Great Britain
1950- Liaqat Ali Khan visited 1949- Invited Liaqat Ali Khan 1947- General Douglas
USA. to Moscow, but he refused. Gracey trained Pakistan
May 1954- Signed defense 1955- USSR officially backed Army.
mutual assistance program. Indian stance over Kashmir. 1950- Commonwealth
Sep 1954- Joined SEATO. Left in 1956- Offered Pakistan to setup meeting.
1973. a steel mill. 1950- £1 million aid for
1955- Joined Baghdad Pact. 1950s- By joining anti- Sui Gas Project. Canada
1959- it was renamed to CENTO. communist SEATO and provided £40 million for
1947-60 Disbanded in 1979. CENTO, relations worsened. development of railways.
May 1960- U2 crisis happened. 1950s- USSR press Afghan 1951- Military coup b/c
claims over Pakhtunistan. some military officials
May 1960- U2 crisis happened. were not happy with
British officers.
1956- British along with
France and Israel invaded
Suez Canal in Egypt-
criticized by Pakistan.
1950s- Both were members
of SEATO and CENTO.
1962- USA helped India in war 1961- Both countries agreed to 1965- GB played key role
with China. explore oil. in cease fire of 1965 war.
1965- USA did not help Pakistan 1962- India accepted help from 1965- GB did not provide
in war with India. USA, so USSR came close to aid to Pakistan’s war with
1965- Ayub visited China and Pakistan. India.
USSR, angered USA both were 1963- Loaned Pakistan 11 1966- GB eased Visa
1961-70 communist countries. million pounds. policy and migration of
1960s- Ayub was considered as 1960s- USSR shifted its stance people of Azad Jammu &
architect of good relations with of Kashmir to Pakistan. Kashmir accelerated after
USA. 1965- Tashkent declaration. the construction of Mangla
1969-71- Relations worsened Dam.
because Pakistan tried to bring 1960s- Relations were
China and USA closer. normal.
1970s- Bhutto was anti-America, 1971- USSR supported India 1971- GB did not provide
so bad relations. with military aid. economic aid in Pakistan’s
1977- Bhutto accused Americans 1972- ZAB visited Moscow. war with India.
of organizing opposition against Dec 1973- Established Pakistan 1972- Pakistan left
him. Steel Mill with USSR economic commonwealth after GB’s
1979- US embassy in Islamabad aid. recognition of Bangladesh-
burned. USA accused Zia. 1970s- Better relations b/c of rejoined in 1990s.
1971-80 Dec 1979- Soviets attacked ZAB’s inclination towards 1970s- Relations were not
Afghanistan and USA provided USSR. good b/c of ZAB’s socialist
military and economic aid. 1970s- Neutral stance on policies and his tilt towards
1980- Economic aid 3.2 bn Kashmir. USSR.
dollars for 6 years. Dec 1979- USSR attacked 1970s- Relations worsened
Afghanistan and Pakistan b/c of Pakistan’s initiation
helped Afghan Mujahideen. of nuclear program.
1979- GB did not
pressurize Zia for a relief to
Bhutto.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 143

 Dec 1981- agreement was signed 1984- Zia visited Moscow on 1986- Trade of £376
to provide 28 F-16s and 12 F- the funeral of Andropov million b/w Pakistan and
16B. (General Secretary of GB.
1985- Pressler amendment- Communist Party). 1980s- £30 million for
1981-90 sanctions to all countries who are 1984- USSR disapproved Afghan refugees.
non-signatory of NPT (Nuclear Pakistan’s Nuclear program. 1980s- £16 million to
Proliferation Treaty). 1988- Geneva Accord. refugees of KPK and
1986- US funded 4.2 bn dollars 1980’s- Hostile relations with Baluchistan.
1988- Geneva Accord. USSR.
1990s- US cancelled supply of 1991- Several high-level 1990- Benazir Bhutto
F16s. exchanges of trips. rejoined commonwealth.
1995- Defense secretary William April 1993- Russian Foreign Aug 1997- Queen
Perry visited Pakistan and Minister visited Pakistan. Elizabeth attended Golden
declared Pressler amendment was 1994- Russian Deputy Foreign Jubilee celebrations of
1991-99 a mistake. Minister visited Pakistan. Pakistan.
1996- Brown amendment 1990s- Russia moved from 1990s- Showed concerns
authorized US govt. to reimburse unconditional support to India over Pakistan’s nuclear
Pakistan for F-16s. Provided 388 on all issues. program.
million $. April 1998- Pakistan’s PM - Some Pakistanis
1996- First Lady Hillary Clinton (Nawaz Sharif) visited have joined British
and Chelsea Clinton visited Moscow. Parliament.
Pakistan. Pakistani immigrants have
improved British economy.
Q: How was Pakistan involved in U-2 crisis? [7]
CIA started series of flights over Soviet Union by special high-altitude aircraft called U-2 which could not be
short down by the Russia because of the altitude. In 1960, a Russian Surface to Air Missile (SAM) shot down
a U-2 plane flying on a spy mission. USA in response said it was a weather plane and not a spy plane. But
then Nikita Khrushchev (Soviet Leader) announced that they have captured the USA pilot named Gary Powers
who was alive and healthy and captured with the circumstantial evidences of the spy photos.
Powers accepted that he flew from US base in Pakistan for which USSR was furious with Pakistan and
threatened retaliation. Pakistan in reply said that it had nothing to do with a spy plane because it had already
given the directions to the USA that a plane can only flew in the air from the US base in Pakistan when it
foretells the destination. The crisis showed the strong relationship between Pakistan and USA.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 144

 9- International Relations II
Decade China India Iran
Oct 1949- Mao Zedong created 1948- 1st war b/w Pakistan and 1947- Iran was the first
People’s Republic of China. India on issue of Kashmir. country to recognize
Jan 1950- Pakistan recognized it, 1948- Canal water dispute. Pakistan.
first Muslim country to do so. Dec 1948- An agreement for a 1950- Shah of Iran (Raza
May 1951- Diplomatic relations neutral tribunal to demarcate Shah Pahlavi) came on a
begin. the exact borders b/w East state visit to Pakistan.
1955- Visit of Vice President Bengal and Assam. May 1950- Treaty of
Song Ching Ling to Pakistan. Jan 1949- UN interference- friendship.
1947-60 1956- Treaty of Friendship. cease-fire on promising 1955- Both countries were
plebiscite. part of Baghdad pact which
1950- Minority pact between later renamed as CENTO
Nehru and Liaqat Aki Khan. in 1959.
1954- India was ready to give 1956- Shah of Iran’s state
the right of self-determination visit to Pakistan.
to Kashmir but Pakistan signed Feb 1958- Border conflict
Mutual defense assistance amicably resolved.
agreement with US which Aug 1960- Pak-Iran
shifted India’s commitment to Boundary Award.
hold plebiscite. 1950s- Both countries
Sep 1960- Indus Water Treaty granted MFN (Most
was signed for water- Favored Nations) to each
distribution. other.
1962- Sino-India War-Pakistan 1965- Operation Gibraltar and 1961- Tried to normalized
supported China’s cause. 2nd war with India on Kashmir Pakistan’s relations with
1963- ZAB’s historic visit to started. Afghanistan.
China Sep 1965- Ceasefire agreement 1965- Iran played a key
1963- Sino-Pak Boundary Jan 1966- Tashkent declaration role in Pak-India war-
Agreement- resulted in both b/w Lal Bahadur Shastri (Indian provided nurses, medical
1961-70 countries withdrawing about P.M) and Ayub Khan. supplies, 5000 tons of
1900 sq. kms of territory. petroleum, embargo on oil
1963- Provision of $60 million supplies to India.
interest free loan to Pakistan. 1965- After the suspension
1963- World’s largest purchaser of US military aid, Iran
of cotton. purchased ninety F-86
1964- PIA starts flights in China. Sabre jet fighter planes
1964- China supported Kashmir from West Germany and
issue in favor of Pakistan. delivered to Pakistan.
1965- Cultural cooperation
agreement signed.
1965- Military aid in war.
1969-71- Pakistan tried to bring 1971- 3rd War b/w India and 1971- Iran played a key
China and USA closer. Pakistan. role in Indo-Pak war by
1971- China did not help Pakistan 1972- Shimla agreement b/w supplying military
in war. Indra Gandhi (Indian P.M) and equipment.
1972- Bhutto visited China and ZAB (President of Pakistan). 1973- Baluch insurgency
granted $60 m loan to Pakistan. 1973- ZAB blamed India for started in Baluchistan; Iran
1972- China supplied military aid funding and motivating Baluch provided support i.e.,
1971-80 to Pakistan. insurgency in Baluchistan. military equipment, Ah-1
1976- Agreement on Scientific 1974- Indian nuclear tests Cobra helicopter, and $200
and Cultural cooperation. ‘Smiling Budha’. million aid.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 145

 1978- Project of KKH opens. 1974- Brief tensions when
Raza Pahlavi refused to
attend Islamic conference
in Lahore b/c Muhammad
Ghaddafi (Libyan Leader)
had been invited despite
the known hostility
between the two.
1960s-70s- Iran was
world’s fifth largest
military and had a strong
economic/industrial base.
1979- Iran-Pakistan
relations deteriorated b/c of
Iranian Shiite revolution.
1979- Iran withdrew from
CENTO
1979- Pakistan was one of
the 1st countries which
recognized the new
revolutionary regime in
Iran.
Sep 1980- Pak’s mediatory
role in Islamic Peace
Committee of the OIC to
end Iran-Iraq war.
1983- Pak-China MoU on April 1980- Khalistan National 1986- Joint Ministerial
Educational exchanges because Council established. Commission for
of which more than 30,000 Oct 1984- Indra Gandhi identification of areas to
students are studying in China assassinated by her Sikh promote economic
1981-90 today. guards- the blame of funding cooperation.
1986- Zia visited China, signed Sikhs for Khalistan movement 1980s- Iranian influence on
nuclear cooperation treaty. and Indra Gandhi’s Pakistan Shi’i population.
1989- signed an agreement for assassination was on Pakistan. 1980s- Zia called
300 MW- CHASNUPP-I 1988- Both countries agreed not Khomeini as a symbol of
to attack on each other’s nuclear Islamic insurgence.
facilities. Khomeini reciprocated and
1989- Armed resistance to called for ‘Muslim unity’.
Indian rule in Kashmir. 1980s- not good relations
because Pakistan was an
ally of America (enemy of
Iran) in Afghan war.
1995- Agreement on transit trade 1991- Agreement on advance May 1990- Benazir visited
with China, Kazakhstan, and notification on military Iran.
Kyrgyzstan. exercise, troop movement, and Sep 1992- President
1995- P.M Bhutto visited China preventing airspace violations. Rafsanjani visited
as a special guest to attend 4th 1992- Agreement of prohibiting Islamabad.
1991-99 Women’s conference. the use of chemical weapons. Dec 1993- Benazir visited
1999- A contract to jointly 1996- Military officers from Iran again.
develop and produce JF-17 was both countries met each other at Dec 2002- President
signed. LoC to ease tensions. Khatami visited Pakistan.
1990s- China supports Pakistan 1998- India detonates five 1990s- Emergence of
on Kashmir and Pakistan nuclear devices at Pokhran. CARs provided
competition for both

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 146

 reciprocate on issues of Taiwan, May 1998- Pakistan responded countries for political and
Tibet, and Xinjiang. by detonating 6 nuclear devices economic influence.
at Chaghai Hills. 1994- Sadiq Ganji (Iranian
1999- Lahore declaration by Council General) was
Indian P.M Atal Bihari Vajpayi assassinated
and Nawaz Sharif. 1990s- Sectarian killing in
May 1999- Kargil war. Pakistan seriously harmed
relations between two
countries.
It had become a custom for
Pakistani leaders to go to
Iran in their first foreign
trips.
Pakistan-Turkey Relations
Q: How successful was Pakistan in its relations with Turkey from 1947 till 1999? Explain
your answer. [10]
Turkey established diplomatic relations soon after the independence of Pakistan in 1947
and bilateral relations became increasingly close owing to cultural, religious and
geopolitical links between the two countries. Turkey was among a few countries that
quickly recognized Pakistan after its creation and supported its successful bid to
become a member of the United Nations. Pakistan's founder Muhammad Ali Jinnah
expressed admiration for Turkey's founding leader Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
Turkey and Pakistan are founding members of the Economic Cooperation Organization
and part of the Developing 8 Countries (D-8) organization. Both nations have worked
to negotiate a preferential trading agreement, aiming to considerably increase trade and
investments, especially in transport, telecommunications, manufacturing, tourism and
other industries. Pakistani exports include rice, sesame seeds, leather, textiles, fabrics,
sports goods, and medical equipment. Turkey's exports to Pakistan include wheat,
chickpeas, lentils, diesel, chemicals, transport vehicles, machinery and energy products.
Both Turkey and Pakistan practice theHanafi schoolof Sunni Islam, which was the
interpretation of Islam implemented by the Ottoman Empire and Mughal Empire
respectively. Robust traditions of moderate Sufism exist and the religious ministers of
both nations frequently contact each other.
Q: How did Pakistan support the Palestinian cause? [7]
• Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah in 1948, warned USA not to partition the
Palestine to make a place for Israel.
• In 1969, when Israel attacked Al-Aqsa mosque, a summit held in Morocco which
agreed to setup an organization of Muslim countries known as Organization of Islamic
countries (OIC).
• Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto convened an Islamic summit in Lahore in 1974 in response of Arab-
Israel war of 1973.
• Yasser Arafat, who was the head of Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) also
attended the summit along with leaders from 35 Muslim countries.
• This Muslim unity confirmed the opposition to Israel’s occupation of Palestine.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 147

 10- International Relations III
Decade Afghanistan Bangladesh
1949- Afghanistan was a sole country which
voted against Pakistan’s admission in UN.
Jan 1950- Afghan king (Zahir Shah) delivered
a hate speech against Pakistan, condemned by
Liaqat Ali Khan.
1952- Afghanistan published a tract claiming
territories of KPK and Baluchistan.
1954- Mutual Defense Assistance pact b/w
1947-60 Pakistan and USA brought Afghanistan closer
to USSR.
1955- Afghan demonstrators attacked Pakistan
embassy in Kabul, Kandahar, and Jalalabad.
1955- Pakistan closed borders.
1956- Talks between Pakistan and Afghanistan
failed b/c of Pakhtunistan issue.
1950s- Involved in failed separatist movement
in Pakistan headed by Mirzali Khan.
1961-1963- Diplomatic relations were cut off
when Afghanistan supported separatist
movements in Pakistan.
1961-1963- Pakistan closed port of Karachi for
Afghan transit trade.
1964- Relations improved- Ayub visited Kabul
1961-70 and proposed a common political platform for
Pakistan, Afghanistan, Turkey, and Iran.
1964- Transit trade resumed.
1960s- Afghans blamed ISI for funding
warlords and Taliban for basing terrorist
camps in Pakistan to target Afghanistan.
1973- Muhammad Daud became president of 1972- Pakistan left commonwealth when
Afghanistan. membership was extended to Bangladesh.
1973- Afghanistan with soviet support, 1972- China used its veto power in UN on
pursued the policy of arming Pashtun request of Pakistan so that Bangladesh
separatists. admission in UN could be refused. Pakistan
1974- Despite blatant interference in used it as bargain to release prisoners of war.
Pakistan’s internal affairs, ZAB offered to no-
1974- Before Islamic Summit of OIC, Pakistan
1971-80 war pact with Afghanistan. formally accepted Bangladesh.
1976- Fruitful discussion between Daud and1974- ZAB went to Bangladesh, paid respects
ZAB. to war memorial at Savar Upazila.
1978- Another fruitful discussion with Daud
1975- An agreement was signed, and Pakistan
and Zia. gave Bangladesh half of its pre-1971 reserves.
1978- Before the talks would conclude, 1970s- Agreements were signed on trade,
military coup took place, Daud was replaced
tourism, and the media.
by Nur Muhammad Tarakhi. 1970s- Pakistan refused to accommodate
Biharis who were forced by Bangladesh to live
in camps.
1980s- Millions of refuges took refuge in 1985- Gen. Zia visited Bangladesh and signed
Pakistan. no. of agreements on trade and culture.
1980s- Pakistan helped Afghans in Afghan 1985- Zia visited war memorials
jihad against USSR.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 148

1981-90 1980s- Afghanistan continued to refuse the Dec 1985- SAARC- an economic and political
Durand line (2200 km border b/w Pakistan and organization was established.
Afghanistan). 1985- Pakistan helped in floods and cyclones.
1980s- Zia had a vision of a post-soviet 1986- Trade between both countries went up to
‘Islamic confederation’ composed of Pakistan, $40 million a year.
Afghanistan, Kashmir, and CARs. 1988- Pakistan helped in floods and cyclones.
April 1988- Geneva Accord
April 1992- Fall of communist Najibullah- 1990s- Benazir and Nawaz pursued friendly
Mujahideen formed the government by an relations by using the platform of SAARC.
agreement signed in Peshawar known as 1998- P.M Sheikh Haseena Wajid visited
Peshawar Accord. Pakistan as a goodwill gesture.
- Afghan’s largest ethnic group was
1991-99 Pashtuns -40%
- Tajiks and Uzbeks formed Northern
Alliance
- Civil war erupted between Taliban
(Pashtuns) and Northern Alliance-
Tajik warlord (Ahmad Shah Masood)
& Uzbek warlord- Abdul Rashid
Dostum.
- Northern Alliance was supported by
Iran.
- Taliban were supported by Pakistan.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 149

 11- Pakistan and World Organizations
Q: How successful was Pakistan in maintaining successful relationships with various
organizations in the world? Explain your answer. OR [14]
Q: ‘Pakistan has maintained successful relations only with UN.’ Do you agree with the
statement? Explain your answer. [14]
Pakistan has maintained successful relations with many organizations in the world, some of
which are as below;

i- Pakistan and UNO

• Pakistan joined UNO in September 1947.
• Pakistan accepted UN mediated peace between Pakistan and India in 1948.
• It took the Kashmir issue to UN-Security council where it was decided that there must
be a plebiscite in Kashmir.
• Pakistan raised the Palestine issue and defended their cause at UN platform.
• UN organization helped Pakistan in developing the human index through following
organizations.
o Health (WHO-World Health Organization)
o Education (UNESCO-UN Educational, scientific and Cultural Organization)
o Child protection (UNICEF-UN International Children Emergency Fund)
o Food (WFP-World Food programme)
o Refugees (UNHCR-UN High Commission for Refugees)
• Pakistan could not get the Kashmir issue resolved by the UN because of the authority
of five countries’ veto power.
• ZAB was disappointed by the UN role in War of 1971 and that’s why he tore apart UN
resolution.
• Pakistan did not like its quick recognition of the Bangladesh.
ii- Pakistan, SEATO and CENTO
• Pakistan joined SEATO and CENTO which were US-sponsored anti-communist
military blocs between 1954 and 1955 in the era of Prime Minister Muhammad Ali
Bogra.
• It gave Pakistan a sense of protection and provided a platform for developing the
relationship among member countries.
• Egypt was unhappy with Pakistan for its joining these organizations because one of the
member countries UK had attacked Suez Canal.
• These blocs refused to help Pakistan in the wars of 1965 and 1971 with India.
• Pakistan left SEATO in 1972 and CENTO was dissolved in 1979 on the eve of Iranian
revolution.
iii- Pakistan and RCD (Regional Cooperation for Development) / ECO (Economic
Cooperation Organization)
• Pakistan, Turkey and Oran had founded it in 1964.
• Several MOUs were signed to develop the trade and cultural ties between member
states.
• RCD highway and RCD railway was started to promote road and rail link between the
member states.
• After Iranian revolution it became insignificant and after some years it was recognized
as ECO (Economic Cooperation Organization) by adding Central Asian states and
Afghanistan.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 150

 • Pakistan was unsuccessful in making ECO effective because of its strained relationship
with Afghanistan.
iv- Pakistan and OIC (Organization of Islamic Conference/Countries)
• Founded in 1969 after a failed Israeli attempt to burn Al-Aqsa mosque.
• ZAB summoned the 2nd Islamic summit in Lahore in 1974.
• Several agreements were signed and resolutions were passed in favour of Palestine
cause.
• Pakistan struggled to end Iran-Iraq war in 1980’s through OIC platform.
• Collective welfare of the member Islamic countries could not be attained by the
Pakistan through OIC platform.
v- Pakistan and SAARC (South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation)
• Founded in 1985 by Pakistan and Bangladesh in 1985.
• The main objective was to promote friendly relations between seven countries of South
Asia i.e. Pakistan, Bangladesh, India, Afghanistan, Iran, Bhutan, Maldives and Nepal.
• SAARC cultural exchange Programme and SAF(South Asian Federation) games have
been its main feature.
• Due to strained relations between Pakistan, India and Bangladesh, the organization did
not come out with its full potential.

Conclusively, it can be maintained that Pakistan had been very successful in

maintaining successful relationships with various organizations by supporting UN and
its objective of maintaining world peace. It has also strived to help resolve regional
conflicts and to promote trade and cultural links.

SYED TAQI KARAMAT 151