Journal of Cleaner Production 296 (2021) 126359

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Theory of planned behavior to predict consumer behavior in using

products irrigated with purified wastewater in Iran consumer
Parisa Ahmmadi , Mehdi Rahimian *, Rezvan Ghanbari Movahed
Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development, Lorestan University, Khorramabad, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Water shortages in some countries such as Iran have led farmers to use purified wastewater to irrigate
Received 18 June 2020 their farms. The analysis of consumer behavior using these products is considered as one of the main
Received in revised form issues in this regard. Among the behavioral predictor models, the theory of planned behavior is a model
6 February 2021
that can be a reliable model due to the focus on some variables such as consumer attitudes, subjective
Accepted 9 February 2021
norms, as well as their perceived behavioral control. Another advantage of this model is related to the
Available online 26 February 2021
flexibility of the model in adding other variables and the possibility of increasing the power of predicting
Handling editor: Dr Sandra Caeiro behavior. The present study aimed to examine the production of some agricultural products with purified
wastewater in Iran and predict consumer behavior. The analysis of the consumer behavior in using
Keywords: products irrigated with purified wastewater can help plan more carefully for the cultivation of such
Purified wastewater crops. This study used the extended theory of planned behavior by adding risk perception to predict
Risk perception people behavior towards consuming products irrigated with purified wastewater. Data were collected
Attitude from 400 villagers consuming products irrigated with purified wastewater through a questionnaire and
Theory of planned behavior
analyzed using PLS and SPSS software. The results showed that the original theory of planned behavior
Iran
explained 42.7% of the variance in consumer behavior towards the consumption of this product. The
main variables of the original theory included attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and subjective
norms, which positively affected the consumer intentions. The risk perception was found to be the
strongest predictor of consumer behavior, and their relationship was negative and significant. The
addition of risk perception to the extended theory of planned behavior increased the ability of the
models to explain consumer behavior by 15.4%. Policymakers and relevant organizations can promote
behavior towards the consumption of this product by emphasizing risk perception and providing the
consumers with the required types of knowledge and information.
© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Wastewater or sewage is a dilute solution including 99.9% water

and 0.1% as a mixture of suspended solids, organic matter, and
Water scarcity, as a common phenomenon in many countries gases (Metcalf, 2003). Several countries with water crisis use pu-
(Adapa et al., 2016), has made governments to use different stra- rified wastewater as a source of energy, nutrients, and other useful
tegies. Among these strategies, consumption of highly clean and cost-effective by-products (Weerasekara, 2017). Urban purified
wastewater as drinking water is one of the most challenging issues wastewater is rarely affected by drought, and its usage in agricul-
in increasing water resources (Binz et al., 2018), which has ture and other sectors is considered as one of the sustainable
dramatically improved in the last decades and could be considered strategies in developing water resources management
as an essential mechanism for global water scarcity (Wester et al., (Makropoulos et al., 2008). In the agriculture sector, purified
2015). Several countries have particularly focused on solutions wastewater could be reused to compensate for water shortages.
such as recycling water for sustainable use (Michetti et al., 2019). The quality of purified wastewater process by treatment plants
increased so that it could be safely used for agricultural, industrial,
and even urban purposes (Al-Shammiri et al., 2005). The use of
purified wastewater is considered as one of the most effective ways
* Corresponding author.
to deal with water shortages and protect the environment (Capra
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (P. Ahmmadi), Rahimian.m@lu.
ac.ir (M. Rahimian), [email protected] (R.G. Movahed). and Scicolone, 2007). The purified wastewater is used in

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126359
0959-6526/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Ahmmadi, M. Rahimian and R.G. Movahed Journal of Cleaner Production 296 (2021) 126359

agriculture to optimize and maintain the availability of water re- positive or negative assessment of behavior in a specific situation
sources by returning to the land, and promoting efficient use of (Kaiser and Scheuthle, 2003). Individuals with a positive attitude
water resources (Qadir et al., 2010) requires meticulous planning to towards a particular behavior are more likely to perform it (La€pple
consider the possible issues related to farmers and consumers for and Kelley, 2013; Massoud et al., 2019). Attitudes are composed of
using products irrigated with purified wastewater (PIPW). two separate but highly interrelated components including
The fundamental issue in the use of purified wastewater for emotional and cognitive components (De Bruijn, 2010). The
agriculture is its acceptance as a source of irrigation water by emotional component refers to the individual feels about the sub-
farmers, as well as the public to purchase and consume products ject while the cognitive component emphasizes their beliefs
irrigated by this water source (Hou et al., 2020; Leong and Lebel, (Arvola et al., 2008). The relationship between people attitudes and
2020). It is essential to analyze the behavior of consumers and their intention to adapt with a healthy ecosystem has been re-
producers on the PIPW. Although many studies have focused on the ported in different studies such as diverse as saving energy con-
prediction of the producers’ behavior, few have addressed con- sumption at home, buying green products and vehicles (Wang et al.,
sumer behavior. The present study focused on Iranian consumer 2014; Yadav and Pathak, 2016). This study examines the correlation
behavior towards PIPW. between consumer attitudes and intentions towards consuming
Despite the considerable potential of purified wastewater, as PIPW (H1).
well as previous measures taken to recycle wastewater, consumers
H1. There is a positive correlation between consumer attitudes
have been reluctant to accept recycled water, which implements
and intentions toward consuming PIPW.
these projects very challenging and difficult (Schultz and Fielding,
2014). This failure related to consumer behavior was examined in
this study. The success of purified wastewater consumption could 1.1.2. Subjective norms
be attributed to the interactions between technological, economic, Subjective norms are the second most important variable
and socio-political dimensions. The critical problem related to more affecting consumer intentions, which emphasizes the extent to
sustainable water management has been traditionally considered people intention to perform a particular behavior is affected by the
as a social rather than a technical issue (Ricart et al., 2019). approval or disapproval of significant others (Ajzen, 1991; De
The behavior of consumers on the PIPW is affected by several Bruijn, 2010). Subjective norms stem from the influence of the
factors including their personality traits, attitudes towards the behavior, as well as the speech of some important people in one’s
consumption of these products, diet and consumption habits, as life (Goh et al., 2017). Individuals often act based on their percep-
well as their knowledge, awareness, and subjective beliefs about tions about what they think others perceive, and their intention to
these products, positive and negative experiences in consuming accept a potential behavior is highly influenced by people with
such products, and the information obtained from the social whom they have close relationships (Ajzen, 1991; De Bruijn, 2010).
network media about these products. The aforementioned factors The second hypothesis examines the correlation between subjec-
can affect the consumer likelihood of purchasing and consuming tive norms and intentions towards consuming PIPW.
PIPW. H2. There is a positive correlation between consumer subjective
Over the past decade, the planners of water resources man- norms and intentions towards consuming PIPW.
agement have paid considerable attention to the use of purified
wastewater in the agricultural sector in Iran. The standard for
wastewater use in Iran has been prepared by the Ministry of Energy. 1.1.3. Perceived behavioral control
According to this regulation, purified wastewater includes treated TPB is considered as the third-factor predicting intentions in
municipal and industrial wastewater that has passed at least one perceived behavioral control, which is defined as the perception of
stage of physical, chemical and biological treatment (Ministry of the comfort, or trouble in performing a behavior that can prevent or
Energy of Iran, 2011). The present study aimed to evaluate the facilitate a behavior (Ajzen, 1991; Schultz and Fielding, 2014).
Iranian consumer behavior towards PIPW using both original and People may not be able to fully control factors such as opportu-
extended TBT models. nities, resources, time, knowledge, and skills, but these factors
As shown in Fig. 1, the variables in both TBP and risk perception affect their intentions to perform the behavior (Goh et al., 2017).
models are considered, which is regarded as one of advantages in Perceived behavioral control emphasizes a person’s perception of
the present study. how easy or difficult it is to perform a particular behavior (Savari
and Gharechaee, 2020). Several studies indicated that perceived
1.1. Theory of planned behavior (TPB) and research hypotheses behavioral control in behavioral tendencies towards water protec-
tion is effective (Fielding et al., 2012; Yazdanpanah et al., 2011). In
Several theories have been proposed to study consumer this study, the relationship between the perceived behavioral
behavior. Ajzen theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991) is one of control and people intentions and behavior towards PIPW con-
the well-known theories in this field. TPB is an advancement of sumption was evaluated (H3 and H4). It is possible that people
Fishbein and Ajzen rational theory, which was developed in 1975 affect their behavior towards consuming these products if they
(Koen et al., 2013). TPB considers the relationships between the have more control over their behavior than using PIPW.
individuals, as well as the social and environmental aspects, to H3. There is a positive correlation between consumer perceived
explain consumer behavior. Several studies have confirmed that behavioral control and intentions towards consuming PIPW.
attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and subject norms affected
intention indirectly, while it influenced the behavior directly (Abadi H4. There is a positive correlation between consumer perceived
et al., 2020; Bozorgparvar et al., 2018). The original TPB model behavioral control and behavior towards consuming PIPW.
(Fig. 1) was used to examine and predict the behavior of consumers
on the PIPW. 1.1.4. Intention
Based on TPB, the intention to involve in the behavior is its most
1.1.1. Attitudes direct predictor (De Bruijn, 2010; Kaiser and Scheuthle, 2003). In-
Attitude towards a particular behavior is considered as the first tentions are conscious plans or decisions to act and display a
component determining the intention. This variable denotes the particular behavior (Russell and Fielding, 2010) and are generally
2
P. Ahmmadi, M. Rahimian and R.G. Movahed Journal of Cleaner Production 296 (2021) 126359

Fig. 1. Research framework.

predicted by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral consumer intentions and behavior towards consuming PIPW.
control (Ajzen, 1991). Previous studies have shown a significant
H6. There is a negative correlation between consumer risk
relationship between intentions and behavior (Chan and Bishop,
perception and behavior toward consuming PIPW.
2013; Lee, 2011; Russell and Fielding, 2010). Intention denotes a
positive or negative assessment of a particular behavior in a specific The original and extended TPB model is presented in Fig. 1.
situation (Kaiser and Scheuthle, 2003). H5 examines the correlation Based on the original model, five hypotheses (H1, H2, H3, H4, and
between consumer intentions and behavior towards PIPW H5) are proposed, and another hypothesis (H6) is suggested with
consumption. the addition of risk perception.
H5. There is a positive correlation between consumer intentions
and behavior towards consuming PIPW. 2. Literature Review

Previous research has focused on purified wastewater from

1.2. Extension of the TPB different perspectives. Some studies examined the use of purified
wastewater as drinking water while others analyzed the behavior
Various models such as the protection motivation theory and of the farmers as PIPW producers. Haddad (2005) showed that
the health belief model (Delfiyan et al., 2020) have been proposed people with more knowledge about the consequences of PIPW
to predict and analyze consumer behavior. Protection motivation consumption had more positive attitudes toward its consumption.
theory includes another variable called “risk perception”, which has The most important factors related to the tendency of the society to
been used by many researchers for behavior analysis (Rezaei et al., use PIPW are aware of the risks associated with PIPW use, the ex-
2019). Due to the importance of TPB in predicting social- istence of PIPW sources in the region, the right to choose for in-
psychological aspects (Chen, 2017), it was developed based on dividuals, people’s trust to PIPW, and information about PIPW
different topics and target audiences to increase its predictive po- quality (Menegaki et al., 2007). Some studies reported that social
wer (Azadi et al., 2019). New components and communication acceptance of PIPW use is low due to health problems among
structures can be added to this theory for its improvement (Ajzen, farmers (Mojid et al., 2010). Dolnicar et al. (2011) confirmed that
2005). Despite the importance of TPB, this model lacks the concept positive perceptions of purified wastewater and knowledge about
of risk perception (Rezaei et al., 2019). Risk perception can be the water source were the main variables affecting purified
considered a strong predictor of environmental behavior (Aitken wastewater consumption. Adopting alternative water technology
et al., 2011). This variable can be considered as a logical or irratio- was influenced by risk perception and water consumption culture
nal belief in people minds related to the probability of the occur- (Mankad and Tapsuwan, 2011). Farmers’ knowledge, skills, and
rence of danger or severity, time, and its consequences (Mumpower attitudes could be promoted by workshops on the dangers of using
et al., 2016). The relationship between the risk perception variable PIPW (Owusu et al., 2012). Lamichhane and Babcock Jr (2013)
and purified wastewater consumption has been investigated in the believed that education could increase people’s willingness to pay
previous studies (Mankad and Tapsuwan, 2011; Ross et al., 2014; for human waste recycling. In another study, Zhao et al. (2014)
Sheidaei et al., 2016). Based on the recent research, it is essential to found that consumer attitudes were the most important pre-
understand risks in behavior to conserve water (Fielding et al., dictors of their behavior in buying green products in China.
2012; Yazdanpanah et al., 2011). The risk perception variable was In another study, information exchange increases people
added to the original model of TPB to further explain consumer acceptance, awareness, and positive attitude towards wastewater
behavior. purified, and reduces their risk perceptions (Schultz and Fielding,
The sixth hypothesis examines the correlation between 2014). Wang et al. (2014) indicated that intention plays an
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P. Ahmmadi, M. Rahimian and R.G. Movahed Journal of Cleaner Production 296 (2021) 126359

essential role in explaining sustainable consumption behavior Despite these policies regarding the use of purified wastewater
among Chinese rural residents. In another study, Sheidaei et al. in Iran, there is no legal ban on using this type of water source. The
(2016) reported that knowledge, being close to the purified main issue is cultural and social barriers (Go mez-Lo pez et al.,
wastewater canal and value orientation, significantly influenced 2009). The reason for the focus of the present study on consumer
the risk perception of the purified wastewater use. behavior is that it can be considered a social issue.
Regarding the Iranian context, the results indicated that people
Step 2. The second stage involved collecting the related literature
attitude is a determining factor for purified wastewater usage. In a
and selecting TPB as a suitable model for analyzing consumer
study conducted by (Baghapour et al., 2017), a significant rela-
behavior. A comprehensive description of this model (Fig. 1) is
tionship was observed between the citizens’ desire to use purified
presented in Section 1.1.
wastewater and their education level, gender, and awareness about
wastewater treatment processes and improved wastewater quality. Step 3. In this step, a questionnaire was developed to collect the
In the Australian context, users’ decision to consume purified required data, and its reliability and validity were examined. The
wastewater was found to be related to their knowledge about and questionnaire consisted of two parts. The 5-point Likert scale items
understanding of purified wastewater (Adapa, 2018). Some studies in the first part assessed attitude (3 items), subjective norms (4
indicated that risk perception could affect consumer behavior items), perceived behavioral control (3 items), intention (3 items),
(Poortvliet et al., 2018; Ross et al., 2014). Michetti et al. (2019) found behavior (2 items), and risk perception (3 items). These questions
that risk perception and purified wastewater acceptance mainly were designed based on the previous studies. As well as the
depend on the environmental characteristics of the purified questionnaires developed for assessing the TPB. The constructs and
wastewater, individual education level, and PIPW types. Based on a scale items are shown in Table 1. As defined in the introduction of
recent study, awareness about purified wastewater can make treated wastewater, at least one of the three stages of physical,
people ten times more likely to support the reuse of drinking water chemical or biological treatment of wastewater must be performed.
(Furlong et al., 2019). Ricart et al. (2019) believed that product In the study area, only physical and biological steps were per-
certification for PIPW, as well as direct consumer visits to purified formed. Providing information about the purification process to the
wastewater sites, can improve the perception of farmers for PIPW respondents will affect their responses, so during the data collec-
use. Oteng-Peprah et al. (2020) indicated that to attitude, subjective tion, each consumer was explained which purification process is
norms, and perceived behavioral control, the personal norm affects performed in their area. However, a review of previous studies
people behavior. Pakmehr et al. (2020) showed that demand shows that most researchers pay less attention to this issue, and
assessment and self-efficacy are considered important predictors of even more of them do not explain the purification process to
managing the water crisis and use of purified wastewater. consumers. The second part included the demographic character-
Based on the literature review, the TPB could be used to analyze istics of the PIPW consumers. A team of experts in water resources
consumer behavior. The risk perception variable plays a significant management, rural development, and psychology were asked to
role in explaining consumer behavior. To the best of our knowledge, identify the flaws in the questionnaire. The integrity of the ques-
no study has systematically examined the PIPW consumer behavior tionnaire was confirmed by this group. Then, the questionnaire was
by adding the risk perception variable to the TPB. This research gap piloted with 30 consumers in the study area. The reliability of the
highlights the importance and necessity of research to examine the survey was confirmed by calculating the Cronbach alpha co-
intentions and the behavior of consumers on the PIPW. The present efficients ranging from 0.7 to 0.95.
study was based on H1 to H6. More specifically, H1 to H5 were
Confirmatory factor analysis was used to evaluate the suitability,
formulated to analyze consumer behavior using the original TBP,
validity, and reliability of research constructs, i.e., attitude, sub-
and H6 was designed to increase the explanatory power of the
jective norms, perceived behavioral control, risk perception,
model by adding a risk perception variable.
intention, and behavior (Table 2). The results showed that the
goodness of fit indices in both measurement models were
3. Methods adequate. The extended model had better goodness of fit as
compared with the original model.
Fig. 2 shows the major six steps in the present study. Table 3 shows the results of the diagnostic validity. The mean of
the extracted variance for the research constructs (0.78 < AVE < 0.95)
Step 1. In this step, the research team by observing the production
was greater than their correlation (0.38 < r < 0.55), which indicated
of agricultural products with purified wastewater and their con-
that the diagnostic validity of the structures in the proposed research
sumption by the people found that analyzing the behavior of con-
model was confirmed.
sumers on the PIPW could be interesting. This study was conducted
in 2019 in Khorramabad County, Lorestan Province, in the west of Step 4. The fourth stage involved determining the sample size and
Iran. This province is classified as a region with a semi-arid climatic sampling method, selecting samples, and collecting the data. The
condition (Azizi and Heidari, 2013). The purified wastewater plant, statistical population of this study included 12700 residents of
located in the south of Khorramabad, was designed for 150,000 villages downstream of the purified wastewater plant in the south
people (Khademikia et al., 2016). In Iran, there are seven main of Khorramabad city in Lorestan province. Based on Krejcie and
standards and policies related to the use of purified wastewater. Morgan (1970) Table, 375 was determined as the sample size. A
These standards are as follows. total of 400 questionnaires were completed to achieve greater ac-
curacy. The stratified sampling method was used for collecting data
1 Standard of purified wastewater discharge from sixteen villages located downstream of the purified waste-
2 Characteristics of industrial purified wastewater water plant. The basis for determining the classes was people place
3 .Permissible limits of purified wastewater discharge to surface of residence in different villages. Each village was considered as a
and groundwater sources as well as agricultural uses class. The sample size was determined based on the population of
4 Criteria for assessing the quality of water resources each village. The samples were randomly selected in each village.
5 Standard of urban purified wastewater treatment plants Questionnaires were randomly distributed in villages. The ques-
6 Water quality standard for recreational use tionnaire items were explained to the participants face to face, and
7 Water quality standard for industrial use
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P. Ahmmadi, M. Rahimian and R.G. Movahed Journal of Cleaner Production 296 (2021) 126359

Fig. 2. Method diagram.

Table 1
Constructs and its scale items.

Latent variable Observed Item text

Variable

Attitude Att1 Consumption of PIPW is wise in terms of reusing wastewater.

Att2 Consumption of PIPW is worthwhile in terms of reusing wastewater.
Att3 Consumption of PIPW is beneficial in terms of reusing wastewater.
Subjective Norms SN1 Individuals whose opinions are valuable to me, they confirmed the consuming of the PIPW.
SN2 If I consume of the PIPW, important people approve this behavior.
SN3 The people who I respect them, they use PIPW
SN4 Most people who are important to me ask me to consume the PIPW.
Perceived Behavioral Control PBC1 I am confident that I can consume the PIPW if I want.
PBC2 Whether or not I consume the PIPW is completely up to me.
PBC3 It is easy for me to consume the PIPW.
Intention Int1 If there is a program for the consumption of PIPW, I would like to participate.
Int2 I tend to consume PIPW.
Int3 I advise other people to consume PIPW.
Risk Perception RP1 Consumption of PIPW is wrong in terms of health risks.
RP2 Consumption of PIPW in the long run may make me sick.
RP3 Consumption of PIPW destroys the health of the whole community.

Table 2 then the completed questionnaires were collected in person.

A summary of the goodness of fit indices for the measurement model.
Step 5. The collected data were analyzed using SPSS (Version 20)
Fit index SRMR D-G1 D-G2 NFI RMS-Theta
and Smart PLS. The relationships between the variables were
Recommended Value <0.1 >0.05 >0.05 >0.90
0.12 examined using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) by Smart PLS.
Estimated Original TPB 0.09 0.324 0.527 0.92 0.08
To investigate the relationship between multiple variables in a
Estimated Extended TPB 0.07 0.398 0.604 0.96 0.06
model, SEM is used as an important statistical method
(Khoshmaram et al., 2020). In this study, SEM was used since it is a
comprehensive method to test the hypothesis and can report the
Table 3
measurement error (Hair et al., 2017). SEM helps researchers
Correlations with square roots of the AVE.
examine the complex relationships between latent and observed
Constructs 1 2 3 4 5 6 variables, as well as between some latent variables, to test the
1. Attitude 0.78a
structure of internal relationships in a set of equations (Dijkstra and
2. Subjective Norms 0.42b 0.79a Henseler, 2015).
3. Perceived Behavioral Control 0.39b 0.46b 0.89a
4. Risk Perception 0.48b 0.47b 0.53b 0.91a Step 6. In the sixth step, the final research report was written in
5. Intention 0.50b 0.51b 0.55b 0.46b 0.95a the form of the present paper.
6. Behavior 0.48b 0.38b 0.46b 0.48b 0.39b 0.88a
a
The square roots of AVE estimate.
b
Correlation is significant at the <0.01 level.

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P. Ahmmadi, M. Rahimian and R.G. Movahed Journal of Cleaner Production 296 (2021) 126359

4. Results value (SRMR < 0.10, D_G1 > 0.05, D_G2 > 0.05, NFI > 0.90, RMS_
Theta
0.12), both the original and extended models of TPB have an
4.1. Demographic information about the samples appropriate fit. The comparison of the fit indices of the two models
with the recommended values indicated that the developed model
The participants age range was 18e68 years (mean ¼ 40.56). A has a better fit.
total of 53.5% of the respondents were in the age group of 30e45
years. 49% of the respondents were female while the rest were
males. As to the marital status, 87.5% of the respondents were
4.3. Structural model
married. The size of the household was between 1 and 9 people
(mean ¼ 4.25). 58.5% of the respondents were in families with 3e6
After validating the results of the measurement models, the
people. In terms of education, 30.5% of the participants had a high
results of the review of the original and developed TPB models are
school diploma, 11% were illiterate, 8.5% were primary, 21.5% were
presented.
secondary, 17% held an associate degree, and 11.5% had a bachelor
degree or higher. 49% of the respondents were farmers, 12% raised
livestock, 7% were private sector employees, 17.5% were govern-
ment employees, and 14.5% were unemployed. 4.3.1. Original TPB model
About 96% of the respondents stated that PIPW were sold in As shown in Fig. 2, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived
their village. Further, 39% attended education courses related to behavioral control can explain 47.4% of the variance in consumer
water resources management, 34% of the villagers were aware of intention toward consuming PIPW. Attitude, perceived behavioral
the general process of purified wastewater and its use in agricul- control, and subjective norms were positively and significantly
ture, and 40% trusted the effluent treatment system. Additionally, correlated with consumer intention to consume PIPW. The inten-
44% of the respondents were confident about the health of the tion has a positive and significant effect on consumer PIPW
products, 40% of the participants were interested in using the PIPW, behavior. Intention and perceived behavioral control can account
and 40% of the villagers were willing to consume PIPW while 36% for 42.7% of the variance in consumer behavior with respect to the
were worried about their health. Finally, 41.5% of the respondents use of PIPW. The hypotheses of the original model (H1, H2, H3, H4,
evaluated the PIPW quality at a reasonable level, and 62.5% evalu- and H5) were confirmed (Table 5).
ated the PIPW smell as very good.

4.2. Measurement model 4.3.2. Extended model

Fig. 4 and Table 4 show the results of the estimated structural
The fit of the original and extended models was confirmed by model for TPB. The results for the risk perception variable are
CFA (Table 4). Based on the results of CFA analysis, standardized presented. As shown in Fig. 3, the developed model can explain
factor loadings (ƛ) of all the selected markers for the target con- 58.1% of the variance in consumer behavior related to PIPW use. By
structs concerning t-value figures were significant (with a 0.01 adding the risk perception variable, the predictive power of the
error level and P < 0.01). The selected indicators were confirmed in model increased by 15.4%. The t value for the risk perception vari-
both measurement models. The indicators selected to measure the able was more than 1.96 and significant at 0.05 level (Hair et al.,
model variables in both cases were correctly chosen. Table 4 shows 2017). There is a negative and significant relationship between
the values of AVE, CR, and a. The recommended values are 0.5, 0.6, this variable and the consumer behavior toward consuming PIPW.
and 0.7. The convergent validity and reliability of all latent variables Among the variables affecting behavior in the developed model,
in the proposed model are at an acceptable level (Table 4). risk perception has the highest impact on the behavior of con-
Since all model fit indices are higher than the recommended sumers (Table 5 & Fig. 4).

Table 4
The fit indicators of the models.

Variable Measurement item Original TPB Extended TPB

ƛ t Reliability and Validity statistics ƛ t Reliability and Validity statistics

Intention Int1 0.912 43.183 AVE: 0.588 0.913 45.865 AVE: 0.591
Int2 0.901 38.485 CR: 0.877 a: 0.755 0.901 37.981 CR: 0.878 a: 0.755
Int3 0.719 11.563 0.719 11.427
Attitude Att1 0.905 33.694 AVE: 0.658 0.905 31.537 AVE: 0.660
Att2 0.917 42.873 CR: 0.877 a: 0.804 0.917 40.134 CR: 0.877 a: 0.804
Att3 0.837 13.408 0.837 12.873
Perceived Behavioral Control PBC1 0.645 6.443 AVE: 0.525 0.645 6.268 AVE: 0.528
PBC2 0.621 5.509 CR: 0.801 a: 0.711 0.621 4.782 CR: 0.808 a: 0.711
PBC3 0.864 25.782 0.863 26.787
Subjective Norms SN1 0.816 18.408 AVE: 0.701 0.817 17.090 AVE: 0.704
SN2 0.756 8.925 CR: 0.977 a: 0.855 0.756 9.072 CR: 0.978 a: 0.855
SN3 0.692 5.764 0.692 6.009
SN4 0.385 2.170 0.385 2.252
Behavior Beh1 0.787 12.383 AVE: 0.744 0.766 11.273 AVE: 0.744
Beh2 0.942 56.554 CR: 0.955 a: 0.811 0.953 110.390 CR: 0.957 a: 0.811
Risk Perception RP1 e e e 0.609 2.154 AVE: 0.611
RP2 e e 0.908 2.029 CR: 0.877 a: 0.754
RP3 e e 0.834 2.078

Original TPB: SRMR ¼ 0.09, D_G1 ¼ 0.324, D_G2 ¼ 0.527, NFI ¼ 0.92, RMS_Theta ¼ 0.08.
Extended TPB: SRMR ¼ 0.07, D_G1 ¼ 0.398, D_G2 ¼ 0.604, NFI ¼ 0.96, RMS_Theta ¼ 0.06.

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P. Ahmmadi, M. Rahimian and R.G. Movahed Journal of Cleaner Production 296 (2021) 126359

Table 5
Hypothesis results of research and structural models.

Hypothesis Original TPB Extend TPB

G t Result g t Result

H1: There is a positive correlation between consumer attitude and intentions towards consuming PIPW. 0.310 2.355 confirm 0.310 2.192 confirm
H2: There is a positive correlation between consumer subjective norms and intentions towards consuming PIPW. 0.207 2.175 confirm 0.207 2.296 confirm
H3: There is a positive correlation between consumer perceived behavioral control and intentions towards consuming PIPW. 0.278 2.823 confirm 0.278 2.767 confirm
H4: There is a positive correlation between consumer perceived behavioral control and behavior towards consuming PIPW. 0.368 3.366 confirm 0.143 2.259 confirm
H5: There is a positive correlation between consumer intentions and behavior towards consuming PIPW. 0.362 3.192 confirm 0.205 2.002 confirm
H6: There is a negative correlation between consumer risk perception and behavior towards consuming PIPW. e e confirm - 0.517 2.877 confirm

Fig. 3. Original TPB structural model with standardized path coefficients.

4.4. Relationship between consumer risk perception of consuming variance in consumer behavior. Attitude, perceived behavioral
PIPW with other variables control, and subjective norms in the original TPB could predict
47.4% of the variance in Iranian consumer intention toward
The relationship between the risk perception variable and other consuming PIPW. Although the results of a few studies (Petrea,
variables were reported in some studies. In this study to the status 2001; Yazdanpanah et al., 2015) indicated that the three main
of the risk perception variable in the extended TBP model, the variables of the TPB may not always predict people intentions, the
correlation between other research variables and consumer risk results of the present study indicated that all three variables could
perception of consuming PIPW was investigated. explain the consumer intentions in the original model.
Spearman and Pearson correlation tests were used to determine Adding the risk perception variable to the original TPB model
the correlation between the research variables and risk perception increased its explanatory power. In this study, an extended TPB
(Table 6). The results indicated a significant and inverse correlation model with a new variable was introduced to analyze consumer
between consumer risk perception and awareness about PIPW, behavior. The extended TPB model could explain 58.1% of the
trust to PIPW, and evaluation of the PIPW quality. There was no variance in the behavior of consumers on the PIPW. Adding the risk
significant correlation between consumers’ risk perception of perception variable to the extended TPB model has more explan-
consuming PIPW with education level, age, or distance to the atory power than the original TPB since an increase in consumer
market of un-PIPW. risk perception can negatively affect their behavior toward
consuming PIPW.
5. Discussion The first hypothesis “attitude has a significant effect on con-
sumer intention towards consuming PIPW” was confirmed. Con-
TPB is widely used in studying people behavior in various fields sumer attitudes towards consuming PIPW affected their behavioral
since the model variables have high power in predicting people intentions. The g coefficients showed that, in both the original and
intentions and behavior. This model was used to study the behavior the extended TPB models, attitude was the strongest predictor of
of consumers on the PIPW. In this study, the original TPB model was behavioral intention. Some studies confirmed the relationship be-
examined for analyzing the behavior of consumers on the PIPW and tween attitudes and intentions. For example, Haddad (2005) and
attempted to improve the explanatory power of TPB by adding the Oteng-Peprah et al. (2020) reported that a strong attitude towards
risk perception variable. the PIPW causes them to consume more. Zhao et al. (2014) and
The SEM results indicated that perceived behavioral control and Baghapour et al. (2017) indicated that consumer attitudes were the
risk perception in the original TPB could explain 42.7% of the most important predictors of their behavior in China and Iran.
7
P. Ahmmadi, M. Rahimian and R.G. Movahed Journal of Cleaner Production 296 (2021) 126359

Fig. 4. Extended TPB structural model with standardized path coefficients.

Table 6
Correlation among consumers’ risk perception of consuming PIPW with other research variables.

The first variable The second variable Test Type Correlation Coefficient (r) Sig

Consumers risk perception of consuming PIPW Awareness about PIPW Spearman - 0.355 0.001**
Trust to PIPW Spearman - 0.278 0.005**
Evaluation of quality of PIPW Spearman - 0.160 0.018*
Education level Spearman 0.069 0.491n.s
Age Pearson 0.055 0.536n.s
Distance to the market of Un-PIPW Pearson 0.046 0.548n.s
&
** * Correlation is significant at the <0.01 & < 0.05 level.
n.s
None-significant.

Attitude is a fundamental factor in determining a person behavior Managing water resources through networks could have a signifi-
and desires (Ajzen, 2005; Damalas, 2009). As mentioned before, cant impact on consumers’ subjective norms.
attitude consists of an emotional and a cognitive component. Regarding the third and fourth hypotheses, the positive effect of
Consumer positive and negative experiences of these products are perceived behavioral control on consumer intentions and behavior
parts of their emotional attitude. Further, information resources was confirmed. Wang et al. (2014) found that intentions played an
such as public media, cyberspace, friends, and family can play a essential role in explaining sustainable consumption behavior
significant role in this regard. among Chinese rural residents. The effect of perceived behavioral
Regarding the second hypothesis, subjective norms variable had control on water conservation behavior was confirmed in the pre-
a positive and significant effect on people intentions. In De Bruijn vious studies (Fielding et al., 2012; Yazdanpanah et al., 2011). Savari
(2010) study, the subjective norms variable, along with other TPB and Gharechaee (2020) reported a positive and significant corre-
variables, affected people intentions. The probability of improve- lation between perceived behavioral control and consumer in-
ments in people intentions towards PIPW increases if their sur- tentions. The more consumers have control over their perceived
roundings confirm their behavior towards PIPW consumption behavior towards consuming PIPW, the more agreeable their in-
(Oteng-Peprah et al., 2020). More beliefs of a consumer in line with tentions and behavior towards consuming these products would
the consumption of PIPW lead to stronger intentions and behavior be. Regarding the perceived behavioral control, parents generally
towards consuming these products. As noted before, the subjective have more control over the products consumed by their family as
norms imply individual perception from the perspective of essen- they are usually responsible for buying food and drink. The indi-
tial individuals about whether to perform a particular behavior or vidual position in the family can affect the perceived behavioral
not (De Bruijn, 2010). Social networks have a large share in forming control. More awareness of people toward PIPW leads to less un-
opinions. Consumers have different products, especially PIPW. derstanding of the risk of these products. Lack of awareness or low

8
P. Ahmmadi, M. Rahimian and R.G. Movahed Journal of Cleaner Production 296 (2021) 126359

awareness of PIPW creates the mentality for consumers that study has specifically examined the behavior of consumers on the
consuming these products may be dangerous for them. Lack of products irrigated with wastewater using these models. The most
awareness increases the perception of danger. Giving consumers relevant studies in this field indicated that the health belief model
the right information allows them to know the limitations and how explains approximately 41% of the variance in farmers’ water con-
to use a PIPW. Executive policies in this field should be in such a servation behavior in Iran (Raheli et al., 2020). Another study
way that they can give consumers the awareness created about the examined the behavior of twenty active marketing campaigns in
PIPW. Planners can improve parents’ awareness about these water resources management using the protection motivation
products by providing an appropriate education. Educational or- theory. According to this research, although a majority of the
ganizations can encourage families to consume PIWP by educating marketing communications on water resources successfully con-
perceived behavioral control among parents, which might be formed to protection motivation theory, some marketing commu-
affected by the prices of the products since field observations in this nications failed to include pertinent protection motivation theory
study indicated that the cost of PIPW is lower than other products. factors (Nelson et al., 2011). Protection motivation theory with
It is suggested that future research focus on factors affecting con- environmental attitudes can explain a significant portion of the
sumer perceived behavioral control. variance in people’s pro-environmental behavior in Iran (Shafiei
The fifth hypothesis “intentions have a significant effect on and Maleksaeidi, 2020). Other researchers have explored the fac-
consumer behavior towards consuming PIPW” was confirmed, tors that influence citizens’ decisions about reusing wastewater by
which is in line with the results of the previous studies (Kaiser and changing the norm activation model. So that environmental moti-
Scheuthle, 2003; Lee, 2011). The most direct predictor of behavior is vation has positive effects on citizens’ acceptance of the reuse of
the intention to involve in the behavior (De Bruijn, 2010); (Chan wastewater (Liu et al., 2018). It seems that the type of variables of
and Bishop, 2013) (Rezaei et al., 2019). When people have a pre- the developed model of planned behavior theory and the per-
vious mentality about a product, they may consume the product, centage of variance explained in the present study convince us that
which justifies the significant correlation between these two vari- this model, compared to other models, has more power to study the
ables. Subjective norms and perceived behavioral control can behavior of consumers on the PIPW.
improve in consumer minds when their intentions form their at-
titudes. The importance of the intentions in TPB is such that many 5.1. Policy implications
studies just focused on the relationship between attitude,
perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms on intention. Based on the findings of the present study, the following exec-
These studies consider the role of intention as behavior. In some utive proposals could be presented:
studies, researchers used the term behavioral intentions to
emphasize the high importance of intentions in TPB.  Training heads of households and parents to increase product
The results of the sixth hypothesis showed that consumer risk awareness: In every family, parents and heads of household are
perception towards consuming PIPW has a negative and significant responsible for buying food, among which some like vegetables,
effect on their behavior in using these products. It is believed that rice, meat, and the like may be produced with treated waste-
risk perception can affect the use of alternative water technology water. Training courses can be held to increase the knowledge of
(Mankad and Tapsuwan, 2011), and social acceptance of PIPW use parents and heads of households. In Iran, government agencies
might be related to risk perception among farmers (Mojid et al., such as health centers located in each neighborhood can hold
2010). Some studies reported that risk perception could affect these courses for urban families. In rural areas, both health care
consumer behavior (Poortvliet et al., 2018; Ross et al., 2014). In centers and the agricultural department can train villagers. Food
other words, the more consumers feel threatened by eating PIPW, security and health policies are implemented by these organi-
the less they consume PIPW. The risk perception variable refers to zations in Iran. NGOs in Iran can also play a key role in providing
people estimates of the probability of a threat and its severity education and information to the people as a complement to
largely depends on their understanding of the nature of the risk government organizations. In these courses, it is necessary to
(Azadi et al., 2019). Risk perception, as a mental structure, is related provide information on the subject of water shortage, the ne-
to whether consumers feel threatened by the food they eat or how cessity of optimal use of water, sewage treatment process, and
harmful they think it is to their health (Arbuckle et al., 2015). Risk product quality.
perception is an important factor affecting people decisions about  Strengthening the subjective norms of consumers through cy-
consuming a particular product (Mumpower et al., 2016). A nega- berspace and social networks: If cyberspace and social networks
tive and significant relationship was observed between risk are divided into two parts, government organizations in Iran
perception and behavior in the extended TPB in the present study. have little control over the content of social networks such as
The results indicated that the more people are aware and trust Instagram, Whats App, Twitter, and Telegram. Most of the
PIPW, the less they understand the risk of these products. It is content of these networks is provided by the people. The gov-
suggested that the people who run the water treatment plants ernment agencies have more access and control over internet
work with relevant organizations to improve the quality of effluent sites, as a second part. Government agencies should use internet
treatment and bring the consumer perception of risk in using PIPW sites more to change the subjective norms of PIPW consumers.
to a reasonable level. The correlation results showed that the better NGOs can also help by providing appropriate content about
people evaluate the quality of PIPW, the less they understand their PIPW on these social networks.
risks as compared to these products. These organizations can do  Improving the quality of purified wastewater by treatment plant
this by providing the consumers with the necessary knowledge and managers to reduce the risk perception of products irrigated
information about these products (Gibson and Apostolidis, 2001; with purified wastewater consumers: A large part of agricultural
Saliba et al., 2018) via social media, training courses, and public policy has been directed towards solving water shortage prob-
media. lems in Iran in recent years. As described in methods (Step 1),
It is necessary to compare the model used in this research with some of these policies are related to the use of wastewater in
other models. The health belief model, protection motivation the- agriculture. Managers spend most of the budget on water
ory, and norm activation model models are more similar to the management on projects other than purified wastewater such as
theory of planned behavior for analyzing consumer behavior. No dam construction. There is a need to spend more money on this
9
P. Ahmmadi, M. Rahimian and R.G. Movahed Journal of Cleaner Production 296 (2021) 126359

sector to monitor the quality of treated wastewater. It is behavior of consumers on the products irrigated with purified
necessary to spend more funds in this sector to have more wastewater. Given the consumer resistance to consuming these
control over the quality of treated wastewater. The results of this products, highlighting consumer understanding of the risk in this
study can be useful for enhancing managers’ awareness. area can considerably reduce the problems. The basic recommen-
 Using training courses and mass media to improve products dation of the present study is about consumer risk perception.
irrigated with purified wastewater consumer attitudes: Most Purified wastewater quality improvement strategies should be
Iranians watch television more than any other mass media. The identified in future research and made available to purified
three television channels including Health, Education, and wastewater plant staff to reduce the risks of products irrigated with
Document can help change the attitude of the people by making purified wastewater consumption. Further, government agencies
educational programs in Iran. such as the Regional Agriculture Office, as well as NGOs, can
 Enabling people to visit the purified wastewater process to educate consumers using public media, social media, food festivals,
strengthen subjective norms and improve their knowledge in and local workshops. Raising consumer awareness about this
this field: Managers of wastewater treatment centers should pay products can improve their risk perception and affect their con-
enough attention to social issues in addition to performing their sumption behavior.
technical responsibilities. The possibility of people visiting pu- It should be noted that the use of purified wastewater in Iran is
rified wastewater centers, presenting the achievements of just the beginning. Further research in various technical, economic,
treatment centers in specialized water exhibitions in the form of social, and psychological dimensions is needed to plan for the
brochures, films, and posters, preparing teasers informing about sustainable management of water resources, especially the use of
the treatment process and how the treatment plants operate can wastewater in the agricultural sector, in the best way. Research in
affect some variables such as attitude, mental beliefs., in- Iran is conducted by research centers, universities, government
tentions, and the behavior of consumers on the PIPW. executive agencies, and parliamentary research centers. These in-
stitutions should pay more attention to conducting research in this
6. Conclusion field.

The present study aimed to evaluate Iranian consumer behavior CRediT authorship contribution statement
towards consuming products irrigated with purified wastewater.
The result indicated that one-third of the participants were Parisa Ahmmadi: Validation, Investigation, Resources, Data
completely aware of the agricultural products irrigated with puri- curation. Mehdi Rahimian: Conceptualization, Methodology,
fied wastewater. In addition, 40% of the respondents trusted the Validation, Investigation, Formal analysis, Resources, Writing e
wastewater treatment system, 44% considered these products as original draft, Visualization, Supervision, Project administration,
very healthy, and 40% of the participants tended to consume these Funding acquisition. Rezvan Ghanbari Movahed: Conceptualiza-
products, while 36% of the consumers were worried about their tion, Software, Resources, Writing e review & editing.
health. Further, 41.5% rated the quality of these products at a
reasonable level, and 62.5% rated the smell of these products as Declaration of competing interest
very good. The findings indicated that consuming products irri-
gated with purified wastewater has already started and even The authors declare that they have no known competing
settled in Iran, but failed to happen completely yet. Future research financial interests or personal relationships that could have
in this field should identify mechanisms to increase the con- appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
sumption of this product. Consuming these products seem inevi-
table considering the water shortage as a severe problem in Iran. Acknowledgment
Water resource management policymakers need to allocate more
funding to the treatment of wastewater. Financial resources should This research was supported by the Lorestan University, Iran.
be spent on the construction of new wastewater treatment plants, The authors appreciate the university support for this paper.
development of existing centers in larger cities, improvement of
the quality of purified wastewater, use of up-to-date technologies
Appendix A. Supplementary data
in these centers, conducting technical principle training courses for
wastewater treatment plant staff. Part of the budget should be
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
allocated to educating consumers. As mentioned in the policy
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126359.
implication section, this kind of education can be provided through
cyberspace, websites, training courses, radio and television, and
attending exhibitions. Declaration of interest statement
The results demonstrated a positive and significant correlation
between attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, We wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest
and consumer intentions. These variables could explain 47.4% of the associated with this publication and there has been no significant
variance in consumer intentions. Further, a positive and significant financial support for this work that could have influenced its
correlation was reported between intention, perceived behavioral outcome. We confirm that the manuscript has been read and
control, and consumer behavior. Among the variables, the attitude approved by all named authors and that there are no other persons
had the greatest impact on consumer intentions. It is suggested that who satisfied the criteria for authorship but are not listed. We
further studies be conducted to examine the factors affecting further confirm that the order of authors listed in the manuscript
consumer attitudes to contribute to the process of products irri- has been approved by all of us.
gated with purified wastewater consumption in Iran.
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