Biography of Raymond Cattell

● Raymond Cattell was a famed 20th-century psychologist from England.

● Cattell first became interested in psychology through the context of the cultural impact
of World War I, which he observed as a child. He later decided to pursue a career in the
field, eventually graduating from the University of London with a degree in psychology.
● At school, Cattell also studied chemistry and physics, which informed the scientific and
mathematical approach he would take toward psychology. He later accepted various
teaching positions at universities in the United States, including Columbia and Harvard.
● Cattell then went on to establish the Laboratory of Personality Assessment and Group
Behavior at the University of Illinois.
● He later helped found the Society of Multivariate Experimental Psychology and its
corresponding journal, Multivariate Behavior Research.
● One of the key distinctions of Cattell's career was his use of multivariate statistics to
examine human behavior, rather than following the traditional research style of
measuring single variables against one another.
● Despite these major achievements, Raymond Cattell's most significant contribution to
psychology occurred after his retirement from the University of Illinois, when he—along
with his wife, Heather Birkett—developed the 16-Factor Personality Model.

Structure and Dynamics of Personality and Traits

The nature of Personality: A structure of traits - Cattell (1950) has defined “Personality is that
which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation. The goal of
psychological research in personality is thus to establish laws about what different people will
do in all kinds of social and general environmental situations …. Personality is… concerned
with all the behavior of the individual, both overt and under the skin.”
Traits - For Cattell, trait is a “mental structure”, an inference that is made from observed
behavior to account for regularity or consistency in this behavior.
Category of traits
Surface traits vs Source traits
- Surface traits represents cluster of manifest variables, which are together while source traits
are underlying variables that enter into the determination of multiple surface manifestations.
- Source traits are identified with the help of factor analysis only and permits the investigator to
estimate the factors that are basis of the surface behavior.
- According to Cattell “Source traits are more important than surface traits”.
- Surface traits are identified by the interaction of source traits and are less stable than factors.
Notes: Source trait vs. surface trait is confusing af haha. Sooo… I asked chatgpt my friend for
some insights about this.
Explanation:
Okay, imagine you have a big box of colorful building blocks. The building blocks are like your
behaviors and actions. Now, surface traits are like groups of blocks that stick together because
they are similar, like all the red blocks or all the square ones.
On the other hand, source traits are like the hidden reasons why these groups stick together.
They're like the special features that make some blocks red or square. We can't always see these
source traits directly, but we can figure them out by studying how the groups of blocks behave
together.
Dr. Cattell, who thought a lot about this, said that source traits are even more important because
they are like the main reasons why we act in certain ways. We use something called "factor
analysis" to understand these source traits. It's like trying to figure out why the blocks stick
together in those groups.
So, in simple terms, surface traits are like the obvious groups of blocks, and source traits are like
the hidden reasons that make those groups happen.

- After the factor analysis, Cattell found out 16 source traits that contribute to the underlying
nature of personality. This is identified as 16 PF (Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire) and
is used in research work of identification of personality of the person.
Constitutional vs Environmental-mold traits
- Constitutional traits derive from the biological and physiological conditions of the person.
- Environmental- mold traits are determined by the influences of physical and social
environment.

Ability, Temperament and Dynamic Traits

- Source traits can be further classified in terms of modality (through which they are expressed)

- Ability trait determine the person’s skill in pursuing a desired goal.

- Temperament traits may be concerned largely with constitutional aspects of response such as
speed, energy or emotional reactivity.
- Dynamic traits referred to the motivational element of human behavior.
Sources of data for factor analysis
- L-data are life records
- Q-data are self- rating questionnaire
- O data are objective test

The Specification Equation

- With reference to mathematical equation of personality Cattell finds that prediction of the
behavior can be identified with the help of a mathematical equation
R= f (S, P)
where:
R = Person's specific response
f = unspecified function
S = situation
P = existing personality structure
- It shows that the nature of a person’s specific response (R), meaning what he or she does or
think or verbalizes, is some unspecified function (f) of the stimulus situation (S) at a given point
in time, and of the existing personality structure (P).
- The specification equation indicates that the persons specific response to a given situation is a
function of all the combined traits relevant to that situation, each trait interacting with
situational factors that may affect it.

Dynamic Traits
- They are of three kinds: attitudes, ergs and sentiments.
- Attitude are dynamic surface traits which are specification manifestations or combinations
of underlying motives.
● Five attitude components are id, ego strength, superego, physiological component and
conflict.
- Ergs include biologically based drives.
● Cattell has talked about 10 ergs: hunger, sex, gregariousness (or it means liking to be
around and socialize with other people), parental protectiveness, curiosity, escape (fear),
pugnacity (it means having a strong and aggressive tendency or a willingness to fight or
 argue), acquisitiveness (or strong desire to acquire or accumulate things, especially
material possessions/gahaman), self - assertion and narcissistic sex.
- Sentiments includes social objects and they are acquired through learning which serve as “sub
goals on the way to the final ergic goals”.
Dynamic Lattice
- They are an interrelated pattern of subsidization.
- In general, attitudes are subsidiary to sentiments and sentiments are subsidiary to ergs
(subsidiary means less important to something so…attitude is less important than sentiment
while sentiment is less important than ergs. Also, attitude is what is shown outside or like the
response)
- These various relationships are known as dynamic lattice.
- Self seems to be the most important of one of the sentiments.
- Cattell finds that in any event sentiment focused around the self that plays a crucial role in the
integration of personality.

The following personality trait list describes some of the descriptive terms used for each of the
16 personality dimensions described by Cattell.

1. Abstractedness: Imaginative versus practical

2. Apprehension: Worried versus confident
3. Dominance: Forceful versus submissive
4. Emotional stability: Calm versus high-strung
5. Liveliness: Spontaneous versus restrained
6. Openness to change: Flexible versus attached to the familiar
7. Perfectionism: Controlled versus undisciplined
8. Privateness: Discreet versus open
9. Reasoning: Abstract versus concrete
10. Rule-consciousness: Conforming versus non-conforming
11. Self-reliance: Self-sufficient versus dependent
12. Sensitivity: Tender-hearted versus tough-minded
13. Social boldness: Uninhibited versus shy
14. Tension: Inpatient versus relaxed
15. Vigilance: Suspicious versus trusting
16. Warmth: Outgoing versus reserved

The 16PF Personality Questionnaire

● Cattell developed an assessment based on these 16 personality factors.

 ● The test is known as the 16PF Personality Questionnaire and is still frequently used
today, especially in career counseling, marital counseling, and in business for employee
testing and selection.1
● The test is composed of forced-choice questions in which the respondent must choose
one of three different alternatives.
● Personality traits are then represented by a range and the individual's score falls
somewhere on the continuum between highest and lowest extremes.
● The scores can be interpreted using a number of different systems, depending upon
why the test is being used. Some interpretive reports take a clinical approach looking at
personality, while others are more focused on topics such as career selection, teamwork
development, and leadership potential.

Research has supported the test's validity, including its use in career development and personality
assessment.4

A free version of the 16PF Questionnaire is available online through the Open-Source
Psychometrics Project. The test is for educational purposes only and should not be used as a
substitute for professional advice or medical diagnosis. Talk to a mental health provider or career
testing service to have a professional administer the test and interpret your results.

Other Personality Tests

There are also many other personality assessments available. Like the 16PF Questionnaire, they
tend to evaluate different dimensions or traits, although the specific traits included on each test
vary. Some of the most popular personality tests include:

● The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

● The HEXACO Personality Inventory
● The Revised NEO Personality Inventory
● The Eysenck Personality Inventory
● The DISC Personality Test

Uses for the 16 Factors

The 16 Personality Factors (16PF) has a variety of uses, including:5

● Career development: The assessment can provide insights that help people determine
which careers suit their talents and interests.
● Industrial and organizational settings: The questionnaire is sometimes used to evaluate
job candidates to determine if they are a good fit for particular roles.
● Personality assessment: The questionnaire can be useful for better understanding
different aspects of personality.
 ● Research: The 16 factor questionnaire is also used as a research tool when investigating
different aspects of personality and behavior.

● The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) is widely used today for career
counseling.
● In business, it is used in personnel selection, especially for choosing managers.

● It is also used in clinical diagnosis and to plan therapy by assessing anxiety, adjustment,
and behavioral problems.6

● Test Interpretation: Several reports can be generated to help interpret the test results for
different purposes, including clinical reports, career development reports, leadership
reports, and personality interpretations.
● The 16PF Questionnaire takes approximately 30 to 50 minutes to administer.

● It can be taken on a computer, but it can also be taken in pencil-and-paper form.

● It is often administered and interpreted by a trained professional but can also be self-
administered.
● Each personality factor is scored on a 10-point scale.
- A score below four is considered low, and a score above seven is considered
high. The context, interaction, and overall score also need to be considered in
addition to the scores on each factor.

It is important to remember that high doesn't correspond to "good" and low doesn't correspond
to "bad." Each scale has its own meaning, so it is important to use a scoring guide to determine
what your score indicates.

History of the 16 Factors

● Born in 1905, Cattell witnessed the advent of many 20th-century inventions, such as
electricity, telephones, cars, and airplanes. He was inspired by these innovations and
was eager to apply the scientific methods that were used to make such discoveries to the
human mind and personality.
● Personality, he believed, was not just some unknowable and untestable mystery. It was
something that could be studied and organized. Through scientific study, human
characteristics and behaviors could be predicted based on underlying personality traits.
● Cattell worked with psychologist Charles Spearman, who was known for his pioneering
work in statistics. Cattell would later use the factor analysis techniques developed by
Spearman to create his own personality taxonomy, which became the 16PF
Questionnaire.

The Big 5 Personality Traits /The Five-Factor Theory

 ● It is important to note that each of the five primary personality traits represents a range
between two extremes. For example, extraversion represents a continuum between
extreme extraversion and extreme introversion. In the real world, most people lie
somewhere in between.
● While there is a significant body of literature supporting these primary personality traits,
researchers don't always agree on the exact labels for each dimension. That said, these
five traits are usually described as follows.

1. Openness
● Openness (also referred to as openness to experience) emphasizes imagination and
insight the most out of all five personality traits.1
● People who are high in openness tend to have a broad range of interests. They are curious
about the world and other people and are eager to learn new things and enjoy new
experiences.
● People who are high in this personality trait also tend to be more adventurous
and creative. Conversely, people low in this personality trait are often much more
traditional and may struggle with abstract thinking.

High
● Very creative
● Open to trying new things
● Focused on tackling new challenges
● Happy to think about abstract concepts

Low
● Dislikes change
● Does not enjoy new things
● Resists new ideas
● Not very imaginative
● Dislikes abstract or theoretical concepts

2. Conscientiousness
● Among each of the personality traits, conscientiousness is one defined by high levels of
thoughtfulness, good impulse control, and goal-directed behaviors.1
● Highly conscientious people tend to be organized and mindful of details. They plan
ahead, think about how their behavior affects others, and are mindful of deadlines.
● Someone scoring lower in this primary personality trait is less structured and less
organized. They may procrastinate to get things done, sometimes missing deadlines
completely.
High
● Spends time preparing
● Finishes important tasks right away
● Pays attention to detail
● Enjoys having a set schedule
Low
● Dislikes structure and schedules
● Makes messes and doesn't take care of things
● Fails to return things or put them back where they belong
● Procrastinates important tasks
● Fails to complete necessary or assigned tasks

3. Extraversion
● Extraversion (or extroversion) is a personality trait characterized by excitability,
sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional
expressiveness.1
● People high in extraversion are outgoing and tend to gain energy in social situations.
Being around others helps them feel energized and excited.
● People who are low in this personality trait or introverted tend to be more reserved. They
have less energy to expend in social settings and social events can feel draining.
Introverts often require a period of solitude and quiet in order to "recharge."

High
● Enjoys being the center of attention
● Likes to start conversations
● Enjoys meeting new people
● Has a wide social circle of friends and acquaintances
● Finds it easy to make new friends
● Feels energized when around other people
● Say things before thinking about them
Low
● Prefers solitude
● Feels exhausted when having to socialize a lot
● Finds it difficult to start conversations
● Dislikes making small talk
 ● Carefully thinks things through before speaking
● Dislikes being the center of attention

4. Agreeableness
● This personality trait includes attributes such as trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and
other prosocial behaviors.1
● People who are high in agreeableness tend to be more cooperative while those low in
this personality trait tend to be more competitive and sometimes even manipulative.

High
● Has a great deal of interest in other people
● Cares about others
● Feels empathy and concern for other people
● Enjoys helping and contributing to the happiness of other people
● Assists others who are in need of help
Low
● Takes little interest in others
● Doesn't care about how other people feel
● Has little interest in other people's problems
● Insults and belittles others
● Manipulates others to get what they want

5. Neuroticism
● Neuroticism is a personality trait characterized by sadness, moodiness, and emotional
instability.1
● Individuals who are high in neuroticism tend to experience mood swings, anxiety,
irritability, and sadness.
● Those low in this personality trait tend to be more stable and emotionally resilient.

High
● Experiences a lot of stress
● Worries about many different things
● Gets upset easily
● Experiences dramatic shifts in mood
● Feels anxious
● Struggles to bounce back after stressful events
Low
● Emotionally stable
● Deals well with stress
● Rarely feels sad or depressed
● Doesn't worry much
● Is very relaxed

How to Use the Big 5 Personality Traits (the pic does not work below 👇)

Where you fall on the continuum for each of these five primary traits can be used to help identify
whether you are more or less likely to have other more secondary personality traits. These other
traits are often split into two categories: positive personality traits and negative personality traits.

Positive Personality Traits

Positive personality traits are traits that can be beneficial to have. These traits may help you be
a better person or make it easier to cope with challenges you may face in life. Personality traits
that are considered positive include:

● Adaptable
● Ambitious
● Considerate
● Cooperative
 ● Friendly
● Gracious
● Humble
● Insightful
● Objective
● Optimistic
● Respectful
● Steady
● Thorough
● Well-rounded

Negative Personality Traits

Negative personality traits that may be more harmful than helpful. These are traits that may
hold you back in your life or hurt your relationships with others. (They're also good traits to
focus on for personal growth.) Personality traits that fall in the negative category include:

● Aggressive
● Arrogant
● Cold
● Deceptive
● Egotistical
● Guarded
● Intolerant
● Judgmental
● Moody
● Neglectful
● Pompous
● Selfish
● Unreliable
● Withdrawn

For example, if you score high in openness, you are more likely to have the positive personality
trait of creativity. If you score low in openness, you may be more likely to have the negative
personality trait of being unimaginative.
Universality of Primary Personality Traits/Evolution of Five Factor Theory

● McCrae and his colleagues found that the Big 5 personality traits are remarkably
universal. One study that looked at people from more than 50 different cultures found
that the five dimensions could be accurately used to describe personality.
● Based on this research, many psychologists now believe that the five personality
dimensions are not only universal but that they also have biological origins.
● Psychologist David Buss has proposed an evolutionary explanation for these five core
personality traits, suggesting that they represent the most important qualities that shape
our social landscape.

Factors Influencing Personality Traits

● Research suggests that both biological and environmental influences play a role in
shaping our personalities. Twin studies suggest that both nature and nurture play a role
in the development of each of the five personality traits.2
● One study of the genetic and environmental underpinnings of the five traits looked at 123
pairs of identical twins and 127 pairs of fraternal twins. The findings suggested that the
heritability of each personality trait was 53% for extraversion, 41% for agreeableness,
44% for conscientiousness, 41% for neuroticism, and 61% for openness.
● Longitudinal studies also suggest that these big five personality traits tend to be
relatively stable over the course of adulthood. One four-year study of working-age adults
found that personality changed little as a result of adverse life events.
● Studies show that maturation may have an impact on the five personality traits. As
people age, they tend to become less extraverted, less neurotic, and less open to an
experience. Agreeableness and conscientiousness, on the other hand, tend to increase as
people grow older.