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KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY MAIN CAMPUS KAMPALA

SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES

PHYSICS PRACTICAL BOOK

OUNYESIGA LIVING

Telephone Contact(s): 0771482981/0706412575

Email address: [email protected]

Physics practical
Introduction

Physics practical book is a designed module for students specializing in physics from
advanced level to the university. This book is designed to give students skills on
taking systematic measurement, data recording, Data processing, Graphical
interpretation and presentation, analysis of precision and accuracy, and the make
conclusions. You are welcome to one of the interesting book that will give you the
necessary skills.

Recommended group

This book is best for high school students, undergraduate students and students in
technical institutions.

Book Aim

This book offers experience in experimentation and observation for students of the
sciences and others. In a series of subject units, students learn or review the
physical principles underlying the phenomena to be observed and the basis for the
measurement techniques employed. In addition to systematic measurement
procedures and data recording, strong emphasis is placed on processing of the data,
preparation and interpretation of graphical presentations, and analysis of precision
and accuracy, including determination and interpretation of best value, measures of
error and uncertainty, linear best fit to data, and identification of systematic and
random errors. Preparation of high-quality experiment reports is also emphasized.
Manuel Objectives
By the end of the manuel students should be able to:

 Acquire skills for reporting experimental findings.

 Explore and test physical concepts.
 Carry out experiments in mechanics and properties of matter.
 Manipulate equipment with grace and use it to solve practical problems,

Physics practical
  Keep complete records, including the display of data in tabular and graphical
form,
 Analyze data efficiently and accurately, with and without the use of a
computer,
 Estimate uncertainties in experimental results.

Working through this course

 In order to have a thorough understanding of the physics practical, you will

need to practice all the practical exercise in this module
 This book is designed to be cover approximately within one year and it will
require your devoted attention. You should practice all the Experiments,
make reports on each experiment in this book.

References and Additional Reading Materials

 Bernard C.H. and C.D. Epp. (1995). Laboratory Experiments in College

Physics". John Wiley and Sons: Inc., New York.
 Coombs C.F. (1972). Basic Electronic Instrument Handbook. McGraw-Hill
Book Co.
KIU Experimental Physics Manual (2004).
 Melissinos A.C. (1966). Experiments in Modern Physics. Academic Press:
New York.
 Shamos M.H. (1959). Great Experiments in Physics. Holt, Rinehart and
Winston Inc.
 Squires G.L. (1985). Practical Physics. Cambridge University Press:
Cambridge.
 Wolf S.E. and R.F.M. Smith (1990). Students Reference Manual for Electronic
Instrumentation Laboratories. PHI.

Physics practical
Assessment

There is only assessment of this course and its only marked practical
exercise/experiment performed in the laboratory. Therefore, you are expected to do
all the practical exercise in this manual.

Laboratory Regulations
1. You should arrive punctually.
2. Mobiles must be switched off while in the laboratory
3. Experiments will be performed in groups. Stay with the same person
throughout the time you are studying, otherwise problem will arise in
allocating you experiments.
4. You are required to record your observations in a hardback laboratory
Manuel provided by your tutor. Each student will maintain his/her laboratory
manual. You must get at least one observation of each kind checked and
signed by your instructor.
5. You must complete all experimental exercise during the five hours session.
Every observation made must be recorded directly on the laboratory
notebook. No rough record is allowed.
6. You are required to submit the complete report in your next laboratory
session
Unit 1: Measurement & Instruments

Introduction

This section of the manual describes the basic measurements and allied
instruments that you will encounter in the laboratory.

Learning Outcomes of Study

Upon completion of this study unit, you should be able to

1. Define Physical Measurements

2. State and explain the three basic instruments for the measurement of length
3. State the Accuracy of metre rule, vernier callipers, micrometer screw gauge
4. State the basic instrument for measuring time

Physics practical
Physical Measurements

Physics is concerned with measurement of physical quantities and classifying them

into groups according to their nature. To measure is to find the value of a physical
quantity using a scientific instrument with a standard scale.

In the grouping of physical measurements, the quantities to be measured are

length, mass, angle and time

Length
There are three basic instruments for the measurement of length,

(i) the meter ruler

(ii) the micrometer screw gauge
(iii) the vernier calipers. The table below details the

Accuracy

The table below details the range and accuracy of these three instruments

INSTRUMENT Range UNIT ACCURACY

(SYMBOL)
Meter rule 0- Centimeters(cm) 1decimal
100cm place(1mm)
Venire calipers 0- Centimeters 2 decimal places
150mm (cm) (0.02)
Micrometer 0-25mm Millimeters(mm) 2 decimal places
screw gauge (0.01)

Clearly, there is a wide variation in the range of the instruments and the first lesson
is that the choice of instrument is determined by the length that is to be measured.
If the length is 50cm, then it clearly should be the Meter Ruler. The second lesson
concerns the accuracy. In principle, you can measure a length of 2cm with all three
instruments but the accuracy of your measurement will vary from 1mm to 0.01mm.
The choice, then, is also determined by the accuracy required. The accuracy of an

Physics practical
instrument depends on its construction & operation and this is now described for each
instrument

Meter ruler:

The principle of the metre ruler is very simple. A known length (1 metre) is divided
into 100-unit lengths of 1cm. and these are further subdivided into 10-unit lengths
of 1mm. The accuracy of the instrument is the smallest division, namely 1mm.
Operation: Place one end of the ruler (or an appropriate ‘zero’) at one end of the
length to be measured and read off the nearest value at the other end of the length
to be measured.

To measure the length of a pencil using a metre rule, place metre rule with its
marking close to the object. Let PQ be a pencil. The end P of the pencil coincides with
the zero mark on the ruler. The end Q of the pencil is read by keeping the eye at the
position ‘B’ vertically above the end Q. So, the length of pencil is 4.3 cm.

Micrometer screw gauge:

The principle of the micrometer is the screw thread. The pitch of the screw is 0.5mm.
That is one complete rotation of the screw advances or retracts the screw by 0.5mm.
Underneath the rotating barrel of the gauge is a ruler with 0.5mm divisions (actually
two sets of 1mm divisions offset by 0.5mm). The rotating barrel is itself subdivided
into 50 units, such that rotation of the barrel through one-unit advances or retracts
the screw by 0.5/50 = 0.01mm; the accuracy of the instrument is therefore 0.01mm

Physics practical
Operation: Place the object between the fixed and moving end faces and rotate the
barrel until the object is in contact with both end faces. Always rotate using the small
slip knob at the end of the barrel. This will ensure contact without damage to the
object or the micrometer. The measured length is the reading on the ruler to the
nearest full 0.5mm unit plus the portion of this unit shown on the rotating barrel.
Always check the visible zero setting and all for any offset from zero.

Example Sleeve scale/Main scale reading is 22.0mm

Thimble scale reading is 0.33mm
The reading is 22.33mm

1.3.3 Vernier calipers:

The principle of the Vernier calipers is two-fold. First, the sliding piece allows the
jaws to contact the sides of the object to be measured, in much the same way as the
micrometer. The distance moved by the sliding jaw is then read off the fixed ruler on
the main body of the instrument. The accuracy of that ruler as such, however, is only
1mm. The much-improved accuracy is provided by the ’Vernier’ scale. This scale is
marked on the sliding jaw; it has 10 divisions, each subdivided into 5, ie a total of 50
subdivisions. These subdivisions look like 1mm in length. But if you compare the fixed
and Vernier scales, you will see that the 50 subdivisions on the Vernier scale
correspond to 49 subdivisions (each of 1mm) on the fixed scale! This is not a mistake
but rather it is deliberately designed so that a subdivision on the Vernier scale is
smaller than that on the fixed scale by 1/50 = 0.02mm; this is the accuracy of the
instrument.

Physics practical
How a reading with this accuracy is achieved in practice is detailed below:
Operation: With no object between the jaws, the zeros of the Vernier and fixed scales
are coincident. There is an increasing mismatch between the marks of these two
scales until at the end of the Vernier scale there is again coincidence between the end
mark on the Vernier and the 49mm mark on the fixed scale. Clearly, to obtain
coincidence between the first subdivisions of the Vernier and of the fixed scales it
would be necessary to move the sliding jaw by the deficit of 0.02mm; coincidence
between the second subdivisions would require 2 x 0.02 = 0.04mm, and so on. A total
of 50 x 0.02 = 1mm is required to achieve coincidence between the end mark of the
Vernier scale and the 50mm mark of the fixed scale. Conversely, a measurement of
the length of an object in contact with the jaws is the reading to the nearest full mm
on the fixed scale at the Vernier zero PLUS the reading (in units of 0.02mm) on the
Vernier scale where there I coincidence between the vernier and fixed scales.

Example I Main scale reading 3.9cm

Vernier scale reading 0.02cm
Final reading 3.92cm

Example II Main scale is 2.40cm

Vernier scale is 0.04cm
Final reading is 2.44cm

Physics practical
 Example III Main scale is 22cm
Vernier scale is 0.6cm
Final reading is 22.6cm

Time
The stop-clock has a start/stop/reset push-button device with a digital display. In
principle, the accuracy is the smallest digit, i.e. 0.01s, but the response time of the
button is of the order of 0.1s and that of the user may be significantly longer, say, of
the order of 1s. Timing accuracy is further discussed later in the section Accuracy &
Uncertainty.

Unit 2: Writing down a practical answer

Introduction
Under this unit practical steps of writing down a practical answer will be discussed
and the steps that will be discussed include the following , Aim or tittle of the
experiment, Recording single measurement, The main table of results, The graph
works, Calculations , Drawing Conclusions, Explain significant digits and decimal
digits, Introduction to Error Analysis

Learning outcomes of study

Upon completion of this study unit, you should be able to

1. State the Aim or tittle of the experiment

2. Systematically Record single measurement
3. Draw the main table of results
4. Plot the graph of the recorded results
5. Carry Calculations
6. Explain significant digits and decimal digits
7. Explain the occurrence of Error in practical

Physics practical
8. Analyzing scientific investigation

Writing down a practical answer

The following should be considered when writing practical answer
1. Aim or tittle of the experiment
2. Recording single measurement
3. The main table of results
4. The graph works
5. Calculations
6. Drawing Conclusions
Aim or tittle of the experiment
 This is indicated on the beginning of every practical question
 It should not be written down on the answer sheet but it is advisable to read
and understand it in order to know the purpose of the questions
Recording the single measurement
If the value of anon variable quantity is required, measure the quantity at least three
times and calculate the average but the degree of accuracy of the instrument should
be maintained
Main table of results
 A table should be planed and drawn before touching the apparatus.
 A table of results should be a column table i.e. it must be drawn in columns not
rows
 The main table includes only variable observations. First block is for the give
variables in the procedure sheet, followed by measured variables and lastly
derived quantities
 Each column in the main table should be correctly labeled, with correct unit
and quantity. The quantities should be separated from their units with the use
of brackets () eg. m(kg), T(S)
 All columns in the table should appear side by side in a single column from left
to right

Physics practical
  In case of derived quantities is got from other quantities. These quantities
𝑙2
should be tabulated in each column first e.g. if the quantity is needed then
𝑦2

first tabulate l2 and y2

 A table should be closed on all sides that is at the top and bottom with
individual columns demarcated using bold vertical lines not horizontal bold
lines
 The table should be neat and organized with no crosses
Graph work
 The graph must have title clearly written at the top of the graph paper e.g A
graph of T2 against l.
Axes
1. The axes must be drawn perpendicular to each other with an arrow on each
axis to show the direction in which the values are increasing,
2. the axes must be Cleary and correctly labeled with the quantity and correct
unit in blackest,
3. the axes should not be drawn using broken lines
Intercepts.
1. The graph may not necessarily intersect at (0,0) unless if the intercept
on y-axis or x-axis is required. If the intercept on y-axis is required, this
implies values on x-axis must start from zero
2. If the intercept on x-axis is required, this implies that values on y-axis
must start from zero.
Scale
1. You should choose a suitable scale
2. The scale used Should cover more than 50% of the graph paper on both axes
3. The scale should be uniform
4. It should be convenient and easy to follow
5. The only convenient scales are 1, 2 and 5 and other generate scales from these
digits, e.g.

Physics practical
 100 200 500
10 20 50
1 2 5
0.1 0.2 0.5
0.01 0.02 0.05
0.001 0.002 0.005
etc
Scales involving digits 3, 6, 7,8 and 9 are not convenient and should be avoided
Plotting graphs

A graph is useful way of displaying the results of an experiment in which one

parameter (call it x) is varied in well-defined steps and another parameter (call it y)
is measured in response. In this general case each (x, y) pair of values is represented
by a point which is a distance x along the horizontal axis and a distance y along the
vertical axis.

The experimental points should be clearly and neatly marked in crosses (x) or plus
(+) signs, or cross with circled dots with a pencil. Mere dots are not required,
the circle or cross should cover less than four squares of the graph
Graph paper
The intersection of the x, or ʘ Is the correct point plotted. If only the slope is required
and not the intercept, it is very important to start the graph from the origin (0, 0),
especially where it is found inconvenient to do so. Starting an appropriate point will
avoid crowding of points in one corner
If the point is at the intersection of lines, then the circle must cut the mid-points of
the perpendiculars from it

Physics practical
 If the point is in the middle of the square, then the enclosing circle should not
go beyond the boundaries.
 If the point is on the vertical, enclosing circle must be between the boundaries
of the upper and lower and should not touch lines before and after the point.
 If the point is on the horizontal, the enclosing circle must be between the
boundaries of the vertical lines before and after the point and should not touch
the upper and lower lines.
 The line of best fit should pass through at least 3 points leaving almost equal
number of points on either side.
 The triangle of slope must enclose all plotted points.
 Units of the slope must come from the graph drawn.

NB: Statement of methods of doing the experiment, source of errors and

precautions taken should be taken seriously.
Lines of best fit.
If the graph is a straight line, the best in most elementary work is drawn according
to one’s judgment. That is, one draws a line which passes through as many points
as possible, while those not on it are uniformly distributed on either side.
- Similarly, the best curve must be smooth and needs not to pass through all
points.
Caution: Avoid waves or sharp points on curves.

Physics practical
Slope:
- Use large right-angled triangle covering al points.
- Show clearly how you obtained the answer for the slope.
- Derive the units for the slope and indicate them on your answer sheet.
Calculations:
- Detailed calculations should not be done on the sheet provided but steps
leading to your answer and the formulae used must be clearly presented.
- All results must be in SI Units at this stage.
- After calculating the final result, should follow and finally show the relevant
comments.
Error bars on graphs

Whenever you enter data as a data point on a graph, the uncertainty in one or other
of the x and y values can be indicated by error bars, which show the range of values
for that parameter at each data point. This is helpful in judging by eye whether the
data is consistent with some theory, or whether some particular measurement
should be repeated. This applies to graphs drawn by hand or by computer. In
practice, it may be simplified in many cases. For example, if the relative uncertainty
in x is much less than that in y– or vice-versa – it is not worth representing the
smaller error bar on the graph or it might be that the uncertainty is too small to be
visible, in that case there should be a statement on the graph to that effect.
Consider the following modified data set for the resistance versus the temperature
of a fixed length of the wire:

T(0C) 𝑅(𝛺)
100 ± 1 34 ± 1
200 ± 1 37 ± 1
300 ± 1 38 ± 1
400 ± 1 41 ± 1
When the bare data is graphed as shown in Fig (a) it is not possible to link the points
with a straight line. However, when error bars are included for the R values (the error
in T is much smaller) then it is possible to put a straight line through the error bars,

Physics practical
as shown in Fig (b). These data now verify the linear relation. The remaining question
is which straight line? It is clear that there is a smaller but finite range of lines of
different slope which pass through the error bars. This is important if the slope is
used to derive some parameter, e. g. a value of g in the pendulum experiment. The
slope then becomes 𝑚 ± ∆𝑚. Again, this is another example of the error associated
with an average, as discussed above. Again too, it is difficult to be exact about this.

Figure above shows. Resistance (R) vs Temperature (T) (a) without error bars and
(b) with error bars

Common Graphs from Experiments

Physics practical
A comment of significant digits

If the quantities are either divided or multiplied to get the derived quantity. write
down the final answer by taking the lowest number of significant figures of the
variable concerned e.g
1) 2.15(3sf)x3.408(4sf) = 7.33(3sf)
2.1(2sf)
2) = 0.67(2sf)
3.14(3sf)

Decimal Places
We use decimal places when adding or subtracting the variables to obtain the derived
quantity. for the final answer we take number of decimal places of the variable with
the least number of decimal places e.g
1) 3.23(2dp) 1.687(3dp) = 1.54(2dp)
2) 4.46(2dp) + 1.214(3dp) = 5.67(2dp)
Note that the logarithms, sines and cosines of angles do not have units

Introduction to Error Analysis

Physics practical
Measurement of physical quantities is always subjected to some degree of
uncertainty which is usually referred to as experimental error. The term error
excludes mistakes which can be ascribed to the individual. Mistakes can arise
through

1. Misreading scales
2. Faulty arithmetic
3. Trying to apply a theory where it does not hold
4. Faultily transcription

How errors arise

Experimental errors are of two types:

1. Systematic error
2. Random errors

A Systematic error causes a random set of measurements to be spread out about

a value other than a true value. This effect can result from

(i) An instrument having a zero error

(ii) An instrument becoming incorrectly calibrated
(iii) The observer persistently carrying out a mistaken action (eg in starting
and ending the clock)
(iv) Choosing a wrong and insufficient experimental method
(v) Faults in the actual calculations and rounding off

Random error is the one that has equal chance of being positive or negative. It can
be caused by

(i) Lack of perfection in the observer

(ii) The variations of conditions
(iii) A particular measurement not being reproducible

Physics practical
The Random error is revealed by repeated observations of a particular quantity.
The general tendency is to employ statistical method

Some useful terms

There are two ways to express the uncertainty of a measurement. One way is to
express the uncertainty in terms of accuracy.

Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measurement to be accepted or true value for

a physical quantity. It is expressed in terms of absolute error, fractional error,
Percentage error and error of tolerance.

Absolute error, e, is equal to the actual difference between the true value 𝑿𝑻 and
the corresponding measurement 𝑿𝑴 , i.e., 𝒆 = |𝑿𝑻 − 𝑿𝑴 |
𝒆 𝒆
Fractional error 𝒇 = 𝑿 , Percentage error 𝒑 = 𝑿 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎% , Usually 𝒇 < 𝟏 and
𝑻 𝑻

𝒑 < 𝟏𝟎𝟎

The error of tolerance, Ƞ, is the region with in which the true value can be found. If
𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 and 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏 denote the maximum and minimum error limits, then. (𝑿𝑴 − 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏 ) ≤
𝑿𝑻 ≤ (𝑿𝑴 + 𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 )

Another way to express the uncertainty of a measurement is in terms of precision.

Precision is agreement among several measurements that have been made in the
same way. It tells how reproducible the measurements are. It is expressed in terms
of absolute deviation, relative deviation, percentage deviation and standard
deviation.
Absolute deviation, D, is the difference between a single measured value and the
average of measurements made in the same way.

The absolute mean deviation, 𝑫

̅ , is a measure of precision of the experiment in
reporting

The result is quoted as 𝑿

̅𝑴 ± 𝑫
̅

Physics practical
 𝑫 𝑫
Fractional deviation 𝒇 = 𝑿 , Percentage deviation 𝑷 = 𝑿 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑴 𝑴

̅ ̅
̅ 𝑴 ± 𝑫 or 𝑿
The precision of the experiment can be quoted as 𝑿 ̅ 𝑴 ± ( 𝑫 ) 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎% the
𝑿̅ ̅
𝑿 𝑴 𝑴
precision of your laboratory experiment will be governed by the instruments at your
disposal.
An accurate experiment is the one for which the systematic error is relatively small.
A precise experiment has a small random error
Maximum and probable error in compound quantities
(i) Sum and difference
𝟐
If 𝑺 = 𝑨 + 𝑩 , Then ∆𝑺𝑴 = ∆𝑨 + ∆𝑩 and (∆𝑺𝒑 ) = (∆𝑨)𝟐 +(∆𝑩)𝟐
𝟐
If 𝑫 = 𝑨 − 𝑩, Then ∆𝑫𝑴 = ∆𝑨 + ∆𝑩 , (∆𝑫𝒑 ) = (∆𝑨)𝟐 +(∆𝑩)𝟐

Where ∆𝑺𝑴 , ∆𝑫𝑴 ,and ∆𝑺𝒑, ∆𝑫𝒑 refers to the maximum absolute errors in the sum,
difference and to probable errors in the sum, difference, respectively
(ii) Product and quotient

∆𝑷𝑴 ∆𝑨 ∆𝑩 ∆𝑷𝑷 𝟐 ∆𝑨 𝟐 ∆𝑩 𝟐
If 𝑷 = 𝑨𝑩 , Then = + and ( ) = (𝑨) +(𝑩)
𝑷 𝑨 𝑩 𝑷

∆𝑨 ∆𝑩
= £𝟐 𝑨 +£𝟐 𝑩 where £𝑨 = and £𝑩 =
𝑨 𝑩

∆𝑨 ∆𝑩
= 𝑷𝟐 𝑨 + 𝑷𝟐 𝑩 , 𝑷𝑨 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑷𝑩 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑨 𝑩

𝑨 ∆𝑸𝑴 ∆𝑨 ∆𝑩 ∆𝑸𝑷 𝟐 ∆𝑨 𝟐 ∆𝑩 𝟐
If 𝑸 = 𝑩 then = + ,( ) = (𝑨) +(𝑩)
𝑸 𝑨 𝑩 𝑸

∆𝑨 ∆𝑩 ∆𝑨 ∆𝑩
= £𝟐 𝑨 +£𝟐 𝑩 £𝑨 = and £𝑩 = , ⇒ 𝑷𝟐 𝑨 + 𝑷𝟐 𝑩 , 𝑷𝑨 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑷𝑩 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑨 𝑩 𝑨 𝑩

Analyzing scientific investigation

Scientific Investigations

1. Studies in physics involve precise and complete observations, and accurate

measurements.
2. A physicist makes observations of natural phenomena and attempts to put
forth theories to explain the phenomena

Physics practical
3. The theories postulated have to be verified by experiments. Based on the
experimental results and his observations, the physicist will draw
conclusions as to whether the theory can be accepted or rejected.
4. The steps in a scientific investigation are shown in Table below
5. The following is an example of a systematic scientific investigation on the
period of oscillation of a pendulum, conducted by a student

Physics practical
N
Step Explanation
o
1 • Making observations and gathering all available
Making information about the object or phenomenon to be
observation studied.
s • Observations are made using the senses of sight,
hearing, touch, taste, and smell.
2 Identifying
• After all the information has been gathered, a suitable
a suitable
question is suggested for a scientific investigation.
question
3 • Drawing inferences about the object or phenomenon
studied.
Drawing
• An inference is an early conclusion that you draw
inferences
from an observation or event using information that you
already have on it.
4 • Variables are factors or physical quantities which
change in the course of a scientific investigation.
• Identifying the manipulated variables, responding
variables, and fixed (or constant) variables.
• Manipulated variables are the physical quantities
Identifying which you control and change (i.e. manipulate) for the
and purpose of investigating the results of an experiment.
controlling • Responding variables are the physical quantities
variables whose values change as a result of the changes made to
the manipulated variables.
• Fixed or constant variables are physical quantities
which are kept
constant throughout the experiment.

5 • A hypothesis is a general statement that is assumed

to be true regarding the relationship between the
Formulatin
manipulated variable and the responding variable in
ga
the phenomenon under investigation.
hypothesis
• A hypothesis must be tested to verify its validity. The
test is in the form of experiments.
6 Designing
and
•Experiments must be planned to include the selection
conducting
of apparatus/materials and working procedures.
experiment
s
7 Tabulating • Experimental data are collected and tabulated in a
data suitable form.

Physics practical
8 • Analysis of data is carried out by plotting a graph,
Analyzing
followed by the interpretation of the graph and the
data
drawing of conclusions.
9 Writing a
• A complete report is written for the investigation
report

Unit 3: Experiments

Introduction
Under this units we shall look as some worked experiments and then after we carry
out the experiments in the physics laboratory using the procedure sheets provided
by the tutor.
Learning Outcomes of Unit 3

Upon completion of this study unit, you should be able to

1. State the aim of the experiment

2. Read and interpret the procedures for each experiment
3. Observe and record the result in a suitable table from the measuring
instrument
4. Draw the graph for the recorded values and make use full conclusions
based on the graph plotted

Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 1

Linear measurements

Aim

To make measurements with a metre rule, vernier calipers and micrometer screw
gauge

Apparatus

Wooden boad, Metre rule, Vernier callipers, micrometer screw gauge, Copper
wire(SWG30,10.2cmlong), polythene balls, and a capillary tube.

The Metre rule

5. What is the accuracy (error) to which you can take readings on the
metre rule? ±_______𝒄𝒎
6. Use the metre rule to measure the length and width of the wooden
board provided.
Length _______ ± ________𝒄𝒎
width _______ ± ________𝒄𝒎
7. Determine the area and perimeter of the wooden board

Area _______ ± ________𝒄𝒎𝟐

Perimeter _______ ± ________𝒄𝒎

Show all your calculations

Physics practical
 The vernier callipers

1. (i) What is the accuracy (error) to which you can take readings on the
vernier callipers ±_______𝒄𝒎
(ii) Record the zero error on the vernier callipers ±________𝒄𝒎
Note that in all your readings you have to correct for these zero errors
2. (i) Use the vernier callipers to measure the diametr of the polythene balls
provided
Do it three times in different positions. I.e.
1st reading _______ ± ________𝒄𝒎
2nd reading _______ ± ________𝒄𝒎
3rd reading _______ ± ________𝒄𝒎
Total _______ ± ________𝒄𝒎
Average diameter _______ ± ________𝒄𝒎
Average radius _______ ± ________𝒄𝒎
(ii). Calculate the volume of the ball including the uncertainty

The micrometer screw gauge

1. What is the accuracy (error) to which you can take the readings on the
micrometer screw gauge?± _________𝒄𝒎
2. What is the zero error on your micrometer screw gauge ±_______𝒎𝒎

Copper wire

1. You are provided with copper wire, determine the thickness of this wire using
a micrometer screw gauge. Do it three times in different places, i.e.
1st reading _______ ± ________𝒄𝒎
2nd reading _______ ± ________𝒄𝒎
3rd reading _______ ± ________𝒄𝒎
Total _______ ± ________𝒄𝒎
Average _______ ± ________𝒄𝒎
2. (i) use the metre rule to determine the length of the wire _______ ± ________𝒄𝒎

Physics practical
 (ii). Calculate the volume of this wire including the uncertainty

The traveling microscope

You are provided with travelling microscope

Examine the main scale and the vernier scale of the travelling microscope

Determine the diameter of the bore of the capillary tube

______________________________________________________________________________

Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 2

Analyzing scientific investigation

Inference

The period of oscillation of a pendulum depends on its length.

Hypothesis

The longer the length of the pendulum, the longer its period of oscillation.

Aim

To investigate the relationship between the period of oscillation of a pendulum and

the length of the pendulum.

Variable

(a) Manipulated: length of pendulum

(b) Responding: period of oscillation, T
(c) Fixed: mass of pendulum bob, m and amplitude of oscillation, θ

Apparatus /Materials

Retort stand with clamp, metre rule, stopwatch, protractor, 100 cm thread and two
small pieces of plywood.

Procedure

1. A simple pendulum is prepared.

2. The apparatus is arranged as shown in Figure below
3. The thread is adjusted so that the length, , from the centre of the bob to the
point of suspension is 20.0 cm.

Physics practical
4. The bob is displaced to the side and allowed to oscillate at a small angle of
oscillation.
5. The time 𝑡1 for 20 oscillations is measured with a stopwatch.
6. The time 𝑡2 for another 20 oscillations is measured. The mean value 𝑡20 is
calculated.
𝑡20
7. The period of oscillation, 𝑇 = is calculated
20

8. The process is repeated for = 30.0 cm, 40.0 cm, 50.0 cm and 60.0 cm.
9. recorded the results of (𝑙, 𝑡1 , 𝑡2 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑡20 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇) .
10. A graph of period, T against length l is plotted

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 3

Relationship between the tensile force on a spring and its extension

Table below shows the results of an experiment to investigate the relationship

between the tensile force on a spring and its extension

Spring extension
Mass of weight Tensile force (cm)
(g) (N)
1 2 Average
200.0 2.0 0.5 0.6 0.55
400.0 4.0 1.1 0.9 1
600.0 6.0 1.6 1.5 1.55
800.0 8.0 2.0 1.9 1.95
1000.0 10.0 2.5 2.5 2.5
(a) State the manipulated and responding variables in this experiment.

(b) What instrument was used to measure the extension of the spring? What is its
accuracy?

(a) What is the objective of taking two readings of the spring extension?
(b) Are the data in each column written in the correct way?

Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 4

Determination of acceleration due to gravity

Spin carried out experiment and she plotted a graph of 𝑻𝟐 against l as shown in the
figure below. T is the period of oscillation and l is the length of the pendulum

(a) State the relationship between T 2 and l.

(b) From the graph, find
(i) the value of T, the period of oscillation when l is 60 cm, and
(ii) The length of the pendulum, 9, when T is 1.3 s. Show on the graph how you
determine the two values.
40
(c) The acceleration due to gravity, g is given by the formula below 𝑔 = where m
𝑚

is the gradient of the graph T 2 against l.

(i) Calculate the gradient, m. Show how you determine m
40
(ii) Using the formula 𝑔 = calculate the acceleration due to gravity g
𝑚

(d) State one precaution that should be taken during this experiment

Physics practical
 EXPERIMENTAL 5.

Relationship between the pressure and temperature of a gas

The figure below shows the result of an experiment to investigate the relationship
between the pressure and temperature of a gas. The gas pressure is measured for
temperature variations from 30 °C to 200 °C

(a) What is the gas pressure at temperatures of 0 °C and 250 °C?

(b) What is the temperature when the gas pressure is zero?

Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 6.

Taylor arranges two similar springs with different loads. He oscillates both loads
and notices that the heavy load makes one complete oscillation after the light one
has completed two oscillations

Based on the above information, state

(a) one suitable inference,

(b) one appropriate hypothesis that could be investigated,
(c) the aim of the experiment to be carried out,
(d) the variables in the experiment,
(e) the way you would tabulate your data,
(f) the expected graph, and your conclusion

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 7

Relationship between the temperature of water and its mass when heated

A student carried out an experiment to investigate the relationship between the

temperatures of water when heated, with its mass, m. He used the same immersion
heater for different masses with the same initial temperature θ0. However, the time
of heating was the same for all the masses. The final temperature θ of the water after
being heated are recorded

1
The figure below shows a graph of 𝜃 against 𝑚 obtained

(a) Determine the slope of the graph

(b) Determine the mass when the temperature 32.50C

Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 8

Inference and Hypothesis

The figure below shows two wooden tops P and Q, with P partly coated with tin. P
and Q are of the same size and are given the same initial rotational velocity

Based on the above information:

(a) State one suitable inference.
(b) State one suitable hypothesis.
Comments
You will notice from the figures:
(i) Top P is partly coated with tin, and thus possesses more mass, and
(ii) Top P still rotates while top Q has stopped.

Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 9

Mass Spring System

A spring (of mass 50 g) is suspended vertically. It is pulled slightly downward and
time for 20 free oscillations is observed. Repeat the observations for three times.
Calculate the average time period of this spring system. Now, using the equation,
given below, calculate the force constant k of the spring, to two decimal places

𝑚
𝑚0+ ( 3𝑠 )
𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 1
𝑘

where 𝑚0 is mass of weight hanged and 𝑚0 is the mass of the spring.

Table of results

S# 𝑻𝟐𝟎 (𝒔) Mean 𝑻𝟐𝟎 (𝒔) 𝑻(𝒔) 𝑲(𝑵⁄𝒎)

1
2
3
Table above is used to calculate the spring constant of a spring

From the Eq. (1) the error in calculating k is obtained as follows. If m0 = 0, then
4𝜋 2 𝑚𝑠
squaring Eq. (1) and re-arranging the terms we have, 𝑘 = ( 𝑇2 )
3

4𝜋 2
Introducing log both sides we obtain 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑘 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑚𝑠 − 2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑇
3

∆𝑘 ∆𝑚𝑠 ∆𝑇
Taking derivative on both sides we obtain = +2
𝑘 𝑚𝑠 𝑇

where we have changed the sign of in front of ∆T to calculate the maximum error

Physics practical
 EXPERIMENTAL 10

Finding τ and initial voltage across capacitor

You are given below the voltage decay as function of time across a capacitor in a RC
circuit.

1. Obtain the value of characteristic decay time constant by plotting the data in
a semi–logarithmic paper.
2. Obtain the initial value of the voltage across the capacitor.

Voltage
Time (s)
(V)
6.2 5.53
8.7 4.89
10.0 4.58
12.5 4.04
16.3 3.35
18.4 3.05
22.5 2.45
25.0 2.16
28.5 1.85
32.9 1.44
38.8 1.09
42.0 0.92
47.8 0.70
52.0 0.56
55.4 0.47
62.5 0.33
67.2 0.26
Table showing Data of voltage decay in a capacitor as a function of time.

The equation governing the relation between voltage and time for the capacitor is as
given below.

𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑣0 𝑒 −𝜏

𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑣 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑣0 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝜏

𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑣 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑣0 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
𝜏

Physics practical
Plot a graph of 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑣 against t and also calculate the value of 𝜏

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENTAL 11

Resonant Rings
In an experiment, paper rings of different diameter are mounted on a vibrating
table to study their resonant frequencies. Depending on the diameter, the rings
show resonant vibration for different frequencies of the vibrating table. The data
from this experiment is given in Table below Use the formula 𝐹 = 𝐶𝐷𝑛

Diameter of Resonant
the ring(cm) frequency (Hz)
3.4 63.48
4.6 30.77
6.4 13.38
8.7 6.24
10.9 3.58
13.2 2.19

8. Plot resonant frequency versus diameter of the ring in a log-log graph

to obtain the mathematical relationship between the two variables.
9. From your graph predict the resonant frequency for a ring of diameter
16 cm.

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 12

Compound pendulum

Aims

To determine

(i) The radius of gyration of a plate

(ii) The acceleration due to gravity, g.

Apparatus

Aluminum (or brass) Plate of a given mass, retort stand, clamp and stop clock

Theory:

Set up of the apparatus

On being displaced through a small angle 𝜃 from the vertical position and released,
a restoring moment (−𝑚𝑔𝑎𝜃), where m is the mass of the plate, 𝑎 = 𝑂𝐺, G being the
centre of mass of the plate, acts on the plate. The equation of motion of the plate is

𝑑2𝜃
−mgaθ = I0 2 (1)
𝑑𝑡

Where 𝐼0 is the moment of inertia about O. Equation (1) represents simple harmonic
motion of period

Physics practical
 I0
T = 2π√ (2)
mga

Where I0 = 𝐼𝐺 + 𝑚𝑎2 , 𝐼𝐺 is the moment of inertia about a parallel axis through the
centre of mass G and 𝐼𝐺 = 𝑚𝑘 2 , where k is the radius of gyration about G. thus

k 2 + a2
T = 2π√ (3)
ga

Hence, the period of motion of the plate is the same as that of a simple pendulum of
length

k 2 + a2
𝑙= (4)
a

Such a pendulum is called the equivalent simple pendulum. Equation (4) may be
written as

𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑙 + 𝑘 2 = 0. This equation has two roots, 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 such that

𝑎1 + 𝑎2 = 𝑙, 𝑎1 𝑎1 = 𝑘 2 (5)

Thus , there exist another point O, along OG about which the plate would oscillate
with the same period, T.

k2 +a2
Equation (3) has minimum value when is minimum. This occurs when 𝑎 = 𝑘
a

A graph of T versus a has a form shown in figure below. If we draw any line EDBAC
parallel to the axis, the line cuts the curve in four points, which have the same
periodic time T = AH 𝐷A = BA and 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐸, where BA + AE = 1, the length of the
equivalent simple pendulum. Hence in the equation (3) g is the only unknown. In
figure below

𝐹𝑀 = 𝐹𝑀′ = 𝑘

By equation (5), k 2 = a1 a2 = BA. AE

Physics practical
Hence a second value of k may be obtained

Procedure

1. Locate the centre of mass G of given plate, Describe how you locate G
2. Suspend the plate at various position (holes) along its length
3. For each position, measure the distance, a, of the hole from G and determine
the corresponding period of oscillation
4. Tabulate your results
5. Plot a graph of period against a
6. Determine the mean value of the radius of gyration of the plate
7. Calculate the acceleration due to gravity g
8. Find the moment of inertia of the plate G

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENTAL 13

Determination of the moment of inertia of circular disc

Aim

To determine the moment of inertia of a circular disc

Apparatus

A steel disc mounted on a steel rod, retort stand and clamp, a metre rule, a stop
watch, two brass bars between which to clamp the string for suspending the disc.

Principle

Consider a disc mounted on a uniform rod of radius, a, passing through the axis of
the disc and suspended by means of a pair of strings which are attached to the rod.
The disc is raised to a height x above the lowest position by winding the string on
the rod as shown below

If the disk is released and it falls through a height x then

Trot + Ttrans = mgx

1 1
Where Trot = 2 I𝜔2 and Ttrans = 2 Mv 2 are the rotational and translational kinetic

energy respectively. M is the total mass of the disc and axle, I is the moment of
inertia of the disc about a horizontal axis through its centre and 𝜔 is the angular
speed

Physics practical
 1
If t is the time taken for the disc to fall from rest through a distance x then 𝑥 = 2 𝑔𝑡 2

1 1 1
Then 2 I𝜔2 + 2 Mv 2 = 2 𝑔𝑡 2

𝑣 2 1
Given that 𝜔 = 𝑎 show that 𝑡 2 = 𝑀𝑔 (𝑎2 + 𝑀) 𝑥

Procedure

1. Measure the mass M of the disc assembly consisting of a disc, axle and string.
2. Measure the diameter of the axle
3. Suspend the disc from the brass bars
4. Roll up the string through a measured vertical distance x
5. Release the disc and measure the time taken by the disc to fall through the
distance x
6. Repeat the above procedure for nine other values of x
7. Tabulate your results
8. Plot a suitable graph and use it to find the moment of inertia I
9. Measure the diameter of the disc and calculate the moment of inertia, I, and
compare the result with the measured values
10. Perform a linear regression analysis of your data. Compare the calculated
slope with that of the graph above

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 14

Elasticity of rubber

Aim

To determine the dependence of elastic moduli of rubber on strain and frequency

Apparatus

Rubber band, retort stand and clamp, metre rule and set of 10g masses with a
hanger

Principles

Consider a mass m, suspended at one end of a rubber band whose other end is fixed
.

For small extension

𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘𝑟 𝑥 (1)

Where x is the extension and 𝑘𝑟 is the static elastic modulus

Under this condition a graph of load against extension will be linear with slope 𝑘𝑟

Suppose the load m is set into vertical oscillations, with in the validity of Hooke’s
law, the periodic time

𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ (2)
𝑘0

Where 𝑘0 is the dynamic elastic modulus

Hence

𝑘0
𝑓2 = (3)
4𝜋 2 𝑚

Where f is the frequency

Physics practical
 1 𝑘
A graph of 𝑓 2 against 𝑚 should be linear with the slope 4𝜋02

In practice while the band is being stretched, the force at one end is dependent on
both position and velocity of the moving end. Similarly, if the rubber band is
stretched rapidly by a certain distance and then clamped, the force on the clamps
will slowly decay to a lower value. Alternatively, if a constant force is applied to the
band, the band stretches by a certain amount immediately. and then relaxes slowly
to a grater length.

These observations can be described by complex elastic modulus

𝑘0 = 𝑘𝑟 + 𝑗𝑘𝑖

Hence 𝑘𝑖 = √|𝑘0 2 | − 𝑘𝑟 2

Procedure

1. Measure the length of unstretched rubber band

2. Determine the force versus extension curve
3. Use the curve to determine 𝑘𝑟 for different extensions
4. Plot a graph of 𝑘𝑟 against strain
1
5. Determine 𝑓 2 versus 𝑚 curve

6. Use the curve in (5) to find |𝑘0 | for different loads

7. Plot a graph of |𝑘0 | against load m
8. Determine the value of 𝑘𝑟 as the function of load
9. Plot a graph of 𝑘𝑟 as a function of m, using the same axes in procedure (7)
10. Comment on the features of graph in (9)

Physics practical
Physics practical
Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 15

Forces in equilibrium

Aim

To determine the spring constant k of the spring

Apparatus

Spring, nail, string, slotted masses, drawing board, vertical board, protractor and
metre rule

Theory

The condition for equilibrium is that the algebraic sum of the forces is zero. This
means the sum of horizontal component is equal to the sum of the vertical
components

The vertical component of the tension in the string =weight, mg

𝑘𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔

(𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑥
Hence 𝑚 = Where g is acceleration due to gravity and x is the extension in
𝑔

the spring

𝑘
Plotting a suitable graph, slop 𝑔 can be determined

Procedure

Physics practical
 1. Ensure that the lines ruled on the mounted sheet are horizontal
2. Measure and record the natural length 𝑙0
3. At the end of the spring. P, knot together the slotted mases m, the string and
the spring
4. Support the other end of the spring on the nail R on the drawing board as
shown in the figure above
5. Starting with mases m=80g adjust the inclination of the spring until PQ is
horizontal. Mark the positions of P and Q
6. Measure angle 𝜃 and the new length of the spring l
7. Increasing m in steps of 20g repeat the procedures (4) and (5) to obtain 6
other readings
8. Tabulate your results including values of 𝑥 = 𝑙 − 𝑙0, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, and 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
9. Plot a graph of m against 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
10. Determine k including uncertainty

Note: submit your drawings along with the answer

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 16

Young’s modulus by deflection of a beam

Aim

To determine Young’s modulus(y) by deflection of a beam

Apparatus

Metre rule with a pointer, weights and hanger, travelling microscope, knife edges,
vernier callipers and micrometer screw gauge.

The depression x of a beam supported freely on two parallel knife edges a distance L
L3 W
apart and loaded at its centre is given by x = (4bd2 ) Y where W is the load, Y

Young’s modulus b and d are breadth and thickness respectively of the beam.

Procedure

1. Set up the apparatus as shown below

2. Using travelling microscope measure the depression x of the centre of the

beam for increasing values of W
3. Repeat procedure 2 for decreasing values of W
4. Tabulate your results
5. Plot a suitable graph and hence determine Y including uncertainty

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 17

Determination of focal length of a concave mirror

(a) Place the concave mirror on bench

(b) Clamp an optical pin horizontally such that the pointed end of the pin lies
along the principal axis of the mirror
(c) Adjust the height of the pin above the mirror until a point is found where the
pin coincides with its image (that is, until there is no parallax between the
pin and its image as shown in figure below)

(d) Measure the radius of curvature, r, of the mirror

(e) Displace the pin from the position of the coincidence and repeat procedures
(c) and (d)
(f) Tabulate your results. Radius of curvature, ∓0.1𝑐𝑚
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Mean

(g) Find the maximum deviation from the mean radius of curvature
(h) Calculate the focal length of the mirror

Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 18

Determination of refractive index of the glass of prism

(a) Place a half metre rule on a bench with its graduated face upwards, and in
such a way that its zero-end overlaps the bench as shown in the fig below

(b) Place a piece of red card at far side of the eye. Find the position of the card
such that light from its edge passes through the tip of the prism and over the
zero-end of the rule. To do this, view the end of half metre rule and the tip of
the prism so that they are in line, and move the card until its edge is only
just visible in the tip of the prism
(c) Record the distance y and x, where x is the scale reading of the midpoint of
BC and y is shown in the fig above.
(d) By varying x from about 20cm to about 5cm obtain a set of values of y and x
(e) Plot a graph of y against x
(f) Use your graph to find the minimum value of 𝑦0 of y
(g) Calculate the angle of minimum deviation 2𝜃 where 𝜃 is given by the formula
2ℎ
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = where h is the height of the tip of the prism above the true
𝑦0

(h) Measure the angle A of the prism

(i) Calculate the refractive index, n, of the glass of the prism from the formula
1
𝑛 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 (𝐴 + 2𝜃)

Physics practical
(j) Support the prism on a small block to increase the value of h to not more
than 5cm. record the new value ℎ′ of h
(k) Repeat procedures (b) to (d) above
(l) Plot on the same graph paper and using the same axes as before, a graph of y
versus x.
(m) Use your graph, to find the minimum value 𝑦0 of y
2ℎ′
(n) Calculate the angle of minimum deviation 2𝜃 ; where 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ′ = 𝑦0 ′
1
(o) Calculate the refractive index 𝑛′ = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴 + 2𝜃 ′ )
2

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 19

Determination of focal length of a converging lens using Newton’s formula

(a) Arrange a mounted pin, the converging lens and the plane mirror as shown in
fig above
(b) Adjust the position of the pin until a position is found where the pin and its
image coincides using the method of non-parallax label this position of the
pin as 𝐹1
(c) Interchange the plane mirror and the pin. Adjust the position of the pin until
a position is found where the pin and its image coincide label the position of
the pin as 𝐹2
(d) Remove the plane mirror
(e) Place the pin 𝑃1 on the axis of the lens and at point further from the lens than
𝐹1
(f) Use the second pin 𝑃2 to locate the image of 𝑃1 formed by the lens as shown in
the figure below

Physics practical
(g) Measure the distance 𝐿𝑃1 and 𝐿𝑃2 and use them to find the distances
𝐹1 𝑃1 (𝑥𝑐𝑚) and 𝐹2 𝑃2 (𝑦𝑐𝑚)
(h) Repeat procedures (e) -(g) for five more positions of 𝑃1 , without moving the
lens
1
(i) Tabulate your results. Include in your table values of 𝑥
1
(j) Plot a graph of y against 𝑥

(k) Find the slope S, of your graph

(l) Calculate the value of, f, the focal length from the relation 𝑓 = √𝑆

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 20

In this experiment, you will determine the thickness of the test tube
provided

Part I

(a) Measure the external diameter, D, of the test tube provided using Vernier
calipers
(b) Tie apiece of a thread firmly around the neck of the test tube
(c) Pour all the sand provided into the test tube
(d) Suspend the spring balance provided from a retort stand
(e) Suspend the test tube vertically from the spring balance as shown

(f) Read and record the weight 𝑊0 of the test tube and the sand
(g) Lower the clamp so that the test tube sinks to a depth h=2.0cm as indicated
on a paper scale attached to the test tube
(h) Read and record the reading, W, of the spring balance
(i) Repeat procedure in (g) above for depths h=3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0 and 7.0cm,
respectively
(j) Tabulate your results including values of 𝑊0 − 𝑊
(k) Plot a graph of (𝑊0 − 𝑊) against h

Physics practical
 (l) Find the slop 𝑆1 of the graph
(m) Calculate 𝑛1 = 11.3√𝑆1

Part II

(a) Remove the scale attached to the test tube. Pour out the sand and wipe the
inside of the test tube clean,
(b) Measure the internal diameter, d, of the test tube
(c) Suspend the test tube from the spring balance. Read and record the weight,
W, of the test tube
(d) Pour water up to a height, h, equal to 2.0cm into the test tube. Suspend the
test tube from the spring balance. Read and record the weight, w, of the test
tube and water
(e) Repeat the procedure in (d) above for h=3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0 and 7.0cm,
respectively
(f) Tabulate your results including values of 𝑤 − 𝑊
(g) Plot a graph of (𝑤 − 𝑊) against h
(h) Find the slop 𝑆2 of the graph
(i) Calculate 𝑛2 = 11.3√𝑆2
(j) Find 𝑡 = 𝑛1 − 𝑛2

Physics practical
Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 21

Determination of constants of a bar magnet

Part I: in this experiment you will determine the magnetic moment M of the bar
magnet provided, by two methods

Method I

(a) Suspend a half metre rule on a bench as shown below

(b) Tie with a piece of thread the bar magnet at its mid-point
(c) Displace the magnet through a small angle in the horizontal plane about the
axis through its mid-point at which the thread is tied.
(d) Measure and record the time taken by the magnet to execute 10oscillations.
Calculate the period T
(e) Measure and record the length l and breadth b of the magnet

𝐼
(f) Calculate the magnetic moment m of the magnet given that 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ where
𝑚𝐵
𝑤
𝐼 = 12(12+𝑏2) is the moment of inertia of the magnet, w is the mass of the

magnet and B is the horizontal component of the earths magnet flux density
and is equal to 1.8 × 10−5 𝑇

Method II

Physics practical
 (a) With the aid cello tape fix the drawing paper provided on to the bench
(b) Using a compass needle, determine and draw across the paper the N-S
direction
(c) Place the bar magnet on the drawing paper such that it’s S-Pole points to the
north as shown in fig below. Trace the outline of the bar magnet

(d) Place the compass on the N-S line

(e) Move the compass until the compass needle points in the opposite direction
(f) Determine the midpoint P of the compass and mark it on the line. Measure
and record the distance d between the point P and the midpoint of the bar
magnet
𝑑2 −𝐼 2
(g) Calculate the magnetic moment m, given that 𝑚 = 7.96 × 105 ( ). Where B
2𝑑

is the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic flux density

Part II: In this experiment, you will determine a constant S of the bar magnet
provided

(a) Connect the circuit as shown below such that the coil lies flat on the bench

Physics practical
(b) Place the bar magnet at the center of the coil as shown
(c) Close the switch and adjust the current I in the circuit to 10mA. Measure and
record the maximum height h to which the coil rises. If the coil does not move
up, interchange the connections to the dry cell
(d) Repeat the procedure in (c) for I=20, 30,40,50,60, and 70mA. Tabulate the
results
(e) Plot a graph of h against I
(f) Determine the slope, S, of your graph

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 22

Determination of the refractive index of water by apparent depth

method

(a) Place an office pin horizontally at the bottom of a beaker, so that its pointed
end touches the curved surface of the beaker
(b) Pour water into the beaker so that the beaker is about two-thirds full.
(c) Clamp an optical pin horizontally in the retort stand so that the pointed end
of the pin lies directly above the pointed end of the pin in the beaker.
(d) Move the optical pin in the retort stand downwards until a position is found
where the pin coincides with the image of the office pin as viewed through the
water as shown below

(e) Measure the distance d of the pin above the bottom of the beaker
(f) Measure the depth, t, of the water
𝑡
(g) Calculate the refractive index (n) from the expression𝑛 = . Calculate the
𝑑

percentage error in the refractive index

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 23

Determination of the refractive index of a triangular prism

(a) Fix a plane sheet of paper on a soft board using drawing pins or cello tape
(b) Place the glass prism on the sheet of paper and trace out its outline as shown
in the fig below.

(c) Place optical pin 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 such that the angle of incidence is 300
(d) Observe the 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 through the face AC and place pins 𝑃3 and 𝑃4 such that
they appear to be in line with the images of pins 𝑃1 and 𝑃2
(e) Remove the prism and the pins and trace the ray through the prism.
(f) Measure the angle of deviation and the angle of emergence, i. replace the
prism
(g) Repeat the procedures (c) to (f) for angles of incidence of 350 , 400 , 450 , 500 ,
600 , 650 , 700 and 750
(h) Tabulate your results. Include in your table values if 𝑑 − 𝑖
(i) Plot a graph of 𝑑 − 𝑖 against i and obtain the intercept A on the i-axis
(j) Calculate the refractive index, n, of the glass of the prism using the equation
𝐷+𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛( )
2
𝑛= 𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛( )
2

Note: Hand in the sheet of paper used to trace the rays

Physics practical
Physics practical
Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 24

In this experiment, you will find out how the force required to hold a magnetized
razor blade near the side of a dish changes with distance and compare the
strength of two given magnets.

(a) Magnetize the blade by stroking with a magnet

(b) Lower the blade carefully on the surface of the water in the given dish, so
that it floats on the surface
(c) Place the dish on a meter rule and arrange the rule to be parallel to the long
edges of the blade. (Plasticine is available if required )
(d) Put the magnet labeled A to the north of the dish so that it attracts the blade
to within about 5mm of the side of the dish as shown below

(e) Measure the distance x, between the center of A and the center of the blade,
and the distance y between the inner edge of the dish and the end of the
blade nearest to the edge
(f) Repeat procedures (d) and (e) with the magnet labeled B, to obtain another
set of values x and y.
(g) Tabulate your results for each magnet to show x, 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑥 and y

Physics practical
(h) Plot graphs of y against 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑥 on the same graph paper and using the same
scales

Draw the straight lines which best fit the plotted points.

(𝑚𝐴 +𝑚𝐵 )
1. Obtain the gradient . This gives the distance that the blade must
8

move to give a ten-fold increase in the force to hold the blade near the side
of the dish
2. Obtain the values 𝑆𝐴 and 𝑆𝐵 of 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑥 for magnet A and for magnet B
when𝑦 = 10.0𝑚𝑚. Find the value of antilog 10{4|𝑆𝐴 − 𝑆𝐵 |} . this is equal to
the ratio of the strengths of the magnets A and B

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 25

Determining focal length and diameter of a cylindrical glass vessel containing water
and acting as a cylindrical lens

(a) Set up the arrangement as shown in the figure below, with the lamp filament
vertically above zero ends of the meter rule

(b) Place a screen at a distance x away from the lamp, initially the distance x
should be about 45cm
(c) Move the lens near the lamp or near the screen to find two positions of the
lens, which will give an image on the screen, in each case; the image appears
as a bright vertical line of light. Find the distance y between these two
positions of the lens; state how you found this distance
(d) Repeat the procedure (b) for the values of x. the range of x should be from a
little more than four times the diameter of the lens up to 60cm
(e) Plot a graph of y against x, commencing the y scale at 0, and the x scale at
20cm. the graph is a slight curve
(f) Find the point on the graph where the value of y is half the value of x; let this
3𝑥1
value of x be𝑥1 . Record 𝑥1 , and calculate f from the formula 𝑓 = 16

(g) Calculate another value for f by finding the point on the graph where the
value of y is four-tenths the value of x. let this value of x be 𝑥2 , record 𝑥2 and
calculate f from the formula 𝑓 = 0.21𝑥2

Physics practical
(h) Find the average value (F) of the above two values of f
(i) Measure the average external diameter d of the cylindrical vessel. Find the
ratio of d/F

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 26

Determination of focal length of a converging mirror

(a) Arrange the mounted converging (concave) mirror and optical pin as shown
in the fig. above so that the tip of the optical pin lies along the principal axis
of the mirror
(b) Adjust the position of the pin so that the pin coincides with its image.
Measure the distance (d) of the pin from the mirror.
𝑑
(c) Calculate f from 𝑓 = 2

(d) Place the pin 𝑃1 at a distance 1.5f from converging mirror.

(e) Using a second pin 𝑃2 locate the image of 𝑃1 formed by the converging mirror
(Fig.be low)
(f) Measure the object distance u and the image distance v.
(g) Repeat the procedures (d) to (f) for 𝑈 = 2.0𝑓, 2.5𝑓, 3.0𝑓, 3.5𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4.0𝑓
1 1
(h) Tabulate your results. Include in the table values of 𝑢 and 𝑣
1 1
(i) Plot a graph of 𝑣 against 𝑢
1 1
(j) Determine the intercepts 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 on the 𝑣 and axes, respectively
𝑢
2
(k) Calculate the focal length of the lens from 𝑓 = 𝑐
1 +𝑐2

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 27
In this experiment you will determine the ratio of the diameter of two
wires by three methods.
Apparatus: 1 piece of wire (SWG30 constantan, labelled S) 60cm long, 1 piece of
wire (SWG 26 constantan, labeled T) 60cm long, 1 meter bridge, 1 micrometer screw
gauge, 1 meter rule, 1 2Ω standard resistor, 1 center zero galvanometer
Method I:
(a)Measure the diameter of the wire labeled T at four different points along the wire
using a micrometer screw gauge. Find the average value D of the diameter of the
wire.
(b)Measure the diameter of the wire labeled Sat four different points along the wire
again using a micrometer screw gauge. Find the diameter d of the wire.
(c)Calculate the value of 𝐷⁄𝑑 .
Method II.:
(a)Wire up a meter bridge circuit with equal lengths of wires T and S in the gaps of
the bridge.
(b)Determine the balance point and record the balance lengths11 and 12.

𝑟
(c)Calculate the value of 𝐷⁄𝑑 using the formula 𝐷⁄𝑑 = √𝑅 where r is the resistance
of a length of S and R is the resistance of an equal length of T.
(d)Check the results in (c) above with the two lengths of wire interchanged in the
gaps.
Method III:
(a)Set up the meter bridge circuit shown below with 50.0cm of wire T (the thicker
wire) in the left-hand gap, and 50.0cm of wire S in the right-hand gap.

Physics practical
(b)By moving the sliding contact D along the slide wire AB, find the distance x of
the balance point from the left-hand end of AB.
(c)Repeat the procedure in (b) above for the same length of T but with shorter
lengths I of S in the right-hand gap. Make sure the value of I is less than 20cm.
(d)Tabulate your results.
(e)Record the value of y.
(f)Plot a graph of x against I.
(g)From your graph, find the values of I for which X is the 0.526y, 0.500y and
0.476y. Find the average L of these values of I.

𝐷 50
(h)Calculate the value of 𝐷⁄𝑑 from the formula = √𝐿 ⋅
𝑑

(i)Show in the form of a table the values of 𝐷⁄𝑑 obtained by the three methods.

Physics practical
Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 28
Determination of;
(i)the resistance per unit length
(ii)the internal resistance of a dry cell.
Apparatus: 1 ammeter, 1 voltmeter, resistance box 0-20Ω, 1 dry cell, constantan
wire (SWG 30), 1 piece of wire (SWG30 constantan, labelled S) 60cm long, 1 piece of
wire (SWG 26 constantan, labeled T) 60cm long, 1 meter bridge, 1 micrometer screw
gauge, 1 meter rule, 1 2Ω standard resistor, 1 center zero galvanometer
PART I:
(a)Connect the circuit shown below starting with a length x=20.0cm.

(b)Adjust the rheostat to its maximum.

(c)Close switch K and adjust the rheostat until the ammeter indicates the current I
of 0.4A.
(d)Read and record the voltmeter reading V
(e)Open switch K.
(f)Repeat procedures (c) to (e)for values of x equal to 30.0, 40.0, 50.0, 60.0, 70.0,
80.0, and 90.0cm.
(g)Tabulate your results. Include in your table values of 𝑉 ⁄𝐼.
(h)Plot a graph of 𝑉 ⁄𝐼 against x and determine its slope s1.

Physics practical
PART II:
(a)Connect the circuit shown below

(b)Fix the wire provided on the bench using cellotape.

(c)Starting with y=20.0cm, close switches K1and K2.
(d)Move the sliding contact D along the potentiometer wire until point is found for
which the G shows no deflection (balance point), Close switch K3 and locate the
balance point accurately. Measure and record the balance length I.
(e)Open switches K1, K2 and K3.
(f)Repeat procedures (c) to (e) above values of y of 30.0, 40.0, 50.0 and 60.0cm.
(g)Tabulate your `results. Include in your table values of 1⁄𝑦 and1⁄𝐼 .
(h)Plot a graph of 1⁄𝑦 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 1⁄𝐼 .
(i)Find the slope s2 and the intercept c on the 1⁄𝐼 axis of the graph.
𝑆
(j)Calculate 𝑟 = 𝑐 1
𝑦2

Physics practical
Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 29
Determination of the resistivity of the material of the wire.
Apparatus: 2 dry cells (each in a holder), 2 switches, 1 ammeter (0-2.5A), 1
rheostat (0-20Ω), 1m length of SWG 30 constantan wire, 1 slide wire potentiometer,
1 protective resistor, 1 center zero galvanometer, 1 crocodile clip, 1 meter rule, 13
pieces of connecting wire
(a)Record the value of the resistor marked Q. Measure and record the length x0 and
the diameter d of the exposed part of the wire labeled S.
(b)Connect the circuit shown below.

(c)Connect the full length (both the exposed and concealed portion of the wire
labeled S across the right-hand gap. Find the balance point C and measure the
balance length AC =10.
(d)Connect the full length (x) of the exposed part of the wire across the right-hand
gap. Find the new balance point C and measure AC and CB.
(e)Repeat step (d) using lengths of the exposed wire x equal to 0.8x0, 0.6x0, 0.4x0,
and 0.2x0.
(f)Tabulate your values of x, 1⁄𝑥 ,AC, CB, and 𝐴𝐶 ⁄𝐶𝐵.
(g)Plot a graph of 1⁄𝑥 against AC/CB, and find the slope a, and the intercept 𝑙0′ on
the 1/x axis.
(h)Calculate r from the expression
𝜋 𝑑2 𝑎𝑅𝑔
(i) 𝑟1 = 4

(100−𝑙0 ) 𝑑2 𝑅𝑞
(ii) 𝑟2 = 410 𝑦

Physics practical
 1
Where Rq is the value of Q and 𝑦 = 𝑙 + 𝑥0
0

2(𝑟2 −𝑟1 )
(o) Calculate (𝑟1+𝑟2 )

Physics practical
Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 30
Determination of the length of a wire (W)for which the power dissipation
is a maximum.
Apparatus: 1 meter bridge, 1 2Ω standard resistor, 1 center zero galvanometer, 1
dry cell, 2m of SWG30 constantan wire with 1m wound on a piece of stick and
concealed using masking tape and 1m of the wire left exposed and free, 1 micrometer
screw gauge, 1 meter rule, 1 switch, 7 pieces of connecting wire (about 30cm each)
(a)Connect a dry cell in series with an ammeter reading (up to 1.0A) and a portion
AC of the given bare wire labeled W as shown in the fig. below, starting with AC
=.2.5cm.

Connect a voltmeter (reading up to 1.5V across Ac). Read and record the potential
difference across AC and the corresponding current I in the circuit.
Repeat for different values of AC in steps of 2.5cm at a time, up to 20.0 and thereafter
in steps of 10.0cm up to 80.0cm. Tabulate your results. Add to your table a column
for the product IV. Plot a graph of IV against the corresponding values (L) of AC.
Use your graph to find the value of L=L0 corresponding to the point on the curve
where the slope vanishes.
(b)Repeat the procedure in (a) above, using the wire labeled Z instead of W starting
with AC =5.0cm and increasing it in steps of 5.0cm up to 40.0cm and there after in
steps of 10.0cm up to 80.0cm. Plot a graph of IV against the corresponding values of
L. Use your graph to find the value of L=L1 corresponding to the point on the curve
where the slope vanishes.
(c)Disconnect the circuit in (a) above and make the connections shown in the fig.
below.

Physics practical
Start with AC (L)=2.5cm and look for the balance point on the potentiometer wire.
Read and record the balance length I. Repeat for different values of AC in steps of
2.5cm up to 20.0cm.
(d)Tabulate your results.
(e)Add to your table two columns of 1⁄𝐿 and 1⁄𝐼 respectively.
(f)Plot a graph of 1⁄𝐼 and 1⁄𝐿.
(g)Determine the (i)the slope (s) of the graph.
(ii)the intercept (c) on the 1⁄𝐼 axis.
(h)Calculate the quantity h =𝑠⁄𝑐.
(i)Find the ratio ℎ ∕ 𝐿0

Physics practical
Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 31
Determination by an electrical method of the diameter of the wire of the
filament of a given electric lamp.
Apparatus: 1 dry cell, 1 switch, 1 ammeter (0-1A), 1 voltmeter (0-3V), 2 crocodile
clips, 1m of wire labeled W (SWG 32 constantan wire), 1m of wire labeled Z (SWG 28
constantan wire), 1 slide wire potentiometer, 1 center zero galvanometer, 1 2V acid
accumulator (or a Nife cell), 1 meter rule, 9 pieces of connecting wire, (1-100Ω)
(a)Connect the circuit shown in the fig. below.

V-a high resistance voltmeter

S-standard resistor
AB-Rheostat (variable resistor)

(c)Set the rheostat AB along the range50-100Ω so that the current in the lamp is
small. Move the sliding contact D along the slide wire until a position is found
where G shows no deflection.
Measure and record the balance length 11 and 12. You can assume that the
bridge circuit gives R0 the resistance of the filament at room temperature. Calculate
R0 from
11
𝑅0 = 𝑅𝑠 × 𝛺
12
(c)Adjust the rheostat so that the lamp glows brightly. Determine the corresponding
balance lengths L1 and L2. Read and record the voltmeter reading V.

Physics practical
(d)Repeat the procedure in (c) above with the rheostat set so that the lamp glows
very brightly to obtain two more sets of values of L1, L2 and V.
(e)Tabulate your values as follows

p.d across lamp (V) Balance length Resistance Ratio W=V2/R

of lamp R R/R0
L1 L2

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(f)Use the following data to plot a graph of R/R0 against the absolute temperature
Tof the lamp

T(K) R/R0

1000 4.50

1200 5.65

1300 6.25

1400 6.80

1500 7.40

1700 8.50

1900 9.70

Physics practical
(g)Use the graph in (f) above to determine the absolute temperatures T(K)
corresponding to the values of R/R0 obtained in (f).
Calculate the values of W/T4, and find the average.
4𝑝 𝑤
(h)Use the formula 𝑑3 = (𝜋2 𝜎𝑅) 𝑇 4. where p=resistivity of tungsten =5.7 x 10 -8Ωcm, 𝜎
=Stafans constant =5.7 x 10-8Wm-2K-4. To calculate d from the diameter of the wire
of the filament of the electric lamp.
(i)View the edge of the ordinary writing paper with a powerful magnifying glass.
State which of the two, the edge of the paper or the filament appears bigger.
(j)Use the micrometer screw gauge to find by holding the paper, the thickness of 2, 4
and 8 thickness of the paper. Calculate the average thickness of the paper. Hence
give what you consider to be a reasonable value for the diameter of the filament
found by this method.
(k)Attach a piece of the writing paper used in (i) and (j) above.

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 32
Investigation of the terminal difference of dry cells in series and in
parallel
Apparatus: 1 dry cell, 1 switch, 1 ammeter, 1 voltmeter, 1 slide wire potentiometer
(can be substituted with SGW30 constantan wire), Sufficient connecting wire
PART I
(a) Connect the dry cell provided in series with a switch S1 and an ammeter across a
slide wire potentiometer as shown below

(b) Connect the voltmeter across the dry cell and switch S1.
(c) Close switch S1. Read and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings. Open S1.
(d) Replace the single dry cell by two dry cells connected in series. Close S1. read
and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings. Open S1.
(e) Replace the two dry cells by three dry cells connected in series. Close S1, read
and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings, open S1.
(f) What conclusions do you draw from your measurements?
PART II
(a) Connect a single dry cell as in PART I above.
(b) Close S1. read and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings. Open S1.
(c) Replace the single cell by two dry cells connected parallel as shown below.

Physics practical
Close S1. Read and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings. Open S1.
(d) Replace the two dry cells by three cells connected in parallel. Close S1. read and
close the voltmeter and ammeter readings. Open S1.
(e)What conclusions do you draw from your readings?

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 33
Estimation of the internal resistance of a dry cell
Apparatus: Each student will require, 1 torch bulb (1.5 V, 0.3A), 1Voltmeter (0-
2.5V), 2 dry cells in a holder, 1 resistor 0f fixed resistance of 5Ω, 1 switch, 9 pieces of
connecting wire (30cm each).
(a) Connect the dry cell in series with the switch across 1m length of constantan
wire (SWG 30) and a switch as shown below.

(b) Connect a voltmeter V across the dry cell. Read and record the voltmeter
readings V0.
(c) Close switch K. Read and record the reading of the voltmeter. Open K.
(d) Repeat procedure (c) above
(e) Tabulate your results as shown. V0=………. V, Voltmeter readings with K
closed/………. ±............V

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Mean,V

(f) Determine the mean diameter, D, of the constantan wire.

Physics practical
(g) Calculate the internal resistance, r, of the cell from
2⋅0×10−6 𝑉0
𝑟= ( 𝑉 − 1) ⋅
𝜋𝐷 2

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 34
Determination of the internal resistance of a dry cell using a voltmeter
and an ammeter.
(a) Connect the dry cell in series with the switch, K, and the ammeter A across a 1m
length of constantan wire (SWG 30) as shown in fig. below

(b) Read and record the voltmeter reading Vo

(c) Close switch K. Read and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings. Open K
(d) Repeat procedure (c) to obtain four sets of readings.
(e)Tabulate your results as follows V0=………………………………………….. V
Voltmeter readings/+_...............................V

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Mean

Ammeter readings/±....................................A

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Mean

Physics practical
(f) Find the value of the internal resistance, r, of the dry cell from
𝑉0 −𝑉
𝑟=( )
𝐼

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 35
Determination of resistance using a meter bridge
Apparatus: 1-meter bridge, 1 standard resistor, 1 center zero galvanometer, 1
protective resistor, 1 centimeter zero galvanometer, 1 protective resistor, 1 jockey
(sliding contact), 1 switch, 1 50cm piece of SWG30 constantan wire, 1-meter rule, 1
micro meter screw gauge
(a)Connect the circuit shown in the fig. below

(b)Close swi tch K1.

(c)With K2 open, move the sliding contact D along the slide wire AB to locate a pint
(balance point) on AB for which the galvanometer G shows no deflection.
(d)Close K2 and locate the balance point accurately. Measure the balance lengths 11
and 12
(e)Open K1 and K2.
(f)Repeat procedures (b) to (e) with 2Ω-resistor and constantan wire interchanged.
Measure and record the balance lengths 1’1 and 1’2.
(g)Find the mean values L1 of 11 and 1’1 and L2, of 12 and 1’2.
(h)Calculate the resistance, R1 of the constantan wire from

Physics practical
 𝐿
𝑅 = 2 𝐿0 , 𝛺
1

(i)Find the percentage error in R.

(j)Determine the mean diameter D of the wire.
(k)Calculate the electrical resistivity constantan from

𝜋𝐷 2
𝜌=( )𝑅
2

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 36
Determination of the internal resistance of cell using a potentiometer
Apparatus: 1 dry cell in a holder, 1 switch, 1 Voltmeter (0-3V), 1 Ammeter
(0-1A), 1 meter of SWG 30 constantan wire, 2 crocodile clips, 2 pieces of cello
tape, 1 meter rule.
(a) Connect the switch shown below:

(b)Close switch K1
(c) With K2 and K3 open, move the sliding contact D along AB to locate the point
(balance point) for which the galvanometer G shows no deflection. Adjust R to shift
the balance point beyond the 50cm mark of ab. Leave the setting on R unaltered in
the subsequent steps.
(d)Close K2 and locate the balance point more accurately. Record the balance length
AD as I0.
(e)Open switch K2 and close K3. Move D along AB to locate the approximate balance
point.
(f)Close K2 and locate the balance point accurately.
(g)Measure and record the balance length AD as I. Open K1.K2 and K3.
(h)Calculate the internal resistance of the cell from
𝐼
𝑟 = 2 ( 𝐼0 − 1)

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 37

Relationship between resistance and voltage for an electric bulb

Apparatus. 1 torch bulb (2.5V, 0.3A), 1 Ammeter (0-1A), 1 Voltmeter(0-2.5V), 1
rheostat (0-20Ω), 1 switch, 2 dry cells (1.5V each), 9 pieces of connecting wire (30cm
each)

(a)Set up the circuit shown below:

(b)Adjust resistance of the rheostat to its maximum and close switch K. Read and
record the voltage V across and the current I through the bulb.

(c) Reduce the resistance of the rheostat by suitable amounts so that a series of
corresponding values of current I and potential difference V are obtained

(d)Tabulate your results including values of 𝑉/𝐼 and 𝐼𝑉.

(e) Plot a graph of 𝑉/𝐼 against V and on the same axes a graph of I against V.

(f) Plot a graph of IV against v.

(g) Discuss your results.

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 38

Determination of current through a bulb at a given p.d.

Apparatus: 1 torch bulb (1.5 V, 0.3A), 1Voltmeter (0-2.5V), 2 dry cells in a holder, 1
resistor 0f fixed resistance of 5Ω, 1 switch , 9 pieces of connecting wire (30cm each)

(a) Connect the resistor R, the torch bulb, the rheostat and the two dry cells in
series with such a switch K as shown

(b)Close switch K.

(c)Adjust the rheostat to obtain the smallest suitable reading V1 of the p.d across R.
Read and record V1.

(d)Measure he p.d V2 across the bulb.

(e)Adjust the rheostat to obtain 8(eight) higher values ofV1 and the corresponding
values of V2.

(f)Present your results in a table.

(g)Plot a graph of V2 against V1.

(h)Find the p.d. across the bulb when the resistance of the bulb is equal to 5Ω.

(i)Calculate the current through the bulb when R =50Ω.

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 39

Determination of the resistivity of the material of a wire.

Apparatus: 1 dry cell in a holder, 1 Ammeter (0-1A), 1 switch, 1 meter of SWG30

constantan wire, 2 pieces of cello tape, 2 crocodile clips, 1 meter rule

(a)Connect the dry cell, the ammeter A, the switch K and the wire P in series as
shown in the fig. above.

(b)Starting with x equal to 0.200m, record the reading, I, on the ammeter when K is
closed.

(c)Repeat the procedure (b) above for the values of x equal to 0.300 0.400, 0.500,
0.600, 0.700 and 0.80m.

(d)Record your results in a suitable tale including the values of 1/I.

(e)Plot a graph of 1/I against x.

(f)Find the slope, (s) of the graph.

(g)Calculate the resistivity (p) of the material wire from =1.6x10-7s.

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 40

Determination of the ratio of the internal resistance of a dry cell to

the resistance per meter of a given bridge.
Apparatus: 1 meter rule, 1 meter of SWG 30 constantan wire, 1 switch, 1 Voltmeter
(0-3V), 1 dry cell, 2 pieces of cellotape, 2 crocodile clips

(a)Connect the dry cell, the switch and the voltmeter V, across a length of the
constantan wire.
(b)Starting with x= 0.200m, close the switch.
Read and record the reading V of the voltmeter.
(c)Repeat the procedure (b) above for the values of x= 0.300, 0.400,
0.500,0.600, 0.700 and 0.800m.
(d)Tabulate your values including values of 1/V and 1/x.
(e)Plot a graph of 1/V against 1/x.
(f)Determine the slope(s) of your graph.
(g)Determine the intercept c on the 1/x.
(h)Find the value of s/c.

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 41
Determination of resistance per meter of a given resistance wire.
Apparatus: 1 dry cell in a holder, 1 switch, 1 Voltmeter (0-3V), 1 Ammeter (0-1A), 1
meter of SWG 30 constantan wire, 2 crocodile clips , 2 pieces of cellotape, 1 meter
rule

(a)Connect the dry cell, the switch K, and the ammeter in series across a length x of
a constantan wire.
(b)Connect the voltmeter across the dry cell as shown in the fig. above.
(c)Starting with x=0.800m, close K. Read and record the voltmeter reading V and
the ammeter reading I.
(d)Repeat procedure (c) for x =0.700, 0.600, 0.500, 0.400, 0.300, and 0.200m.
(e)Tabulate your results including values of 1/I.
(f)Plot a graph of V against I.
(g)Determine the slope s of the graph and the intercept c on the V axis.
(h)Plot a graph of 1/I against x and find the slope s2 of the graph.
(i)Calculate the value of K=s2c.

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 42
11. Determination of the resistivity of the material of a wire.
Apparatus: 2 dry cells (1.V each) in a holder, 1 Voltmeter (0-3V), 1 Ammeter (0-
1A), 1 meter of SWG 30 constantan wire, 2 crocodile clips, 2 pieces of cellotape, 1
meter rule

(a)Connect the circuit shown above, starting with x =0.10m.

(b)Record the reading, V0, of the voltmeter.
(c)Close switch K.
(d) Read and record the ammeter reading I.
(e)Open switch K.
(f)Repeat procedures (c) to (e) for values of x equal to 0.200, 0.300, 0.400, 0.500,
0.600, 0,700, 0.800, and 0.900m.
(g)Tabulate your results. Include in your table values of 1/I.
(h)Plot a graph of 1/I against x.
(i)Determine the slope s1 of your graph.
(j)Determine the mean diameter d meters of the constantan wire.
𝜋𝑠1 𝑑 2
(k)Find the resistivity of constantan from 𝑟 = ( ) 𝑉0
4

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 43
Determination of an unknown resistance using a potentiometer circuit.
Apparatus: 3-1.5 dry cells (a pair and 1 cell in separate holders), 2 switches, 1
center zero galvanometer, 1 slide wire potentiometer, 1 sliding contact (jockey)

(a)Setup the circuit shown below.

(b)Close switches K1 and K2.
(c)Adjust R to 5.0Ω.
(d)Find the balance length 1cm for which G shows no deflection.
(e)Repeat procedures (c) an (d) for values of R equal to 10.0, 15.0, 20.0, 25.0, 30.0,
35.0,40.5, 45.0 and 50.0Ω.
(f)Tabulate your results. Include in your table values of 1/I.
(g)Plot a graph of 1/I against R.
(h)Find the slope, s, of your graph, and the intercept c on the 1/I axis.
(i)Calculate the value of x =c/s.
(j)Find the intercept R0 on the R-axis.

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 44
Measurement of internal resistance of a dry cell using a slide wire
potentiometer.
Apparatus: 4 dry cells (each pair in a holder), 2 switches, 1 slide wire
potentiometer, 1 center zero galvanometer, 1 protective resistor, 1 resistance box 0-
50Ω,1 resistor of unknown resistance (≈5Ω), 11 pieces of connecting wire each about
30cm long, 1 jockey (sliding contact)

(a)Connect the circuit shown above.

(b)Close switch K1.
(c)With K2 open, move the sliding contact J along the slide wire AB to find the
position for which the galvanometer G shows no deflection. Read and record the
balance length l0.
(d)Open switch K1.
(e)Set R to 1.0Ω.
(f)Close switches K1 and K2.
(g)Determine the new position of the sliding contact for which G shows no deflection
and measure the balance length I.
(h)Open switches K1 and K2.
(i)Repeat procedures (e) to (h) for R =2.0Ω, 4.0Ω, 6.0Ω, 6.0Ω, 8.0Ω, 10.0Ω, 15.0Ω,
20.0Ω and 30.0Ω.
(j)Tabulate your results including values of 1/R and 1/I.

Physics practical
(k)Plot a graph of 1/I and 1/R.
(l)Find the slope s of the graph and the intercept c on the 1/I axis.
(m)Calculate the internal resistance of cell c1 from R =s/c.

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 45
Determination of the resistivity of the material of a wire using a meter
bridge.
Apparatus: 1 meter bridge, 2 dry cells in a holder, 1 switch, 1 meter rule, 1 5Ω-
standard resistor sufficient connecting wire

(a)Connect the meter bridge circuit shown in the fig. above. The resistor B is a 5Ω
standard whereas A is a resistance wire of length x.
(b)Close switch S1.
(c)Starting with x equal to 20.0cm, find the balance length l.
(d)Repeat the procedure in (c) for x equal to 30.0, 40.0, 50.0, 60.0, 70.0 and 80.0cm.
(e)Tabulate your results. Include in your table values of 1/x against 1/I.
(f)Plot a graph of 1/I against 1/x.
(g)Determine the slope s of your graph.
(h)Calculate the resistance K per meter length of a from the expression K =5/S.
(i)Measure the diameter of wire A at four well-spaced points along the wire.
Calculate the mean diameter.
𝜋𝐷 2
(j)Find the resistivity of the material of the wire from the expression =𝑘 ( )
4

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 46
Determination of the specific heat capacity of aluminium by the method of
mixtures.
Apparatus: Source of boiling water, 1 copper calorimeter and stirrer, 1 100ml
measuring cylinder, 1 tripod and gauze, 1 Bunsen burner, 1 250ml beaker, 1 0-
1000C thermometer, 1 stop clock, 1 lever balance
(a)Measure and record the mass Mc of the calorimeter.
(b)Heat water in a beaker up to 900C.
(c)Measure out 100ml of the hot water and transfer it into the calorimeter.
(d)Read and record the temperature of water in the calorimeter and simultaneously
start the clock.
(e)Record the temperature of the water and calorimeter every minute for 15
minutes.
(f)Plot a graph of temperature of the water against time.
(g)Use the graph to find the time interval of ꞩt1 that elapses for the temperature to
fall from 700C to 600C.
(h)Pour out the contents of the calorimeter.
(i)Place a 100g brass mass into the calorimeter.
(j)Repeat procedures (b) to (f) above.
(k)Plot on the same graph paper as in (f) above, the temperature of the water, the
brass and calorimeter against time.
(l)Find the time interval ꞩt2 that elapses for the temperature to fall from 700 C to
600 C.
(m)find the specific heat capacity of brass from

((380𝑚0 +418)𝛿𝑡2 −𝛿𝑡1 )

𝑠= 0.1𝛿𝑡1

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 47
Determination of the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field.
Apparatus: 1 tangent galvanometer, 1 Ammeter (0-1A), 1 2V accumulator, 1
rheostat (0-20Ω), 1 pair of copper twisted leads, 1 reversing switch, 4 pieces of
connecting wire (each about 0.5m long)

(a)Connect the tangent of the galvanometer (TG) in series with an accumulator, a

rheostat and an ammeter through a reversing switch as shown in the fig. above.
(b)Set the coil of the tangent galvanometer vertically along the magnetic meridian
so that both ends of the pointer of the magnetometer are at the 00 positions.
(c)Adjust the current I through the coil to obtain a deflection of about 150.Read and
record the current I and the deflections Ꝋ1 and Ꝋ2 of the ends of the pointer.
(d)Reverse the current through the coil. Read and record the deflections Ꝋ3 and Ꝋ4
of the ends of the pointer.
(e)Repeat the procedures (c) and (d) for five more values of current I for which the
deflections of the pointer lie between 150 and 550.
(f)Tabulate your results. Include in the table values of tanꝊ where Ꝋ is the mean
value of Ꝋ1, Ꝋ2, Ꝋ3 and Ꝋ4.
(g)Plot a graph of tan Ꝋ against I.
(h)Find the slope s of the graph.
(i)Calculate the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field intensity, Hh
from Hh= 2Rs/N where R is the mean radius of the circular coil, N is the number of
turns of the coil.

Physics practical
Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 48
Investigation of the interaction between two magnetic fields.

Apparatus: 2-1.5V dry cells in a holder, 1 rheostat (0-5Ω),1 switch, 1 0-2.5A

ammeter, 1 wooden block of same height as that of center of the tangent
galvanometer coil, 1 bar magnet
(a)Connect the coil of the variable tangent galvanometer (TG) in series with a
resistance, an ammeter and an accumulator as shown.
(b)Set the coil of the tangent galvanometer along the magnetic meridian.
(c)Close switch K.
(d)Adjust the current through the coil of the tangent galvanometer so that the
magnetic needle at the center of the coil is deflected through about 500. Read and
record the deflections Ꝋ1 and Ꝋ2 of the two ends of the pointer. Find mean deflection
Ꝋ.
(e)Bring up the magnet supported on a wooden block and in the end on position
along the axis of the coil to such a position that the deflections of the ends of the
pointer are reduced to zero. Note the distance, d(cm), of the center of the magnet
from the center of the coil.
(f)Remove the magnet.
(g)Repeat procedures (d) to (f) for values of Ꝋ of about 400, 350, 300, 250, and 200.
(h)Tabulate your results including values of log10 (10tanꝊ) and log 10d.

(i)Plot a graph of log10(tanꝊ) versus log10d.

Physics practical
(j)Find the slope of the graph.

Physics practical
 EXPERIMENT 49
Comparison of resistivities of two materials in form of wires.
Apparatus: 2-1.5V dry cells in a holder, 1 switch, 1 2.0Ω resistor, 100cm of SWG 28
constantan wire, 100cm of SWG 28 nichrome wire, 1 0-2A ammeter

(a)Connect the circuit shown, starting with a length of 70.0cm of wire A.

(b)Close switch K.
(c)Read and record the current, a, flowing through the ammeter.
(d)Open switch K.
(e)Repeat procedures (a) to (d) for lengths of wire A of 60.0, 50.0, 40.0, 30.0 and
20.0cm.
(f)Disconnect wire A and connect wire B in its place starting with lengths I =70.0cm.
(g)Close switch K.
(h)Read and record current, (b) flowing through the ammeter.
(i)Open switch K.
(j)Repeat procedures (f) to (i) for lengths of 60.0, 50.0, 40.0, 30.0, and 20.0cm.
(k)Connect a length of I=70.0cm of wire in series with an equal length of wire B.
(l)Close switch K.
(m)Read and record current c flowing through the ammeter.
(n)Open switch K.
(o)Repeat procedures (k) to (n) for lengths of 60.0, 50.0, 40.0, 30.0, and 20.0 of each
wire.

Physics practical
 11 1 1 1 1 1
(p)Tabulate your results, including values of , , , ( − 𝑎) and (𝑐 − 𝑏)
𝑐 𝑏 𝑎 𝑐

(q)Plot a graph of 1/b versus 1/a.

(r)Find the slope s of the graph.
1 1 1 1
(s)Plot a graph of (𝑐 − 𝑎) versus (𝑐 − 𝑏)

(t)Find the slope s2 of the graph.

Physics practical
Physics practical
 Physics practical

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