ME-461, Manufacturing System

Technology, Lecture 1
Instructors: Shantanu Bhattacharya
J. Ramkumar, Ashish Dutta

My Contact Details:
Shantanu Bhattacharya
NL115X, Manufacturing Science Laboratory, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, IIT Kanpur
Email: [email protected]
Tel.: 0512-259-6056
 Manufacturing Systems Approach
Definition of Manufacturing Technology:

•Manufacturing technology provides the tools that enable production of all

manufactured goods. These master tools of industry magnify the effort of
individual workers and give an industrial nation the power to turn raw materials
into the affordable, quality goods essential to today’s society.
•Manufacturing technology provides the productive tools that power a growing,
stable economy and a rising standard of living. Thus manufacturing process really
represents adding value to a raw material and creation of wealth.
Replenish

Sales Production rate,

fluctuations quality and
Manufacturing delivery
Raw materials cost and
Manufacturing availability System
Business Profit
Facility Add environment
comprising of
Value Social Pressure manufacturing Reputation
Output Input processes
Resources and
plans

Wealth Manufacturing
Process is the key
to wealth
generation
 Manufacturing Enterprise
• For a manufacturing enterprise of the twenty first century business environment
the customer is the king.
•The business environment is characterized mainly by products of increasing
variety and lower demand.
•This has led to the empowerment of Customer individualism as a central
theme of all businesses.
•This necessitates the manufacturing of highly customized products
sometimes customized to the needs and necessities of individual customers.

•Historically the 1970’s were dominated by the cost of product as a main lever
to obtain competitive supremacy.
•Later 1980’s were dominated by the low cost, high performance, high
quality product.
•Currently, the customer takes high quality and low cost to be granted and is
more focused to other factors like:
1. Finding out his exact product expectation and requirement
(customization)
2. Reduced delivery lead times.
3. Environmental issues like reduced waste generation etc.
 Manufacturing Enterprise
• So the current focus of any manufacturing enterprise is to
develop a mechanism to understand the customer needs
and develop internal mechanisms to respond to the
changing needs quickly and inexpensively.
• So most of the factories follow the reverse direction thinking
that build products from customer needs and expectations.

• In other words we can say that a future successful

manufacturing organization will be a virtual corporation that
is instantaneously responsive to customer needs. (Industry
consortium on twenty first century manufacturing , Goldman
and Priess)
 Manufacturing Enterprise
• We know how the various
functional organs of any
manufacturing enterprise
such as finance, sales and
marketing, design and
manufacturing and human
resources receives feedback
about product, product
attributes and market
segments.

• That is also one of the

reasons why customer plays a
pivotal role.

• Corporate objectives such as growth in market share, profitability,

workforce stability, and other financial measures associated with any
manufacturing enterprise emanate from the study of the market place.
 What can marketing identify which would help the
manufacturing enterprise?
• Range of products, product market segment, product ideas to satisfy
customer needs.
• Can a company deliver the kinds of products needed to satisfy the order
winning criteria such as cost, quality, lead time and so on?
• The answer to this question would lie in product design and
manufacturing which explores the various design and process options as
well as assesses the infrastructure to see if they can satisfy the order
winning criteria.
• Obviously , the human resources, technology, finance, and business
processes in the company play a major role in answering this question and
their interaction with manufacturing is very important.
• So, a manufacturing strategy is really a collaborative decision making
that should satisfy everybody’s needs and necessities and is also a way to
achieve congruence between corporate strategy, marketing goals and
manufacturing capabilities of an enterprise.
 Product design process
• Contemporary design is a highly sophisticated process and it requires the involvement of not
only design engineers but also personnel from the departments of manufacturing, finance,
marketing, and so on.
• The primary input to any design process is the recognition of the fact that a need for a
product or service exists.
• The basic steps involved in the design process are (a) Problem identification (b)Preliminary
ideas (c) Refinement process (d) Analysis process (e) Decision process (f) Implementation.
(1)Problem Identification: The key to designing a
successful product lies in properly identifying the need
and the attributes of that need to which the product is
being developed.
• Therefore the problem identification process should
involve the collection of field data; conducting field
surveys and experiments; use of intuition, judgment,
and personal observation and physical
measurements.
•For example: Consider the problem of developing a
line of high quality notebook sized computers that will
eventually beat the competition. There is a need to
identify the characteristics of the product that will be
successful in a highly competitive market.
For example the design product should be light in weight, highly portable, self contained, and sized to fit in
a briefcase, have a standard keyboard layout feel, and have a compatible operating system, among many
other features.
 Product Design Steps
(2) Preliminary Ideas: Once the problem domain has been identified, the
second phase is to generate as many ideas as possible. Brainstorming
sessions should be used to generate solutions to the present problem that
may revolutionize present methods. For example: in case of notebook
sized computers, consider the possibility of technological choices in very
large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits; materials choices and design
complexities for price competitiveness; and choices for making the
product reliable, testable and producible.
(3) Refinement Process: During the refinement process, several good ideas
are pursued, using scale drawings to determine their merits in terms of
space requirements, critical measurements, dimensions of structural
members, and interactions of surfaces and planes.
(4) Analysis Process: The analysis phase is concerned with the evaluation of
best designs from the point of view of a number of criteria such as cost,
functional requirements, and marketability. Other engineering tools such
as finite element methods and assembly analysis tools should be used to
evaluate alternative designs from the functionality point of view.
 Product Design Steps
(5) Decision Process: Most often a product is ultimately manufactured using a
single design. Therefore there has to be a decision phase of the design
process wherein a design that has all desirable characteristics is selected
with the following attributes:
(a)Manufacturable at minimum cost.
(b)Design with all desirable quality built-in.
(c) Design that can be quickly manufactured to make the product avialable to
the customers faster.
(6) Implementation process: This step is essentially a detailed design phase.
The detailed specifications of materials, dimensions, tolerances, and
surface roughness should be provided. The idea is to make the drawings to
be used directly for developing process plan so that the product can be
manufactured.
 A historical perspective of Design
1. Design and manufacturing are core activities for realizing a marketable and profit making
product.
2. The figure below shows the evolution of mechanical CAD/CAM systems over the past three
decades. CAD technology emerged to facilitate representation completeness.
3. First there was the development of 2-D
drafting in 1960s which extended to 3D
models principaly initiated by the wireframe
based modeling systems. However, it was
not possible to represent higher order
geometry data such as surfaces.
4. In 1970 surface based models were
developed which evolved surface data
for boundary representations although
this was not sufficient to represent solid
or volume enclosure information.
5. All solid modeling schemes have an
inherent weakness in that they provide a
low level representation of parts in terms of
only providing geometric and topological
data constituting the model

6. This led to a slightly higher order modeling of parametric and variational design which
finally emerged as knowledge based engineering system that captures a lot of
additional non geometric product information like engineering rules, part
dependences, manufacturing constraints etc.
 Modern manufacturing
• Definitionaly modern manufacturing is a series of interrelated activities and
operations involving design, material selection, planning, production, quality
assurance, management, and marketing of discreet consumer and durable goods.
• Manufacturing can be classified into continuous and discreet product production
processes and we will be principally focusing on the discreet production
technology.
• The modern manufacturing being very sensitive to the customer want and need
and the market environment is a combination of attributes of mass production
and job shop production.
• Such systems having attributes from both are known as flexible manufacturing
systems.
• They rely heavily on CNC equipment, AGVS, ROBOTS and group technology
approaches which rely heavily on similarities in part production by virtue of their
design attributes and manufacturing features.
 A historical perspective of modern
manufacturing
• The concept of a factory and productivity improvement is really attributed to the
father of modern day economics , a Scotish national Adam Smith whose famous work
on the division of labor entitled “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth
of Nations.” was one of the first treatises in 1776 on modern day economics and
capitalism.
• Development of the flow assembly line system for engine manufacturing by Henry
Ford in 1913 was a giant leap towards the modern day manufacturing.

• Some other philosophers like Frank Gilbreth who developed the concept of motion
study and elimination of wasteful motions and Henry Gantt who developed a
systematic graphing procedure for preplanning, scheduling of activities and progress
review and schedule updating.
• In the area of machines G.C. Devol developed a controller device in 1946 that could
record electrical signals magnetically and play them back to operate a mechanical
machine. A no. of interesting developments have taken place since then in the area of
machine tools.
 Numerically Controlled Machines:
A historical Perspective
• The first successful numerical machine tool was developed at MIT under a
subcontract from Parsons Corporation, Michigan on Air force funding in 1950.
• Automatic tool changers and indexing worktables were added in 1960s.
• During this period the concept of DNC (direct numeric control) in which several
NC machines are linked to a main computer was developed.
• Control system development in 1971 was the next milestone which lead to the
development of microcontroller controlled NC machines also called CNC
machines.
• The major advantage of a CNC machine was in its ability to store part programs
and also interact with other controllers or central computer which led to the
development of distributed NC systems wherein several CNC machines would be
connected to a central host computer.
• The power of the NC machines were further enhanced in 1980 by making them
capable of carrying hundreds of tools, having multiple spindles and controlling
movements upto 6 axis.
 Material Handling Systems
• Material handling is an integral part of any manufacturing system.
• Manufacturing system performance can be significantly improved by
using computer controlled material flow , which reduces waiting time
and work in process inventory compared with manual loading and
unloading and manual material handling systems.
• To this end the development in floor mounted and over head roller
conveyors, stacker cranes and automated guided vehicles have
contributed substantially to smooth material flow in factory floors.
• Through a system of PLCs, computer network, material handling systems,
material storage systems and machine tools can be integrated to
configure an automated manufacturing system.
 ROBOTICS
• The word was satirically used for the first time in the play “Rossum’s
Universal Robots” written by Karel Capek in 1921 and indicated forced
labor.
• Since then robotics has really witnessed a series of technological changes.
• The technology for the current generation of industrial robots was
developed simultaneously by C.W. Kenward in Great Britain in 1954 and
G.C. Devol in United States.
• The first computer type robot programming language was developed a
Stanford Research Institute in 1973 wherein the language AL was
developed.
• Nowadays robots are used for a variety of applications like painting,
welding, material handling and assembly.
 Objectives of this course
• The main goal of the above is to learn how collaborative decision making happens
to formulate a design and manufacturing plan which is prinicipally built
considering aspects like product and process definition and capability,
manufacturing planning and control, and factory automation strategies.
• In doing so it is very important to have a thorough understanding of the concepts
of design and manufacturing technology and management and also other
functional areas like finance, marketing and sales, personal etc.
• The focus of this course would be limited to the design and manufacturing
technologies enabling the functioning of a successful manufacturing enterprise.
• Accordingly we would discuss some concepts of Computer aided design,
Computer aided process planning, Computer aided manufacturing, quality
engineering, automated material handling, manufacturing planning and control,
Lean manufacturing and Flexible manufacturing.
 Topics to be covered
(Computer Aided Design, CAD)
1. The Product Design Process
• Problem identification, Preliminary ideas, refinement process, analysis
process, decision process, Implementation process
2. Computer Aided Design
3. A brief history of CAD
4. CAD/CAM system
• Mainframe based systems, Minicomputer based systems, Workstation
based systems, Microcomputer based systems
5. CAD system Input-Output Devices
6. Selection of CAD/ CAM systems
7. Computer graphics and transformations
• Geometric transformation, homogeneous representation, Composition
of transformations
 Topics to be covered
(Geometric Modeling)
1. Introduction to geometric modeling.
2. Why is knowledge of geometric Modeling Necessary?
3. Geometric Modeling Approaches
4. Wireframe Modeling
• Limitations of wireframe modeling, Wireframe Entities,
Analytic curves, Representation of curves, Nonparametric
representation of curves, Parametric representation of
curves, Synthetic curves, Parametric representation of
Synthetic curves, Hermite cubic spline, Bezier curves, B-
Spline, Rotational B-Spline and non uniform rotational B-
Spline curves, Curve manipulations.
5. Surface modeling
• Surface entities, surface representations
 Topics to be covered
(Computer Aided Process Planning)
1. Overview of manufacturing processes
• Turning Operations, Drilling Operations, Milling Operations, Grinding Operations
2. What is Process Planning?
3. Basic steps in developing a Process Plan
• Analysis of part requirements, Selection of Raw work-piece, Determining
manufacturing operations and their sequences, selection of machine tools,
Selection of tools, work-holding devices, inspection equipments etc.,
determining machining conditions and manufacturing times.
4. The principle process planning approaches
• Manual experience based planning methods, computer aided process planning
method.
5. Variant and generative process planning systems.
6. Feature recognition in computer aided process planning
 Topics to be covered
(Automated material handling and storage systems)
1. What is a material handling system?
2. Principles of material handling
3. Material Handling Equipment
4. Automated Guided Vehicle Systems
• The components of an AGVS, The types of AGVS, AGVS Guidance Systems, AGVS
steering control, AGVS routing, AGVS control systems, Interface with other
Subsystems, AGVS load transfer, AGVS design features, System design of
automated guided vehicle systems, advantages of AGVSs over other material
handling systems, applications of AGVSs.
5. Automated storage and retrieval systems
• Functions of storage systems and definitions of AS/RS
• AS/RS components and terminology used
• Why an AS/RS ,Types of AS/RS, Design of AS/RS
6. Conveyors.
 Topics to be Covered
(Quality Engineering)
• Quality engineering, Statistical Process Control and
automated inspection systems:
1. Understanding the meaning of Quality.
2. Dimensions of Quality.
3. Quality Costs (Prevention costs, Appraisals cost, Internal
failure cost, External failure cost)
4. Framework for quality improvement.
5. Failure mode effect analysis.
6. Improving product quality during the production phase.
7. Automated Inspection (on-line/ in- process and post
process inspection method).
 Topics to be Covered
(Japanese Manufacturing Systems)
• Just in Time manufacturing systems
1. Toyota production system: An overview (components of the Toyota Production system, Three M’s)
2. Pull versus Push systems.
3. Types of Kanban (withdrawal kanban, production kanban, flow of withdrawal and production kanbans
and their interactions, preconditions for operating kanbans)
4. Kanban planning and control models (determining the number of kanbans: a deterministic model, a
probabilistic cost model for determining optimal number of kanbans, relationship between JIT
manufacturing, setup time and cost).
5. Signal Kanban , Express kanban, Emergency kanban, through kanban.
6. Level schedules for mixed model assembly lines (a mathematical model to obtain level schedules).
7. Alternate JIT systems (periodic pull system, constant work in process system, long pull system).
8. Just in time purchasing.
9. Total quality control and JIT (TQC responsibilities, Principles of Quality, Quality culture)
10. Barriers to JIT implementation.
11. Potential benefits of JIT implementation.
 Topics to be Covered
(Manufacturing planning and control systems)
1. A basic framework for a manufacturing planning and Control system.
2. Demand management (demand forecasting)
3. Aggregate production planning (a mathematical model).
4. Master production schedule.
5. Rough cut capacity planning.
6. Material requirements planning (product structure and bill of materials,
Independent versus dependent demand, parts explosion, gross requirements of
component items, Common use items, on hand inventory, scheduled receipts
and net requirements).
7. MRP lot sizing.
8. Capacity planning.
9. Order release.
10. Shop floor control (bar code systems for shop floor, operations scheduling, job
sequencing and priority rules, comparison of various scheduling rules)
 Topics to be covered
• Concurrent Engineering:
• (a)Basics of Concurrent engineering (b) sequential versus concurrent engineering
(c) Purpose of concurrent engineering (d) mathematical model for understanding
interactions between design and manufacturing (e) Characterization of concurrent
engineering environment (f) A framework for integration of Life cycle phases in a
concurrent engineering environment (g) Quality function deployment
• Computer Numeric Control

• Introduction to automation, features of numerical control machine tools; Numerical

control part programming; Control loops for numerical control systems;
Computerized numerical control; Adaptive control systems; Industrial robots;
Automatic identification and data capture; Automated production lines and
automated assembly systems.
 Topics to be covered
Automated material handling and storage systems:
(a)Principles of material handling (b) Material handling equipment (c)Automated
guided vehicle systems (d) Types of AGV’s (e) AGVS Towing vehicles (f) AGVS unit
Load transporters (g) AGVS pallet trucks (h) AGVS forklift trucks (i) AGVS light load
transporters (j) AGVS assembly line vehicles (k) AGVS guidance systems (l) AGVS
flow-path design (m) automated storage and retrieval systems (n) A distributed
computer control architecture for AGVSs and AS/ RSs (o) Conveyors.
Robotic Systems:

(a)Industrial robots (b) Robotic technology (c) The robotic joints (d) Robot
classification and reach (e) Robot motion analysis: Forward and backward
kinematic transformation (f) Robot programming and languages (g) Robot
selection (h) Robot applications
 Evaluation Criteria and Method
Evaluation Criteria:
1 Midterm, Final examination and Project/Assignment.
S.No. Criteria
1 Midterm 35 marks
2 Final Exam 55 marks
3 Project/ assignments 10 marks

Total Lecture Hours = 40 to be shared by Dr. Shantanu

Bhattacharya, Dr. Ramkumar and Dr. Ashish Dutta
 Important points
•Attendance in classes is very important for
continuity of understanding. Topics discussed
are related and understanding of one topic
may depend on prior learnt topics and
whatever is covered in the class would be
thoroughly evaluated in the term paper.
•No duplication of each others work is
permissible in assignments. Grading will be
done based on originality of the answers as
per instructor discretion.
 Books and references
• Computer integrated design and manufacturing,
Nanua Singh, John Wiley and sons, Inc.
• M.P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing, John Wiley& Sons Inc., 2010.
• “Statistical Quality Control” by Eugene L. Grant and
Richard S. Leavenworth, Tata Mcgraw Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi.
• “Elementary Statistical Quality Control”, Irving W.
Burr, Marcel Dekker Inc.
ME-461, Manufacturing
Technology, Lecture 2

Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya

 Computer aided design
• A large no. of factors are responsible for the success
of any engineering organization.
• Engineering design of products and processes is one
of the most critical factors for success.
• Understanding of the design process and the
computer aided design tool CAD is required to realize
a producible product design.
• Computer graphics play an important role in the
product development process by generating
presenting and manipulating geometric models.
 A brief history of CAD
• Automotive and aerospace industries have been at the
forefront of development of CAD technology.
• Its origin however can be traced back to Ivan Sutherlands
thesis in 1963 describing a system called sketch pad.
• The system known as sketch pad is now known as interactive
graphics and was developed under the SAGE (semi automatic
ground environment) project.
• It helped change the radar information into computer
integrated pictures and allowed the flexibility of choosing the
information by pointing a light pen at the desired location on
the cathode ray tube display.
 CAD/CAM systems
• A wide variety of CAD/CAM systems are currently avialable.
• Essentially a CAD system comprises of three major components:
Hardware, which includes computer and input/output devices, application
software, and the operating system software.
• The operating systems software act as the interface between the
hardware and the CAD application software system.
• The classification scheme we use in this
section is based on hardware of the system.

•More specifically, we classify systems by the

host computer that drives the system.

•Generally, CAD/CAM systems are classified

into four types:
1. Mainframe Based systems
2. Minicomputer based systems
3. Workstation based systems
4. Microcomputer based systems
 Mainframe based system
• When large engineering projects are involved mainframe based systems are
preferred. The organization of such systems are shown below.
•Two major computer system environments
in such a system are the user environment
and the system environment.
•The user environment includes workstations
and peripherals such as printers and
plotters.
•The number of workstations is limited by the
capacity of the host computer so as to
permit a system desired system response
time.
•The main segments of a workstation are
input and output devices.
•Input devices include cursor control devices
for graphic input and a keyboard containing
programmed function keys for text input.
•The light pen, joystick, mouse, stylus on a
digital tablet are commonly used for
controlling the cursor.
Input output devices
Introduction to Geometric Transformation

• Computer graphics plays an important role in

the product development process by
generating, presenting, and manipulating
geometric models of objects.
• During the product development process, for
proper understanding of designs, it is
necessary not only to generate geometric
models of objects but also to perform such
manipulations on these objects as rotation,
translation and scaling.
 Introduction to Geometric transformation
• Essentially, computer graphics is concerned with generating,
presenting and manipulating models of an object and its
different views using computer hardware, software and
graphic devices.
• Usually the numerical data generated by a computer at very
high speeds is hard to interpret unless one represents the
data in graphic format and it is even better if the graphic can
be manipulated to be viewed from different sides, enlarged or
reduced in size.
• Geometric transformation is one of the basic techniques that
is used to accomplish these graphic functions involving scale
change, translation to another location or rotating it by a
certain angle to get a better view of it.
 Geometric Transformation
• Two dimensional transformation:
 2-D transformation

Example : In the figure above, suppose the initial coordinates of vertices A,B,C are (1,3), (4,5),
and (5,3.5), respectively. Determine the coordinates of new vertices A’, B’ and C’ after
translating the triangle by a distance D= [7, -2]T (where T represents transpose). Verify that the
lengths of the edges of the triangle are unchanged.
2-D transformation
 2-D transformation
• Scaling

Example: From the figure on the right, show that the

length of the edge A’B’ is equal to three times that of
AB after scaling the object uniformly by factor 3.
2-D transformation
Rotation:
Rotation in 2D space is defined as moving any
point (x,y) of an object to a new position by
rotating it through a given angle θ about some
reference point. Positive angles are measured
counterclockwise from x to y. The mathematical
expression for the rotating transformation is not
as obvious as the formulas for translation and
scaling
 2-D transformation (Rotation)

Example: Determine the new position of

object A placed on a round holding table after
the table has been rotated by 35 deg.

Solution:
 3-D transformation
• 3-D transformations are similar to 2-D transformations in both definition
and derivation. We provide 3-D transformations in matrix form as follows:

Translation: In this case we translate a point V(x,y,z) by (dx, dy, dz) to point
V’(x’,y’, z’). This can be expressed in matrix form as
 Homogeneous transformation
• Although the 2D and 3D transformations
presented in the previous sections have
obvious geometric meaning it is not efficient
or economical to implement them on a
computer.
• This is because translation involves the
addition of matrices whereas scaling and
rotation involves multiplication.
• It is however possible to implement a scheme
involving only multiplication which would
simplify the transformation process.
Homogeneous Transformation
 Composition of Transformation
• In practice, series of transformations may have to be applied
to an object.
• The techniques for combining series of transformation are
very useful in these cases.
• The final process of composition is accomplished by
multiplying [H] matrix of various compositions. The process is
also known are compounding or concatenation of [H].

V’= [Hn] [Hn-1] …………. [H1] V

Where n refers to the nth transformation in sequence.

 Example
Consider the 3D object
shown on the left. The
coordinates of the vertices
are given as follows:

A= [3,5,3]
B=[7,5,3]
C=[7,5,5]
D=[3,5,5]
E=[3,6,5]
F=[3,6,3]

Rotate the 3D object by 30

deg. In clockwise direction
at point D about the y-axis.
Solution
Solution
Solution
Manufacturing Technology
(ME461), Lecture 3

Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya

 Geometric Modeling
• Geometric modeling is concerned with defining
geometric objects using computational geometry.
• The product may be defined with various geometric
modeling system like a simple wireframe model, a
surface model or a solid model for proper
representation.
• Basic computational geometric methods for defining
simple entities such as curves, surfaces, and solids are
needed.
• Also, important are the various data transfer schemes
such as Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES),
Product data exchange standard (PDES), and Drawing
Exchange File Format (DXF).
 Geometric Modeling Approaches
• In traditional drawing practices, an object is represented by a number of views in
two dimensions. (At-least three views)
• However, the basic mental functions in developing these multi-view drawings are
still performed by the draftsman or designer.
• Also, traditional drawing does not support subsequent applications such as finite
element analysis or NC programming.
• To try to overcome these problems,
a number of methods have been
developed over the past two
decades.
•In these methods, a 3D model of the
part is created directly.
•Then 2D view drawing can be
generated by computer.
 Wireframe Modeling
• Wireframe is one of the most basic methods of
geometric modeling in which the representation of
entities are made by lines, arcs and circles, conics,
and other types of curves utilizing light pen,
keyboard, mouse and so on interactively via the CRT.
• A hardcopy of the drawing in obtained by use of a
printer or plotter.
• Wireframe model uses points, curves (i.e., lines,
circles, arcs), and so forth to define objects.
• For example, a user may, with three dimensional
(3D) wireframe models, enter 3D vertices, say (x,y,z)
and then join the vertices to form 3D object.
 Limitations of a wireframe model
•From the point of view of engineering applications,
it is not possible to calculate volume and mass
properties of a design. Other applications, such as NC
path generation, cross-sectioning, and interference
detection, also encounter problems when wireframe
modeling is used.
•In wireframe representation, the virtual edges
(profile or silhouette) are not usually provided. For
example, a cylinder is represented by three edges,
that is two circles and one straight line.[Fig. 3.3(b)]

•There are many wireframe representation

schemes. However, ambiguous representations
of real objects may be created. For example the
wire frame model in the Figure 3.3(a) maybe
thought of as a box or an inward corner.
•The creation of wireframe models usually
involves more user effort to input necessary
information than that of solid models,
especially for large and complex parts.
 Wireframe Entities
• Wireframe models
consist of only points
and lines, which are
basic entities of these
models.
• Some basic geometric
methods of defining
points, lines, arcs,
circles, ellipses and
parabolas are
mentioned here.
• Wireframe entities are
divided into two cat.-
Analytic and synthetic

Methods of defining
points
Methods
of
defining
lines
Methods
of
defining
circles
and arcs
Methods
of
defining
Ellipses
and
parabolas
 Example problem
• For the object shown
in figure on the left and
its wireframe version
create the following

1.The model database

utilizing a CAD/CAM.
2.Orthographic views
of the model.
 Solution
• The model database is created as follows:
1. To create the wireframe of this part, we have to use the line command to draw
all the lines. There are, however, many ways in which we can draw this object.
The most effective way is to draw the 2D profile of the part and then sweep it
across a space distance in the direction perpendicular to the profile plane to
create the 3-D.
2. To create the profile we may try different points and define a method that in
turn defines the line segments of the profile. In this case it is appropriate to
define each point by incremental methods using the dimension of the part
directly.
3. After the sweeping profile of the 3D model is
created, we define the sweeping distance, which
is the width of the part. When this is done, the
computer creates the 3D model of the base of the
part, that is, the part without the pocket and
holes.
4. The procedure outlined in the earlier steps can
be repeated for the pocket and holes.
5. The final step is to create the two holes. Use of
some edit commands such as array , rotate, or
mirror is an efficient way to duplicate holes.
 Representation of Curves
• We now discuss the representation schemes
of curves. In CAD/ CAM systems, usually
thousands of curves or lines are stored and
manipulated.
• Mathematically curves can be represented by
parametric and non-parametric equations.
• Mathematically both methods are equivalent
although the solution of a particular problem
may be much greater with one method than
the other.
 Non parametric representation of
Curves.
• In engineering applications both plane curves (2-D) and space curves (3-D) are used to
represent the various engineering objects.
• These can be defined by non-parametric equations which we call the non-parametric
representation of curves.
• For example, a 2D straight line can be defined as y=x+1. This equation defines the x and y
coordinates of each point without the assistance of extra parameters.
• This equation is called the nonparametric equation of straight line.
 Non parametric representation
(Explicit case)
• Non parametric equations of curves can be further divided
into explicit and implicit nonparametric equations. The explicit
non parametric representation of general two dimensional
and three dimensional curves taken the form:
 Non parametric representation
(Implicit case)
• The implicit non parametric representation of a general n-dimensional
space curve takes the form:

• This equation must b solved analytically to

obtain the explicit form, which is not easily done
by computer.
 Parametric Representation of
curves
• Parametric representation of curves involves a parameter ‘t’ which is used to
define x and y coordinates as:
x= X(t), y= Y(t), and z=Z(t).
• The value of the parameter ‘t’ can be either bounded by the minimum (Tmin) and
maximum (Tmax) range of the normalized range between 0 and 1.
• The parameterization enables us to obtain the x, y, z coordinates of points on the
curves by directly substituting the values of the parameter ‘t’.

The vector V(t) =[x,y,z]T = [X(t), Y(t), Z(t)]T , Tmin < t < Tmax

Where V(t) is the point vector and t is the parameter of the equation.
For example, for the curve given by V(t), we have

V’(t) = [X’(t), Y’(t), Z’(t)]T , Tmin < t < Tmax

 Example Problem
• Develop the parametric line equations from
non parametric equation of a line. Using
resulting equations, find the slopes.
Solution
Example Problem
Develop the non
parametric
equation for the
2A ellipse as shown
in the figure on
the left.
Solution

2A
 Representation of Curves
• We now discuss the representation schemes of
curves. In CAD/ CAM systems, usually thousands
of curves or lines are stored and manipulated.
• Mathematically curves can be represented by
parametric and non-parametric equations.
• Mathematically both methods are equivalent
although the solution of a particular problem
may be much greater with one method than the
other.
 Bezier Curves
• The Hermite curve discussed in the previous
section is based on interpolation techniques.
• On the contrary, Bezier curves are based on
approximation techniques that produce curves
which do not pass through all the given data
points except the first and the last control point.
• A Bezier curve does not require first order
derivative; the shape of the curve is controlled by
control points.
 Bezier Curves
• As in the previous section, we consider here
one segment of the curve.
• For n+1 control points, the Bezier curve is
defined by a polynomial of degree n as
follows:
 Bezier Curves

Here V0, V1, ……. Vn are position vectors of n+1 points (V0, V1, ……. Vn in Figure 3.19)
that form the so-called characteristic polygon of the curve segment.
 Properties of Bezier Curves
• The curves pass through the first and
last control points (V0 and Vn from the
preceding function) at parameter
values 0 and 1. In the figure on the left
the starting point V1’ of the second
line and the endpoint V4 of the first
line have the same position.

• The tangents at the first and last points are in the directions of the first and last segments
of the characteristic polygon. This can easily be seen:

V’(0) = n [V(1)-V(0)], V’(1) = n [V(n)-V(n-1)]

Where [V(1) – V(0)] and [V(n)-V(n-1)] define the first and last segments of the curve
polygon. This implies that by aligning the last control point of the first Bezier curve
segment, the connection point, and the first control point of the next curve segment will
result in C1 continuity between the two curve segments.
Proof of the V’(0) and V’(1) values
• The Bezier curve has
the convex hull
property. By convex hull
property we mean that
the entire curve lies
within the characteristic
polygon. This property is
useful when curve
intersection and spatial
bounds on the curve
segments are
calculated.
 Example problem
• Develop the equation of a Bezier curve, find
the points on the curve for t = 0, ¼, ½, ¾, and
1, and plot the curve for the following data.
The coordinates of the four control points are
given by:
• V0 = [0,0,0], V1= [0,2,0], V2= [4,2,0], V3=
[4,0,0]
Solution
 B-Spline, Rational B-Spline, and Non
uniform rational B-Spline curves
• The B-Spline is considered a generalization of the
Bezier curve.
• Local control is an interesting feature of B-Spline
curves which implies that any change in the local
control point affects only part of the curve.

• Rational B-splines are

generalizations of B-Splines.
Interestingly, an RBS has an added
parameter (called a weight)
associated with each control point
to control the behavior of the
curve.
 Surface Modeling
• In wireframe modeling, we take advantage of the simplicity of
certain surfaces. For example a plane is represented by its
boundaries. We say nothing about the middle of the plane,
which is fine because we known that the middle of a plane is
till a plane.
• It is common knowledge that the shapes of the cars, aircrafts
and ships are very complex and do not consist of simple and
regular geometric shapes. So, it is not easy to represent them
by wireframe models and so surface modeling is prefered.
• Surface modeling system contains definition of surfaces,
edges and vertices. It contains all the information that a
wireframe does and in addition it also contains the
information of how the two surfaces connect to each other.
 Surface entities
Plane surface:
A plane surface is the simplest
surface that is defined by three
non coincident points or its
variation.
Ruled Surface:
A ruled surface can be defined as
the linear interpolation between
two general curves. Informally
the straight lines connecting the
two rails form the surface.
Surface of revolution: This surface is generated by rotating a planar curve in space
about an axis at a certain angle.
Tabulated cylinder: This surface is generated by sweeping a planar curve in space in a
certain direction at a certain distance. In the example above a straight line sweeps about
a path that is circle and forms the surface. The straight line is called the generatrix and
the circle is the directrix.
Hermitian surface and Bezier surface: Bezier and B-spline surfaces are both synthetic
surfaces. Like synthetic curves a synthetic surface approximates the given input data.
The Bezier and B-Spline surfaces are also formed in the same manner as the 2D
curves.
Manufacturing Technology
(ME461), Lecture 4

• Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya

 Parametric Representation of
Synthetic curves
• Analytic curves, are usually well defined and studied.
• However, in the geometric design of mechanical
parts, some other curves are required.
• One familiar example is the car body which contains
curves which not only envelop inside the mechanical
part but also help reduce air resistance.
• Other examples might include fuselage, wings, and
propeller blades of airplanes, whose shape is based
on aerodynamic and fluid flow simulation.
 Parametric representation of synthetic curve

• Generally speaking, a good

representation of
engineering objects has to
have the following
properties:
1. Easy to control the
continuity of the curves to
be designed.
2. Requires less storage to
represent a curve.
3. Less computation time and
no computational
problems.
4. Easy to input by user.
Types of synthetic curves
• Hermite cubic spline
• Bezier cruves
• B-Spline curves
• Rational B-Splines
• Nonuniform rational B-Spline
Hermite Cubic Spline
• The main idea of the Hermite cubic spline is that a curve is divided into
segments. Each segment is approximated by an expression, namely a
parametric cubic function.
• The reasons for using cubic functions to approximate the segments are:
1. A cubic polynomial is the minimum order polynomial function that
generates C0 , C1 , C2 continuity curves.
2. Higher order polynomials have some drawbacks, such as oscillation
about control points, and are uneconomical in terms of storing
information and computation.
Derivation of the
parameter equation
• This form can be adjusted to yield
various shapes of curve segment by
altering one or more of V(0), V(1), V’(0)
and V’(1) appropriately.

•The Hermite form of a cubic spline is

determined by defining positions and
tangent vectors at the data points.

There are some disadvantages of this

method. For example,

1. First order derivatives are needed; it is

not convenient for a designer to
provide first order derivative.
2. The order of the curve is constant
regardless of the no,. of data points.
Example Problem
• Determine and plot the equation of Hermite form of a cubic spline
form given position vectors and slopes at the data points with vector
magnitude equal to 1.

Point 1: A= [1,2]T, slope A= 60 deg.

Point 2: B= [1,3]T, slope B = 30 deg.
Solution
Solution
Solution
Solution

1
Example problem
• On changing the tangent vector of the curve, the
shape of the curve changes accordingly. Using the
data given in the last problem, a plot can be made
given that the magnitude of the tangent vector
equals 1,2,3,6 and 12 respectively.
Following the procedure of the earlier example we
can find the Hermite curve family equations with
different magnitude of tangent vectors. The plots
are following:
Manufacturing Technology (ME461),
Lecture 5
Date: 11/01/2024

Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya

 Bezier Curves
• The Hermite curve discussed in the previous
section is based on interpolation techniques.
• On the contrary, Bezier curves are based on
approximation techniques that produce curves
which do not pass through all the given data
points except the first and the last control point.
• A Bezier curve does not require first order
derivative; the shape of the curve is controlled by
control points.
 Bezier Curves
• As in the previous section, we consider here
one segment of the curve.
• For n+1 control points, the Bezier curve is
defined by a polynomial of degree n as
follows:
 Bezier Curves

Here V0, V1, ……. Vn are position vectors of n+1 points (V0, V1, ……. Vn in Figure 3.19)
that form the so-called characteristic polygon of the curve segment.
 Properties of Bezier Curves
• The curves pass through the first and
last control points (V0 and Vn from the
preceding function) at parameter
values 0 and 1. In the figure on the left
the starting point V1’ of the second
line and the endpoint V4 of the first
line have the same position.

• The tangents at the first and last points are in the directions of the first and last segments
of the characteristic polygon. This can easily be seen:

V’(0) = n [V1-V0], V’(1) = n [Vn-Vn-1]

Where [V1-V0] and [Vn-Vn-1] define the first and last segments of the curve polygon. This
implies that by aligning the last control point of the first Bezier curve segment, the
connection point, and the first control point of the next curve segment will result in C1
continuity between the two curve segments.
Proof of the V’(0) and V’(1) values
• The Bezier curve has
the convex hull
property. By convex hull
property we mean that
the entire curve lies
within the characteristic
polygon. This property is
useful when curve
intersection and spatial
bounds on the curve
segments are
calculated.
 Example problem
• Develop the equation of a Bezier curve, find
the points on the curve for t = 0, ¼, ½, ¾, and
1, and plot the curve for the following data.
The coordinates of the four control points are
given by:
• V0 = [0,0,0], V1= [0,2,0], V2= [4,2,0], V3=
[4,0,0]
Solution
Manufacturing Technology (ME461),
Lecture 6 and 7
Date: 11 and 12/01/2024

Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya

 B-Spline, Rational B-Spline, and Non
uniform rational B-Spline curves
• The B-Spline is considered a generalization of the
Bezier curve.
• Local control is an interesting feature of B-Spline
curves which implies that any change in the local
control point affects only part of the curve.

• Rational B-splines are

generalizations of B-Splines.
Interestingly, an RBS has an added
parameter (called a weight)
associated with each control point
to control the behavior of the
curve.
 Surface Modeling
• In wireframe modeling, we take advantage of the simplicity of
certain surfaces. For example a plane is represented by its
boundaries. We say nothing about the middle of the plane,
which is fine because we known that the middle of a plane is
till a plane.
• It is common knowledge that the shapes of the cars, aircrafts
and ships are very complex and do not consist of simple and
regular geometric shapes. So, it is not easy to represent them
by wireframe models and so surface modeling is prefered.
• Surface modeling system contains definition of surfaces,
edges and vertices. It contains all the information that a
wireframe does and in addition it also contains the
information of how the two surfaces connect to each other.
 Surface entities
Plane surface:
A plane surface is the simplest
surface that is defined by three
non coincident points or its
variation.
Ruled Surface:
A ruled surface can be defined as
the linear interpolation between
two general curves. Informally
the straight lines connecting the
two rails form the surface.
Surface of revolution: This surface is generated by rotating a planar curve in space
about an axis at a certain angle.
Tabulated cylinder: This surface is generated by sweeping a planar curve in space in a
certain direction at a certain distance. In the example above a straight line sweeps about
a path that is circle and forms the surface. The straight line is called the generatrix and
the circle is the directrix.
Hermitian surface and Bezier surface: Bezier and B-spline surfaces are both synthetic
surfaces. Like synthetic curves a synthetic surface approximates the given input data.
The Bezier and B-Spline surfaces are also formed in the same manner as the 2D
curves.
 Surface representations
• In case of curves we have seen the representation of curves by
implicit/explicit equations.
• Implicit equation to describe a surface:
F(x, y, z) = 0, Its geometric meaning is that the locus of points that satisfy the
constraint equation defines the surface.
• Explicit equation to describe a surface:
V = [x,y,z]T = [x,y,f(x,y)] T where V is the position of a variable point on the
surface. In this equation, we directly define the variable point coordinates
x,y,z. The z-coordinates of the position vector of the variable points are
defined by {x,y} through a suitable function f(x,y) as shown in the figure
below.
•Comparing the equations for a 2-D curve and a 3-D
surface the only difference between a space curve
and a surface mathematically is that points on a
space curve are defined by a single degree of
freedom by that on a surface have two degrees of
freedom.
•Usually an arbitrary surface is defined in x,y with a
functional relation f(x,y) by an x-y grid with P+1.Q+1
points.
 Parametric Equation/ Representation of a Surface/
synthetic surface
• There are no extra parameters in equations represented earlier and as such these are
called non-parametric representation of equations. The corresponding equations that
utilize parameters are called parametric equations and have two degrees of freedom
and are represented as :

V(s,t) = [x,y,z]T = [X(s,t), Y(s,t), Z(s,t)]T , smin< s< smax , tmin< t< tmax

Where x,y and z are functions of two parameters ‘s’ and ‘t’.

• Hermite bicubic surface: Surfaces are normally defined in patches, each patch
corresponds to a rectangular domain in s-t space, just as we discussed the s-domain in
the previous section. Surface patches are dealt with in the same way; however, patches
are much more complicated than segments.

• Just as there is a characteristic third order equation to describe a two dimensional curve
there is a third order 16 term series used to describe the cubic parametric equation for
a surface.
Parametric representation of surface
Parametric representation of a surface
Solution
The 4 corner points of a
surface to be plotted are
A(0,0,1), B(0,2,2), C(4,0,4)
and D(4,2,3). Assume for first
iteration to generate the
surface that the slope with
respect to ‘s’ and ‘t’ at
A,B,C,D are unity and the
cross slopes are all zero. Plot
the Hermitian Patch.
 Surface Manipulations
Various surface manipulation techniques are available in CAD/CAM systems.
Displaying: The simplest and most widely used method is to display a surface by a mesh of curves.
This is usually called mesh in a CAD software. By holding one parameter constant at a time, a
mesh of curves is generated to represent a surface which are displayed. Shading of a surface are
also available in many CAD/CAM systems, which gives the displayed objects a realistic image.
Trimming and segmentation: Segmentation and trimming is essentially a problem of representing an
entity by its particular portion as required. For example, if we want to show a particular partition
of a surface on a screen or get a portrait on a printer or for editing purposes, the surface is split
first and then the required part is displayed and the rest is blanked.
Intersection: This function is usually provided in CAD/CAM systems. Various curves may result when
two general surface intersect. This also serves as a way to define a curve.
Projection: Projecting an entity onto a plane or surface is basically the problem of projecting a point
to plane or surface. When a curve or surface is projected, the point projections are performed
repeatedly. This function is used in determining shadows of entities.
Transformation: As with the curve transformation we can translate, rotate, mirror and scale a surface
in most CAD/CAM systems. To transform a surface, the control points of the surface are evaluated
and then transformed to a new position or orientation and the new object is reconstructed using
the transformed position coordinates.
 CAD/ CAM data exchange
• It is common knowledge that the primary cause of data sharing
problems between two or more systems is software
incompatibility.
• This is due to the fact that vendors of computer applications
design different proprietary formats to store the data required
and produced by their systems.
• There are two solutions one of which is to develop the systems in a
way that they are compatible with each other, in which case the
two commercial products are integrated and the second is to have
a neutral data exchange format for the purposes of data sharing.
• By neutral file, we mean that the file has a format that can be
utilized by various systems.
 Translation Strategies
• In a direct translation strategy, one translator is capable
only of translating the information of one pair of
systems.
• If we have N systems, every system has to have N-1
translators installed in order to input the database of
any other system created.
• The total no. of translators needed would then be N(N-
1).
• Moreover, the strategy is so complicated that it is almost
impossible for a system to transfer data to all other
systems.
 Translation Strategies
• In the indirect strategy, a neutral database structure is created. “Neutral” means that the file
format is independent of different formats utilized by the various CAD/CAM system vendors.
• With this strategy, each system needs only to have a preprocessor and a post processor to
transfer the database universally. The function of a preprocessor is to translate the neutral file
format database to the system’s own database format when the system is reading the database
.
• The function of a post processor is to translate the given database format to neutral file format
when output is made. In this strategy, N CAD/CAM systems will need only 2N translators.
However, indirect translating is usually slower than direct translating.
• A successful data exchange format or standard or neutral file must meet a minimum set of
requirements. The standard must cover the common entities, such as wireframe and surface
entities, used in various modeling systems.
• The standard format has to be compact, which may help achieve faster storage and retrieval;
i.e., higher speed in converting data to and from the neutral format and smaller size resulting
neutral file.
• Among many standards available today, the IGES and PDES standards are the most widely used.
 IGES (Initial graphics exchange
specification)
• This was first published in 1980 and later updated in 1983, 86, 88 and 1990. It
is the first widely accepted standard exchange format used to communicate a
modeling database among dissimilar CAD/CAM systems.
• In fact IGES has been used for supplying data between suppliers and
customers, as a means to create model of objects etc.
• The basic elements of IGES are entities we have discussed in previous
sections. Therefore, the format of the data is basically a description of
entities. In IGES, each entity is assigned a number.
• Numbers 1 through 599 and 700 through 5000 are allotted for specific
assignments, and 600 through 699 and 10,000 through 99,999 are for user
defined entities.
• Entities are classified as geometric entities (such as shape, curve, surface)
and non geometric entities (such as relation between various entities).
• The geometric entities are described via two distinct but related Cartesian
coordinate systems, namely, the model space coordinate system (MCS) or local
coordinate system (W-workingCS).
 PDES (Product data exchange
standard)
• The international organization for standardization (ISO) is currently
involved in developing an international standard called STEP (Standard for
transfer and exchange of product model data).
• STEP is a step for global standardization of exchange of information
related to automated manufacturing and results in the PDES.
• The fundamental differences between IGES and PDES is that the IGES
utilizes the basic entities as elements of the design whereas PDES data
exchange is done in terms of applications.
• This philosophy is also called mental models and is reflected in the PDES
three layer architecture: Application layer-Interface between user and
PDES in which the application model is explicitly expressed and the
description and information are expressed, Logical layer which is used to
provide a consistent and computer independent description, Physical
layer which takes care of the structure of the data and its format of the
exchange file.
 Drawing Exchange File format
• DXF has been developed by Auto desk inc. to assist in
interchange of drawings between AutoCAD and other
programs.
• The overall organization of DXF is as follows:
1. Header section: general information about the drawing.
2. Tables section: Definitions of named items.
3. Blocks section: Describe the entities constituting each block
in the drawing.
4. Entities section: The drawing entities, including any block
references.
5. END OF FILE
 Computer Aided Process Planning
• Process planning serves as an integration link between design
and manufacturing and is very important for designing a
process.
• In this topic we will be looking at steps to develop a process
plan, computer aided process planning (both variant and
generative approaches), Knowledge based process planning
and feature recognition approaches.
 Overview of manufacturing processes
• Here we review some basic manufacturing processes like turning, drilling, milling,
and grinding. Some other manufacturing processes can be other than cutting
processes like forming, production of electronic circuit boards, soldering etc.
• Turning operations:
1. Turning is a common and a versatile machining process for producing cylindrical,
conical, or irregularly shaped internal or external surfaces on a rotating work
piece.
2. The machine tool used is the lathe.
3. Typical parts include pins, shafts, spindles, handles, and various other
components having O-ring grooves, holes, threads (both external and internal),
and many other shapes.
4. Cutting operations can b performed on a lathe include straight turning, taper
turning, profiling, turning and external grooving, facing, face grooving, drilling,
boring and internal grooving, cutting off, threading and knurling as shown in the
next figure.
Various cutting operations performed on Lathe machines
 Overview of manufacturing processes
• Drilling operations:
1. Drilling is another common machining operation for producing through holes or blind
holes.
2. For example assembly processes involving fasteners such as rivets, screws, and bolts
require holes.
3. To perform the drilling operations, a cylindrical rotary end cutting tool called a drill is
employed.
4. Different types of drills and drilling operations are used as shown below.
 Overview of manufacturing processes
• Other operations that involve hole making include boring, counter-boring,
spot facing, countersinking, reaming, and tapping.
1. Boring: Involves enlarging an already drilled hole.
2. Counter-boring: Only one end of the drilled hole is enlarged.
3. Spot facing: Finishing off a small surface area around the opening of a
hole.
4. Countersinking: It is similar to counter-boring except that the hole
enlarged at one end is conical (tapered). The idea is to accommodate the
conical seat of a flathead screw inside.
5. Reaming: Reaming is a sizing process used to make an already drilled
hole dimensionally more accurate and to provide a very smooth surface.
6. Tapping: It is the process of producing internal threads in work-pieces by
using a threaded tool with multiple cutting teeth; the tool is called a tap.
 Overview of manufacturing processes
• Milling operations:
1. Milling is used to produce a variety of shapes such as flat, contoured, and helical
surfaces.
2. It is used for thread and gear cutting operations, among others.
3. The milling process involves simultaneous rotary motion of milling cutter and
linear motion of work piece.
4. Based on the direction of cutter rotation and work piece feed the milling process
is classified into upmilling and down milling based on different or similar
direction of the cutter rotation with respect to the work-piece motion.
5. A large variety of milling cutters are used to produce different shapes for
example, plain milling cutters are used to produce flat surfaces; side milling
cutters for cutting slots, grooves and spines; T-slot cutter for milling T-slots; and
form milling cutters for milling gears and other concave and convex shapes.
Methods of estimating parameters for
various milling operations
 Overview of manufacturing processes
• Grinding Operations:
1. In grinding, material removal is achieved by employing a rotating
abrasive wheel. In fact, grinding is quire similar to milling except that
abrasive wheels are used in place of milling cutters.
2. Grinding is generally used to obtain the finest dimensional accuracy and
surface finish in manufactured products.
3. Common grinding operations include surface grinding, cylindrical
grinding, internal grinding, and center-less grinding.
4. For estimating the various parameters of surface grinding for both
horizontal and vertical grinding cases are given in the next figure
Parameter estimation of horizontal
and vertical surface grinding
Surface roughness obtained from different
manufacturing processes
 What is process planning?
• Products and their components are designed to perform certain functions.
• The design specifications ensure the functionality aspects.
• In manufacturing the task is to produce components that meet design specifications.
• The components are then assembled into final products.
• Process planning acts as a bridge between the design and manufacturing by translating
design specifications into manufacturing process details.
• Process planning therefore refers to a set of instructions that are used to make a component
or a part that meets up with the design specifications.
• The question is what information is required and what activities are involved in transforming
a raw part into a finished component, starting with the selection of raw material and ending
with the completion of the part.
• The following basic steps are involved in developing a process plan.
Basic steps in developing a process
plan
• This involves a no. of activities like:
1. Analysis of part requirements.
2. Selection of raw work piece.
3. Determining manufacturing operations and their sequences.
4. Selection of machine tools.
5. Selection of tools, work holding devices, and inspection equipments.
6. Determining machining conditions (cutting speed, feed and depth of cut) and
manufacturing times (setup time, processing time, and lead time).
 Analysis of part requirement
• The primary purpose of process planning is to translate the design
requirements for parts into manufacturing process details.
• At the engineering design level, the part requirements can be defined as
the part features, dimensions, and tolerance specifications which in turn
determine the processing requirements.
• For example consider the part given in figure (a) with plain geometric
feature.
• The part is successively
modified by a step (b).
• A slot (c).
• A side step (d).
• A blind cylindrical hole (e)
 Selection of raw work-piece
• The selection of raw work-peice is an important element of process
planning.
• It involves such attributes as shape, size (dimensions and weight), and
material.
• For-example a raw part may be in the shape of a rod, a slab, a blank, or
just a rough forging.
• From the point of view of dimensional accuracy as well as economics of
manufacturing, it is important to determine the required oversize of the
raw part.
• The weight a material of the raw part are dictated by functional
requirement of the parts.
 Determining Manufacturing Operations and
their sequences.
• The next logical step in process planning is to determine the appropriate types of processing
operations and their sequence to transform the features, dimensions, and tolerances of a
part from the raw to finished state.
• There may be several ways to produce a given design. Sometimes constraints such as
accessibility and setup may require that some features be machined before or after others.
• Furthermore, the types of machines and tools avialable as well as the batch sizes influence
the process sequence.
• For-example, a process plan that is optimal on a three or four axis machine may not be
optimal on a five axis machine because of the greater flexibility of higher axis machines.
• Surface roughness and tolerance requirements also influence the operation sequence. For
example, a part requiring a hole with low tolerance and surface roughness specifications
would require a simple drilling operation. The same part with much finer surface finish and
closer tolerance requirements would require first a drilling operation and then a boring
operation to obtain the desired surface roughness and the tolerance on the hole feature of
the part.
 Determining Manufacturing Operations and
their sequences.
• Sometimes operations are dependent on one another. For example, consider
figure (a), in which the operations on the part show the following dependence:
1. The holes must be drilled before milling the inclined surface because the holes
cannot be drilled accurately on an inclined surface.
2. However, if the inclined surface has to be finished before drilling, an end mill
should be used to obtain a flat surface perpendicular to the axis of the drill
before drilling the hole.
3. Cutting forces and rigidity of the workpiece
may also influence the operation
sequence.
4. In (b) hole H2 must be produced before
machining the slot . If the hole is
machined after finishing the slot, it may
bend.
 Selection of machine tools
• The next step in process planning after the selection of manufacturing operations
and their sequence is to select the machine tools on which these operations can
be performed.
• A large number of factors influence the selection of machine tools.
1. Work piece related attributes such as the kinds of features desired, the
dimensions of the work piece, its dimensional tolerance, and the raw material
form.
2. Machine tool related attributes such as process capability, size, mode of
operation (e.g., manual, semiautomatic, automatic, numerically controlled etc.),
tooling capabilities (e.g., size and type of tool magazine), and automatic tool
changing capabilities.
3. Production volume related information such as the production quantity and
order frequency.
 Basic steps in developing a process
plan

• This involves a no. of activities like:

1. Analysis of part requirements.
2. Selection of raw work piece.
3. Determining manufacturing operations and their
sequences.
4. Selection of machine tools.
5. Selection of tools, work holding devices, and inspection equipments.
6. Determining machining conditions (cutting speed, feed and depth of cut)
and manufacturing times (setup time, processing time, and lead time).
 Normal Distribution
• In probability theory, a normal (or Gaussian or Gauss or Laplace–Gauss) distribution is a type of continuous
probability distribution for a real-valued random variable.

• The general form of Probablitity distribution function is:

• The simplest case of a normal distribution is known as the standard

normal distribution. This is a special case when µ=0 and σ=1, and it is
described by this probability density function.

• The cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the standard normal

distribution as represented by φ above.
 Normal
Distribution
Charts
 Normal
Distribution
Chart
 Standard deviation and coverage

• The probability that a normal deviate lies in the range between µ-nσ and µ+nσ is given
by:
 Mathematical Model for understanding interactions between design and
manufacturing in a turning process of a cylindrical shaft

• We consider a simple product, a cylindrical shaft.

•The design stage is concerned with specifying tolerances on the shaft.
•The manufacturing stage is essentially a transformation process, changing a bar stock into
a finished shaft meeting tolerance specification.
•The transformation process indicating inputs and outputs is shown in (a) and the unit
normal curve indicating tolerances and the fraction rejects in (b)
 Mathematical Model for understanding interactions between design and
manufacturing in a turning process of a cylindrical shaft

• We present a simple analysis without rework. This means that the shafts
below the lower tolerance limits and above the upper tolerance limits are
scrapped.
Mathematical Model for understanding interactions between design and
manufacturing in a turning process of a cylindrical shaft
 Numerical Problem
• Suppose 500 units of a shaft are to be manufactured within 1+ 0.003 in.
Suppose there are three alternative machine tools with the information
given in Table below. Use the models developed earlier to perform the
turning operation.
The other data are:
Unit raw material cost = $10.00
Unit salvage value = $2.00
Process average= 1.0015in.
 Normal
Distribution
Charts
 Normal
Distribution
Chart
Solution
ME-461, Manufacturing
Technology, Lecture 8
Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya
GVMM Chair and Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 05122596056
 Basic steps in developing a process
plan

• This involves a no. of activities like:

1. Analysis of part requirements.
2. Selection of raw work piece.
3. Determining manufacturing operations and their
sequences.
4. Selection of machine tools.
5. Selection of tools, work holding devices, and inspection
equipments.
6. Determining machining conditions (cutting speed, feed and depth of cut)
and manufacturing times (setup time, processing time, and lead time).
 Determining Machining Conditions and
Manufacturing times
• Having specified the work-piece material, machine tool, and
cutting tool, the question is what can be controlled to reduce the
cost and increase production rate.
•The controllable variables are cutting speed (v), feed (f), and
depth of cut (d). Jointly, v,f, and d are referred to as machining
conditions. There are a no. of models •Co=specifying optimal
cost rate including
machining conditions out of which the labortwo best
andones are: cost
overhead
rates ($/min.)
•C1= tool cost per cutting
edge, which depends on
type of tool used
•C= constant in tool life
equation
•V= cutting speed in
meters/min.
•f=Feed rate (mm/rev)
•d=depth of cut(mm)
•n= exponent in the tool life
td= time to change a cutting edge equat.
(min.) •t1=non productive time
tac= actual cutting time per piece,
 Determining
Machining
Conditions and
Manufacturing
times
 Maximum Production
Rate Model
• Another criterion used to determine the
optimal conditions is maximum production
rate which is inversely proportional to the
production time per piece, which is given by:
 Manufacturing Lead Time

• Assuming that the lot size is Q

units, then the average lead time
to process these units will be .
• Lead time = major setup time +
TuQ
 Numerical Problem
A lot of 500 units of steel rods 30cm long and 6 cm in diameter is
turned on a numerically controlled (NC) lathe at a feed rate of 0.2
mm per revolution and a depth of cut of 1mm. The tool life is given
by:
vT0.20 = 200
The other data are:
Machine labor rate = $10/ hr.
Machine overhead rate = 50% of labor
Grinding labor rate = $10/hr
Grinding overhead rate = 50% of grinding labor
Work peice loading/ unloading time = 0.50 min/ piece
The data related to the tools are:
Brazed inserts
Original cost of the tool = $ 27.96
Grinding Time = 2min.
Tool changing time = 0.50 min. (The tool can be ground only five times
before it is discarded.
Determine the following:
(a)Optimum tool life and optimum cutting speed to minimize the cost
per piece.
(b)Optimum tool life and optimum cutting speed to maximize the
production rate.
Solutions
Solutions
Solutions
ME-461, Manufacturing
Technology, Lecture 9
Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya
GVMM Chair and Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 05122596056
 Feature Recognition In Computer Aided Process Planning
• Capp systems usually serve as a link between CAD and CAM.
• However, it is only a partial link, because most of the existing CAD/drafting
systems do not provide part feature information, which is essential data for
CAPP.
• CAPP systems do not understand the three dimensional geometry of the
designed parts for CAD systems in terms of their engineering meaning related
to manufacturing and assembly.
• This is commonly referred to as the feature recognition problem.
• For example the object shown in the solid geometry tree given below
represents a block primitive and a cylinder primitive combined by a Boolean
operator .
• The shape and dimension of the object are
uniquely defined by this scheme.
•However, some useful higher level information
such as whether the hole is a blind hole or a
through hole is not provided.
•This kind of information, defined in terms of
feature, is essential to process planning.
 Feature recognition in computer aided process
planning
• From an engineering point of view, features are
regarded as generic shapes of objects with which
engineers associate certain attributes and knowledge
useful in reasoning about or describing the products.
• A generic part feature recognition system should be
able to:
1. Extract design information of a part drawn from a
CAD database.
2. Identify all surface of the part.
3. Recognize, reason about, and interpret these
surfaces in terms of part features.
 Part feature recognition approaches
• A number of approaches to part feature recognition for
rotational as well as prismatic parts have been developed such
as syntactic pattern recognition, geometry decomposition,
expert system rule logic, graph based and set rhetoric out of
which Graph based approach will be explored here.
Graph based approach:
This usually consists of three basic steps:
•STEP1: Generating graph based representation of the object to be
recognized.
•STEP2: Defining part features.
•STEP3: Matching features in the graph representation.

1. In the first step, an object is represented by graph. This step is necessary because the
data extracted from the database are usually in the form of boundary representation
and are not directly usable for feature recognition.
2. In order to recognize a feature, the information regarding the type of face adjacency
and relationships between the sets of faces should be expressed explicitly.
3. To facilitate the recognition process the AAG (attributed adjacency graph) method is
used.
 Definition of Attributed Adjacency Graph
• An AAG can be defined as a graph G = (N,A,T), where N is the
set of nodes, A is the set of arcs, and T is the set of attributes
to arcs in A such that:
• For every face f in F, there exists a unique node n in N.
• For every edge e in E, there exists a unique arc a in A,
connecting nodes ni to nj corresponding to face fi and face fj
which share the common edge e.
• Every arc a in A is assigned an attribute t, where:

t = 0 if the faces sharing the edge form a concave angle [inside

edge]
t= 1 if the faces sharing the edge form a convex angle [ outside
edge]
 Definition of Attributed Adjacency Graph
• The AAG is represented in the computer in the
form of a matrix, which is defined as follows:
 Definition of part features

• To achieve feature recognition, we first need to

define the feature precisely- that is , what shape
we think is a feature.
• Generally, we can define any shape as a feature;
however, only those that have manufacturing
meanings should be defined.
• Six commonly used features in manufacturing
are the step, slot, three side pocket, four side
pocket, pocket (or blind hole), and through hole.
Defining
features
 Matching the feature
• After steps 1 and 2, the problem of recognizing machining features in part
changes to the problem of recognizing AAG subgraphs that represent the
features in the complete AAG graph representing the part.
• The problem of searching of subgraphs in a larger graphs is a subgraph
isomorphism problem and is computationally exhaustive and as such there
are no polynomial algorithms to do this.
• An algorithm that can be an alternative to isomorphism can be based on
the following observation: A face that is adjacent to all its neighboring faces
with convex angle (270 deg.) does not form part of a feature.
• This observation is used as a basis of separating the original graph into
subgraphs that could correspond to features.
• The separation is done by deleting some nodes of the graph. The delete
node rule is as follows:
If (all incident arcs of a node have attribute “1”)
Then (delete this node (and all the incident arcs at the node) from AAG)
• Because an AAG is represented in the form of a matrix in the program, the
delete node rule actually deletes rows and columns that represent the
nodes in the matrix.
 Problem
• It is easy for the human to see that the part shown below has
a slot and a pocket feature. In this example, however, we
simulate the computer to apply the feature recognition
algorithm discussed earlier. We therefore, want to solve the
following:
(a)Develop the AAG of the object.
(b) Give the matrix representation of the AAG.
(c)Recognize the features in this object.
 Solution
(a)The AAG is first developed as
shown below

(1) (4)
(7) (8) (9)
(2) (3) For the purpose of inputting the
(5) (6) (14) (10) AAG graph into the computer,
we have to convert the graph
(12) (11) into the matrix form. The matrix
(13)
(15) representation of AAG is given as
follows:

(4) (1)

(5)

(3) (2) (11) (12) (13)

Solution
 Problem
• For the object shown below, use the graph based feature
recognition approach to achieve the following:
1. Develop the AAG of the object.
2. Give the matrix representation of AAG.
3. Recognize the features in this object
ME-461, Manufacturing
Technology, Lecture 10
Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya
GVMM Chair and Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 05122596056
 Computer control of manufacturing
systems
• Use of computers in various manufacturing systems has lead to an overall
increase in productivity and efficiency.
• It started with one of the earliest applications to numerically control
independent manufacturing unit from which the recent PLC based
applications at the manufacturing system level emerged.
• Numerical control (NC) is a term used to describe the control of the
various functions of a machine by the use of numeric data. The term was
coined at MIT, where the first successful NC machine was demonstrated
under a subcontract from the Parsons Corporation of Traverse city.
• Numerical control is now applied to a wide range of machines including
welding, riveting, bending, hole making and drafting machines.
• However, the vast majority of NC machines in use today are metal cutting
machine tools.
 Metal Cutting Machines
• The metal cutting operation (also called machining) is one of the most
important manufacturing processes in industry today.
• In addition to being a primary manufacturing process, it is used as a
finishing operation after other processes such as casting and forging
because of its ability to achieve very high dimensional accuracy and
close surface finish.
• The nature of the metal cutting process involves removal of excess
material from a raw work-piece using a cutting tool, thus changing the
shape of the work-piece.
• By controlling how the excess material is removed, we can control
what the final shape of the work-piece would be.
• Material removal is achieved by forcing a sharp cutting edge (cutting
tool) into the work-piece and then to force relative motion between
the tool and the work-piece.
 Metal cutting machines
• Of course metals are hard and therefore high forces are required, first to
feed the tool into the work-piece and then to force relative motion
between the tool and the work-piece so as to remove the chips for which
high power machines are employed.
• Relative motion between the cutting tool and the work-piece can be
achieved by keeping the work-piece stationary and moving the tool or
by keeping the tool stationary and moving the work-piece.
• The main function of a machine tool is to control the work-piece-
cutting tool positional relationship in such a way as to achieve a desired
geometric shape of the work-piece with sufficient dimensional accuracy.
• Actual machine tool movements are made up of one or more degrees
of freedom which can be combined to form various geometric shapes
such as cylinders or flat surfaces.
 Metal cutting machines
• In using a machine tool to carry out a machining
process, we need to accomplish the following basic
machining function:
1. Determining the location on the work-piece where
the machining is to be done.
2. Controlling the path followed during the motion of
the tool or work-piece.
3. Controlling the rate at which the path is traversed.
4. Controlling the rate at which the tool is fed into
the work-piece.
 Numerically Controlled Machine
• An NC machine tool is functionally the same as a conventional machine.
• The technological capabilities in terms of machining are no different from
those of conventional machines.
• The difference between NC machines and conventional machines is in the
way in which the various machine functions and slide movements are
controlled.
• With NC machines functions as such as positioning the tool, turning the
spindle on and off, setting cutting speeds or feed rates, and turning coolant
on and off are removed from the realm of the machine operator and turned
over to Machine control unit (MCU).
• The MCU issues commands in the form of numeric data to motors
controlling the individual machine functions and as such can be used for
direction control, controlling rate of slide motion, spindle rotation, tool
changes, coolant throw etc.
• The first NC machine was a retrofitted system with appropriate motors and
control systems and many such generation 1 NC systems were retrofitted
conventional machines.
Numerically Controlled Machines

Line drawing of an NC lathe

Picture of an NC lathe
 Types of NC control systems
Open Loop Control and Closed Loop Control System
• Open Loop Control System: This type of control system is used with a
special motor called a stepper motor. In this control, signals in form of
current pulses are sent from the MCU to the individual motor being
controlled.
• Each pulse results in a finite predetermined amount of revolution of the
motor. To cause a specified amount of movement, the control system
determines how many current pulses are required and sends precisely
that number to the motor.
• Thus the control does not need to monitor specifically where the motor
is located; it is assumed that the required motion is achieved if the
correct number of pulses is sent.
• The control system needs to only keep track of how many revolutions
the motor has gone through, to know the motor’s position.
 Close Loop Control
• Conventional variable speed DC motors (servos) are used in this type of
control system.
• DC motors have an important advantage of being able to generate very
high levels of torque, and they can in essence, be reversed instantly.
• However, they cannot be caused to move in a very precise amounts as
stepper motors can.
• In order to keep track of the position of the motor a separate position
sensor, called resolver, has to be fitted and the position information so
determined is fed back as signal to the controller.
• Because of this feedback, the system forms a closed loop.
• The positional information from the resolver is compared with the target
position and any errors are determined. Because DC motors can be
reversed instantly, it is possible to correct any positional error detected.
 Programming of NC machines
• For a NC machine to accomplish the required machining operations,
the necessary data have to be entered into the MCU.
• The MCU can then convert the data into commands that can be issued
to the appropriate motors for the necessary functions to be executed.
• The series of data that is fed into the MCU to generate the required
machine tool commands is referred to as an NC part program.
• The process of writing an NC part program is called NC part
programming and the person responsible for writing this is a part
programmer.

NOTE: A part program refers to the program required to machine a

specific part or component; it is not meant to suggest that the program
is incomplete!
 Programming of NC machines
• The NC part programmer needs to have knowledge of a wide
range of manufacturing processes and posses skill as a machine
operator.
• In particular, he or she needs to have a thorough knowledge of
the capabilities of the machine for which the program is being
written.
• This ensures that the program written makes the maximum use
of the machine’s capabilities without violating it’s technological
constraints.
• The current resource availability respecting cutting tools, jigs
and fixtures, labor available, or any other material handling
equipment such as robots or automated guided vehicles must
also be taken into account.
 Programming of NC machines
• In writing the part program, the programmer generally
starts with an engineering drawing of the part to be
made.
• This must be interpreted to determine the individual
operations that should be performed on the work-piece
to produce the final component according to the design
specifications.
• It is the basis used to determine the order in which the
operations should be carried out, establish the cutting
conditions to be used in each machining operations ,
determine the associated non machining operations such
as tool changing, machine setup, coolant use etc. and
select the appropriate jigs and fixtures to be used to hold
the workpiece as the machining is being done.
 Motion and
coordinate system
nomenclature
1. Z-axis: This is the most
important axis for machining
and it is always aligned with the
spindle that imparts cutting
power. This spindle might
rotate the workpiece as in a
lathe, or it might rotate a tool as
in a milling machine. If no such
spindle exists on a specific
machine, the z-axis is
perpendicular to the
workholding surface. Positive
motion in Z tends to increase
the separation between the
workpiece and the tool.
 Motion and
coordinate system
nomenclature
2. X-axis: The x-axis is the
principle axis of motion in
which the moving element is
positioned. It is parallel to the
workholding surface and is
arranged to be horizontal if
possible. On machines with
rotating workpieces, it is radial
and parallel to the cross-slide.
On machines with rotating
tools,
• If the z axis is horizontal, the
positive x- motion is to the right
when looking from the spindle
to the workpiece.
• If the z axis is vertical, the
positive x motion is to the right
when looking from the spindle
to the column.
 Motion and coordinate
system nomenclature
3.Y-axis: Once the z- and x- axes
are established, the y-axis
must be in such a direction as
to complete a right handed
Cartesian coordinate system.
4. Supplementary linear motion:
On some machines, there are
secondary linear motions
parallel to x,y and z motions.
Such supplementary motions
are designated U,V and W
respectively.
5. Rotary motion:
Motions A,B, and C are rotary
motions about the axes
respectively parallel to the x,y,
and z axes. A positive rotary
motion is in a direction that
would cause a right handed
6. Spindle rotation: Counterclockwise spindle screw to advance in the
rotation is considered as positive. positive direction of the axis of
rotation.
 Basic of NC program
• What moves?
1. Machine is achieved by digging the tool into the workpiece and causing relative
motion between the two.
2. For some machines the tool undergoes a primary motion, whereas for some
others the work-piece undergoes the primary motion.
3. When writing a part program it is always assumed that the tool undergoes the
primary motion.
4. Thus the part programmer does not have to remember which element moves for
which machine.
5. It is easier for the programmer to visualize motion of the tool relative to work-
piece during the programming stage.
6. If it is indeed the tool that moves relative to the work-piece, such as in turning
operations, the motions programmed are the motions that actually take place.
7. If it is the work-piece that moves relative to the tool, such as in milling, the
programmed motions have to be translated internally by the MCU to cause the
work-piece to move in such a way as to achieve the equivalent relative motion
that was programmed for the tool.
ME-461, Manufacturing
Technology, Lecture 11
Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya
GVMM Chair and Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 05122596056
 Basics of NC program
• Where is the tool?
1. The NC part program includes, among other things, commands that move
the tool to various locations relative to the work-piece.
2. To be able to specify the required tool positions, some reference point is
required.
3. This reference point, used within the program as the basis of defining tool
location and other geometric entities, is referred to as origin.
4. The MCU keeps track of current tool location relative to the origin.
5. The tool itself is defined as a point. For single tooth cutting tools such as
those used in turning, the point defining the tool corresponds to the
location of the cutting tip of the tool.
6. For multiple teeth tools such as drills and milling cutters, the point defining
the tool is the center of the cutter.
7. In a given program the origin is usually a point determined by the
programmer. Generally, the programmer assumes that at the beginning of
the program, the tool is located at some specific point wrt the workpiece,
which is considered as the origin.
 Basics of NC program
• Where is the tool?
8. In practice, during setup and before any programmed
motion, the machine operator has to move the tool to the
position designated by the programmer as the origin and then
depress a special button on the control panel that zeros the
axis counters in the MCU.
9. Thus, a zero location is set that serves as the origin for the
program because the designated point could be anywhere
within the machine’s range of travel, this is called floating zero.
10. In defining the motion of the tool from one point to another,
either absolute positioning mode or incremental positioning
mode can be used.
 Basics of NC program
1. Absolute positioning mode:
• In this mode, the desired target position of the tool for a
particular move is given relative to the origin point of the
program.
• Because the MCU always keeps track of the current
location of the tool, it is a simple matter for it to calculate
the actual distance and direction of motion required to go
from the current location to the target.
• This approach however is more demanding of the
programmer, who has to determine the absolute
coordinates of the target points, which may involve many
calculations.
 Basics of NC program
2. Incremental Positioning:
• In this mode, the next target position for the tool is
given relative to the current tool position.
• In many cases, this is easier for the programmer.
• The task of calculating absolute tool position is left to
the controller, which continues to keep track of the
actual tool location at any instant.
• With this approach, however, it is critical for the
programmer to ensure that the final tool position at the
end of the program is identical to the initial tool
position.
 Basics of NC program
• Modal and Non modal commands:
1. Commands issued in the NC program may stay in effect
indefinitely (until they explicitly canceled or changed by
some other command), or they may be effective for only
the one time that they are issued. The former are
referred as Modal commands. Examples include feed rate
selection and coolant selection.
2. Commands that are effective only when issued and
whose effects are lost for subsequent commands are
referred to as non-modal commands. A dwell command,
which instructs the tool to remain in a given
configuration for a given amount of time, is an example
of a non-modal command.
 Structure of an NC part program
• An NC part program is made up of a series of commands that are input into the MCU
in a serial manner.
• The MCU interprets these commands and generates the necessary signals to each of
the drive units of the machine to accomplish the required action.
• The NC program is required to have a particular structure that the controller can
understand and it must follow a specific syntax.
• Commands are inputs into the controller in units called blocks or statements.
• Each block is made up of one or more machine commands.
• In general, several commands are grouped together to accomplish a specific
machining operation, hence the use of a block of information for each operation.
• Each command gives a specific element of control data, such as dimension or a feed
rate. Each command within a block is also called a word.
• The way in which words are arranged within the block is called block format.
• Three different block formats are commonly used, (Fixed sequential format, Tab
sequential format and Word address format)
 Fixed Sequential Format
Exhibit 6.1 Fixed Sequential Format

0050 00 +0025400 +0012500 +0000000 0000 00

0060 01 +0025400 +0012500 -0010000 0500 08
0070 01 +0025400 +0012500 +0000000 0500 09

• This was the earliest block format used for NC machines and it spawned
the name numerical control because in this format only numbers are used.
• With this format each block in the program consists of exactly the same
number of words, entered in a specified sequence and each work consists
of a fixed no. of data characters. The data characters have positive and
negative signs and are interpreted according to their location.
• Characters cannot be added or deleted as this might change the meaning
of the Code. Every word must be represented even if the word has zero
characters. This frequently results in using unnecessary information and
long codes.
 Fixed Sequential Format
Exhibit 6.1 Fixed Sequential Format

0050 00 +0025400 +0012500 +0000000 0000 00

0060 01 +0025400 +0012500 -0010000 0500 08
0070 01 +0025400 +0012500 +0000000 0500 09
Meaning:
(1)Using a rapid feed rate, the tool is positioned at the coordinate location (25.4, 12.5,0).
(2)The tool is then advanced -10 units in the z-direction at a feed rate of 500 mm/min,
with the flood coolant on.
(3)The tool is then retracted back 10 units at the rapid feed rate, and the coolant is
turned off.
The corresponding motions are shown in
the figure on the left.
With the zero datum assumed to be 0.5
units above the surface of the part, these
commands have the effect of drilling a
through hole in a workpiece material 9 units
thick.
 Tab Sequential Format

• This format is essentially the same as the fixed sequential format.

The difference is that each word within a block is preceded by a
Tab character.
• The main improvement over fixed sequential format is that the
Tab character for a specified word need not be followed by a
numeric data if data are not required in that particular block or
they are modal data.
• The Tab character indicates a beginning of a new word but does
not specify which type of word; therefore the sequence of the
words remain significant.
• Exhibit 6.2 is a repetition of the program represented in Exhibit 6.1
but written in the Tab sequential format.
 Word Sequential Format

• This is the format that is used on virtually all modern controllers

and will be explained in greater detail.
• With this type of format, each type of word is assigned as
address that is identified by a letter code within the part
program.
• Thus the letter code specifies the type of word that follows and
then its associated numeric data is given.
• For example, the code T represents a tool number. Thus a word
of the form T01 would represent tool number 1.
• Theoretically, with this approach, the words in a given block can
be entered in any sequence and the controller should be able to
interpret them correctly.
 Word Sequential
Format
• With the word address format only
the needed words for a given
operation have to be included within
the block.
• The command to which the particular
numeric data applies is identified by
the preceding address code.
• Word format has the advantage of
having more than one particular
command in one block something
that would be impossible in the other
two formats.
• The table on the right shows the
various commands used.
 Word Address Format
• The American National Standards institute (ANSI) has established a
standard method of specifying word address data for any controller, which
has been adopted by most manufacturers. A typical specification might
look as follows:

• Within the specification, a letter identifies a specific type of word as in

Table . A + symbol after the letter indicates that sign is significant for the
associated numeric data.
• Generally, a positive sign is assumed if numeric data have no sign specified.
If one numeral follows the letter, the data for that word are of integer form
with upto the number of digits specified by the numeral.
• If the letter (and the associated sign wherever applicable) is followed by two
numerals, the data for that word are real numbers.
• The decimal point is not to be programmed explicitly; its position is
inferred by counting the number of digits in the actual data associated with
the word, counting from the right.
• The second numeral in the specification gives the number of digits to count
in the data before the decimal point.
 Word Address Format

• So for the sample specification just given we have:

1. N word can have up to four integer digits with no associated signs.
2. G word can have upto two integer digits with no associated signs.
3. X word can have upto seven real digits, which may be positive or
negative. The decimal point which is not explicitly entered is assumed to
be three digits from the right, and there can be upto four digits to the
left of the decimal point in metric format.
4. F script can have upto four real digits, which may be positive or negative.
The decimal point, which is not explicitly entered, is in the rightmost
position and there can be upto four digits to the left of the decimal
points.
5. I word can have upto seven real digits with no associated signs. The
decimal point, which is not explicitly entered, is assumed to be three
digits from the right, and there can be upto four digits to the left of the
decimal point in metric format.
 Fundamentals of NC part programming
• The first step in writing an NC part program is to determine and organize the
data that will be used within the program.
• A fully coded NC part program generally consists of five broad categories or
classes of command. These are the following:
1. Preparatory functions: These are used to inform the MCU of the
requirements for the machining that is to be carried out and thus to
establish the necessary operating conditions.
2. Axis motion commands: These are used to control the amount of relative
motion between the cutting tool and workpiece along each machine axis.
3. Feed and speed commands: These are used to set and control the cutting
conditions for individual machining operations.
4. Identification commands: These are used to identify specific entities in the
program, such as cutting tools used.
5. Miscellaneous Commands: These are used to control various other aspects
of the machine’s operation not addressed elsewhere, such as turning the
spindle on and off and changing tools.
ME-461, Manufacturing
Technology, Lecture 12
Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya
GVMM Chair and Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 05122596056
 Preparatory Functions
• Preparatory functions form the largest class of commands used in NC
programs.
• They are identified by the word address letter ‘G’ followed by two digits.
• The digits specify the particular type of function.
• The combination is referred to as a ‘G’ code.
• In general preparatory functions have the effect of making the MCU
assume specific operating conditions or command the controller to
perform the next task in a particular manner.
• Preparatory functions generally take effect before execution of other
commands within the block in which the function is programmed.
• It is usually permissible to program more than one preparatory word in a
block provided the words do not have a conflicting effects.
 Preparatory functions
• Most preparatory functions are modal. Efforts have
been made to standardize NC commands and the
table below show some widely used standard ‘G’
codes. There are about 97 ‘G’ codes that are used
which go upto 99 in special controllers.

• However, not all ‘G’

codes are used in all
machines and there are
limitations offered by the
manufacturer, machine
make etc.
 Explanation of Some Commonly Used G-Codes
• G00 is a preparatory function to specify that the tool should be moved to a
specified location.
• This function is used only to control the final position of the tool and is not
concerned with the path that is followed in arriving at the final destination.
• For this reason, motion with this function is also referred to as positioning
mode.
• The way this code is implemented in most controllers is that all axes that
need to be moved in order to get to the target point are moved
simultaneously at the beginning of the motion, with each axis being moved
at maximum speed.

•As an example for motion that occurs in x-y

plane with the same maximum speed for the x
and y-axes, initial motion is at an angle of 45
deg. to the axes until motion in one of the axis
is completed and then the balance of motion
occurs in the other axis. This is called point to
point motion generally used for tool
positioning. See Fig.
 Commonly used ‘G’ codes
• G02 is also a preparatory function to specify that the tool should be moved to
a specified location.
• It differs from the G00 and G01 functions in that in this case the path followed
by the tool in moving to the target point is required to be a circular arc,
starting from the current tool position, moving in a clockwise direction, and
ending at the target position.
• Within the block in which G02 code is programmed, the center of the arc is
given by specifying its location relative to the start of the arc.
• An appropriate combination of I,J and K words is used to specify the location
of the center of the arc relative to the start of the arc.

• In this case, the motion in more than one axes is

always involved and the MCU coordinates the
simultaneous motions to generate the circular
path.
•A restriction imposed by this command is that this
interpolation can only be on one quadrant formed
by the intersection of axes of the coordinate
system and the maximum angle of the arc is 90
deg.
 Canned Cycles
• Some sequences of machining operations are used so frequently with the different
machines and different components that they have a standardized and assigned
special preparatory functions. For example a simple hole drilling operation
involves the following sequence of operations:
1. Position the tool just above the point where the hole is to be drilled.
2. Set the correct spindle speed.
3. Feed the tool into the workpiece at a controlled feed rate to a predetermined
depth.
4. Retract the tool at a rapid rate to just above the point where the hole started.
• The same sequence of operations is repeated for any simple drilling operation
regardless of the machine used. The sequence of operations would require several
blocks of code if each motion were programmed individually.
• However, a special drilling cycle code (G81) has been developed. By using the G81
preparatory function, the programmer achieves the same effect in only one block.

• The location and depth of the hole to be

drilled, speed and feed to be used, and
height above the part surface for positioning
before and after drilling are all specified in
the block.
 List of Canned Cycles

The effect of any one of these canned cycles is cancelled by programming a G80
function.
 Axis Motion Commands
• Axis motion commands are used to specify the axes that are required to move
during the execution of a given command.
• They are made up of a letter specifying an axis such as x, followed by dimensional
information associated with the motion of the axis in question.
• The X,Y, and Z commands, respectively, specify the motion of the cartesian
coordinates themselves; I,J and K values specify the offset relative to x,y,and z
axes.
• Some controllers support the use of polar coordinates, in which case R and A axes
are used to specify the radial and angular directions, respectively.
• The dimensional data associated with an axis command can represent absolute
dimensions (if G90 was specified) or they may be incremental values (if G91 was
specified)
• The dimensional data associated with the axis commands consists of real numbers
that may or may not have a sign associated with them.
• An important point to remember is that the axis commands guide the motion of
the point defining the tool position. For some operations, such as profile milling,
the periphery of the cutter moves along the surface to be machined, rather than
the tool-point (i.e., center of the cutter)
 Axis motion commands
• Thus the actual motion of the tool has to be along a path different
from the geometry of the machined surface. This difference is
called a tool offset which the programmer has to consider when
writing the program.
• Most modern controllers can be programmed using an offset tool
by applying a compensation factor called cutter compensation.
• With this approach one the offset between the tool point and the
machined surface is specified, the tool motion can be programmed
as if the tool point followed the actual machined surface.
• The controller adjusts internally for the difference in the actual
path followed by the tool point.
• Cutter compensation is programmed using G41 and G42 codes and
cancelled using G40 code.
 Feed and speed commands
• Feed and speed commands are used to specify the feed rate and
speed to use during the machining operation.
• The feed command is specified by the address script ‘F’ followed by
the numerical value of the feed rate required; the speed command is
specified by the address word ‘S’ followed by the required speed.
• The feed rate and the speed used during the machining are of crucial
importance in determining how long it will take to make a part.
• The units for cutting conditions can be specified in a variety of ways in
the NC program. The feed rate may be specified directly in units/ min.
or units/rev., where the units may be in inches or millimeters.
• The preparatory functions G92-G98 are used to designate how the
cutting conditions are to be specified.
 Identification commands
• Identification commands are used within a NC program for the simple task of being able
to identify certain entities within the program.
• The ‘N’ word is the most widely used identification command and it is used to identify
individual blocks within the program.
• The identification data in this case consist of integer numbers written in a format given as
part of the machine specification.
• Usually three or four digits are used and leading or trailing zeros are not suppressed.
• The ‘N’ word is purely for the convenience of human writing or using the program, so that
they can distinguish between the various blocks in the program.
• The MCU itself does not use the data contained in the ‘N’ word.
• Because the controller does not use the block identification data, it is not strictly
necessary to number the blocks in any particular order.
• However, for the convenience of the human users, blocks are generally numbered in
ascending order, with increments of 5 or 10 between consecutive blocks.
• The reason for having increments of 5 or 10 is that, when necessary, additional blocks
may be inserted in the program while maintaining the generally ascending order in which
blocks are numbered.
 Identification Commands
• The other widely used command is the ‘T’ word.
• This is used to identify individual cutting tools used within the program.
• For most components, more than one tool is needed to complete the
machining operations needed to make the part.
• For many NC machines, multi-station tool turret or tool magazines
housing several cutting tools are used.
• The programmer uses the ‘T’ word to specify to the controller regarding
the various tools available should be used for a particular machining
operation.
• The format of ‘T’ word usually consists of two unsigned digits after ‘T’.
• Other identification commands are used to identify special sections of the
part program, such as loops and macros, that can be executed more than
once during the running of the program.
 Miscellaneous Commands
• Miscellaneous commands are used to control a variety
of machine functions that are not covered by the other
commands.
• The address word ‘M’ followed by two unsigned digits is
used to specify miscellaneous commands.
• Examples of functions controlled by miscellaneous
commands are turning the spindle on and off, turning
coolant on and off, initiating a tool change, clamping
and unclamping the work-piece interrupting and
restarting program execution, stopping the program and
rewinding the program.
 Miscellaneous Commands
• Generally, miscellaneous
commands take effect after
execution of the other
commands in the block in
which they are programmed.
• It is usually permissible to
program more than one
miscellaneous command in a
given block provided they do
not have conflicting effects.
• Many of the ‘M’ codes have
been assigned standardized
functions. Some ‘M’ codes are
given in the table :
 Special Characters
• In addition to the commands outlined in the preceding pages,
certain special characters are used in NC part programs to achieve
special effects.
•Some of these special characters are used with all controllers, but
others are particular to specific controllers.
•These characters include the % sign, common to all controllers,
which is used as the first line of the NC program.
•The character signals the controller when the beginning of the
program has been reached during a rewind of the program, an end
of block character is used at the end of each block of the program.
•This special character is produced by hit of a carriage return on a
keyboard.
•The character itself does not print when the program is printed.
•During coding , the end-of-block is frequently represented by *
symbol or the letters EOB.
 Example of NC code
Write an NC program to machine a ½ in. wide L-shaped slot in a mild steel workpiece with
dimensions 3X2.5X0.75 in as shown in Figure:

Assumptions:
1. The top lower left corner will be used for program zero.
2. Machining motion will start in the indicated position.
3. The tool is ¼ in. above the top surface of the part prior to start of machining.
4. The tool diameter used is ½ in., so only one pass is required.
5. A cutting speed of 500 rpm and feed rate of 10in./ min are used for machining.
6. Machine specification: N3G2X + 43Y + 43Z+ 43R+ 43F4S4T2M2
Solution

2750
Example of NC Code
Solution
ME-461, Manufacturing
Technology, Lecture 13
Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya
GVMM Chair and Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 05122596056
 Quality Engineering
• Two major determinants of success in any organization are
market demand and profitability.
• The factors influencing and improving the competitive edge
of a company are the its unit cost , product quality and lead
time.
• The best approach of product quality is to build quality into
the product and process right at the product and process
design stage.
• Quality may also be improved at the production stage. (For
this purpose techniques such as statistical process control
are helpful in reducing the no. of non conforming products,
thereby improving the product quality.)
Understanding the Meaning of Quality

• Quality is a relative term. It is really in the eyes of

the beholder.
• From functional point of view, product is
considered to be of good quality if it meets the
desired functional requirements adequately over
the intended period of its use.
• As per the American Society of Quality Control:
Quality is the totality of features and characteristics
of a product or service that bear on its ability to
satisfy a given need.
 The Dimensions of Quality
• Quality is characterized by multiple dimensions as follows:
1. Performance : Primary operating characteristics.
2. Features: Secondary operating characteristics.
3. Time: Time waiting in line, time from concept to production of a new
product, time to complete a service.
4. Reliability: Extent of failure free operation.
5. Durability: Amount of use until replacement is preferred to repair.
6. Uniformity: Low variations among the repeated outcomes of a process.
7. Consistency: Match with documentation, advertising, deadlines, or
industry standards.
8. Serviceability: Resolution of problems and complaints.
9. Aesthetics: Characteristics related to the senses.
10. Personal interface: Characteristics such as punctuality, courtesy and
professionalism.
11. Harmlessness: Characteristics related to safety , health and environment.
12. Perceived quality: Indirect measures or inferences about one or more of
the dimensions, reputation.
 Quality Costs
• One important aspect of the product development process is to translate
the customer requirements into product specifications.
• Manufactured products not meeting the specifications should be repaired.
• Thus the prime quality costs for supplying satisfactory products to
customers include producing, identifying, avoiding or repairing products
that do not meet customer requirements.
• Quality costs have been classified in a number of different categories as
follows:
1. Prevention costs
2. Appraisal costs
3. Internal Failure Costs
4. External Failure Costs
• Prevention costs: Prevention cost include all efforts that go into designing and
manufacturing a product that meets customer requirements by preventing non-
conformance. The various elements of prevention costs include activities involving
quality planning and engineering, new product reviews, product and process design,
process control, training , and quality data acquisition and analysis.
• Appraisal Costs: These include all those costs involved in measuring, evaluating, or
auditing products, components, and purchased materials to ensure conformance with
the standards and specifications. Specifically, appraisal costs include cost of activities
such as inspection and test of incoming material, product inspection and test, materials
and services consumed and maintaining accuracy of test equipment.
• Internal Failure Costs: Internal failure occurs when products fail to meet the customer
quality requirements before being shipped to the customers. Internal failure costs
include all the cost elements involved in rectifying this situation. Examples of internal
failure cost elements are failure analysis, scrap, repair, retest, downtime, yield losses
and downgrading of usual specifications.
• External Failure Costs: External failures occur when the products do not function
satisfactorily after being supplied to the customer. Major costs are incurred for activities
such as complaint adjustment and dealing with returned products. Other costs include
warranty charges and liability costs.
A framework for Quality Improvement
• To be successful in a competitive business environment, it is important to
deliver products that meet customer requirements with respect to quality,
cost and delivery schedule and also keep on improving the product quality.
• Where are the opportunities to improve product quality in any product life
cycle?
• The product life cycle starts with product planning and continues through
such phases as :
1. Product design
2. Production process design
3. Production
4. Maintenance and product service.
• By building in quality right at the design stage the cost of quality control
at the production stage can be considerably reduced.
• Therefore, the preferable approach to improving the product quality is to
build quality into the products at the product design stage, followed by
improvements at the process design stage and them at production
engineering, maintenance and product service stages.
 Designing quality into products and
processes
• Product design is the prime activity in the process of
realizing a product. Therefore it has the greatest
impact on the product quality. Loss of quality occurs
when there is a deviation of functional characteristics
of the products from the target values.
• Taguchi has proposed a philosophy and methodology
for designing quality into products and processes. He
postulates that the process of designing a product or a
process should be viewed as three phases.
• System Design, Parameter Design and Tolerance Design
• System Design:
System design is the process of applying scientific knowledge to produce a basic
functional prototype design. In this phase, new concepts, ideas and methods are
synthesized to provide new or improved products to customers. That means that
the basic design concept is established during this phase including selection of
parts, materials and subassemblies.
For example while designing a car the following questions need to be addressed. Like
should the internal combustion engine block be of cast iron or aluminum alloy?
Should the brakes be antilock brakes? The relationship between the inputs and
outputs are established. Also, the functions of parts and subsystems are
determined during this phase.
• Parameter design:
In the parameter design phase, the levels for the products/ process design parameters
are set to make the system performance less sensitive to causes of variation thus
minimizing quality loss. In parameter design wide tolerances on noise factors are
assumed to allow low manufacturing cost, as it is costly to control noise factors.
During the parameter design phase the quality is improved without controlling or
removing the cause of variation.
Design of experiments, Simulation and optimization are techniques used during the
parameter stage.
• Tolerance Design:
The tolerance design phase usually follows
the parameter design phase. Quality
improvement is achieved by tight
tolerances around the chosen target values
of the control factors so as to reduce
performance variations. However, with
quality improvement- that is, reduction in
quality loss- there may be an increase in
manufacturing cost.
 • What is Quality loss?
The traditional understanding of quality loss is
shown in the figure 1. • The objective in the traditional quality
approach is to ensure that the manufactured
products fall within the specification limits
and are considered to be of good quality.
•Those not meeting the specifications are
considered bad in quality and are either
rejected or reworked.
•So loss is incurred only when the quality
characteristics fall outside the specification
limits.
Taguchi Loss Function •The modern approach to quality considers
that loss is always incurred whenever the
functional quality characteristics of a
product deviates from its target value,
denoted by ‘T’, regardless of how small the
deviation is.
•The increase in value of functional
characteristics from the target value either
way results in increasing the quality loss.
At the LSL and USL the loss equals the cost of manufacturing or disposal of the product.
 Average Quality Loss
• There is always a variation in the quality characteristic due to
noise factors from unit to unit from time to time during the
usage of the product.
• If yi ( i= 1,2,3------) is the ith representative measurement of
quality characteristics y, then the average quality loss can be
computed as follows:
Average Quality Loss
Average Quality Loss
 Common variations of loss functions
• Product characteristics are the barometers of quality
of products in the sense that they describe and
measure the performance of products relative to the
customer requirements and expectations.
• From the customer point of view, the loss is minimum
if quality characteristics is at the target value.
• However, the expectations of the customers would
differ from product to product, and these can be
characterized when these are at the target values.
 Common variations of Loss functions
• Nominal is the best when ‘y’ is at target. Examples
include dimension, viscosity and clearance.

• Smaller is better; that is, y tends to zero, where target

is zero. Examples of quality characteristics include
wear, shrinkage, deterioration, friction loss, and micro-
finish of a machined surface among others.

• Larger is better; y tends to infinity when the target is at

infinity. Examples include fuel efficiency, ultimate
strength, and life.
Applications of Quality Loss Function:

The quality loss function has been used as a decision support tool in a number of situations .

Determine best factory Tolerances: The loss function can be used to determine economical
factory tolerances:
Example:
Consider the production of automatic transmissions for trucks. The transmission shift point is
one of the critical quality characteristics. Truck drivers would feel very uneasy if the
transmission shift point was farther than the tramsmission output speed on the first to
second gear shift by 35 rpm. Suppose it costs the manufacturer $200 to adjust the valve body
to fix the shift point problem. However, it may cost only $16.40 for labor charges to make
adjustments during the manufacturing and testing phase. Determine the factory tolerances.
ME-461, Manufacturing
Technology, Lecture
14

Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya

GVMM Chair and Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 05122596056
Applications of Quality Loss Function:

The quality loss function has been used as a decision support tool in a number of situations .

Determine best factory Tolerances: The loss function can be used to determine economical
factory tolerances:
Example:
Consider the production of automatic transmissions for trucks. The transmission shift point is
one of the critical quality characteristics. Truck drivers would feel very uneasy if the
transmission shift point was farther than the tramsmission output speed on the first to
second gear shift by 35 rpm. Suppose it costs the manufacturer $200 to adjust the valve body
to fix the shift point problem. However, it may cost only $16.40 for labor charges to make
adjustments during the manufacturing and testing phase. Determine the factory tolerances.
• Product Selection :
The loss function can be used to select products as
illustrated by the following example.
High-Tech Rotor Dynamics is planning to buy a couple of
thousand bolts to be used in their systems. The system
requires highly reliable bolts. In case of bolt failure the
system repair cost is estimated to be $15.00. Two
companies that offer different kinds of alloys in their
products bid to supply the bolts. High-tech decides to go
for destructive testing using 20 specimens. The criterion
used for testing is the ultimate tensile strength measured
in Kgf/mm2. The lower specification limit is
11Kgf/mm2.The purchase quantity is 20,000. The unit
costs of products A and B are $.14 and $.13, respectively.
Advise high tech rotor dynamics for its purchase decision.
Data on Ultimate Tensile Strength of
Bolts
Product (Bolt) Ultimate Tensile Strength Data (Kgf/mm2)

A 15.5 13.8 15.1 15.3 13.7 15.5 13.8 15.1 15.2 13.6

14.2 14.1 14.9 14.8 15.5 14.2 14.5 14.6 14.4 15.4

B 15.5 10.8 15.1 16.3 13.7 10.5 13.8 15.1 12.2 17.6

11.2 14.1 11.9 14.8 17.5 14.2 17.5 14.6 18.4 13.4
 Robust Design of Products and Processes
•Robust design is an approach to designing a product or process that emphasizes
reduction of performance variation through the use of design techniques that reduce
sensitivity to sources of variation.

•Simply stated we want to achieve the target of quality characteristic but at the
same time we want to minimize the variation in a product’s functional characteristics
to ensure minimum quality loss.

•The target and the variance of a product’s quality characteristic are affected by
certain variables which can be classified as controllable factors and uncontrollable
factors, also known as noise factors.

Noise Factors

Signal Engineered Response

Factors System

Control Factors
 Controllable Factors
•Controllable factors are those that can be easily controlled, such as choice of
materials, mold temperature, and cutting speed on a machine tool.

•They can be separated into two major groups: factors controlled by the user/
operator and factors controlled by designers.

Factors controlled by User/ Operator:

These are also known as signal factors. A signal factor carries the intent to the
system from a customer’s point of view to attain the target performance or to
express the intended output.
Consider the steering system of a car. A driver’s intent is to change direction. For
this purpose the driver changes the steering wheel position, thus giving a signal to
the automobile to change directions. In this case the signal factor is the angular
displacement of the steering wheel. Other example of signal factors include setting
a remote control button of a television set to control volume and brightness and
setting the temperature control knob of a refrigerator
 Factors controlled by Designers
•There are three types of factors in this category:

1. Variability control factors: Those that affect the variability in a response are called
variability control factors or simply control factors. For example, the transistor gain
in an electrical power circuit is a variability control factor.

2. Target control factors: These factors can easily be adjusted to achieve the desired
functional relationship between the user input signal and the response. For example
the gear ratio in the steering mechanism of an automobile can be selected during
the product design stage to get the required sensitivity of the turning radius to a
change in the steering angle.

3. Neutral factors: These are factors that do not affect either the mean response or the
variability in the response. They are also known as neutral factors. It is important to
know these neutral factors, since the cost savings can be obtained by setting them
at their most economical levels.
 Noise Factors
Noise factors are, in general, responsible for the functional characteristics of a product
deviating from the target value results in quality loss. Noise factors can be classified
as:

1. Outer Noise: The variables external to a product that affect the product
performance are known as external noise factors. Examples include variations in
temperature, humidity, and dust.

2. Inner Noise: Inner noise is a result of variations due to the deterioration of parts
and materials. Examples include loss of resilience of springs, wearing out of parts
due to friction, and increase in resistance of resistors with age.

3. Between Product Noise: Between product noise is due to the variation in the
product variables from unit to unit, which is inevitable in a manufacturing process.
Examples include material variations.
Noise factors, as the name suggests, are uncontrollable factors. Trying to control
noise factors may be a vary expensive proposition, if not impossible.

Taguchi’s approach to robust design of products and processes attempts to reduce

variability by changing the variability control factors while maintaining the required
average performance through appropriate adjustments in the target control factors.
 Electrical Power Circuit Design
An electrical power circuit design example given by Taguchi is used to illustrate the
separation of variability control and target control variables. The quality characteristic
of interest is output voltage, y, with a target value of y0 . The output voltage is largely
determined by the gain of a transistor in the circuit, x, whose nominal value can be
controlled. The input-output relationship is nonlinear as shown in Fig. 9.3 (a). The
product design engineer can select the nominal value of x to be x0 to achieve the
target value of y0 . However, in real life the transistor gain can deviate from the
nominal value x0 .because of manufacturing imperfections in the transistor,
deterioration during the circuit’s life span, and environmental variations. This deviation
of the actual transistor gain around its nominal value is essentially due to internal
noise. If the distribution of x is as shown in the figure, then we can reduce the variance
of the output by selecting higher values of the input. For example if we select the
nominal value of the transistor gain as x1 instead of x0 , the output variance is reduced
but this results in a higher mean y1 compared with the target y0 . Suppose we have a
resistor in the circuit that has a linear effect on the voltage at all levels of the transistor
gain; then we can easily change the mean y1 to the desired target value y0 by
changing the resistance of the resistor as shown in the figure ahead.
 Non-Linear Input-Output relationship and linear
relationship between output voltage and resistance

We have achieved what we wanted: the output response is on target and the
variability in the output is minimized. We can therefore categorize the transistor gain
as a variability control factor and resistance as a target control factor.
Failure Mode Effect Analysis
• This is an important technique that is widely used in industry, including the big three
auto manufacturers, for continuous product quality improvement to satisfy the needs of
the customer.

•FMEA can be described as a systematized group of activities intended to:

1. Recognize and evaluate the potential failure of a product/ process and its effects.
2. Identify actions that could eliminate or reduce the chance of potential failure
occurring.
3. Document the process.

It is complementary to the design process of defining positively what a design process

must do to satisfy the customer.

FMEA is a generic approach that can be used to identify failure modes and analyze their
effects on the system performance with the objective of developing a preventive
strategy.
 Failure mode effect analysis
•Process FMEA is a methodology for evaluating the process for possible ways in
which the failures can occur. The primary objective in process FMEA is to eliminate
potential production failure effects by identifying important characteristics that have
to be measured, controlled and monitored.

•The FMEA philosophy is based on the characterization of potential failures.

Failures are characterized by the following tuple: (Occurrence, severity and
detection).

Occurrence: How often the failure occurs?

Severity: How serious the failure is?
Detection: How easy or difficult it is to detect the failure?

Examples of typical failure modes include cracked, dirty, deformed, bent and
burred components; worn tools and improper setup.
 Failure mode effect analysis
To implement process FMEA, the following steps may be taken:

•Identify the problems for each operation using brainstorming and committee
discussions. Cause and effect diagrams can be used. For example, the potential causes
of machine failures could involve mechanical or electrical subsystem failure, tools,
inspection equipments, operators and so forth.

•Use flow process charts as a basis for understanding the problem. This provides a
common basis for communication among the committee members.

•Collect data. Data collection may be necessary if data are not already available.

•Prioritize the problems to be studied. The ranking of priorities is based on the following:
RPN (risk priority number) = occurrence X severity X detection

•Use appropriate tools to analyze the problems by making use of the data.

•Implement the suggestions.

•Confirm and evaluate the results by doing some experiments and ask whether you are
better or worse off or the same as before. Repeat the FMEA as often as necessary.
Real Life Illustration of the Use of Process FMEA
 Process steps for FMEA
•The process involves manual application of wax inside a car door, with the objective of
retarding corrosion.
•In items 1 to 8 information such as part identification, names of team members, and date is
provided.
•Items 9 through 22 systematically describe the process FMEA approach. In this example the
problem of corrosion in car door is considered.
•To retard corrosion the manual application of wax is considered. The manner in which this
process could potentially fail to meet the process requirements or design intent is defined by
potential failure mode.
•In our example, the failure mode is insufficient wax coverage over the specified surface. We
have to determine the effect of failure in terms of what the customer might experience.
•Here it would be the unsatisfactory appearance due to the rust and impaired function of the
interior door hardware.

•The next step is to asses the seriousness of the effect based on a severity scale of 1-10.
(Column 12)
•We now have to define the potential cause of failure in terms of something that can be
corrected or controlled.
•For every potential cause the frequency of occurrence should be estimated on a scale of 1-
10. here 10 means that the failure is inevitable.
•We now have to access the probability of detection of the cause of failure by current practice.
•This is also on a scale of 1-10 where 1 denotes a very low probability.
•The next step is to calculate the risk priority no.
ME-461, Manufacturing
Technology, Lecture 15
Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya
GVMM Chair and Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 05122596056
 Improving product quality during the
production phase
•As dicussed many times the very survival of companies depends on continuous
improvement of quality.

•Quality can be designed into a product, as we have seen in the previous section, but
then the product must be manufactured.

•During the manufacturing process assignable causes may occur, seemingly at random.

•These assignable causes result in a shift in the process to an out of control state,
resulting in an output that may not confirm to requirements.

•To produce quality output it is necessary to have a process that is stable or repeatable,
a process capable of operating with little variability around the target or nominal
dimensions of the product’s quality characteristics.

•The idea behind improving quality is to reduce variability and eliminate waste.
Quality improvement process
 Statistical Process Control
•Statistical process control is very useful in monitoring process stability and improving
process capability by reducing variability.

•It should be emphasized here that SPC alone cannot reduce variability. However, with the
aid of process improvement tools such as design of experiments, process variability can be
reduced.

•The following are widely used as process improvement tools:

1. Histogram
2. Check Sheet
3. Pareto Chart
4. Cause and Effect Diagram
5. Defect Concentration Diagram
6. Scatter Diagram
7. Control Chart
 Histogram
•Suppose it is needed to produce a shaft within 1+ 0.05 in. On a numerically
controlled turning machine.

•The shaft diameters are plotted against frequency as shown in the figure below.

• The plot is known as histogram, and it provides information on the central

tendency, spread, and shape.
•We see that the distribution of the shaft diameter is symmetric with the mean
around 1 in. and variability between 0.95 and 1.05 in.
 Check Sheet
• A check sheet serves as a useful tool for collecting historical or current operating
data for the process under investigation.

•In the early stages of implementation of the SPC, it is important to understand what causes failure of the
system or product performance.
•This could be due to a number of defects which even may not affect the product performance but certainly
affects the quality of the products.
•For example common product such as spark plug used in a car. Over a period of 5 days a list of spark plug
defects is recorded on a check sheet.
•Some defects are due to tool changeovers to different types, as for the raised stud defects.
•This check sheet helps in identifying the sources of these defects with respect to time.
•We notice that except for dirty cores the defects are not recorded everyday. Cores are supplied from
outside vendors therefore the problem lies in controlling the quality of the incoming part.
 Pareto Chart
•The Pareto law states that on an average 80 % of the defects stem from 20% of
the causes.

•In case of the spark plugs most of the quality problems come from only three out
of nine or more problem areas.

•A Pareto diagram is helpful in identifying the fact that taking care of these few
problems takes care of 80% of all causes of the problem situation.
 Cause and effect diagram
• A cause and effect
diagram is a
technique for
systematically listing
the various causes of
a problem.

•The CAE diagram,

also known as the
fish bone diagram or
Ishikawa Diagram
(credited to Dr. Kaoru
Ishikawa), serves as

a tool to indicate how various causes can operate independently as well as

simultaneously to produce an eventual effect on the manufactured product.
• For example consider the quality of the turned part such as a shaft. Poor quality
may be caused by several factors, such as works-manship, worn tool, or non
optimal machining conditions.
 Defect Concentration Diagram
•A defect concentration diagram is a visual representation of the unit under study
showing all possible views with all possible defects identified on it. This type of
representation is useful in understanding the types of defects and their possible
causes.

Scatter Diagram
• A scatter diagram is useful in establishing a relationship between two variables.
•The shape of the scatter diagram is obtained by plotting the two variables. It may
indicate a positive or negative correlation between the variables or no correlation
at all.
•Such information helps in developing a control strategy for these variables.

Control Chart
 Control Chart
•A typical control chart is a graphical display of a quality characteristic measured
on a sample versus the sample number. There are 3 essential elements of a
control chart:

1. Center line representing the average value of the quality characteristic

corresponding to the in control state.
2. Upper control limit (UCL) represented by the upper horizontal line of the
chart.
3. Lower control limit (LCL) represented by the line below the central line.

• The selection of the upper and the lower points also depend on the notion
that all the sample points should fall between them if the process is in
control.
• Points lying outside these limits signal the presence of assignable causes.
• The process should then be investigated to eliminate assignable causes.
 A general model of a control chart
•Suppose ‘y’ is a sample statistic that measures some quality characteristic of
interest, and let μy be the mean σy be the standard deviation.

•The CL, UCL and LCL are given by:

UCL = μy + kσy

CL = μy

LCL= μy – kσy

Where k is the distance of the control limits from the center line. If K =3, the
cotrol limits are typically called three sigma control limits.

Control Charts are categorized into variable control chart and attribute control
chart.
 Variable Control Chart
• If the quality characteristic can be measured and expressed as a continuous variable, then it
can be conveniently characterized by measures of the central tendency and variability.

• Variable control charts can explain the process data in terms of both location (in terms of
average) and spread (in terms of piece to piece variability). For this reason the control charts
for variables are always developed and analyzed in pairs.

•The X chart is widely used for controlling central tendency. Charts based on either the
sample range (R chart) or the sample standard deviation (S chart) are used to control the
process variability.

•The range chart is relatively efficient for smaller subgroup sample sizes, especially below 8.

•The S chart is used with larger sample sizes.

 The attribute control chart
•Many quality characteristics cannot be measured in a continuous scale.

•This happens when the quality of an item is judged as either conforming or non
conforming to a specification.

•For example, items which have cracks, missing components, appearance defects, or
other visual imperfections may be rendered as rejects, defective or non conforming
items.

•Control charts to control such quality characteristics are called attribute control charts.
The different attribute control charts are the following:

1. The p chart for proportion of units non conforming (from samples not necessarily of
constant size).
2. The np chart for number of units non conforming (for samples of constant size).
3. The c chart for number of non conformities or defects (from samples of constant
size).
4. The u chart for number of non conformities per unit ( from samples not necessarily
of constant size).
 The benefits of control charts
Control Charts provide a large number of benefits. The compound effect of all
these benefits is an overall improvement in the quality.

Some of the distinct benefits are as follows:

1. Control charts are effective means of monitoring statistical control.

2. Control charts help predict the performance of a process when the process is
in a state of statistical control.
3. They provide a common language about the process, such as between 2 or 3
shifts, between production and maintenance supervisors, or between
suppliers and producers.
4. Control charts help direct corrective measures in a logical manner by
identifying the occurrence of assignable causes. Some of the assignable causes
may require special resources and involvement of the management. This helps
in avoiding confusion, frustration and high cost of possible misdirected efforts
to solve the problem.
 Characteristics of Data
( )
• The notations are for the average and the standard deviation for a sample of data.

•We think as a typical value of the X’s in a sample, or as a point around which the
numbers tend to cluster.

•The standard deviation ‘s’ is a typical deviation of an observation x from the average

• It is a deviation descriptive of variation within the sample.

• From a well organized frequency distribution as we have already seen above we can say
the following:

1. Between
 Checklist necessary for X and R charts
• It is helpful to visualize the decisions and calculations that must be made and the
actions that need to be taken for plotting a X and a R chart. They are the following:
1. Decisions preparatory to the control charts
• Some possible objectives of the charts.
• Choice of variables.
• Decisions on the basis of subgroups.
• Decisions on size and frequency of subgroups.
• Setting up the forms for recording the data.
• Determining the method of measurement.
2. Starting the Control Charts
• Making and recording measurements and recording other relevant data.
• Calculating the average X and range R of each subgroup.
• Plotting the X and R charts.
3. Determining the trial control limits
• Decision on required number of subgroups before control limits are calculated.
• Calculation of trial control limits.
• Plotting the central lines and limits on the charts.
4. Drawing preliminary conclusions from the charts
• Indication of control or lack of control.
• Interpretation of processes in control.
• Relationships between processes out of control and specification limits.
 Decisions preparatory to control charts
Some possible objectives of the charts are the following:
1. To analyze a process with a view to
(a) secure information to be used in changing specifications or in determining whether a
given process can meet specifications.
(b)To secure information to be used in establishing or changing production procedures.
(c)To secure information to be used in establishing or changing the inspection procedures
or acceptance procedures.
2. To provide a basis for current decisions during production as to when to hunt for
causes of variation and take action intended to correct them, and when to leave a
process alone.
3. To provide a basis for current decisions on acceptance or rejection of manufactured or
purchased product.

Choice of Variables
•The variable chosen for control charts for X and R must be something that can be
measured and expressed in numbers, such as dimension, hardness number, tensile
strength, weight etc.
•From a standpoint of the possibility of reducing production costs, a candidate for a control
chart is any quality characteristics that is causing rejections or rework involving substantial
costs.
•From an inspection standpoint destructive testing always suggests an opportunity to use the
control chart to reduce costs.
 Decision on the basis of sub-grouping
•The key idea in Shewhart method is the division of observations into what
Shewhart called rational subgroups.
•The subgroups should be selected in a way that makes each subgroup as
homogeneous as possible and that gives the maximum opportunity for variation
from one subgroup to another.
•As applied to control charts on production, this means that it is of vital importance
not to lose track of the order of production.
• Particularly, if the purpose of the control chart is to keep detecting shifts in the
process average, one subgroup should consist of items produced as nearly as
possible at one time; the next subgroup should consist of items all produced at a
single time later; and so forth.
Decision on the size and frequency of subgroups
•Shewhart suggested 4 as the ideal sub group size. In industrial uses 5 seems to
be a better alternative because of ease of calculations.
•The essential idea of the control chart is to select subgroups in a way that gives
minimum opportunity for variation within a subgroup. It is therefore desirable that
the size be as small as possible.
•Subgroups of two or three may often be used to good advantage, particularly
where the cost of measurements is so high as to veto the use of larger
subgroups.
•Larger subgroups of 10 or 20 are sometimes appropriate if it is desired to make
the control chart sensitive to small changes.
 Setting up the forms for recording the data

•Layout of data should be as per convenience of calculation and analysis.

•The forms should have a recording space for item of measurement, unit of
measurement, and operator remarks about tool change, operator change, machine
change etc.
 Starting the Control charts
Making and recording the measurements and recording other relevant data:

•The actual work of the control charts start with the first measurements.
•Any method of measurement will have its own inherent variability; it is important that this is
not increased by mistakes in reading measurement instruments or errors in recording data.

Calculating the average and range for each subgroup:

 Plotting both the charts:
Determining the trial control limits:

1. Decision is needed on the

required number of subgroups
before control limits are
calculated.
2. The fewer the subgroups used
the sooner the information thus
obtained will provide a basis for
action but the less the assurance
that the action will be sound.

Calculation of trial control limits:

 Drawing Preliminary Conclusions from the chart
Indication of control or lack of control:
•Lack of control is indicated by points falling outside the control limits on either of the
charts.
•When the points fall outside the control limits, we say that a process is “out of control”,
this is equivalent to saying that assignable causes of variation are present and this is not a
constant cause system.
•In contrast if none of the points fall outside the control limits then “No assignable causes
are present”.

Interpretation of processes in control:

•With the evidence from the control chart that a process is in control, we are in a
position to judge what is necessary to permit the manufacture of product that meets the
specifications for the quality characteristic charted. The control chart data gives us
estimate of :

1. The centering of the process.

2. The dispersion of the process.

Actions based on the relationship between the specifications and the centering and
dispersion of a controlled process depend somewhat on whether there are two
specification limits, a maximum or upper limit or a minimum or lower limit. This would
again depend heavily on the parameter that we choose to plot.
Possible relationships of a process in control to upper
and lower specification limits

Case I: The spread of the process 6σ is

appreciably less than the difference
between the specification limits.
Case II: The spread is approximately
equal to the difference between the
specification limits.
Case III: The spread of the process is
appreciably greater than the difference
between the specification limits.
 Case I: When the process 6σ is appreciably less than difference between specification
limits
•Frequency curves A,B,C, D and E indicate various
positions in which the process can be centered.
•With any of the position A, B and C practically all
the products manufactured will meet the
specifications as long as the process stays in control.
•In general when conditions A, B and C come it
represents the ideal manufacturing situation. When
the control chart shows that one of this control
chart exists, many different possible actions may be
considered depending on the relative economy.

•For example it may be considered economically advisable to permit X to go out of control if it does not go
too far, i.e., the distributions may be allowed to move between positions B and C. This may avoid the cost
of frequent machine setup and of delays due to hunting of assignable causes of variation that will not be
responsible for unsatisfactory product.
•Or where acceptance has been based on 100% inspection, it may be economical to substitute acceptance
based on control charts.
•Or where there is an economic advantage to be gained by tightening the specification limits, such action
may be considered.
•With the process in the position D some points will fall above the upper specification limit. Similarly with
the process in position E some products will fall below the lower limit. In either case the obvious action is
to bring the centering of the process towards that of A.
 Case II: When the process 6σ is equal to the difference between
specification limits • In this situation only the process
exactly centered between the
specification limits, as in position
A, will practically produce
everything conforming to the
specifications.
•If the distribution shifts away
this exact centering as in B or C, it
is apparent that some of the
products will fall outside the
specification limits.

• Here the obvious action is to take all steps possible to maintain the centering of
the process. This usually calls for continuous use of the control charts for X and R
with subgroups at frequent intervals and immediate attention to points out of
control.
•If fundamental changes can be made that reduce dispersion that eases the
pressure.
•Consideration should also be given to changing of the tolerances.
 Case III: When the process 6σ is less than the difference between
specification limits
• The third type of situation
arises when the
specification limits are so
tight that even with the
process in control and
perfectly centered some
non conforming parts still
get produced as in position
A.

• This primarily calls for a review of tolerances.

•It also calls for a fundamental change in the process that will reduce
the process dispersion.
•It is still very important to maintain the centering of the process; the
curves in position B and C show how a shift in process average will
increase the non conformity.
Possible relationships of a process in control to a single specification

I: Low value of distribution ( ) is

appreciably above LSL.
II: Low value of distribution is at LSL.
III: Low value of the distribution is
appreciably below LSL.
 Possible relationships of a process in control to a single
specification
• The first situation is one in which there is a margin of safety.
•The second is a one in which the specification is just barely met as long as the process
stays in control.
• The third is one in which some non conforming products are produced unless there is a
fundamental change in the process spread or increase in process average.
•All three distributions A,B and C have the same lower value. However, distribution B with a
greater dispersion must have a greater process average than A for the low points to be at
the same level. Similarly distribution C should have a greater process average than B. It is
evident that the greater the distribution the higher the average must be for the entire
distribution to fall above the lower specification limit.
• The relationship between average and cost is vital in many instances. For example in the
filling of containers a reduction in dispersion may reduce cost by reducing the average
overfill.
•On the other hand, the less the dispersion, the more important it is that the process
average does not go out of control. This is illustrated by comparing distributions A and C in
Case III. In Case III both process averages have shifted an equal amount below their
position. However, the proportion of bad product, as indicated by the area of the
distribution below the specification limit, is much greater in A than in C.
 Use on control charts by a purchaser to help suppliers improve
their processes.
Facts of the case:

•A manufacturer of electronic devices had trouble with the cracking of a certain small cross shaped
ceramic insulator used in the device.
•The cracking generally took place after the manufacturing operations were nearly completed and did
so in a way that made it impossible to salvage the unit.
•Hence the costs resulting from each cracked insulators during manufacturing operations suggested
that others might be likely to crack under service conditions.
•In an effort to improve the situation, all incoming insulators of this type were given 100% inspection.
This 100% inspection failed to decrease the percentage defective units.
•A simple testing was then constructed to measure the actual strength in flexure by testing insulators
to destruction. From each incoming lot of insulators 25 were tested. As the insulators came from 2
suppliers, control charts (X and R) from both suppliers were separately maintained. The tests showed
that both suppliers had approximately the same % defectives but the explanations for defectives were
defectives.
•Supplier A had higher average strength but complete lack of anything resembling statistical control.
Supplier B on the other hand had excellent statistical control but at a level such that an appreciable
part of frequency distribution was below the required minimum strength.
•This diagnosis of the situation was brought to the attention of both suppliers and they were
encouraged to exchange information about production methods. Finally product control could be
achieved.
 Milling a slot in an aircraft terminal
block.
Decisions preparatory to the control chart:

•High percentages of rejections for many of the parts made in the machine shop of an
aircraft company indicated the need for examination of the reasons for trouble.
•As most of the rejections were for failure to meet dimensional tolerances, it was decided
to try to find the causes of trouble by the use of X and R charts.
•These charts which off-course required the measurements of dimensions, were to be
used only for those dimensions that were causing numerous rejections.
•Among the many dimensions, the ones selected for control charts were those having
high costs of spoilage and rework and those on which rejections were responsible for
delays in assembly operations.
•This example deals with one such critical dimension, the width of a slot on the duralumin
forging used as a terminal block at the end of the rear tail or an airplane.
•The final matching of the slot width was a milling operation. The width of the slot was
specified as 0.8750 .

•The design engineers had specified this dimension with an unilateral tolerance because
of the fit requirements of the terminal block; it was essential that the slot width be at
least .8750 in and desirable that it is very close to this value.
Milling example continued
• Due to the small no. of available
inspection personnel it was decided
that for each chart the sample would
be inspected would be approximately
5% of the total production of the parts
in question.
•It was decided that all measurements
would be made at the place of
production and it was decided that a
part be measured every 20 parts
produced. The subgroup size was thus
fixed as 5. The figure on left shows all
observations.
• The method to inspection to secure
data for each of the charts was to
measure two portions of the slot width
using a micrometer screw gauge and
average these measurements.
 Milling example continued
Starting the control charts:

•The actual measurements of the first 16 subgroups are shown in the table. These numbers of subgroups
correspond to a production order for 1600 of these terminal blocks.
•At the time of the 12th subgroup, before the completion of this production order and before the calculation of the
central line or control limits, the quality control inspector noticed that the machine operator was occasionally
checking performance on a terminal block that had just come off the machine and was still hot.
•After the 12th subgroup the operator was asked to do measurements after some time of cooling is allowed.

Determining the trial control limits:

•Calculations of the trial control limits was

made after the first 16 subgroups which
completed the production order. As shown in
the figure on the right these were done by
finding out the A2 and D4 factors for a
subgroup size 5.

Drawing preliminary conclusions from the

graphs:

Subgroup 1 is above the upper control limit

on the R chart.
Subgroup 10 is below the lower control limit
on the X chart. Moreover the last 10- of the 6
points fall below the central line.
 Milling Example Continued
•It is obvious that the measurements made
are not the result of a constant system of
chance causes.
• If subgroup 1 is eliminated from
consideration, R for the remaining 15
subgroups is 536/ 15 = 36.
• This gives us a revised upper control limit

D4 (R) = 2.11 (36) = 76.

•Subgroup 5 falls exactly on the upper

control limit in the X chart. Hence a second
revision of R with subgroup 5 eliminated
seems reasonable. Therefore R = 460/14 =
33. .

•An estimate may be made of σ from the R

values. With a d2 value of 2.362
corresponding to the subgroup size 5 we get
a σ = R/ d2 = 0.0014 in. • It is evident from the process that the natural tolerance of the
•The value of the natural tolerance or spread spread is substantially greater than the specified tolerance.
of the process is therefore 6σ= 6 (.0014) = •Therefore, unless the process dispersion is reduced the process
.0084 in. will keep producing non conforming components.

•This spread may be compared with

tolerance spread: U-L = .0050in
ME-461, Manufacturing
Technology, Lecture 16
Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya
GVMM Chair and Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 05122596056
Revision of theory of Probability
Definition:
•Probability is concerned with the likelihood of an event occurring. The scale of
probability of an event varies from 0 to1.
•If an event cannot occur on a trial, then the probability of its occurrence is 0.
•If another event is certain to occur then its probability of occurrence is 1.

•As an example suppose that a trial is drawing a piece at random from some production
line, and that the event in question is that the piece drawn is a defective or non
conforming one.
•Let us suppose that the probability of a defective is 0.05. This means that 5% of the
time when we draw a random piece from the line, it is defective.
•The complementary event is that the piece drawn is a good one. It’s probability is .95.
P(good or defective) = 1
Occurrence ratio
•Suppose that we have a production process for which the probability of a piece
containing at least one “ minor defect” is constantly 0.08.
•We then say that the probability is 0.08 for a “minor defective”.
•Now what happens to the observed proportion of minor defectives as we continue to
sample? This observed proportion of minor defectives is what we know as the
occurrence ratio.
 Theory of probability
•Let p’ = constant probability of a minor defective

Where the letter ‘p’ means the probability and the prime means population probability.

d = no. of defectives observed

n = no. of pieces inspected or tested
p = d/n = sample proportion of defectives.

Let us see how p = d/n behave as we sample more and more, that is, increase ‘n’?

Would we not expect that the observed occurrence ratio p= d/n would tend to approach p’
= 0.08.

We start with five samples of 10, then samples of 50.

The first 2 columns are for current sample of 10 or of 50.

The 3rd and the 4th column are for the total sample size and the cumulative total no. of
defectives.

The 5th column is based on the 3rd and 4th columns and gives the current overall proportion
defectives and the occurrence ratio (total defective/ total inspected).
 Sample Totals Occurrence
ratio The proportion defective only tends to
n D Σn Σd P = Σd/ Σn approach p’ =0.08.
10 0 10 0 .0000
10 1 20 1 .0050 Sometimes it gets closer, sometimes it
10 1 30 2 .0667 backs away from p’.
10 1 40 3 .0750
10 0 50 3 .0600
Before the total sample size was 100,
50 5 100 8 .0800
the occurrence ratio was below .08.
50 4 150 12 .0800
50 6 200 18 .0900
Between 100 and 150 it was 0.08 and
50 4 250 22 .0880
thereafter above.
50 8 300 30 .1000
50 1 350 31 .0886
50 3 400 34 .0850
Principle:
50 5 450 39 .0867
50 3 500 42 .0840 We can say that the p= d/n is an
50 5 550 47 .0855 estimate of the constant probability of
50 5 600 52 .0867 population p’. How close the estimate
50 5 650 57 .0877 will be depends on sample size n, the
50 4 700 61 .0871 value of p’ and also upon chance.
50 3 750 64 .0853
50 6 800 70 .0875
50 4 850 74 .0871
50 7 900 81 .0900
50 4 950 85 .0895
50 4 1000 89 .0890
 Probability laws
•Consider again the production line producing pieces with a constant probability .08 of
the piece being a minor defective, and such that each piece is independent of the
other produced.

•This means that the probability of the next piece being a defective is 0.08 and the piece
being good is .92 irrespective of the preceding piece.

•Now let us suppose that we draw a sample of two pieces and inspect them.

•The outcomes are that the sample may contain 0, 1 or 2 defectives. Let us find the
probabilities of this outcome or events.

•For the probability of the samples containing no defectives, we must have good pieces
on both draws.
Probability Laws
 Probability Laws
•If 2 events A and B might occur on a trial or experiment, but the occurrence of either
one prevents the occurrence of the other, then events A and B are called mutually
exclusive.

•For two such events P(A) + P (B) = P( A or B, mutually exclusive events)

•We have seen this in the earlier example in the 1 good case P (1 Good) = .0736 +0.0736

•If one of the two events A and A is certain to occur on a trial, but both cannot
simultaneously occur, then A and A are called complementary events.

•For any such pair of events

• We have seen this in the example of a single draw where p’ was given as 0.08.
 Laws of Probability
•Two events A and B are independent if the occurrence or non occurrence of A does not
affect the probability of B occuring.

•Whenever a process produces defectives independently, or at random, so that the

probability of a defective on the next piece does not depend upon what the preceding
pieces were like, then we have the case of independent events. Such a process is said to
be in control, that is stable, even though some non conformity is produced.

•Not all processes do behave in this manner.

•For example: We consider the production of 3000 piston ring castings. The sample of
100 contain 25 defectives whereas the remaining 2900 only 4. This was because the
defectives occur in bunches from a certain defect producing condition.
•Particularly in this case it was found that the castings were made from stacks of molds,
and if the iron is not hot enough when poured into a stack, many castings may be
defective. Under such conditions, whether a piece is good or defective does have an
influence on the probability of the next one being defective.

•If two events A and B are independent, then we have :

P(Both A and B occurring) = P(A). P(B)
 Example of Dependence and Equal
Likelihood
•As a second example of probability, let us consider drawing without replacement from a
lot of N=6 speedometers, of which 1 is defective

•Let N = no. of pieces in one lot and

D= no. of defective pieces in a lot

•Now consider the very simple case in which we just draw a random sample of 1 from a
lot of 6. Random means that each of the six meters is equally likely to be chosen for the
sample. Probability of each is 1/6.

•There are only two kind of meters “good “ and “defective” with P(good) = 5/6 and
P(defective) = 1/6.

•Now next consider drawing a sample of n= 2 from the lot having N =6, of which D=1 is
defective. This may contain no. of defectives either d=0 or 1.

•This is a case of two consecutive drawings which are not independent. Take first the case
of the sample yielding no defectives, that is, two good meters. We need
P(2 good) = P(good, good) = P(good on first draw). P(good on 2nd draw given good on 1st
draw) = 5/6. 4/5 = 2/3
 Counting samples (Permutations and
combinations)
•In combinations we consider for example we have “n” objects which we can distinguish
between.
•Now how many distinct samples, each of one, can we draw from a lot of N=10?
Obviously the answer is 10. So, we call this a combination of N objects taken 1 at a time,
or in symbols :

C(N,1) = N.

•Next consider samples of two, from say four good pieces (g1, g2, g3 and g4).
•Then the number of distinct unordered samples may be found from the number of
distinct ordered samples. For example: for ordered samples
g1g2, g2g1, g1g3, g3g1, g1g4, g4g1, g2g3, g3g2, g2g4, g4g2, g3g4, g4g3

•The no. of unordered samples are only half as much , that is, six, because, for example,
the one unordered pair g2g4 corresponds to two ordered pairs g2g4 and g4g2.

•Now let us consider lots of 10 distinct pieces. The number of possible ordered samples,
each of two is 10.9, because there are 10 choices for the first piece and having made a
choice their remain 9 choices for the second piece. So we have 90 ordered samples and
exactly ½ of this unordered. (45)
 Counting samples (Permutations and
combinations)
•Now let us go to a sample of 3 from a lot of 10. The no. of distinct ordered samples is
10.9.8; 10 choices for the first, 9 choices for the second and 8 choices for the third. But
now six of this ordered samples correspond to just one unordered sample. For example:
g1g4g6, g1g6g4, g4g1g6, g4g6g1, g6g1g4, g6g4g1 all correspond to g1g4g6 unordered
sample.

•Hence the number of distinct or unordered samples or combinations is 10.9.8/6 = 120

•Ordered samples are also called permutations and they are calculated by the general
formulae
P(n,r) = n! / (n-r)! In the earlier case P(10,3) = 10!/ 7! = 10.9.8 = 720

•We call the number of distinct unordered samples a combination and is given by the
genera formulae C(n,r) = n!/ r! (n-r)! In earlier case this would be = 10!/ 3!. 7! = 10.9.8/
3.2.1 = 120.
 Counted data: Defects and defectives
• Inspecting or testing ‘n’ pieces , we may search for defects or non conformances in the
‘n’ pieces and record the total number of such defects. This is measuring quality by a
count of defects.

•In inspecting or testing ‘n’ pieces, we may consider whether each of ‘n’ pieces does
contain any defects. Each piece having one or more defects is called a defective. This
measure is known as the count of defectives.

•We shall consistently use the following symbols here and in later discussions:

n = number of units in a sample.

d = number of defective units in the sample of n units.
p = d/n= sample of fraction defective = proportion of defective units in the sample.
q= 1-p = sample fraction good
d= np = no. of defective units in the sample.

Binomial distribution for defectives:

Suppose we had a process with population fraction defective of p’ = .10. For a sample size
of 4 there could be

Either 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4 defectives can exist.

 Binomial distribution for defectives
• First find the probability of drawing a sample with all pieces good.

So for P(d=0) = P(4 good) = [P(good)]4 = (0.9)4 = .6561

Thus about 2/3 of the time, we draw a sample of n=4 pieces from the process, all four will
be good ones.

•Now next we seek P (3 good, 1 defective) .

P (3 good, 1 defective) = P(g,g,g,d) + P(g,g,d,g) + P (g,d,g,g) + P (d,g,g,g) = (.9)(.9)(.9)(.1) +

(.9) (.9)(.1)(.9) + (.9) (.1)(.9)(.9) + (.1) (.9)(.9)(.9) = 4(.9)^3 (.1) = .2916.

•Next consider samples with d=2; they have two defectives and two good ones. How many
distinct orders are there for such samples? Six: ggdd. gdgd, gddg, dgdg, ddgg, dggd, the
probability for each one of these sample outcomes is (0.9)2(0.1)2 .
P(d=2) = 6 (0.9)2(0.1)2 = .0486

•Similarly for d=3 there are only 4 orders of sampling results

P(d=3) = 4 (0.9)2(0.1)2 =.0036

•Finally for d =4, all four must be defective

•P(d=4) = .0001
 Binomial distribution for Defectives
• The sum of all the 4 outcomes are 1.

•We can also represent the various coefficients viz, 4,6,4 of the products of the powers of .9
and .1 as

C(4,1) =4, C(4,2) = 6, C(4,3)= 4 respectively.

•This reasoning enables us to write all the four probabilities in 1 formulae

P(d) = C(4,d) (0.9)4-d(0.1)d

•This is also a representative of the dth term of a Binomial distribution of n =4 and the p =0.9
and q= 0.1.
d P(d) P= d/n
•In general
P(d) = C(n,d) (p’)n-d(q’)d 0 .6561 .00
1 .2916 .25
2 .0486 .50
3 .0036 .75
4 .0001 1.00
Total 1.0000
 Mean and standard Deviation of a
Binomial distribution
•Where many sets of trial are made of an event with constant probability of occurrence ‘p’,
the expected average number of occurences in the long run is ‘np’.

•So ‘np’ is the expected value, or mathematical expectation, of x where x=0 if an item is
acceptable or x=1 if it is rejectable.

•Mathematical expectation is an operator expressed as follows:

 An experimental example of the meaning of average and
standard deviation of Binomial distribution
•The table on the left may be used to clarify certain
No. of non – Frequency
aspects of the mean and standard deviation of the
conforming
Binomial distribution.
items
•Column on the extreme left gives the number of
4 3 non conforming items in each sample of 10.
3 7 •The result of 40 samples may be arranged into a
frequency distribution .
2 9
•The average calculated by normal method results
1 16 in 1.675 and the standard deviation by a similar
0 5 method result in 1.127.
•If we use the formulae for the mean and deviation
Total 40
of a binomial distribution the expected average
• The expected
standard
deviation

•So, the
observed values
seem fairly close
to the expected
value.
 Control charts for attributes

There are several different types of control charts that may be used. These are the
following:
1. The p chart, the chart for fraction rejected as non conforming to specifications.
2. The np chart, the control chart for number of non conforming items.
3. The c chart, the control chart for non conformities.
4. The u chart, the control chart corresponding to the non conformities per unit.

Control charts for fraction rejected

•The most versatile and widely used attributes control chart is the ‘p’ chart. This is the
chart for the fraction rejected as non conforming to specifications. The principle
advantage that these charts provide is that only 1 chart is sufficient to describe 10’s,
100’s or 1000’s of quality characteristics by classifying the item as accepted or rejected.

Control limits for the p-chart

Problems introduced by variable
subgroup size
•One practical difference between the X chart and p chart is the variability in subgroup
size in the p chart.
•P charts typically use data taken for other purposes than the control chart; where
subgroups consist of daily or weekly production and tend to vary a lot.
•Whenever subgroup size is expected to vary, a decision must be made as to the way in
which control limits are to be shown on the p chart. There are three solutions to all these
problems.

1. Compute new control limits for every subgroup, and show these fluctuating limits on
the control chart. This is illustrated in the first 2 months of the 4 months.
2. Estimate the average subgroup size for the immediate future. Compute one set of
limits for this average, and draw them on the control chart. Whenever the actual
subgroup size is substantially different from this estimated average, separate limits
may be computed for individual subgroups.
3. Draw several sets of control limits on the chart corresponding to different subgroup
sizes. A good plan is to use three sets of limits, one for expected average, one close
to the expected minimum and one close to the expected maximum.
 •This example shows a 4 month
record of daily 100% inspection
of a single critical quality
characteristics of a part of an
Table 1 electrical device.
•When after a change in design,
the production of this part was
started early in June, the daily
fraction rejected was computed
and plotted on a chart.
•At the end of the month the
average fraction rejected P was
computed.
•Trial control limits were
computed for each point. A
standard value of fraction
rejected p0 was then established
to apply to future production.
•During July new control limits
were computed and plotted daily
on the basis of the no. of parts
‘n’ inspected during the day.
 •A single set of control limits
was established for August,
Table 2 based on the estimated average
daily production.
•At the end of August, a revised
p0 was computed to apply to
September, and the control
chart was continued during
September with this revised
value.

Calculation of the trial control

limits:
•Table 1 shows the number
inspected and no. rejected on
each day. The fraction rejected
on each day is the no. of parts
rejected each day divided by the
number inspected that day.
•For example: on June 6th, Pi =
31/3350 = 0.0093.
•At the end of the month the
•The standard deviation is calculated on the basis of this average P is computed
observed value P
 • Determination of P0: If all
the points fall within the
trial control limits, the
standard value P0 may be
Table 3 assumed to be equal to P.
•Here point fell outside the
control limit. Thus a
revised value of P is
calculated.
•With the days June 7, 12,
13 and 22 eliminated, the
remainder no. of rejects is
290 and no. inspected is
46399. The revised P0 =
0.0063.
•After considering this and
the previous record on
similar parts of slightly
different design, it was
decided to assume p0 =
0.0065.
•Table 2 is calculated on
the basis of p0.
Establishment of control limit
based on expected average
subgroup size:

•Although the correct position of

3-sigma control limits on a p chart
depends on subgroup size, the
calculation of new limits for each
new subgroup consumes some
time and effort.
•Where the variation in subgroup
size is not too great , the
calculation of each new subgroup
consumes time and effort.
•Where the variation of subgroup
size is not more than 25%, it may
be good enough for practical
purposes to establish a single set
of control limits based on the
expected average subgroup size.
•For the month of august (Table
3) the estimated average daily
production was 2600.
•Table ‘a’ is based on 33 years
of records for 10 rainfall
stations widely scattered
throughout the mid-western
United States.
•It gives a number of 10-min
periods in a year having half an
inch or more of rainfall, c is the
no. of such cloudbursts in a
station year ; the frequency is
the no. of station years having
respectively 0,1,2,3,4, and 5
such excessive rainstorms.
•The average no. of storms per
station year is 1.2.
•Table ‘b’ represents the
number of cavaliers killed by
fatal kick of horses in each of
the 14 cavalry corps in each of
the 20 successive years. Here
‘c’ is the no. of Prussians killed
in this way in a corps year.
•The frequency is the no. of
corps year having exactly c
cavalry men killed
•Table ‘c’ is based on the n. of
articles turned in per day to the
lost and found bureau of a
large office building. The
frequency is the number of
days with exactly ‘c’ lost articles
turned in.
•Table ‘d’ shows the vacancies
in the United States Supreme
Court, either by death or
resignation of members, from
1837 to 1932. The frequency is
the no. of years in which there
were exactly ‘c’ vacancies.
•Table ‘e’ shows the no. of
telephone calls per 5-min
interval in a group of six coin-
box telephones in a large
railway terminal. The data were
taken for the period from noon
to 2 P.M. for seven days. The
frequency no. is the number of
5-min. intervals in which
exactly ‘c’ calls were made.
 Importance of Poisson’s Distribution
•At first impression, these six Poisson illustrations may seem to have very little similarity
to one another.
•If we look at all these more critically, they all have definite characteristics in common. In
each a count was made of the no. of occurrences of an event that had many
opportunities to occur but was extremely unlikely to occur at any given opportunity.
•For example there were many 10-min periods in a year; it was unlikely that any
particular one would bring a cloudburst of half an inch or more of rain.
•Similarly, there were many contacts between a cavalryman and a horse during a year
of history of a cavalry corps; it was unlikely that the horse would make of a fatal kick at
any particular contact.
•Similarly, there were many people passing through the office building throughout the
day; it was unlikely that any one person would find a lost article and turn it in the lost
an found section .
•So, in all these cases, there is a concept of the existence of a large ‘n’ and a small ‘p’,
even though it may be impossible to assign a definite value to either ‘n’ or ‘p’. Even in
cases where it is not impossible to assign a definite value to either ‘n ‘ or ‘p’, it may
simply be of no advantage to determine ‘n’ and ‘p’ and to calculate Binomial based on
them.
•So, Poisson’s is definitely an advantage in such cases.
 The Poisson law as a probability
distribution
•Certain types of frequency distributions occur in nature, both in quality control work
and elsewhere, that are closely fitted by a formulae known as Poisson’s law.
•If ‘c’ is the count of the occurrences of some event of interest, and μc is the parametric
value of the rate of occurrence, then the Poisson’s probability density function may be
stated as :
The Poisson’s Distribution as an approximation
to Binomial
•Calculation involving the use of binomials are often burdensome; this is particularly
true if many terms are involved and if ‘n’ is large.
•Fortunately, a simple approximation may be obtained to any term of the binomial.
•This approximation is often called Poisson’s exponential binomial limit. The larger the
value of ‘n’ and the smaller the value of ‘p’, the closer the Poisson approximation.
•The Poisson formula may be derived from the binomial theorem in the following
manner. In the Binomial formula, let c=np, then
 Use of tables and computer programs for
solution of Poisson Problems
Standard tables provide summation terms of the Poisson’s c.d.f. upto three decimal
places.

Individual Poisson’s terms must be obtained by subtracting terms of the adjacent

summation terms. Thus

Average and standard deviation of the Poisson

•The average and standard deviation of the Poisson distribution are

respectively.
• The table on the right provides the numbers of
errors of alignment observed at final inspection
of a certain model of airplane. The alignment
errors observed on each airplane constitute one
subgroup for this chart.
• The total no. of alignment errors in the first 25
planes was 200. The average C is 200/25 =8.0.
The trial control limits computed from this
average are as follows:

UCL = C + 3[C] * ½ = 16.5

LCL = C - 3[C] * ½ = negative, therefore no LCL.

• Whenever, calculations give a negative value of
the lower control limit of a control chart for
attributes, no lower control limit is used. In
effect, the chart will exhibit only an upper
control limit.
• As none of the first 25 points on this chart is
outside the trial control limits based on these
points, the standard number of defects C0 may
be taken as equal to C and the control chart
continued for the following period with a
central line of 8.0 and an UCL of 16.5.
 Plot of the C-chart

• One point (airplane no. 236) out of the next 25 is above the upper control
limit.
• The average during this period was 236/25 =9.44 (even omitting the out-of-
control value, the average is 9.08).
• Of the final 16 points corresponding to airplanes 235 to 250, 12 are above
the standard c0 , 3 are exactly at the standard, and only 1 is below.
• It seems that there has been a slight but definite deterioration in quality
during this period.
 Normal curve as an estimate to Binomial distribution

•One of the several common derivations of the normal

curve is as a limit of the binomial distribution as ‘n’ is
increased indefinitely.
•The greater the value of ‘n’ the better the estimate of
the area that can be made from a normal curve area
table.
•One important point to be mentioned is that the normal
curve is a symmetrical distribution.
•The binomial is symmetric only in special cases where p
=1/2.
•So, for a given value of ‘n’ the normal curve is able to
predict accurately the binomial distribution of p value
close to ½.
ME-461, Manufacturing
Technology, Lecture 17
Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya
GVMM Chair and Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 05122596056
 Mean and standard Deviation of a
Binomial distribution
•Where many sets of trial are made of an event with constant probability of occurrence ‘p’,
the expected average number of occurences in the long run is ‘np’.

•So ‘np’ is the expected value, or mathematical expectation, of x where x=0 if an item is
acceptable or x=1 if it is rejectable.

•Mathematical expectation is an operator expressed as follows:

 An experimental example of the meaning of average and
standard deviation of Binomial distribution
•The table on the left may be used to clarify certain
No. of non – Frequency
aspects of the mean and standard deviation of the
conforming
Binomial distribution.
items
•Column on the extreme left gives the number of
4 3 non conforming items in each sample of 10.
3 7 •The result of 40 samples may be arranged into a
frequency distribution .
2 9
•The average calculated by normal method results
1 16 in 1.675 and the standard deviation by a similar
0 5 method result in 1.127.
•If we use the formulae for the mean and deviation
Total 40
of a binomial distribution the expected average
• The expected
standard
deviation

•So, the
observed values
seem fairly close
to the expected
value.
 Control charts for attributes

There are several different types of control charts that may be used. These are the
following:
1. The p chart, the chart for fraction rejected as non conforming to specifications.
2. The np chart, the control chart for number of non conforming items.
3. The c chart, the control chart for non conformities.
4. The u chart, the control chart corresponding to the non conformities per unit.

Control charts for fraction rejected

•The most versatile and widely used attributes control chart is the ‘p’ chart. This is the
chart for the fraction rejected as non conforming to specifications. The principle
advantage that these charts provide is that only 1 chart is sufficient to describe 10’s,
100’s or 1000’s of quality characteristics by classifying the item as accepted or rejected.

Control limits for the p-chart

Problems introduced by variable
subgroup size
•One practical difference between the X chart and p chart is the variability in subgroup
size in the p chart.
•P charts typically use data taken for other purposes than the control chart; where
subgroups consist of daily or weekly production and tend to vary a lot.
•Whenever subgroup size is expected to vary, a decision must be made as to the way in
which control limits are to be shown on the p chart. There are three solutions to all these
problems.

1. Compute new control limits for every subgroup, and show these fluctuating limits on
the control chart. This is illustrated in the first 2 months of the 4 months.
2. Estimate the average subgroup size for the immediate future. Compute one set of
limits for this average, and draw them on the control chart. Whenever the actual
subgroup size is substantially different from this estimated average, separate limits
may be computed for individual subgroups.
3. Draw several sets of control limits on the chart corresponding to different subgroup
sizes. A good plan is to use three sets of limits, one for expected average, one close
to the expected minimum and one close to the expected maximum.
 •This example shows a 4 month
record of daily 100% inspection
of a single critical quality
characteristics of a part of an
Table 1 electrical device.
•When after a change in design,
the production of this part was
started early in June, the daily
fraction rejected was computed
and plotted on a chart.
•At the end of the month the
average fraction rejected P was
computed.
•Trial control limits were
computed for each point. A
standard value of fraction
rejected p0 was then established
to apply to future production.
•During July new control limits
were computed and plotted daily
on the basis of the no. of parts
‘n’ inspected during the day.
 •A single set of control limits
was established for August,
Table 2 based on the estimated average
daily production.
•At the end of August, a revised
p0 was computed to apply to
September, and the control
chart was continued during
September with this revised
value.

Calculation of the trial control

limits:
•Table 1 shows the number
inspected and no. rejected on
each day. The fraction rejected
on each day is the no. of parts
rejected each day divided by the
number inspected that day.
•For example: on June 6th, Pi =
31/3350 = 0.0093.
•At the end of the month the
•The standard deviation is calculated on the basis of this average P is computed
observed value P
 • Determination of P0: If all
the points fall within the
trial control limits, the
standard value P0 may be
Table 3 assumed to be equal to P.
•Here point fell outside the
control limit. Thus a
revised value of P is
calculated.
•With the days June 7, 12,
13 and 22 eliminated, the
remainder no. of rejects is
290 and no. inspected is
46399. The revised P0 =
0.0063.
•After considering this and
the previous record on
similar parts of slightly
different design, it was
decided to assume p0 =
0.0065.
•Table 2 is calculated on
the basis of p0.
Establishment of control limit
based on expected average
subgroup size:

•Although the correct position of

3-sigma control limits on a p chart
depends on subgroup size, the
calculation of new limits for each
new subgroup consumes some
time and effort.
•Where the variation in subgroup
size is not too great , the
calculation of each new subgroup
consumes time and effort.
•Where the variation of subgroup
size is not more than 25%, it may
be good enough for practical
purposes to establish a single set
of control limits based on the
expected average subgroup size.
•For the month of august (Table
3) the estimated average daily
production was 2600.
•Table ‘a’ is based on 33 years
of records for 10 rainfall
stations widely scattered
throughout the mid-western
United States.
•It gives a number of 10-min
periods in a year having half an
inch or more of rainfall, c is the
no. of such cloudbursts in a
station year ; the frequency is
the no. of station years having
respectively 0,1,2,3,4, and 5
such excessive rainstorms.
•The average no. of storms per
station year is 1.2.
•Table ‘b’ represents the
number of cavaliers killed by
fatal kick of horses in each of
the 14 cavalry corps in each of
the 20 successive years. Here
‘c’ is the no. of Prussians killed
in this way in a corps year.
•The frequency is the no. of
corps year having exactly c
cavalry men killed
•Table ‘c’ is based on the n. of
articles turned in per day to the
lost and found bureau of a
large office building. The
frequency is the number of
days with exactly ‘c’ lost articles
turned in.
•Table ‘d’ shows the vacancies
in the United States Supreme
Court, either by death or
resignation of members, from
1837 to 1932. The frequency is
the no. of years in which there
were exactly ‘c’ vacancies.
•Table ‘e’ shows the no. of
telephone calls per 5-min
interval in a group of six coin-
box telephones in a large
railway terminal. The data were
taken for the period from noon
to 2 P.M. for seven days. The
frequency no. is the number of
5-min. intervals in which
exactly ‘c’ calls were made.
 Importance of Poisson’s Distribution
•At first impression, these six Poisson illustrations may seem to have very little similarity
to one another.
•If we look at all these more critically, they all have definite characteristics in common. In
each a count was made of the no. of occurrences of an event that had many
opportunities to occur but was extremely unlikely to occur at any given opportunity.
•For example there were many 10-min periods in a year; it was unlikely that any
particular one would bring a cloudburst of half an inch or more of rain.
•Similarly, there were many contacts between a cavalryman and a horse during a year
of history of a cavalry corps; it was unlikely that the horse would make of a fatal kick at
any particular contact.
•Similarly, there were many people passing through the office building throughout the
day; it was unlikely that any one person would find a lost article and turn it in the lost
an found section .
•So, in all these cases, there is a concept of the existence of a large ‘n’ and a small ‘p’,
even though it may be impossible to assign a definite value to either ‘n’ or ‘p’. Even in
cases where it is not impossible to assign a definite value to either ‘n ‘ or ‘p’, it may
simply be of no advantage to determine ‘n’ and ‘p’ and to calculate Binomial based on
them.
•So, Poisson’s is definitely an advantage in such cases.
 The Poisson law as a probability
distribution
•Certain types of frequency distributions occur in nature, both in quality control work
and elsewhere, that are closely fitted by a formulae known as Poisson’s law.
•If ‘c’ is the count of the occurrences of some event of interest, and μc is the parametric
value of the rate of occurrence, then the Poisson’s probability density function may be
stated as :
The Poisson’s Distribution as an approximation
to Binomial
•Calculation involving the use of binomials are often burdensome; this is particularly
true if many terms are involved and if ‘n’ is large.
•Fortunately, a simple approximation may be obtained to any term of the binomial.
•This approximation is often called Poisson’s exponential binomial limit. The larger the
value of ‘n’ and the smaller the value of ‘p’, the closer the Poisson approximation.
•The Poisson formula may be derived from the binomial theorem in the following
manner. In the Binomial formula, let c=np, then
 Use of tables and computer programs for
solution of Poisson Problems
Standard tables provide summation terms of the Poisson’s c.d.f. upto three decimal
places.

Individual Poisson’s terms must be obtained by subtracting terms of the adjacent

summation terms. Thus

Average and standard deviation of the Poisson

•The average and standard deviation of the Poisson distribution are

respectively.
• The table on the right provides the numbers of
errors of alignment observed at final inspection
of a certain model of airplane. The alignment
errors observed on each airplane constitute one
subgroup for this chart.
• The total no. of alignment errors in the first 25
planes was 200. The average C is 200/25 =8.0.
The trial control limits computed from this
average are as follows:

UCL = C + 3[C] * ½ = 16.5

LCL = C - 3[C] * ½ = negative, therefore no LCL.

• Whenever, calculations give a negative value of
the lower control limit of a control chart for
attributes, no lower control limit is used. In
effect, the chart will exhibit only an upper
control limit.
• As none of the first 25 points on this chart is
outside the trial control limits based on these
points, the standard number of defects C0 may
be taken as equal to C and the control chart
continued for the following period with a
central line of 8.0 and an UCL of 16.5.
 Plot of the C-chart

• One point (airplane no. 236) out of the next 25 is above the upper control
limit.
• The average during this period was 236/25 =9.44 (even omitting the out-of-
control value, the average is 9.08).
• Of the final 16 points corresponding to airplanes 235 to 250, 12 are above
the standard c0 , 3 are exactly at the standard, and only 1 is below.
• It seems that there has been a slight but definite deterioration in quality
during this period.
 Normal curve as an estimate to Binomial distribution

•One of the several common derivations of the normal

curve is as a limit of the binomial distribution as ‘n’ is
increased indefinitely.
•The greater the value of ‘n’ the better the estimate of
the area that can be made from a normal curve area
table.
•One important point to be mentioned is that the normal
curve is a symmetrical distribution.
•The binomial is symmetric only in special cases where p
=1/2.
•So, for a given value of ‘n’ the normal curve is able to
predict accurately the binomial distribution of p value
close to ½.
ME-461, Manufacturing
Technology, Lecture 18
Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya
GVMM Chair and Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 05122596056
 Just in Time Manufacturing Systems
• In JIT systems, only the necessary products, at the necessary time, in the necessary
quantity are manufactured and stock on hand is held to a minimum.
•JIT techniques came out from the Toyota Production system which has the following
more aspects apart from JIT:
1. Process Design
2. Job design and Standardization
3. Economic lot sizes
4. Accelerated setup times
5. Just in time production
6. Autonomation
7. Kanban
8. Jidoka
9. Andon
10. Yo-i-don systems respectively
Toyota Production System: An Overview

The Toyota Production System is a production flow and inventory control system which
achieves the following objectives:
•Reducing costs by eliminating all kinds of wastes.
•Making it easier to achieve and assure product quality.
•Attempting to create worksites that respond quickly to change.
•Organizing work sites based on human dignity, mutual trust and support etc.
 Components of Toyota Production System
(TPS)
•Autonomation: It is a word that refers to manual or automatic stopping of production in
a defective is produced.
•Kanban: It is a system of cards used to control work in process, production, and
inventory flow.
•Jidoka: It refers to a production problem warning system consisting of a battery of
yellow and red light called Andon. A yellow light indicates a minor problem or a slight
delay. A red light indicates stoppage of production.
•Yo-i-don: This refers to a coordinated approach to simultaneous production of parts or
subassemblies for assembly into a next stage subassembly.
•JIT system: The most distinctive among these is the JIT system and uses the Kanban
(meaning visible record) system of tags and cards attached to parts and subassembly
containers. The kanban system is an essential tool for managing and controlling the pull
type of production inherent in the Toyota Production System.
•The problem areas in any production situation that are responsible for higher
production costs, low qualityand higher delivery lead time. We need to classify the
elements of waste as the3 M’s of muda, mura and muri.

•Muda is a Japanese word referring to any work or any element of production that does
not add value to the product. In contrast Shigoto refers to the actual work that adds
value to the product. In most manufacturing situations the shigoto is relatively small
compared with Muda.
 Components of Toyota production system
•It is very important to eliminate muda. We need to design, plan and control
manufacturing system such that the waste is eliminated.
•The job attitude of finding out Muda and trying to eliminate this is known as Kaizen.
•The following type of Muda’s are avialable:

1. Muda for correction: The rework process necessary for correcting a defective part
means extra costs that should have been avioded in the first place.
2. Muda for over production: Over production may result from either producing more
than necessary or producing at a higher rate than required or both.
3. Muda for processing: This refers to unnecessary processing work that has no
connection to adding value to the product.
4. Muda in conveyence: Material handling is an important element of production.
However, it does not add value to the product and is therefore a kind of Muda.
5. Muda for inventory: Inventory may be considered a necessary evil. It is necessary
because it helps absorb shocks due to uncertainties in supply and acts as insurance
against emergencies.
6. Muda for motion: Any unnecessary movement of workers, materials, or production
and material handling equipment that does not add value to the product is a muda of
motion.
7. Muda for waiting: Normally in automated production situations, workers may find
themselves idle waiting for the machine to complete its stage of automatic processing
 Components of Toyota production system

•Mura literally means unevenness. There can be a no. of reasons for unevenness;
for example, irregular production volumes, changing work flows, changing
production schedules may cause Mura.
•Muri essentially means stretching beyond capacity limits, oevrburdening the
capacities of people as well as machines. An excessive workload on people
beyond their normal capacities leads to safety and quality problems.

A contrast to JIT is being offered by the American companies who are normally
based on the materials requirement planning system also known as push system.
The work in process inventory is used as a means of absorbing uncertainties in
the processes and changes in demand.

In practice however such a system often creates the following problems:

•It may lead to starvation and excessive stocks simultaneously at different stages
because of imbalances of stocks between the stages.
•It may lead to conditions of having excessive equipments and a surplus of
workers.
 Pull versus Push System
Push System

Raw Process 1 Process 2 Process 3 Finished

Materials Product

•A push system is basically a MRP based production planning and inventory control system. In
MRP the master production schedule of end products is transformed into parts requirements.
•Work orders are then launched to build the parts in lot sizes using the lot sizing logic of MRP.
•The work orders push materials to the manufacturing floor to produce the parts required.
•The lot sizes are normally large and consequently production lead times are long.
•The parts are pushed to the successive stages as soon as the work is completed at a
particular stage.
•A problem is created when some parts are not completed and required at successive stages,
causing shortages. This phenomena is also referred to as starving the successive stage.
•On the other hand there will be too much inventory of some components, causing a blocking
of the preceding stage.
•Thus we see that the push system is a single flow process in which both the build schedules
and materials flow in the same direction from one stage to another.
 Pull Versus Push Systems
Pull System
Raw Process 1 Process 2 Process 3 Finished
Materials Product

• The transmittal of information distinguishes a pull system from a push system.

•In a pull system there is always feedback from the subsequent to preceding
stages.
•The MPS is only used to give a broad outline of the requirements for resources
at different work centers.
•The major difference in a pull system is that although the MPS is used for the
purpose of deciding approximate resource requirements of workstations, it is not
used to determine the production rate of each station.
•In a pull system the materials move in the same direction as in the push system
but the information concerning processing of parts is given by the subsequent
process.
•Therefore, the build schedule travel in the direction opposite to the material
flow.
•A kanban system is used for this purpose.
 Types of Kanban
•Kanban (in Japanese) means visible record. Toyota developed the Kanban system. The
system consists of a set of cards that travel between preceeding and suceeding processes,
communicating what parts are needed at the subsequent processes.

•The most commonly used Kanbans are the withdrawal kanban and the production
kanban.

Withdrawal Kanban:
•The primary function of a withdrawal kanban is to pass the authorization for movement
of parts from one work center to another.
•Once it fetches the parts from the preceding process and moves them to subsequent
process, it remains with them till the last part has been consumed by the subsequent
process.
•Then the withdrawal kanban travels back to the preceding process to fetch parts and the
cycle continues.
•The withdrawal kanban should have information such as the part number and part name,
lot size and routing process to fetch parts and cycle continues.
 Withdrawal and Production Kanbans
Part Number Raw materials and
other part types used
in manufacturing at Production Kanban
the work center
Container capacity
(Number of parts)
Preceding work center no.

Stock Location no.

Part Number Subsequent work

center number

Container capacity Stock Location

(Number of parts) number Withdrawal Kanban

Preceding work
Number of center no.
kanbans
released Stock Location no.
 Production Kanban
•The main function of a production kanban is to release an order to the preceding process to
build parts equal to the lot size specified on the card.

•Therefore, the production kanban card should have information on the materials and parts
required as inputs at the preceding process in addition to what is present on a withdrawal
kanban
Flow of Withdrawal and Production Kanbans and their interactions
Preceding Stage (PPS1) Subsequent Stage (SPS2)

Stacking Area (SA)

F
P1
F
P2
F F
F E
P3
E
E F
 Flow of withdrawal and production Kanbans
and their interaction
•Let us understand the flow of withdrawal and production kanbans as well as the flow paths of
containers.
•Consider a simple example of controlling work flow between two preceeding and succeeding
processing stages, PPS1 and SPS2, separated by a stacking area (SA).
•The sequence of movements of kanbans (both withdrawal and production) are described as follows:
1. Suppose you start at point P1 in the stacking area. Move the full parts container to the
subsequent processing stage, SPS2.
2. Detach the attached withdrawal card and send it to kanban collection box at point P2. Meanwhile
the parts in the container are being used by the subsequent stage.
3. Once all parts in the container are consumed at SPS2, attach a withdrawal kanban from the
kanban collection box to the empty container and move it from SPS2 to location P3 in the stacking
area SA.
4. Now at the P3 location:
• Detach the withdrawal kanban from the empty container.
• Attach it to a full parts container.
• Remove a production kanban from the container to be sent to subsequent stage SPS2.
• Send it to processing stage PPS1 to trigger the production of a full container.
5. Put all the parts produced in the empty container and send to stacking area SA with the
production kanban attached to it.
 Preconditions for operating Kanbans
•Kanban is essentially a tool created to manage the workplace effectively. The following are the
preconditions for effectively operating the kanban:

1. Rule 1: No withdrawal of parts without a kanban: We now know that a kanban is a mechanism
that controls production on a just in time basis, producing necessary parts in the right quantities
at the right time.
2. Rule 2: The subsequent process comes to withdraw only what is needed: Muda of all types, as
discussed, would occur if the preceeding process supplied more parts than are actually needed.
This can be avoided only if the succeeding process comes to the preceeding process to withdraw
the required number of parts at the time needed.
3. Rule 3: Do not send the defective parts to the succeeding process: The quality of parts moved by
the kanban is the major concern for this rule. Furthermore, defective parts would necessitate
work in process inventories besides requiring extra resources of material, equipment and labor.
4. Rule 4: The preceeding process should produce only the exact quantity of parts withdrawn by
the subsequent process: The basic premise behind this rule is to restrict the inventory at the
preceeding process to the absolute minimum.
5. Rule 5: Smoothing of production: Previous rules imply that the subsequent process comes to the
preceeding process to withdraw the necessary parts in the necessary quantities at the necessary
time.
6. Rule 6: Fine tuning of production using kanban: Small variations in production requirements are
adjusted by (a) stopping the process if the production requirements decrease and (b) Using
overtime and improvements in the processes if the production requirements increase.
 Kanban Planning and Control Models
•Kanban is the heart of the JIT system. The number of kanbans plays the most important
role in planning, controlling and reducing the work in process inventories. There are
deterministic and probabilistic analytical models for determining the optimal number of
kanbans.

•Deterministic Model:
Let ud first understand how the number of kanbans is determined at a work center in
Toyota Motors Company.

Number of kanbans,
 Deterministic Model for Kanban
•α is a policy variable which is used as a means of managing external disturbances such
as changes in demand and variability in processing and delivery times.
•D is determined as a smoothed demand.
•y is normally fixed even if there are variations in demand.
•In that case, when ‘D’ increases the value of the lead time must be reduced accordingly.

Example:
Consider the production of a certain item manufactured in XYZ company. Its requirements
are 10,000 units per month. Suppose the company has just started implementing the JIT
system. Accordingly, the policy variable is set at α = 0.40. The container capacity is fixed at
50 items and the production lead time is 0.50 days.
1. Determine the no. of production kanbans.
2. Suppose the company has stable production environment and the policy variable can
be fixed at α = 0.00. Determine the number of kanbans and the resulting impact on
work in process inventory.
3. What happens if the lead time is increased to 1 day because of labor shortages and
failure of machines?
4. What happens if the lead time is reduced to .25 days because of process
improvements? The value of α is 0.30 as a result of these process improvements.
In the following example, we analyze a two stage system involving manufacturing at the
preceding stage and assembly at the subsequent stage.

Example:
Consider the manufacture of product Z in a company. Product Z is assembled from two
parts, X and Y, that are manufactured in the company. A schematic layout depicting
preceding stage, staging area, subsequent stage and the flow of production and withdrawal
kanbans is given in the next figure
 Deterministic approach to kanban size Succeeding
Preceeding
Processes
Processes
PK-X WK-X
Work SA-X
Center X

Assembly
Center Z

PK-Y WK-Y
Work SA-Y
Center Y

1. Determine the production and withdrawal

PK-X = production kanban for part X kanbans.
PK-Y = production kanban for part Y 2. Now suppose the assembly process is shifted to
WK-X = withdrawal kanban for part X Mexico as a part of a reorganization. The lead
WK-Y = withdrawal kanban for part Y time to travel between the new location in
Mexico and the present plant location is 4 days
SA-X = staging area for part X each for X and Y. Determine the no. of production
SA-Y = staging area for part Y and withdrawal kanbans and the impact of this
policy on the work in process inventory.
The data for the problem is given below.

part Demand Lead time α Container

(units/day) (days) capacity

Assembly Stage

X 2000 1.0 0.00 100

Y 800 0.5 0.25 50
Manufacturing
Stage
X 2000 0.50 0.20 100
Y 800 1.00 0.00 50
 Example Problem

Johnson and Johnson, a private company, supplies parts to a spark plug manufacturing
company, JJ is now planning to introduce JIT production concepts for their shell
manufacturing section. The following data are avialable: The requirements are 25,000,000
units per month. Since the company has just started implementing the JIT system, the
policy variable is set at α =0.20. The container capacity is fixed at 500 shells and the
production lead time is 0.10 days.

(a)Since it is the first time that JJ is implementing JIT, advise JJ in developing a kanban
operating system. How many kanbans will be needed?

(b) Suppose the company has stable production environment and the policy variable can
be fixed at α =0.10. Determine the no. of Kanbans and the resulting impact on work-in-
process inventory.

(c) What happens if the lead time is reduced to 0.08 days because of process
improvements?
 Probabilistic cost model for determining optimal number of Kanban:
•Typically in a JIT operation the master production schedule is frozen for 1 month and the
no. of Kanbans in each working center is set based on average demand for the period.
•In this section we develop a cost model considering the expected cost of holding and
shortages.
•It is assumed that the probability mass function (PMF) of the number of kanbans required
is known.
•Let us assume the following notations:

1. P(x) = probability mass function for the number of kanbans required

2. Ch = holding cost per container per unit time at a work center
3. Cs = cost of a shortage per container per unit time at a work center
Suppose there are ‘n’ kanbans circulating in the system.
 Case 1:
The actual requirement for the kanbans, x, is less than ‘n’. In that case holding cost
will be incurred. Accordingly,

Expected holding cost = Ch Σ(n-x) p(x)

Case 2:
The actual requirement for the kanbans, x is more than n. In that case shortage
costs will be incurred. Accordingly,

Expected shortage cost = Cs Σ(x-n) p(x)

Therefore, the total expected cost, TC (n) is given by:

TC (n) = Ch Σ(n-x) p(x) + Cs Σ(x-n) p(x)

The optimal value of n that gives the minimum value of TC (n) is the smallest integer
satisfying the following:
Example :
Suppose that the probability mass function of the number of kanbans is known and
is given in the table ahead. Furthermore, suppose the holding and the shortage
costs per unit time are $50 and $200, respectively. Determine the optimum number
of kanbans to minimize the total expected cost.
Probability 0.00 0.20 0.30 0.35 0.10 0.05
No. of 0 1 2 3 4 5
kanbans

Relationship between JIT manufacturing, setup time, and cost:

JIT manufacturing is often understood to mean a manufacturing system with lot

size approaching unity. It is important to understand the conditions under which
this goal may be achieved. The answer may come directly from the classical
economic production quantity inventory model.
In a JIT manufacturing environment the intent is not to permit shortages.
Accordingly, the total variable cost consisting of setup and holding as a function of
economic production quantity Q, is given by
Relationship between JIT manufacturing, setup time,
and cost:

JIT manufacturing is often understood to mean a

manufacturing system with lot size approaching unity. It
is important to understand the conditions under which
this goal may be achieved. The answer may come
directly from the classical economic production
quantity inventory model.
In a JIT manufacturing environment the intent is not to
permit shortages. Accordingly, the total variable cost
consisting of setup and holding as a function of
economic production quantity Q, is given by
Example:

Consider a product with the following data:

Unit Cost, C = $100.00

Annual inventory carrying cost rate, i= 10%
Demand rate, D = 10,000 units/ year
Production rate, P = 15,000 units/ year.

Determine the optimal lot sizes for various values of setup costs varying from $400.00 to
$0.00016.
Signal Kanban:

•One of the important conditions for the implementation of JIT with kanbans is to have low
setup times relative to processing times. However, there are situations in manufacturing
companies, such as forging, die casting, and press operations, in which the setup time is not
small relative to processing time.

•The standard Kanban approach as discussed earlier does not work under these circumstances.
We use a special type of Kanban known as a signal Kanban at the work centers with large
setup times.
 Signal Kanban
•In effect a Signal Kanban triggers the production of a lot that consists of more than one
container at these work centers with large setup times.

•However, standard Kanbans at normal work centers concurrently triggers the production
of one container at a time.

•Normally, there are two types of signal kanbans. The first is rectangular and is known as
raw material ordering kanban. It is used to withdraw materials from the preceeding stage.

•The other type is known as the production ordering kanban, is triangular and is used to
trigger production of a container.
•In a normal Kanban process , when a withdrawal is made, a production kanban is sent
back to the preceding stage to trigger the production of 1 container.
•In a signal Kanban system the production Kanban is not sent back to the preceding stage
after every withdrawal of a container to the succeeding station.

•A triangular production ordering signal kanban is attached at the reorder point of the lot.

•This triangular kanban initiates the setup process to produce the whole lot at the signal
kanban work center as soon as the container to which it is attached is withdrawn by the
succeeding stage.
 Position of raw
material ordering
signal kanban

Raw
Material Lot
Inventory Size
stage Work
Center

Position of
production
ordering
B A signal
kanban
Material Signal Kanban
A: Signal Kanban receiving post
B: Signal Kanban ordering post Production Signal Kanban
 Signal Kanban
• In addition to the production ordering kanban, a rectangular material ordering kanban
may also be attached to the lot to order material from storage.

• As soon as the container with a material kanban is withdrawn, the material signal
kanban is sent to the preceding stage to withdraw the required items.

•These items will be needed at the work center to process the entire lot.

•When raw material reaches the workcenter the production ordering signal kanban may
not be there already to trigger the production.

•However, the raw material will be waiting the arrival of the production signal kanban
card to initiate the production setup for the lot.

•Normally, the triangular kanban is attached to the next container of the lot after
attaching the Material signal kanban.

•There are two important aspects of a signal Kanban system:

1. The determination of lot size.
2. The position of both production ordering and material ordering signal kanbans.
Example of signal kanban:

Consider an automotive company that manufactures three types of die casting products
at a die-casting station. Suppose the factory operates on two shifts. The die-casting
machine is utilized at 80% of its capacity of producing parts, leaving 20% operating time
for setup.

Over a period of two shift, the time available for setups = 3.2 hours (2X 8 hr./ shift X 20%).

Suppose the average setup time is 32 mins. A maximum of two setups per part is
possible. (3.2 X60/32X1/3).

If the demand of the part is 1400 per day with α= 20 %, the minimal lot size of the part
can be calculated as follows:

Minimal lot size per setup = ½ X 1400 X120% = 840.

If the container capacity is 100 parts. We then need 840/100 = 8.4 ~ 9 containers.

Let us now determine the position of the production ordering signal kanban in the lot of
9 containers.
The position is determined by the consumption of parts during the time interval from the
point of ordering the lot to the arrival of the lot to its stock location.
Example of signal kanban:

This time interval is also known as Kanban Cycle Time.

As such Kanban Cycle Time = Kanban waiting time at the receiving post + its transfer time to
the ordering post + its waiting time in the ordering post + lot processing time + container
transfer time to final buffer.

The following formulae can be used to determine the production kanban position in terms of
number of containers.

Production signal kanban position = (Average demand) (1+α) (Kanban cycle time)
(Number of parts per container)
Suppose the Kanban lead time is 3 hrs. This is equivalent to 3/16 days based on two shifts of
8hrs each.

Production signal kanban position= 1400 (1.20)(3/16) = 3.15 ~ 4 containers

100
Similarly we can determine the position of the material ordering signal kanban. The
components of cycle time are the following:
Material Ordering signal kanban = waiting time at the receiving post + transfer time to raw
material storage + waiting as well as withdrawal time at the raw material storage + material
transfer time to the work center + lot processing time + container transfer time to final buffer.
Example of Signal Kanban:

Notice that lot processing time and container transfer time to final buffer are common to
both production and material signal kanbans.

Very often the material ordering signal kanban cycle time is greater than the production
ordering signal kanban cycle time. Suppose the material ordering signal kanban cycle time
is 4 hours.

Material ordering signal kanban position = (1400 X 1.2 X 4/16) = 4.2 ~ 5 containers.
100

Other types of signal kanbans:

So far we have seen production and conveyence kanbans. However, other types of
kanbans are used in specific situations as follows:

Express Kanban :
An express kanban is used when there is a shortage of parts. It must be withdrawn after its
use. The presence of an express kanban in a red post triggers the following activities:
(1) A button for the machining line making the part is switched on, activating a red light
on the light board known as andon for the part.
(2) The worker at the location where the light has come on must immediately produce the
part and deliver it personally to the subsequent process.
Emergency Kanban:
This kanban is used as a temporary measure to make up for the defective units and other
uncertainities such as machine failures or fluctuations in daily or weekly production.
Through Kanban:
In production situations in which two or more work centers are located close to each other,
there is no need to exchange production and conveyence kanbans between these work-
centers.

Alternative JIT systems:

Though JIT is usually understood as a pull system in which the amount of material flow at the
immediately preceding station is determined by the stock consumption at the subsequent
station, there are a no. of alternative methods for JIT production. These are :

(1)Periodic Pull System : In a periodic pull system is one in which the manual information
processing time of a kanban method was replaced by an online computerized processing.
(2) Constant Work in Process System : In this system in contrast to kanban cards, which are
part no. specific, the CONWIP cards are assigned to the entire production line. The
advantage of this system over the kanban system is that it can be used in environments
where the kanban system is impractical because of a large no. of part types.
(3)Long Pull System: In the long pull system, the triggering mechanism works in the same
way as in a pull system. However, the control of the long pull encompasses more than one
workstation. In this system one unit is allowed to enter the system at the same time that one
unit is pulled at the end of the pull.
Total Quality Control and JIT:
Total quality control is really “total” in the sense that it
pervades all departments of a manufacturing
company as well as the supplier company.

TQC means an integrated approach to sharing

responsibility for quality production of products; it
requires a commitment from every individual from all
functional departments in the company to achieve
the goal of quality production.

Because defects are not permitted in the JIT

production system, it is important to have a TQC
program for the successful implementation of JIT
production in the company.
ME-461, Manufacturing
Technology, Lecture 19
Instructor: Shantanu Bhattacharya
GVMM Chair and Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 05122596056
 Probabilistic cost model for determining optimal number of Kanban:

•Typically in a JIT operation the master production schedule is frozen for 1 month and the
no. of Kanbans in each working center is set based on average demand for the period.
•In this section we develop a cost model considering the expected cost of holding and
shortages.
•It is assumed that the probability mass function (PMF) of the number of kanbans required
is known.
•Let us assume the following notations:

1. P(x) = probability mass function for the number of kanbans required

2. Ch = holding cost per container per unit time at a work center
3. Cs = cost of a shortage per container per unit time at a work center
Suppose there are ‘n’ kanbans circulating in the system.
 Case 1:
The actual requirement for the kanbans, x, is less than ‘n’. In that case holding cost
will be incurred. Accordingly,

Expected holding cost = Ch Σ(n-x) p(x)

Case 2:
The actual requirement for the kanbans, x is more than n. In that case shortage
costs will be incurred. Accordingly,

Expected shortage cost = Cs Σ(x-n) p(x)

Therefore, the total expected cost, TC (n) is given by:

TC (n) = Ch Σ(n-x) p(x) + Cs Σ(x-n) p(x)

The optimal value of n that gives the minimum value of TC (n) is the smallest integer
satisfying the following:
Example :
Suppose that the probability mass function of the number of kanbans is known and
is given in the table ahead. Furthermore, suppose the holding and the shortage
costs per unit time are $50 and $200, respectively. Determine the optimum number
of kanbans to minimize the total expected cost.
Probability 0.00 0.20 0.30 0.35 0.10 0.05
No. of 0 1 2 3 4 5
kanbans

Relationship between JIT manufacturing, setup time, and cost:

JIT manufacturing is often understood to mean a manufacturing system with lot

size approaching unity. It is important to understand the conditions under which
this goal may be achieved. The answer may come directly from the classical
economic production quantity inventory model.
In a JIT manufacturing environment the intent is not to permit shortages.
Accordingly, the total variable cost consisting of setup and holding as a function of
economic production quantity Q, is given by
Relationship between JIT manufacturing, setup time,
and cost:

JIT manufacturing is often understood to mean a

manufacturing system with lot size approaching unity. It
is important to understand the conditions under which
this goal may be achieved. The answer may come
directly from the classical economic production
quantity inventory model.
In a JIT manufacturing environment the intent is not to
permit shortages. Accordingly, the total variable cost
consisting of setup and holding as a function of
economic production quantity Q, is given by
Example:

Consider a product with the following data:

Unit Cost, C = $100.00

Annual inventory carrying cost rate, i= 10%
Demand rate, D = 10,000 units/ year
Production rate, P = 15,000 units/ year.

Determine the optimal lot sizes for various values of setup costs varying from $400.00 to
$0.00016.
Signal Kanban:

•One of the important conditions for the implementation of JIT with kanbans is to have low
setup times relative to processing times. However, there are situations in manufacturing
companies, such as forging, die casting, and press operations, in which the setup time is not
small relative to processing time.

•The standard Kanban approach as discussed earlier does not work under these circumstances.
We use a special type of Kanban known as a signal Kanban at the work centers with large
setup times.
 Signal Kanban
•In effect a Signal Kanban triggers the production of a lot that consists of more than one
container at these work centers with large setup times.

•However, standard Kanbans at normal work centers concurrently triggers the production
of one container at a time.

•Normally, there are two types of signal kanbans. The first is rectangular and is known as
raw material ordering kanban. It is used to withdraw materials from the preceeding stage.

•The other type is known as the production ordering kanban, is triangular and is used to
trigger production of a container.
•In a normal Kanban process , when a withdrawal is made, a production kanban is sent
back to the preceding stage to trigger the production of 1 container.
•In a signal Kanban system the production Kanban is not sent back to the preceding stage
after every withdrawal of a container to the succeeding station.

•A triangular production ordering signal kanban is attached at the reorder point of the lot.

•This triangular kanban initiates the setup process to produce the whole lot at the signal
kanban work center as soon as the container to which it is attached is withdrawn by the
succeeding stage.
 Position of raw
material ordering
signal kanban

Raw
Material Lot
Inventory Size
stage Work
Center

Position of
production
ordering
B A signal
kanban
Material Signal Kanban
A: Signal Kanban receiving post
B: Signal Kanban ordering post Production Signal Kanban
 Signal Kanban
• In addition to the production ordering kanban, a rectangular material ordering kanban
may also be attached to the lot to order material from storage.

• As soon as the container with a material kanban is withdrawn, the material signal
kanban is sent to the preceding stage to withdraw the required items.

•These items will be needed at the work center to process the entire lot.

•When raw material reaches the workcenter the production ordering signal kanban may
not be there already to trigger the production.

•However, the raw material will be waiting the arrival of the production signal kanban
card to initiate the production setup for the lot.

•Normally, the triangular kanban is attached to the next container of the lot after
attaching the Material signal kanban.

•There are two important aspects of a signal Kanban system:

1. The determination of lot size.
2. The position of both production ordering and material ordering signal kanbans.
Example of signal kanban:

Consider an automotive company that manufactures three types of die casting products
at a die-casting station. Suppose the factory operates on two shifts. The die-casting
machine is utilized at 80% of its capacity of producing parts, leaving 20% operating time
for setup.

Over a period of two shift, the time available for setups = 3.2 hours (2X 8 hr./ shift X 20%).

Suppose the average setup time is 32 mins. A maximum of two setups per part is
possible. (3.2 X60/32X1/3).

If the demand of the part is 1400 per day with α= 20 %, the minimal lot size of the part
can be calculated as follows:

Minimal lot size per shift = ½ X 1400 X120% = 840.

If the container capacity is 100 parts. We then need 840/100 = 8.4 ~ 9 containers.

Let us now determine the position of the production ordering signal kanban in the lot of
9 containers.
The position is determined by the consumption of parts during the time interval from the
point of ordering the lot to the arrival of the lot to its stock location.
Example of signal kanban:

This time interval is also known as Kanban Cycle Time.

As such Kanban Cycle Time = Kanban waiting time at the receiving post + its transfer time to
the ordering post + its waiting time in the ordering post + lot processing time + container
transfer time to final buffer.

The following formulae can be used to determine the production kanban position in terms of
number of containers.

Production signal kanban position = (Average demand) (1+α) (Kanban cycle time)
(Number of parts per container)
Suppose the Kanban lead time is 3 hrs. This is equivalent to 3/16 days based on two shifts of
8hrs each.

Production signal kanban position= 1400 (1.20)(3/16) = 3.15 ~ 4 containers

100
Similarly we can determine the position of the material ordering signal kanban. The
components of cycle time are the following:
Material Ordering signal kanban = waiting time at the receiving post + transfer time to raw
material storage + waiting as well as withdrawal time at the raw material storage + material
transfer time to the work center + lot processing time + container transfer time to final buffer.
Example of Signal Kanban:

Notice that lot processing time and container transfer time to final buffer are common to
both production and material signal kanbans.

Very often the material ordering signal kanban cycle time is greater than the production
ordering signal kanban cycle time. Suppose the material ordering signal kanban cycle time
is 4 hours.

Material ordering signal kanban position = (1400 X 1.2 X 4/16) = 4.2 ~ 5 containers.
100

Other types of signal kanbans:

So far we have seen production and conveyence kanbans. However, other types of
kanbans are used in specific situations as follows:

Express Kanban :
An express kanban is used when there is a shortage of parts. It must be withdrawn after its
use. The presence of an express kanban in a red post triggers the following activities:
(1) A button for the machining line making the part is switched on, activating a red light
on the light board known as andon for the part.
(2) The worker at the location where the light has come on must immediately produce the
part and deliver it personally to the subsequent process.
Emergency Kanban:
This kanban is used as a temporary measure to make up for the defective units and other
uncertainities such as machine failures or fluctuations in daily or weekly production.
Through Kanban:
In production situations in which two or more work centers are located close to each other,
there is no need to exchange production and conveyence kanbans between these work-
centers.

Alternative JIT systems:

Though JIT is usually understood as a pull system in which the amount of material flow at the
immediately preceding station is determined by the stock consumption at the subsequent
station, there are a no. of alternative methods for JIT production. These are :

(1)Periodic Pull System : In a periodic pull system is one in which the manual information
processing time of a kanban method was replaced by an online computerized processing.
(2) Constant Work in Process System : In this system in contrast to kanban cards, which are
part no. specific, the CONWIP cards are assigned to the entire production line. The
advantage of this system over the kanban system is that it can be used in environments
where the kanban system is impractical because of a large no. of part types.
(3)Long Pull System: In the long pull system, the triggering mechanism works in the same
way as in a pull system. However, the control of the long pull encompasses more than one
workstation. In this system one unit is allowed to enter the system at the same time that one
unit is pulled at the end of the pull.
Total Quality Control and JIT:
Total quality control is really “total” in the sense that it
pervades all departments of a manufacturing
company as well as the supplier company.

TQC means an integrated approach to sharing

responsibility for quality production of products; it
requires a commitment from every individual from all
functional departments in the company to achieve
the goal of quality production.

Because defects are not permitted in the JIT

production system, it is important to have a TQC
program for the successful implementation of JIT
production in the company.
Manufacturing Systems:
Robotics - past, present
and future

Dr. Ashish Dutta

Professor and Head,
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Kanpur, India.
Focus of the course on Robotics :
Robotics as a science : computer science,
mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, AE,
etc.
Robotics and Automation with a focus on Industrial
applications.

What you need to know in order to use a robot in

industrial automation.
 For a particular application which type of robot/automation
system should I buy?
 Basic design of a robot – sensors, actuators, control, etc.
 How to program and use a robot in industry.
Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA
Lecture series covers:

History of Robotics, joints, work volume

Basic transformations matrices.

Forward and Inverse Kinematics, Singularities.

Sensors, actuators

Basic control systems

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Programming Industrial robots

Industrial applications.

AI in robotics / Industry 4.0

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Where to use robots:

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Flexible automation

ROBOTS

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Flexible manufacturing cell

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

FMS

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Industry 4.0

Connection
involving=
machines-humans-
AI

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

What comes to your mind when you first hear or
think of a robot ?

Mechanical
 Mechanical machines
machines ??

Companions
 Companions // friends
friends

Pets
 Pets // toys
toys

Helpers
 Helpers

Dangerous machines
Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA
Industrial Robot Arms ?
PAST

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

All electronic Assembly

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Present - Life of an amazon robot !

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Social robots

FUTURE !

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

What will be the gender of the robot?

Male

Female

Neutral

What laws should be applicable to robots interacting

with humans ?

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

 Origin of Automation:
replacing human muscle power
 10,000 BC Stone tools used in early civilization:
tools make better tools.

Design of simple automation (150 BC) moving

engine, Herons door etc. in Greece.

1780 AD saw the creation of automatic dolls which

could write, draw pictures etc.

Punch cards used in power looms in France in 1801

for manufacture of textiles Joseph-Marie-Jacquard.

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Automation in ancient Greece (150 BC)

Steam engine Herons Door

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Programmed textile loom: 1801 in France

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Hard Automation in Ford Motor Company 1904

Idea of transfer lines in which a car was assembled

at different stations.

First use of hard automation – alignment devices,

transfer devices etc.

1904 Henry Ford’s mass production of vehicles in

the USA.

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Beautiful Automation !

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

 Just for History !
 1921 Karel Kapec’s play depicting human like
mechanical man (slave) - robots.

 1942 Isaac Asimov first used the term Robotics.

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

 Origin of robots
1945 master slave manipulator made for
radioactive material handling for the Atom Bomb
project.

A strictly
mechanical
device

Motion transfer by
wire rope and
pulleys

master slave

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

What changed everything ?

Mechanical systems became electro-mechanical !

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

 What changed everything?
Transistor - (1949) : concept of reprogram!

 1950 SHAKY : First robot-

 1952 George Dovel : teach / play back devices for NC

machines/ robots.

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Clumsy robots to sophisticated humanoids

1950 2000
Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA
Evolution of NC technology

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Flexible Manufacturing System

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Computer integrated manufacturing

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Motion Planning for a robotic arm

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Assembly Planning and Design of
Manufacturing Systems

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Cable Harness/ Pipe design

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

 What is the definition of a Robot ?

Nobody seems to agree !

To be called a robot it should do some or all of the

following :
- move around
- sense and manipulate the environment.
- display intelligent behavior

Is a CNC machine a Robot ?

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Differences between Robotics and Automation ?
Robotics focuses on systems incorporating sensors
and actuators that operate autonomously or semi-
autonomously in cooperation with humans.

Robotics research emphasizes intelligence and

adaptability to cope with unstructured environments.

Automation research emphasizes efficiency,

productivity, quality, and reliability, focusing on
systems that operate autonomously, often in
structured environments over extended periods, and
on the explicit structuring of such environments.
Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA
 Three generations of robotics / engineering

First generation of robots: simple pick and place

devices with no external sensors.

Second generation robots: external Sensors (vision,

tactile, etc) for interaction with the environment.

Third generation robots: intelligence, smart

materials, bio , etc.

Future robots: bio-robots, micro , nano ,

cybogs, aneroids etc.

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

 First Generation Robots : 1950 – 1970
NC technology
 Simple motion
capabilities for
pick and place
applications

 Robots made of revolute

joints actuated by open
loop or closed loop control.

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Second generation of robots (1970 …1990)

Electronics: smaller, faster and cheaper processors

External sensors : interaction with the environment

- vision
- advanced sensors : gyros, inclination, force, slip.
- advanced controllers : microcontroller, DSP
- speech recognition
- AI

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Actuation in robots/Numerical Control in
Micro domain

Size Effect ??

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Third generation robots 1990 - 2000

New materials – smart materials, smart actuators.

Interest in emulating biological design

paradigms.

New areas like:

Micro, Nano-robotics, Vision, bio-robotics, etc.

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Other ways of classifying robots
Parallel robot and serial arm robot

Mobile robot and stationary arm robot

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Industrial robot and social robot

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

 Future robots --- ????
Bio-robotics: emulating biology, Micro, Nano.
Exoskeletons: wearable devices.
Neuro robotics: cyborgs, aneroids.
Robotic drugs : nano robots for curing diseases,
surgery.
Assistive / Rehabilitation robotics.
Outer space / nuclear applications
Defense: soldier, autonomous armaments.
Replacement of body functions: artificial muscles.
IOT, CPS
????
Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA
Future ?? 2016 –
Micro robot ‘drugs’ to cure diseases

Fig. Killing viruses or bacteria

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Micro – Robot Surgeon for bypass surgery!

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Micro-robot Dentist !

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Micro Robotic Hair Cut !

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

 Hand with no joints : Artificial muscles

Five finger hand with artificial muscles (EAP)

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

 Snake, bird made of artificial muscles

Emulating biology

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Robots for rehabilitation

Fig. HAL (Human assistive locomotion) Univ. of Tsukuba, Japan

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Robotics and AI - science or fiction?

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

What is AI?

Systems that think like Systems that think

humans rationally

Systems that act like Systems that act

humans rationally

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

AI prehistory

Philosophy (from -350, Aristotle)

foundations of learning, language, rationality

Mathematics (from 825, Al-Khw¯arizm¯ı)

formal logics, proof theory
algorithms, computation, (un)decidability, (in)tractability
Probability

Economics (from 1776, Adam Smith)

Utility, rational decision theory, Operation research, ...
51
Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA /
AI prehistory (cont.)

Computer Science (from 1940,

Stibitz)
Neuroscience (from 1861
r
Broca)
Control theory (from 1948,
Wiener)
Psychology (from 1879,
Wundt) Linguistics (from 1957, Chomsky)

Robotics (1970 , Rodny Brooks)

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA
 (John McCarthy, Stanford University)
What is Artificial Intelligence?
•What is artificial intelligence?
It is the science and engineering of making intelligent
machines, especially intelligent computer programs. It is
related to the similar task of using computers to
understand human intelligence, but AI does not have to
confine itself to methods that are biologically observable.

•Yes, but what is intelligence?

Intelligence is the computational part of the ability to
achieve goals in the world. Varying kinds and degrees of
intelligence occur in people, many animals and some
machines.

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

• Isn't there a solid definition of intelligence that
doesn't depend on relating it to human
intelligence?

Not yet.

The problem is that we cannot yet characterize in general

what kinds of computational procedures we want to
call intelligent. We understand some of the
mechanisms of intelligence and not others.

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

The Problem?

How can you prove that a machine is intelligent?

Turing Machines : Allen Turing

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

What about machines checking if we are human?
CAPTCHA

What humans can do,

But computers can not.

“Completely Automated Public

Turing Test to Tell Computers
and Humans Apart“
What kinds of CAPTCHAS exist?

Gimpy – a text-based CAPTCHA

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Automobile industry: Autonomous cars 18

Characteristics of industrial revolutions:

The vendor change
Apple Inc.

first sightings of the iCar (?)

in New York and San
latest version of Google’s self Francisco (16.2.2015)
driving car (Huffington Post,
28.5.2014)

Nevada issued Google a license:

the world's first driverless car to Car specialists? –
Ford 021C concept car
drive on public streets (2012) No. Connectivity 2012, designed by
& data Newson now at Apple
specialists. (1999)

around 1750 around 1900 around 1970 today

1st industrial Power revolution Digital revolution Information
revolution Centralized electric power Digital computing and revolution
Mechanical production infrastructure; mass production communication technology, Everybody and everything
systematically using the by division of labor enhancing systems’ intelligence is networked – networked
power of water and steam information as a “huge
brain”

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

 Robot Joints and
work volume

Dr. Ashish Dutta

Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Kanpur, INDIA
Robot arm = links + joints + sensors +
actuators
Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA
Industrial Robot Arms ?
PAST

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

DOF ?

Degrees of Freedom of a rigid body , freely floating

in space.

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Prismatic joint : DOF 1

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Revolute (DOF 1) / Cylindrical joint (DOF 2)

Fig. Revolute Fig. Cylindrical

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Spherical joint : DOF 3

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Work Volume

How many DOF must a robot have – it depends on

the task .

Work Volume: Volume inside which the robot can

position its gripper.

The job to be performed must be inside the work

volume.

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Pick up an object from the table –
how many DOF ?

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA
Cartesian robot

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Cylindrical robot

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

2 DOF planer arm

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Work volume of 2 DOF arm

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Articulated

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

SCARA

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

How to decide

What should be the link lengths of a robot? (

what are the link lengths for humans ??)

Link velocities during control ??

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Best Link lengths ??

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Frames

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA
Position and Orientation of end effector

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Pick up a part from a conveyor

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA



Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA


Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA



Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA



Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA



Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA



Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA


Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA



Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

Axis assignment to machines/robots


Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA



Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA



Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA



Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA



Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA



Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA



Dr. Ashish Dutta , Dept. of Mechanical Engg., IIT Kanpur, INDIA

 Kinematics and Robot
Programming using VAL II
Prof. Ashish Dutta
Professor and Head
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Kanpur, Kanpur 208016, INDIA
Generalized matrix
Jacobian and Singularity
Robot Programming

Dr. Ashish Dutta

Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Coordinator, Center for Mechatronics
IIT Kanpur, INDIA
General structure of robot hardware
• Mechanical hardware : arms, motion transmission,
gripper.

• Robot Control unit: robot controller, motors, sensors,

power amplifiers, ADC/DAC.

• Central controller for interfacing robot with other

machines etc.
Using a robot:
• Teach pendent: used to manually teach different
points that are recorded in the robots memory. These
points can then be played back. e.g. tasks requiring
human skills e.g. welding, etc.

• Program based control:The desired task is written as

a sequence of motions in a language such as VAL.
These motions can then be played back.
Three generations of programming languages

• First generation: Simple commands for pick and place

operations, with limited interaction with limit switches
(ON/OFF), stops etc.

• Second generation: Interaction with the environment

using force, touch, ADC/DAC, etc.

• Third generation: Intelligence capability to understand

general commands e.g. ‘tighten a nut’
Examples of a few programming languages:
• VAL : Victors Assembly Language (1960). Developed
by Unimation for the PUMA robot.

• AML : Developed by IBM for manufacturing

automation systems (1960).

• RPL : based on FORTRAN Language (1960).

Basic commands in VAL II
• Constants, variables, data objects

• Motion control commands.

• Robot Hand control.

• Program control and input/output control.

Variables, Motion Control
• POINT P1 = 3, 4, 5, 30, 45, 50
(x, y, z, Ɵ, α, Ɣ)

• MOVE P1

• MOVES P1

• DRAW 45, 56, 60

• APPRO P1 50 (along z axis)

• DEPART P1 50 (along z axis)

• APPROS or DEPARTS APPRO or DEPART

MOVE and MOVES
• Straight line motion between two points requires
more energy ?

• Energy required is
proportional to the number
of joints that move to take
the end effector from one
point to another.
Hand Control
• OPEN and CLOSE

• OPENI and CLOSEI

• CLOSEI 75 in VAL
Why two commands OPEN and OPENI?
• SPEED 60 IPS

• DEFINE PATH1=PATH(A1,A2,A3)

• PAUSE Time (milli secs)

In – line robot cell
Pick from conveyor and place on table

Table : Parts to be placed in each

square : INDEXING
Robot centered cell – sequencing -
dead lock
Communication with Simple ON/OFF sensors
• Proximity : ultrasonic, hall effect, conductive sensors.

• Limit switches.

• ON +5 V
• OFF 0 V
 Program Control, Interlock Commands and
• GOTO 20
• GOSUB and RETURN
• IF THEN ELSE

• PAUSE
PROCEED

ON/OFF Type communication based on high (+5V) / low (0V)signals

• SIGNAL 2,-3
• IFSIG 2,-3 THEN
• WAIT SIG (-1, 2)
• RESET turns off all external signals
• ON 2
• OFF 3
• RESET
What Is Data Acquisition?
What Is Data Acquisition?
• The process by which phenomenon in the real world
can be translated and manipulated by a computer-
readable signals.

• This physical phenomenon could be the force applied

to an object, temperature of a room, the pressure
inside a chamber and many other things.
There are some components to be considered
when building a basic DAQ system

• Transducers and sensors

• Signals
• Signal conditioning
• DAQ hardware
• Driver and application software
 Sensors/Transducers

• A sensor is a device that responds to a physical stimulus (as

pressure, temperature, light, sound, or a particular motion)
and transmits a resulting impulse (a signal relating to the
quantity being measured). A sensor normally also has some
signal conditioning circuit.

• A transducer is a device that is actuated by power from one

system and supplies power usually in another form to a
second system. For example a loudspeaker.
Analog Signals
• An analog signal is a continuous signal that can be at
any value with respect to time.
e.g. analog signals include voltage, temperature,
pressure, sound, and load.

• The three primary characteristics of an analog signal

include level, shape, and frequency.
· level
· shape
· frequency
Digital Signals
• An analogue signal sampled at a particulate frequency
results in a digital signal.

• A digital signal has values only at certain instants of

time (at which it is being sampled).
ON/OFF type of digital signal
ADC / DAC
• ADC : Analogue to digital converters.
Temperature, force signal converted to digital signal for
a computer to read.

• DAC : Digital to analogue converters.

Digital voltage converted to analogue voltage.

Robots use ADC to convert forces, distance, etc from

analogue to digital value.
 Input / output control
• IOPUT and IOGET
SIGNAL

ADC / DAC
• ADC1= SENSOR 1
DAC1= CONST
DAC1= 3 + CONST

• VAR 1 = ADC (1)

Computation and operations

• SIN(A)
• COS(A)

• SQRT(A)
• EQ, NE, GT …
Using a robot:

• Teach pendent: used to manually teach different

points that are recorded in the robots memory. These
points can then be played back. e.g. tasks requiring
human skills e.g. welding, etc.

• Program based control:The desired task is written as

a sequence of motions in a language such as VAL.
These motions can then be played back.
Computer integrated manufacturing
Lead through teaching
Program
example
PROGRAM DEPALLET 1
REMARK CORNER AND CHUTE LOCATIONS ARE TAUGHT

SETI MAXCOL=4
SETI MAXROW=3
SETI ROW =1
SETI COLUMN=1
SET PICK =CORNER
SHIFT PICK BY 20.00,-20.00, 60.00
OPENI
10 MOVE PICK
DRAW 0, 0, - 25.00
CLOSEI
DRAW 0, 0, 25.00
MOVE CHUTE
OPENI
GOSUB PALLET
IF ROW LE MAXROW THEN 10
END

Program Contd.
PROGRAM PALLET
SETI COLUMN = COLUMN + 1
IF COLUMN GT MAXCOL THEN 20
SETI COLUMN = 1
SHIFT PICK BY 50.00, 0.00, 0.00 30 RETURN
20 GO TO 10
SETI ROW = ROW + 1
IF ROW GT MAXROW THEN 30
SHIFT PICK BY – 150.00, -30.00, 0.00
Flexible manufacturing cell: Write a program
in VAL II

Drop point
Sensor
to detect arrival of
part

Parts carousel
Robot centered cell – sequencing -
dead lock
NC/ CNC Machines
What is a NC/CNC machine

• An NC machine is functionally same as a conventional machine

tool (e.g. Lathe, milling m/c)

• In a conventional machine an operator controls the machine

function like feed rate, coolant, speed etc. While in a NC machine
the machine functions are controlled by the MCU (controller).

• A conventional machine tool can be retrofitted to make a NC

machine.
NC/CNC for machining multi axis parts
• NC/CNC machines can have up to 5 axis and can machine
complex parts having 3D geometry. Manual machining may be
impossible (e.g. complex turbine blades).

• Autonomous operations.

• Integration with other machines, robots, AS/RS etc.

• Integrated into Industry 4.0 framework.

Control structure of a NC machine
• DC motors working in closed loop position control.
Analogue and Digital system
ADC
DAC
Construction differences:

• Conventional machine tables move on slides and screw threads

• NC machine slides move on ball screws to reduce friction.

• For motion of tool and/or guides ways, actuators and sensors are
used.

• NC machines are controlled using closed look control.

Special ball screws to reduce friction:
Ball screws – how it works ?
Characteristics of ball screws

• High mechanical efficiency

In ball screws, about 90% or more of the force used to rotate the screw
shaft can be converted to the force to move the ball nut.

Since friction loss is extremely low, the amount of force used to

rotate the screw shaft is as low as one third of that needed for the acme
thread lead screw.

• Low in wear
Because of rolling contact, wear is less than that of sliding contact.
Thus, the accuracy is high.

Ball screws move smoothly enough under very slow speed.

They run smoothly even under a load.

1
2
Advantages of ball screws
• Highly efficient and reliable.
• Less starting torque.
• Lower co efficient of friction compared to sliding type screws and
run at cooler temperatures
• Power transmission efficiency is very high and is of the order of 95
%.
• Could be easily preloaded to eliminate backlash.
• The friction force is virtually independent of the travel velocity
and the friction at rest is very small; consequently, the stick-slip
phenomenon is practically absent, ensuring uniformity of
motion.
• Has longer thread life hence need to be replaced less frequently.
• Ball screws are well -suited to high through output, high speed
applications or those with continuous or long cycle times.
• Smooth movement over full range of travel.
1
3
Harmonic drives for high reduction
 Use of Stepping Motors in Slide Movement

The slides and spindle of the CNC machine are

driven by stepper motors.

STEPPER MOTOR – A digital signal is sent from the

controller to the motor in the form of pulses, which will
cause the motor to rotate through a specified angle,
which causes the slide to move by the required distance.

1
5
Stepper motors : Variable reluctance,
permanent magnet
Working of a stepper motor

Sequence of rotation
(CW): B – C – D - A’
Mega-torque motors
Linear stepper motors
DC Motors : basic working
Brushless DC motors

Fig. Brush type DC motor Fig. Brushless DC motor

Position Sensor : Potentiometer
Incremental encoder
•
Position sensor:
Incremental Encoder

Using XOR gate

Direction of rotation of encoder ?
Absolute encoder
Axes assignment in CNC

Z axis aligned with the spindle axis for cutting

(or perpendicular to work holding surface)

X is towards the right of the z axis looking

from the spindle to workpiece.

U,V, W supplementary linear motions

A,B, C rotatory motion along x, y and z axes.
origin location ?
Programming details
 Fixed Sequential Format
Exhibit 6.1 Fixed Sequential Format
0050 00 +0025400 +0012500 +0000000 0000 00
0060 01 +0025400 +0012500 -0010000 0500 08
0070 01 +0025400 +0012500 +0000000 0500 09
Meaning:
(1)Using a rapid feed rate, the tool is positioned at the coordinate location (25.4, 12.5,0).
(2)The tool is then advanced -10 units in the z-direction at a feed rate of 500 mm/min, with
the flood coolant on.
(3)The tool is then retracted back 10 units at the rapid feed rate, and the coolant is turned off.

The corresponding motions are shown in the

figure on the left.
With the zero datum assumed to be 0.5 units
above the surface of the part, these commands
have the effect of drilling a through hole in a
workpiece material 9 units thick.
 Tab Sequential Format
Tab Sequential Format

• This format is essentially the same as the fixed sequential format. The
difference is that each word within a block is preceded by a Tab
character.

• The main improvement over fixed sequential format is that the Tab
character for a specified word need not be followed by a numeric data if
data are not required in that particular block or they are modal data.
 Word Sequential Format

• This is the format that is used on virtually all modern controllers and
will be explained in greater detail.
• With this type of format, each type of word is assigned as address
that is identified by a letter code within the part program.
• Thus, the letter code specifies the type of word that follows and then
its associated numeric data is given.
• For example, the code T represents a tool number. Thus, a word of the
form T01 would represent tool number 1.
• Theoretically, with this approach, the words in a given block can be
entered in any sequence and the controller should be able to interpret
them correctly.
 Sequence and format of words:

N3 G2 X+1.4 Y+1.4 Z+1.4 I2.0 J2.0 K2.0 F5 S4 T4 M2

N sequence X,Y, Z destination F feed T Other function

no coordinates rate tool
I,J,K dist to center of S spindle
G preparatory circle
function speed
Word Sequential Format
Address Meaning
F Feed rate command
G Preparatory function
I Circular interpolation : x axis offset
J Circular interpolation : y axis offset
K Circular interpolation : z axis offset
M Miscellaneous commands
N Sequency number
R Arc radius
S Spindle speed
T Tool number
X x-axis data
Y y-axis data
Z z-axis data

Commonly used word addresses

 Word Address Format
• The American National Standards institute (ANSI) has established a standard
method of specifying word address data for any controller, which has been adopted
by most manufacturers. A typical specification might look as follows:

• Within the specification, a letter identifies a specific type of word as in Table . A ‘ +

‘ symbol after the letter indicates that sign is significant for the associated numeric
data.
• Generally, a positive sign is assumed if numeric data has no sign specified. If one
numeral follows the letter, the data for that word are of integer form with upto the
number of digits specified by the numeral.
• If the letter (and the associated sign wherever applicable) is followed by two
numerals, the data for that word are real numbers.
• The decimal point is not to be programmed explicitly; its position is inferred by
counting the number of digits in the actual data associated with the word, counting
from the right.
• The second numeral in the specification gives the number of digits to count in the
data before the decimal point.
 Word Address Format

So for the sample specification just given we have:

N word can have up to four integer digits with no associated signs.

G word can have upto two integer digits with no associated signs.

X word can have upto seven real digits, which may be positive or negative. The decimal point which
is not explicitly entered is assumed to be three digits from the right, and there can be upto four
digits to the left of the decimal point in metric format.

F script can have upto four real digits, which may be positive or negative. The decimal point, which is
not explicitly entered, is in the rightmost position and there can be upto four digits to the left of the
decimal points.

I word can have upto seven real digits with no associated signs. The decimal point, which is not
explicitly entered, is assumed to be three digits from the right, and there can be upto four digits to
the left of the decimal point in metric format.
 Fundamentals of NC part programming
• The first step in writing an NC part program is to determine and organize the data that will be used within the
program.
• A fully coded NC part program generally consists of five broad categories or classes of command. These are
the following:

1. Preparatory functions: These are used to inform the MCU of the requirements for the machining that is
to be carried out and thus to establish the necessary operating conditions.

2. Axis motion commands: These are used to control the amount of relative motion between the cutting tool
and workpiece along each machine axis.

3. Feed and speed commands: These are used to set and control the cutting conditions for individual
machining operations.

4. Identification commands: These are used to identify specific entities in the program, such as cutting tools
used.
5. Miscellaneous Commands: These are used to control various other aspects of the machine’s operation not
addressed elsewhere, such as turning the spindle on and off and changing tools.
 Preparatory Functions
• Preparatory functions form the largest class of commands used in NC
programs.

• They are identified by the word address letter ‘G’ followed by two digits.

• The digits specify the particular type of function.

• The combination is referred to as a ‘G’ code.

• In general, preparatory functions have the effect of making the MCU

assume specific operating conditions or command the controller to
perform the next task in a particular manner.
 Preparatory functions
• Most preparatory functions are modal. Table Some common G codes
Efforts have been made to standardize Code Function
NC commands and the table below show G00 Point to point positioning , high rate
some widely used standard ‘G’ codes. G01 Linear interpolation, controlled feed rate
There are about 97 ‘G’ codes that are
G02 Circular interpolation, CW
used which go up to 99 in special
G03 Circular interpolation, CCW
controllers.
G04 Dwell for programmed duration
• However, not all ‘G’ codes are used in all
G17 Select x-y plane
machines and there are limitations
G18 Select x-z plane
offered by the manufacturer, machine
make etc. G19 Select y-z plane
G70 Inch units
G71 Metrics units
G90 Absolute dimensions
G91 Incremental dimensions
• With the word address format only the needed words for a
given operation have to be included within the block.

• The command to which the particular numeric data applies

is identified by the preceding address code.

• Word format has the advantage of having more than one

particular command in one block something that would be
impossible in the other two formats.

4
2
4
3
List of M codes
M codes vary from machine to machine depending on the
functions available on it. They are decided by the manufacturer of
the machine. The M codes listed below are the common ones.

4
4
 Explanation of Some Commonly Used G-Codes
• G00 is a preparatory function to specify that the tool should be moved to a
specified location.
• This function is used only to control the final position of the tool and is not
concerned with the path that is followed in arriving at the final destination.
• For this reason, motion with this function is also referred to as positioning mode.
• The way this code is implemented in most controllers is that all axes that need to
be moved in order to get to the target point are moved simultaneously at the
beginning of the motion, with each axis being moved at maximum speed.

• As an example for motion that occurs in x-

y plane with the same maximum speed for
the x and y-axes, initial motion is at an
angle of 45 deg. to the axes until motion in
one of the axis is completed and then the
balance of motion occurs in the other axis.
This is called point to point motion
generally used for tool positioning. See
Fig. Fig. Positioning and linear
interpolation for NC
 Commonly used ‘G’ codes
• G02 is also a preparatory function to specify that the tool should be moved to a
specified location.
• It differs from the G00 and G01 functions in that in this case the path followed by the
tool in moving to the target point is required to be a circular arc, starting from the
current tool position, moving in a clockwise direction, and ending at the target
position.
• Within the block in which G02 code is programmed, the center of the arc is given by
specifying its location relative to the start of the arc.
• An appropriate combination of I,J and K words is used to specify the location of the
center of the arc relative to the start of the arc.

• In this case, the motion in more than one axes is

always involved and the MCU coordinates the
simultaneous motions to generate the circular
path.
• A restriction imposed by this command is that
this interpolation can only be on one quadrant
formed by the intersection of axes of the
coordinate system and the maximum angle of the
Fig. Circular interpolation for NC
arc is 90 deg.
 Canned Cycles
• Some sequences of machining operations are used so frequently with the different machines
and different components that they have a standardized and assigned special preparatory
functions. For example, a simple hole drilling operation involves the following sequence of
operations:
1. Position the tool just above the point where the hole is to be drilled.
2. Set the correct spindle speed.
3. Feed the tool into the workpiece at a controlled feed rate to a predetermined depth.
4. Retract the tool at a rapid rate to just above the point where the hole started.
• The same sequence of operations is repeated for any simple drilling operation regardless of
the machine used. The sequence of operations would require several blocks of code if each
motion were programmed individually.
• However, a special drilling cycle code (G81) has been developed. By using the G81
preparatory function, the programmer achieves the same effect in only one block.

• The location and depth of the hole to be

drilled, speed and feed to be used, and
height above the part surface for
positioning before and after drilling are
all specified in the block.
 List of Canned Cycles

Table Commonly used Canned cycles

• The effect of any one of these canned cycles is cancelled by programming a G80
function.
 Axis Motion Commands
• Axis motion commands are used to specify the axes that are required to move during the
execution of a given command.
• They are made up of a letter specifying an axis such as x, followed by dimensional
information associated with the motion of the axis in question.
• The X,Y, and Z commands, respectively, specify the motion of the cartesian coordinates
themselves; I,J and K values specify the offset relative to x,y,and z axes.
• Some controllers support the use of polar coordinates, in which case R and A axes are
used to specify the radial and angular directions, respectively.
• The dimensional data associated with an axis command can represent absolute
dimensions (if G90 was specified) or they may be incremental values (if G91 was
specified)
• The dimensional data associated with the axis commands consists of real numbers that
may or may not have a sign associated with them.
• An important point to remember is that the axis commands guide the motion of the point
defining the tool position. For some operations, such as profile milling, the periphery of
the cutter moves along the surface to be machined, rather than the tool-point (i.e., center
of the cutter)
 Axis motion commands
• Thus, the actual motion of the tool has to be along a path different
from the geometry of the machined surface. This difference is called
a tool offset which the programmer has to consider when writing the
program.
• Most modern controllers can be programmed using an offset tool by
applying a compensation factor called cutter compensation.
• With this approach one the offset between the tool point and the
machined surface is specified, the tool motion can be programmed as
if the tool point followed the actual machined surface.
• The controller adjusts internally for the difference in the actual path
followed by the tool point.
• Cutter compensation is programmed using G41 and G42 codes and
cancelled using G40 code.
 Feed and speed commands
• Feed and speed commands are used to specify the feed rate and speed
to use during the machining operation.
• The feed command is specified by the address script ‘F’ followed by
the numerical value of the feed rate required; the speed command is
specified by the address word ‘S’ followed by the required speed.
• The feed rate and the speed used during the machining are of crucial
importance in determining how long it will take to make a part.
• The units for cutting conditions can be specified in a variety of ways
in the NC program. The feed rate may be specified directly in units/
min. or units/rev., where the units may be in inches or millimeters.
• The preparatory functions G92-G98 are used to designate how the
cutting conditions are to be specified.
 Identification commands
• Identification commands are used within a NC program for the simple task of being able to
identify certain entities within the program.
• The ‘N’ word is the most widely used identification command and it is used to identify
individual blocks within the program.
• The identification data in this case consist of integer numbers written in a format given as
part of the machine specification.
• Usually three or four digits are used and leading or trailing zeros are not suppressed.
• The ‘N’ word is purely for the convenience of human writing or using the program, so that
they can distinguish between the various blocks in the program.
• The MCU itself does not use the data contained in the ‘N’ word.
• Because the controller does not use the block identification data, it is not strictly necessary
to number the blocks in any particular order.
• However, for the convenience of the human users, blocks are generally numbered in
ascending order, with increments of 5 or 10 between consecutive blocks.
• The reason for having increments of 5 or 10 is that, when necessary, additional blocks may
be inserted in the program while maintaining the generally ascending order in which blocks
are numbered.
 Identification Commands
• The other widely used command is the ‘T’ word.
• This is used to identify individual cutting tools used within the program.
• For most components, more than one tool is needed to complete the
machining operations needed to make the part.
• For many NC machines, multi-station tool turret or tool magazines housing
several cutting tools are used.
• The programmer uses the ‘T’ word to specify to the controller regarding
the various tools available should be used for a particular machining
operation.
• The format of ‘T’ word usually consists of two unsigned digits after ‘T’.
• Other identification commands are used to identify special sections of the
part program, such as loops and macros, that can be executed more than
once during the running of the program.
 Miscellaneous Commands
• Miscellaneous commands are used to control a variety of
machine functions that are not covered by the other
commands.
• The address word ‘M’ followed by two unsigned digits is
used to specify miscellaneous commands.
• Examples of functions controlled by miscellaneous
commands are turning the spindle on and off, turning
coolant on and off, initiating a tool change, clamping and
unclamping the work-piece interrupting and restarting
program execution, stopping the program and rewinding
the program.
 Miscellaneous Commands
• Generally, miscellaneous
Table Some common M codes
commands take effect after
execution of the other CODE FUNCTION
commands in the block in M00 Program stop
which they are programmed. M01 Optional stop
• It is usually permissible to M02 End of program
program more than one M03 Spindle on CW
miscellaneous command in a M04 Spindle on CCW
given block provided they do
not have conflicting effects. M05 Spindle off
M06 Tool change
• Many of the ‘M’ codes have
M07 Mist coolant on
been assigned standardized
functions. Some ‘M’ codes M08 Flood coolant on
are given in the table : M09 Coolant off
M30 End of program-rewind
 Special Characters
• In addition to the commands outlined in the preceding pages,
certain special characters are used in NC part programs to achieve
special effects.
• Some of these special characters are used with all controllers, but
others are particular to specific controllers.
• These characters include the % sign, common to all controllers,
which is used as the first line of the NC program.
• The character signals the controller when the beginning of the
program has been reached during a rewind of the program, an end
of block character is used at the end of each block of the program.
• This special character is produced by hit of a carriage return on a
keyboard.
• The character itself does not print when the program is printed.
• During coding , the end-of-block is frequently represented by *
symbol or the letters EOB.
G02/G03 Circular interpolation
Format
N G02/03 X Y Z I J K F using the arc center
or
N G02/03 X Y Z R F using the arc radius
Arc center
The arc center is specified by addresses I, J and K. I, J and K are the X, Y and Z
co-ordinates of the arc center with reference to the arc start point.

G02 moves along a CW arc

G03 moves along a CCW arc

G90 ABSOLUTE POSITION COMMAND
• When using a G90 absolute position command, each dimension or move is
referenced from a fixed point, known as ABSOLUTE ZERO (part zero).

• Absolute zero is usually set at the corner edge of a part, or at the center of a
square or round part, or an existing bore. ABSOLUTE ZERO is where the
dimensions of a part program are defined from.

• Absolute dimensions are referenced from a known point on the part, and
can be any point the operator chooses, such as the upper-left corner, center
of a round part, or an existing bore.

Syntax: N.. G90 X.. Y.. Z.. A.. B.. C..

G91 INCREMENTAL POSITION COMMAND
• This code is modal and changes the way axis motion
commands are interpreted. G91 makes all subsequent
commands incremental. Zero point shifts with the new
position.

Syntax: N.. G91 X.. Y.. Z.. A.. B.. C..

Control surfaces while machining:
• ds : Drive surface
• cs : Check surface
• ps: Part surface
G 17 G18 G19 :
PLANE SELECTION
G 17 : XY plane selection
Syntax: N.. G17

G 18 : ZX plane selection
Syntax: N.. G18

G 19 : ZY plane selection
Syntax: N.. G19

Syntax: N020 G17 G75 F6.0 S300 T1001 M08

 G 70 Inch data input

G 71 Metric data input

Syntax : N010 G70 G90 G94 G97 M04

 Example of NC code
Write an NC program to machine a ½ in. wide L-shaped slot in a mild steel workpiece with
dimensions 3X2.5X0.75 in as shown in Figure:

Fig. A slot milling example

Assumptions:
1. The top lower left corner will be used for program zero.
2. Machining motion will start in the indicated position.
3. The tool is ¼ in. above the top surface of the part prior to start of machining.
4. The tool diameter used is ½ in., so only one pass is required.
5. A cutting speed of 500 rpm and feed rate of 10in./ min are used for machining.
6. Machine specification: N3G2X + 43Y + 43Z+ 43R+ 43F4S4T2M2
 NC Program

•% Start of the program

 NC Program

•% Start of the program

• N005 G90 G70 Specifies absolute dimensions in inch units.

 NC Program

•% Start of the program

• N005 G90 G70 Specifies absolute dimensions in inch units.

• N010 G97 G94 T01 Specified units for speed and feed rate;
loads tool 1
 NC Program

•% Start of the program

• N005 G90 G70 Specifies absolute dimensions in inch units.

• N010 G97 G94 T01 Specified units for speed and feed rate;
loads tool 1
• N015 G00 X1000 Y2750 Z250 F0
Rapid positioning of tool to start point .
 NC Program

•% Start of the program

• N005 G90 G70 Specifies absolute dimensions in inch units.

• N010 G97 G94 T01 Specified units for speed and feed rate;
loads tool 1
• N015 G00 X1000 Y2750 Z250 F0
Rapid positioning of tool to start point .
• N020 G01 Z-375 M03 S500 F 10
Turns on spindle, feeds tool to required depth,
Turns spindle on clockwise
 NC Program

•% Start of the program

• N005 G90 G70 Specifies absolute dimensions in inch units.

• N010 G97 G94 T01 Specified units for speed and feed rate;
loads tool 1
• N015 G00 X1000 Y2750 Z250 F0
Rapid positioning of tool to start point .
• N020 G01 Z-375 M03 S500 F 10
Turns on spindle, feeds tool to required depth, Turn spindle on CW
• N025 Y750 M/c s the vertical portion of the L shape.
 NC Program

•% Start of the program

• N005 G90 G70 Specifies absolute dimensions in inch units.

• N010 G97 G94 T01 Specified units for speed and feed rate;
loads tool 1
• N015 G00 X1000 Y2750 Z250 F0
Rapid positioning of tool to start point .
• N020 G01 Z-375 M03 S500 F 10
Turns on spindle, feeds tool to required depth, Turn spindle on CW
• N025 Y750 M/c s the vertical portion of the L shape.

• N030 X2500 M/c s the horizontal portion of the L shape.

 NC Program
•% Start of the program
• N005 G90 G70 Specifies absolute dimensions in inch units.
• N010 G97 G94 T01 Specified units for speed and feed rate;
loads tool 1
• N015 G00 X1000 Y2750 Z250 F0
Rapid positioning of tool to start point .
• N020 G01 Z-375 M03 S500 F 10
Turns on spindle, feeds tool to required depth., Turn spindle on CW
• N025 Y750 M/c s the vertical portion of the L shape.
• N025 X2500 M/c s the horizontal portion of the L shape.
• N035 Z250 Retracts tool to 0.25 in above part surface.
 NC Program

• % Start of the program

• N005 G90 G70 Specifies absolute dimensions in inch units.
• N010 G97 G94 T01 Specified units for speed and feed rate;
loads tool 1
• N015 G00 X1000 Y2750 Z250 F0
Rapid positioning of tool to start point .
• N020 G01 Z-375 M03 S500 F 10
Turns on spindle, feeds tool to required depth, Turns spindle on CW
• N025 Y750 M/c s the vertical portion of the L shape.
• N025 X2500 M/c s the horizontal portion of the L shape.
• N035 Z250 Retracts tool to 0.25 in above part surface.
• N040 X-1000 Y-1000 F0 M05
Move to safe location at rapid rate after spindle switch off.
 NC Program

• % Start of the program

• N005 G90 G70 Specifies absolute dimensions in inch units.

• N010 G97 G94 T01 Specified units for speed and feed rate;
loads tool 1
• N015 G00 X1000 Y2750 Z250 F0
Rapid positioning of tool to start point .
• N020 G01 Z-375 M03 S500 F 10
Turns on spindle, feeds tool to required depth, Turns spindle on CW
• N025 Y750 M/c s the vertical portion of the L shape.
• N025 X2500 M/c s the horizontal portion of the L shape.
• N035 Z250 Retracts tool to 0.25 in above part surface.
• N040 X-1000 Y-1000 F0 M05
Move to safe location at rapid rate after spindle switch off.
• N045 M30 Turns off all machine functions
Full Solution
Manual Part Programming Example 5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

Tool size = 0.25 inch,

5” Feed rate = 6 inch per minute,
Cutting speed = 300 rpm,
Tool start position: 2.0, 2.0
Programming in inches
45°

(4, 4)
p1
Motion of tool:
p0  p1  p2  p3  p4  p5  p1  p0
p0 (2, 2)
 1. Set up the programming parameters
5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

Programming in inches
5”
Use absolute coordinates

Feed in ipm
45°
N010 G70 G90 G94 G97 M04
(4, 4)
p1
Spindle speed in rpm
p0 (2, 2)
Spindle CCW
 2. Set up the machining conditions
5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”
Machine moves in XY-plane

Use full-circle interpolation

5”
Feed rate

Spindle speed
45°
N020 G17 G75 F6.0 S300 T1001 M08
(4, 4)
p1
Tool no.
p0 (2, 2)
Flood coolant ON
 3. Move tool from p0 to p1 in straight line
5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

Linear interpolation
1”
target coordinates

5” N030 G01 X3.875 Y3.698

45°

(4, 4)
p1

p0 (2, 2)
 4. Cut profile from p1 to p2 5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

Linear interpolation

5” target coordinates

N040 G01 X3.875 Y9.125

45°
or
(4, 4)
p1 N040 G01 Y9.125

p0 (2, 2)

X-coordinate does not change  no need to program it

 5. Cut profile from p2 to p3 5”
2.5”
p2 p3
p4
p5 Linear interpolation

target coordinates
1”

N050 G01 X5.634 Y9.125

5”

y = 9 + 0.125 = 9.125
(6.5 - x)2 + 0.1252 = (1 - 0.125)2
x = 5.634
45° p3
(x, y)
(4, 4)
p1 (6.5, 9)
.125

p0 (2, 2)

1”
 6. Cut along circle from p3 to p4
5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

circular interpolation, CCW motion

5”
target coordinates

45° N060 G03 X7.366 Y9.125 I6.5 J9.0

(4, 4) coordinates of center of circle

p1

p0 (2, 2) N060 G03 X7.366 Y9.125 I0.866 J-0.125

 7. Cut from p4 to p5 5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

5”

Linear interpolation

45° target coordinates (Y is unchanged)

(4, 4) N070 G01 X9.302

p1

p0 (2, 2)
 8. Cut from p5 to p1 5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

5”
Linear interpolation

target coordinates (see step 3)

45°
N080 G01 X3.875 Y3.698
(4, 4)
p1

p0 (2, 2)
 9. Return to home position, stop program
5”
2.5”
p4
p2 p3 p5

1”

Linear interpolation

5” target coordinates (see step 3)

N090 G01 X2.0 Y2.0 M30

45°
end of data
(4, 4)
N100 M00
p1

p0 (2, 2) program stop

10. Complete RS-274 program
N010 G70 G90 G94 G97 M04
N020 G17 G75 F6.0 S300 T1001 M08
N030 G01 X3.875 Y3.698
N040 G01 X3.875 Y9.125
N050 G01 X5.634 Y9.125
N060 G03 X7.366 Y9.125 I0.866 J-0.125
N070 G01 X9.302
N080 G01 X3.875 Y3.698
N090 G01 X2.0 Y2.0 M30
Simple G Code Example CNC Lathe
PART PROGRAM

N5 M12
N10 T0101
N15 G0 X100 Z50
N20 M3 S600
N25 M8
N30 G1 X50 Z0 F600
N40 Y-30 F200
N50 X80 Y-20 F150
N60 G0 X100 Z50
N70 T0100
N80 M5
N90 M9
N100 M13
N110 M30
Code Explanation
N5 Clamping workpiece
N10 Changing No.1 tool and executing its offset
N15 Rapidly positioning to A point
N20 Starting the spindle with 600 r/min
N25 Cooling ON
N30 Approaching B point with 600mm/min
N40 Cutting from B point to C point
N50 Cutting from C point to D point
N60 Rapidly retracting to A point
N70 Cancelling the tool offset
N80 Stopping the spindle
N90 Cooling OFF
N100 Releasing workpiece
N110 End of program, spindle stopping and Cooling OFF
CNC MILLING EXAMPLE
N5 G90 G71
N10 T1 M6
N15 G92 X-100 Y86 Z95
N20 G0 X0 Y0 S2500 M3
N25 Z12.5
N30 G1 Z-12.5 F150
N35 X-20 Y30
N40 G2 X10 Y100 R80
N45 G1 X140 Y60
N50 G2 X150 Y0 R50
N55 G1 X0 Y0
N60 G0 Z12.5
N65 G91 G28 Z0 M5
N70 G91 G28 X0 Y0
N75 M30
CODE EXPLANATION
N5 absolute positioning, metric unit
N10 tool change to T1
N15 define work zero point at A
N20 rapid traverse to A, spindle on (2500 RPM, CW)
N25 rapid plunge to 12.5 mm above Z0
N30 feed to Z-12.5, feed rate 150 MMPM
N35 cut line AB to B
N40 cut arc BC to C
N45 cut line CD to D
N50 cut arc DE to E
N55 cut line EA to A
N60 rapid retract to Z12.5
N65 reference point return in Z direction, spindle off
N70 reference point return in X and Y directions
N75 end of program
SAMPLE PROGRAM ON DRILLING
N1 T16 M06
N2 G90 G54 G00 X0.5 Y-0.5
N3 S1450 M03
N4 G43 H16 Z1. M08
N5 G81 G99 Z-0.375 R0.1 F9.
N6 X1.5
N7 Y-1.5
N8 X0.5
N9 G80 G00 Z1. M09
N10 G53 G49 Z0. M05
N11 M30
CODE EXPLANATION
N1- Tool change (M06) to tool no.16
N2- Tool rapidly moves (G00) to first drilling position X0.5
Y-0.5 while taking into account Zero-offset-no. 1 (G54)
N3- Drill starts rotating clockwise (M03) with 1450 rpm
(S1450).
N4- Drill takes depth Z1. taking into account tool length
compensation (G43 H16), coolant is turned on (M08).
N5- Drilling cycle (G81) parameters, drill depth (Z) and
cutting feed (F) are given,
with this command first drill is made at current position
(X0.5 Y-0.5).
N6- As drilling cycle continues it’s work with every axis
movement so next drill is
done at X1.5
N7- Third drilling hole at Y-1.5
N8- Fourth drill at X0.5
N9- Drilling cycle is cancelled (G80), Coolant is turned off (M09).
N10- Taking Machine-coordinate-system (G53) into account the drill is taken
to Z0 position. Tool length compensation is cancelled (G49), cutter rotation
is stopped (M05).
N11- CNC part-program is ended.
 References

•Computer integrated design and

manufacturing, Nanua Singh, John
Wiley and sons, Inc.
Automated Storage /
Retrieval Systems
FMS
Material handling system : 30-80 % time
• An integrated system involving handling, storing, and controlling materials.
• Principles to be considered for design:

- Part Orientation - Simplification

- Planning - Gravity
- Safety
- Systems - Computerization
- Unit load - Systems flow
- Space utilization - Layout
- cost
- Ergonomic - Maintenance
- Energy - Obsolescence
- Ecology
- Mechanization
- Flexibility
Material handling systems
Components of an AGV
Types of AGVs
Heavy duty AGV
• Towing vehicles: tractor type mainly used
for bulk movement of materials into and
Out of warehouses.

• Unit load transporters: equipped with

decks for unit load and unloading of materials.
Used in warehouses to store and retrieve
martials.
• pallet truck: lift, and transport
palletized loads.

• Fork lift trucks: pick up and lift loads

to different heights.
• Light load vehicles: carry light
loads in short distances

• Assembly line vehicles: carries

sub-assemblies for the serial
assembly process.
AGV use subsystems:
• Guidance system
• Routing
• AGV control system
• Load transfer system
• Interfacing systems
AGV steering control
• Differential speed control

• Steered wheel control

AGV guidance systems
• Wire guided
• Optical guidance
• Inertial guidance system
• Infrared guidance
• Laser guidance
• Teaching type guidance
AGV routing methods

- (a) normal path layout

- (b) Frequency select method

- (c) Path switch select method

AGV control system
Number of AGVs required?
Advantages of AGVs required
• Flexibility

• Higher reliability

• Higher operating savings

• Continuous motion

• Easy interfacing
Interfacing of AGVs
• PLC based interfacing
Automated Storage and Retrieval Systems
• AS/RS : A combination of equipment's and controls which
handles, stores, and retrieves materials with precision and
accuracy under a defined degree of automation.

• AS/RS consisting of :
- A series of storage aisles
- Storage and retrieval machines
- Pick up and storage stations.
AS/RS
- Row
- Aisle
- Storage racks
- Storage structure
- Storage/retrieval machine
- Storage module
- Pickup and deposit
Advantages of AS/RS
- AS/RS is highly space efficient.
- Increase storage capacity
- Improved inventory
- Quick response
- Reduced labour cost
- Reduced inventory
- Flexibility
- Flexibility in interfacing
- Reduced scrap
- Just in Time: every part at the right time.
Different types
• Unit load
• Mini load
• Person on board
• Deep lane
• Automated item retrieval system
Manufacturing
FMS
Material Handling equipment
Tool holder
FMS Layout