EEE547-POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL

❖Lecturers: Prof. Anthony U. Adoghe and

Miss. Attah Amarachi Rita.
❖ Office Address: Room 256 Upstairs
❖ Office phone: 7175
❖ Consulting Days: Tuesday & Thursday
❖ Time: 1.30 –5 P.M on each day.
 CLASS BEHAVIOUR
Please, note the following:
▪ Mandatory 75% class attendance
▪ Noise making during lectures is prohibited.
▪ Active participation in all activities
▪ All class assignments to be submitted as when due.
▪ Punctuality to classes is a MUST.
▪ Time for lectures is between 5 – 7 p.m.
▪ Please note that, once is 5.20 p.m, no student will be allow to
enter the lecture hall.
 LEARNING STRATEGIES
The under-listed methods will be adopted to enable students
learn the content and skills inherent in this course :
▪ Lecture via power point presentations,
▪ Class Tutorials
▪ Group discussion
▪ Reading assignments and,
▪ Research based Assignments.
 EVALUATION TECHNIQUE
Grading:
• 15% First test /Attendance
• 15% midterm test and
• 70% final examination
• The homework will be APPLICATION BASED.
 Homework policy
You are allowed to consult research works in the area as
well as relevant recommended tests.
Consulted literatures and tests must be referenced
accordingly
Copying someone else's work is strictly prohibited.
 READING LISTS
• [1] Fehr, RE, Industrial Power Distribution, Prentice Hall
International, 2002.
• [2] Wood, AJ & Wollenberger, BD, Power Generation,
Operation, and Control, 2nd edition, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1996.
• [3] Saadat H., Power system Analysis, MacGraw-Hill
companies, latest edition.
• [4] Nasar, S.A. Electric power systems, Schaum’s outline
series, latest edition
• [5] Weedy, B.M and Cory, B.J. Electric power systems, latest
edition.
 COURSE OUTLINES
• Module 1 Overview of power system operation
and control (2 wks).
• Module 2 Resource scheduling and commitment
(3 wks).
• Module 3 Power system operation planning
(3wks).
• Module 4 Economic Operation of power
systems (2wks).
• Module 5 Power system control (3wks).
Introduction
• In 1831, Michael Faraday’s many years of efforts rewarded when he
discovered electromagnetic induction
• Later, he invented the first generator
• Today, electric energy technologies have a central role in social and
economic development at all scales
• Energy is closely linked to environmental pollution and degradation, to
economic development and quality of life
• Today, we are mostly dependent on nonrenewable fossil fuels that have
been and will continue to be a major cause of pollution and climate change
• Finding sustainable alternatives is becoming increasingly urgent
• Operation and control of power system is an extremely complex task
Definitions
• Electric Capacity is a term that defines the rated continuous load-carrying
ability, expressed in megawatts (MW) or megavolt-amperes (MVA) of
generation, transmission, or other electrical equipment
• Electric Energy is the term that defines the generation or use of electric
power by a device over a period of time. It is expressed in kilowatt-hours
(kWh), megawatt-hours (MWh), or gigawatt-hours (GWh)
• In context of electric circuits, the term ‘load’ refers to any device in which
power is being dissipated (i.e. consumed)
• In larger context of the power system, loads are usually modeled in an
aggregated way rather than an individual appliance. Load may refer to an
entire household, a city block or all the customers within a certain region
 Type of loads
• Resistive loads (25%): Heating and lighting equipments
e.g.Toaster, iron, electric blankets, Incandescent lamps

• Motors (70%): Compressors (air conditioner, refrigerator)

Pumps (well, pool), Fans
Household appliances (washer, mixer, vacuum cleaner)
Large commercial 3-phase motors (grocery store chiller)
Power tools (hand drill, lawn mower)
Electric street cars
Basically ‘anything’ that moves!

• Electronic devices (5%): Power supplies for computers etc.

Transformers (adapter, battery charger)
Definitions
• The term ‘demand’ refers to physical quantity of power, NOT energy
• Serving the instantaneous demand under diverse circumstances is the
central challenge in designing and operating power systems and the one
that calls for majority of investment and effort
• Load curves (Load profiles):
• Instantaneous demand varies over the course of a day and is
represented by Load profile
• A load profile is drawn at any level of aggregation: for an individual
user, a distribution feeder or an entire grid
• It may represent an actual day or a statistical average over typical days
in a given month or season
• The maximum demand which is of greatest interest to the service
provider is termed as peak load or peak demand or simply peak
Definitions
• In warmer climates where air conditioning dominates electrical usage,
demand will tend to be ‘summer peaking’; conversely, heating
dominated regions will see ‘winter peaking’
• Load Duration Curves:
• A different way to represent the load profile
• Rearranging of the load profile in descending order of magnitude
• Indicates how many hours a certain load has been required in
the course of the day
• The ratio between average and peak demand is called ‘load factor’: flat
load duration curve desired from economical standpoint
• The load factor clearly depends upon climate but also it depends
upon the diversity within the customer base or load diversity
Calculations
Actual Maximum Demand
Demand Factor =
Total Connected Load

Sum of individual maximum demands

Diversity Factor =
Actual Peak of the system

Average Load over a given time period

Load Factor =
Peak Load during the same time period
Type of loads
• From system’s point of view, there are 5 broad category of loads: Domestic,
Commercial, Industrial,Agriculture and others
• Domestic:
lights, fans, domestic appliances like heaters, refrigerators, air conditioners,
mixers, ovens, small motors etc.
Demand factor = 0.7 to 1.0; Diversity factor = 1.2 to 1.3; Load factor = 0.1
to 0.15
• Commercial:
Lightings for shops, advertising hoardings, fans,AC etc.
Demand factor = 0.9 to 1.0; Diversity factor = 1.1 to 1.2; Load factor = 0.25
to 0.3
• Industrial:
Small scale industries: 0-20kW
Medium scale industries: 20-100kW
Large scale industries: above 100kW
Type of loads ……Contd
Industrial loads need power over a longer period which remains fairly
uniform throughout the day
• For heavy industries:
Demand factor = 0.85 to 0.9; Load factor = 0.7 to 0.8
• Agriculture:
Supplying water for irrigation using pumps driven by motors
Demand factor = 0.9 to 1; Diversity factor = 1.0 to 1.5; Load factor =
0.15 to 0.25
• Other Loads:
Bulk supplies, street lights, traction, government loads which have
their own peculiar characteristics

• “Load” is an externally given quantity, a variable beyond control, in a

completely unselfconscious manner.
Electric Power System Operation.
•Operational objectives of a power system have been to provide a continuous quality
service with minimum cost to the user. These objectives are:

❖ First Objective: Supplying the energy user with quality service, i.e., at
acceptable voltage and frequency
❖ Second Objective: Meeting the first objective with acceptable impact
upon the environment.
❖ Third Objective: Meeting the first and second objectives continuously,
i.e., with adequate security and reliability.
❖ Fourth Objective: Meeting the first, second, and third objectives with
optimum economy, i.e., minimum cost to the energy user.
•The term “continuous service” can be translated to mean “secure and reliable service”
Integrated Objectives

Interrelated objectives of operation of a power system

•The direction of the arrows indicates the priority in which the objectives are
implemented

Economically constrained operation of a power system.

Task Division
1) Operations planning
2) Operations control
3) Operations accounting

Interrelated tasks of planned scheduling operation

Operation planning
• The facilities of a large power system consist of many generating units,
transmission lines, transformers, circuit breakers, DC/DC converters &
DC/ AC converters which are to be scheduled for orderly operation &
maintenance
• The energy resources of a large power system consist of hydro, nuclear,
fossil power and renewable energy sources such as wind farm,
photovoltaic and micro turbines.
• These facilities are to be managed and utilized to satisfy load demand of
a power system.
• The load demand of a power system is cyclic in nature and has a daily
peak demand over a week period, weekly peak demand over a month
period, and monthly peak demand over a year period.
• Overall objectives of planned scheduling operation are to manage
facilities and optimize resources for satisfying the peak demand of each
Operation Control
• The primary functions of operations control are satisfying the
instantaneous load on a second-to-second and minute-to-minute
basis. Some of these functions are:
❖Load Frequency Control
❖On-Line Load Flow
❖Economic Dispatch Calculation (EDC)
❖Operating Reserve Calculation (ORC)
Operation Control……Contd.
• Load Frequency Control (LFC). This function is also referred to as
governor response. As the load demand of the power system
increases, the speed of generators will decrease and this will reduce
the system frequency. Similarly, as system load demand decreases, the
speed of the system generators would increase and this will increase
the system frequency. The power system frequency control must be
maintained for the power system grid to remain stable.
• Online Load Flow (OLF): This function generally utilizes the output of
network topology, i.e. the real time network model, and the bus
injections from state estimation for purpose of security monitoring,
security analysis and penalty factor calculations. This function
performs “if then condition” to determine the possible system states
(voltages) in face of system outages such as loss of a line due to
weather condition or sudden loss of a generator.
Operation Control……Contd.
• Economic Dispatch Calculation: Economic dispatch
calculation of a power system determines the loading of each
generator on a minute-by-minute basis so as to minimize the
operating costs.
• Operating Reserve Calculation: The objective of operating
reserve calculation is to calculate the actual reserve carried
by each unit and to check whether or not there is a sufficient
reserve in a system. The operating reserve consists of
spinning reserve (synchronized), non-spinning reserve (non-
synchronized), and interruptible load.
 Evolution
Standard voltages are: 33, 66,115, 132, 138, 230kv HV
330, 345, 500, 765 EHV
Earlier frequencies were: 25, 50, 60, 125, and 133Hz.
Interconnection of systems led to the standardization of
frequency and voltage, 60Hz in USA and Canada and 50Hz in
most other Countries (Europe, India, Nigeria), use of higher and
higher voltage levels (up to 1000kv line AC)
In 1950s, Mercury Arc valves and subsequently thyristors
development led to high voltage dc transmission suited for very
long distance bulk transmission and underwater cable links.
First commercial DC link in 1954 was between Sweden and Got
land Island by cable.
Limitation of HVDC transmission
Expensive -Converter stations needed to connect to AC power
grids are very expensive
Complex- In contrast to AC systems, designing and operating
multi-terminal HVDC systems is complex.
Expensive again- Converter substations generate current and
voltage harmonics, while the conversion process is accompanied
by reactive power consumption. As a result, it is necessary to
install expensive filter-compensation units and reactive power
compensation units.
 Contd.
Radio Noise - The high-frequency constituents found in
direct current transmission systems can cause radio noise in
communications lines that are situated near the HVDC
transmission line.
Difficult grounding - Grounding HVDC transmission
involves a complex and difficult installation, as it is
necessary to construct a reliable and permanent contact to
the Earth for proper operation and to eliminate the possible
creation of a dangerous “step voltage.”
 Advantages of HVDC transmission
Asynchronous operation - Allowing power transmission between
unsynchronized AC distribution systems.
Reducing line cost - since HVDC transmission requires fewer
conductors (i.e. 2 conductors; one is positive another is negative)
Increasing the capacity of an existing power grid in situations
where additional wires are difficult or expensive to install.
Endpoint-to-endpoint long-haul bulk power transmission without
intermediate 'taps‘
Undersea cables, where high capacitance causes additional AC
losses.
Advantages of interconnected systems

1) It reduces spinning Reserves capacity

2) Capital cost can be reduced
3) Effective use of generators
4) Installed capacity is reduced
5) Improves reliability of the system
 Disadvantages
) Faults can be transferred to other areas
2) Circuit breakers requirements increases
 Synchronous Grid
A synchronous grid implies that the generators in that grid are
connected to one another by at least one AC transmission path.
This also means that the synchronous generators in that grid
are all operating at the same electrical frequency.
For a well designed and operated system, inter-connected
synchronous generators are seen to “stick together” in
synchronism.
However they may lose synchronism if subjected to
disturbances.
A generator when connected to a power system has to be
connected by a special procedure known as ‘synchronization.
 Example
Consider 2 generators connected by a transmission line. If the
frequency of both sources is not equal but their voltage
magnitude are the same, what will be the nature of power
flow P? Is this acceptable?
 Answer
Three phase ac power flow through a transmission line is
proportional to the sine of the phase angular difference
between the 2 sources.
If the sources are of different frequencies, this phase angular
difference can be thought of as continuously changing.
Therefore, power will pulsate at the difference frequency.
 Answer contd.
Such power pulsations are immediately disconnected by
“out-of step” relays.
You can also show that voltage magnitude at the mid-point
of the line will also pulsate.
Thus an important requirement of ac system is that all inter-
connected generators operate at the same frequency and
voltage.
Therefore, when electrical power systems were first
interconnected, It was important to standardize the frequency
to one value.
 Answer contd.
Electrical equipment are design to operate at that frequency.
If different equipment are designed for, or operated at the
different frequencies, it would be impossible to connect them
unless frequency converters are used.
In Nigeria, the standard operating frequency is 50 Hz.
Unit Commitment and Economic Load
Dispatch
Economic Dispatch

G
G G
G
G
G

G
G
G

❖With a given set of units running, how much of the power should be
generated at each to cover the load and losses? This is the question
of Economic dispatch.
❖The solution is for the current state of the network and does not
typically consider future time periods.
Deciding which units to “commit”
G
G G
G
G
G

G
G
G

❖When should the generating units (G) be run for most economic
operation?
Concern must be given to environmental effects
❖How does one define “economic operation”? Profit maximizing?
Cost minimizing? Depends on the market you’re in.
What is Unit Commitment?
❖We have a few generators (units)
❖Also we have some forecasted load
❖Besides the cost of running the units we have additional
costs and constraints
➢start-up cost
➢shut-down cost
➢spinning reserve
➢... and more
What is Unit Commitment?
❖It turns out that we cannot just flip the switch of certain
units on and use them!
❖We need to think ahead, and based on the forecasted load
and unit constraints, determine which units to turn on
(commit) and which ones to keep down
❖Minimize cost, cheap units play first
❖Expensive ones run only when demand is high
How Do We Solve the Problem?
❖If a unit is on, we designate this with 1 and respectively, the off unit is
0
❖So, somehow we decide that for the next hour we will have
"0 1 1 0 1" if we have five units
❖Based on that, we solve the economic dispatch problem for unit 2, 3
and 5
❖We start turning on U2, U3, U5
❖When the next hour comes, we have them up and running
To Come Up With Unit Commitment
❖The question is, _how_ do we come up with this unit
commitment
"0 1 1 0 1" ?
❖One very simplistic way: if we have very few units, go over
all combinations from hour to hour
❖For each combination at a given hour, solve the economic
dispatch
❖For each hour, pick the combination giving the lowest cost!