CELL:

The Fundamental Unit

of Life
 CELL WALL
❏ Plant cells, in addition to the plasma
membrane, have another rigid outer
covering called the cell wall.

❏ Cell wall is non-living & freely permeable

❏ and is secreted by the cell itself for the

protection of its plasma membrane and
cytoplasm.

❏ Cellulose provides structural support to

the plants.

❏ It determines the shape and rigidity of

the plant cell.
 Plasmolysis: When a living plant cell loses water
through osmosis there is shrinkage of the contents
of the cell away from the cell wall, it is known as
plasmolysis.

In such media the cells tend to

take up water by osmosis. The
cell swells, building up pressure
against the cell wall. The wall
exerts an equal pressure
against the swollen cell.
Because of their walls, such
cells can withstand much
greater changes in the
surrounding medium than
animal cells.

Cell walls permit the

cells of plants, fungi
and bacteria to
withstand very dilute
(hypotonic) external
media without
bursting.
According to their chemical
composition different regions of
cells get coloured differentially.
Some regions appear darker than
other regions. Apart from iodine
solution we could also use safranin
solution or methylene blue solution
to stain the cells.
 NUCLEUS
Nucleus is the controlling centre of all the activities
of the cell also called brain of cell.

It has a double layered covering known as nuclear

membrane.
Nucleoplasm- Liquid ground
substance. It contains nucleolus and Nuclear membrane has pores which allow the
chromatin material. transfer of material from inside the nucleus to the
cytoplasm.
Nucleolus is a more or less round
structure found inside the nucleus. It
does not have covering of membrane,
& is also known as factory of
ribosomes.
 There are chromosomes (rod shaped structures)
● DNA- most important component of present in the nucleus which contains genetic
chromosome. It is the material of genes. information.

● In an undivided cells: this DNA is present The chromosomes contains two types of things:
as part of chromatin material.
- DNA : organizes and constructs new cell
● Chromatin material is a thin, thread-like
- Proteins : helps in packaging and condensation of
intertwined mass of chromosome
DNA
material.
Functional segments of DNA are called genes.
● When cell is about to divide chromatin
material forms into chromosome.

● Thus, chromosome is formed of

chromatin material. Therefore,
chromosomes are organised &
chromatin is irregular.
● DNA- most important component of
chromosome. It is the material of genes.

● In an undivided cells: this DNA is present

as part of chromatin material.

● Chromatin material is a thin, thread-like

intertwined mass of chromosome
material.

● When cell is about to divide chromatin

material forms into chromosome.

● Thus, chromosome is formed of

chromatin material. Therefore,
chromosomes are organised &
chromatin is irregular.
 FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS

Nucleus controls all

metabolic activities of the
cell. If it is removed from a
cell, the protoplasm
ultimately dries up & dies.

It regulates the
cell cycle.
It is concerned with the
transmission of hereditary
traits from the parent to
offspring.
Cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma
membrane.

It contains several organelles that performs distinct

functions of the cell.

The significance of membranes

can be illustrated with the
example of viruses. Viruses lack
any membranes and hence do
not show characteristics of life
until they enter a living body
and use its cell machinery to
multiply.
 FUNCTIONS OF CYTOPLASM

It helps in the
exchange of
material between
cell organelles.

It acts as a
storehouse of vital
molecules such as
It acts as the site for amino acid, glucose,
certain metabolic vitamin, etc.
pathways such as
glycolysis, etc.
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

The structure of ER membrane is quite similar to

that of plasma membrane.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large

network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets.

It acts as a channel for the transport of

materials between the cytoplasm and the
nucleus or between the various regions of the
cytoplasm.
Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum (SER) Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum (RER)
It’s surface is smooth
due to the absence of
It contains ribosomal
ribosomes.
particles on its surfaces
due to which its surface
is rough.
The SER helps in the
manufacture of fat
The ribosomes are the
molecules, or lipids,
site of protein synthesis.
important for cell
function. Some of these
The manufactured
proteins and lipids help
proteins are then sent to
in building the cell
various places in the cell
membrane. This process
depending on need
is known as membrane
biogenesis.
Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum

● SER is responsible for the synthesis of essential

lipids such as phospholipids and cholesterol.

● SER is also responsible for the production and

secretion of steroid hormones and ENZYMES.

● The majority of the functions of RER is

associated with protein synthesis.

● ER provides a pathway for the distribution of

nuclear material from one cell to the other.

● Endoplasmic Reticulum supports the skeletal

framework of the cell.

● ER helps in transport of various substances

from nuclear membrane to plasma membrane
or vice versa.
 In the liver cells of the group of animals
called vertebrates, SER plays a crucial role
in detoxifying many poisons and drugs.
Camillo Golgi was born at Corteno near Brescia in 1843. He studied medicine at the University
of Pavia. After graduating in 1865, he continued to work in Pavia at the Hospital of St. Matteo.
At that time most of his investigations were concerned with the nervous system, In 1872 he
accepted the post of Chief Medical Officer at the Hospital for the Chronically Sick at
Abbiategrasso. He first started his investigations into the nervous system in a little kitchen of
this hospital, which he had converted into a laboratory. However, the work of greatest
importance, which Golgi carried out was a revolutionary method of staining individual nerve
and cell structures. This method is referred to as the ‘black reaction’. This method uses a
weak solution of silver nitrate and is particularly valuable in tracing the processes and most
delicate ramifications of cells. All through his life, he continued to work on these lines,
modifying and improving this technique. Golgi received the highest honours and awards in
recognition of his work. He shared the Nobel prize in 1906 with Santiago Ramon Y Cajal for
their work on the structure of the nervous system.
 GOLGI APPARATUS

● It contains a system of membrane bound vesicles

that are arranged parallel in stacks. These stacks
are called cisterns.

● The Golgi apparatus arises from the membrane of

the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Material synthesised near the Functions of Golgi Apparatus
ER is packaged and dispatched
to various targets inside and
outside the cell through the
Golgi apparatus

Storage, modification and

packaging of products in
vesicles

Complex sugars may be made

from simple sugars in the Golgi
apparatus

The Golgi apparatus is also

involved in the formation of
lysosomes
Material synthesised near the Functions of Golgi Apparatus
ER is packaged and dispatched
to various targets inside and
outside the cell through the
Golgi apparatus

Storage, modification and

packaging of products in
vesicles

Complex sugars may be made

from simple sugars in the Golgi
apparatus

The Golgi apparatus is also

involved in the formation of
lysosomes
 LYSOSOMES

● Each lysosome is a small vesicle surrounded by a

single membrane containing powerful enzymes.

● These enzymes are capable of digesting or breaking

down all organic materials. These enzymes are made
by RER.

● Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of the

cell. They are also known as the ‘suicide bags’ of a
cell.
HOW IS ENERGY PRODUCED IN ORGANISMS?
 MITOCHONDRIA

STRUCTURE

➔ Double membranous.
➔ Outer membrane- porous
➔ Inner membrane- folded.
The folds in inner membrane are called cristae.

Absent in bacteria and the red blood cells of mammals.

Why are they called as power house?

They convert O2 (from respiration) and food into

energy currency (ATP)

ATP (Adenosine triphosphate)

This energy is required by cell to carry out various

activities.

Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes

which enable them to make their own proteins.
 Functions of Mitochondria

● Mitochondria are sites

of cellular respiration.

● They also perform

protein formation

● They produce energy in

the form of ATP
(adenosine
triphosphate).
 PLASTIDS

Present only in plant cells.

Just like mitochondria, it is also double membraned

organelle and contains its own DNA and ribosome.

The internal structure of chloroplast contains

numerous membrane layers which are embedded in
a material called stroma.
 Chromoplasts impart colour to
flowers and fruits.

Leucoplasts are primarily organelles in which

materials such as starch, oils and protein granules
are stored.
 VACUOLES

● Storage sacs for solid or liquid contents.

● Are small sized in animal cells while plant cells

have very large vacuoles.

● The central vacuole of some plant cells may

occupy 50-90% of the cell volume.

● The vacuole is bounded by a membrane called

tonoplast.

Vacuole
 Functions of Vacuoles
● Vacuoles are full of cell
sap and provide turgidity
& rigidity to the cell.

● Storage in plant cells:

amino acids, sugars, etc.

● In single-celled
organisms like Amoeba,
the food items are stored
in food vacuoles.

● In some unicellular
organisms, specialised
vacuoles also play
important roles in
expelling excess water
and some wastes from
the cell.
CELL DIVISION
New cells are formed in organisms in order to grow,
to replace old, dead and injured cells, & to form gametes
required for reproduction.

The process by which new cells are made is

called cell division.

Two main types of cell division

Mitosis Meiosis
 The process of cell division by which
most of the cells divide for growth is
called mitosis.

In this process, each cell called mother

cell divides to form two identical
daughter cells.

The daughter cells have the same

number of chromosomes as mother cell.

It helps in growth and repair of tissues

in organisms.
Specific cells of reproductive organs
or tissues in animals & plants divide
to form gametes, which after
fertilisation give rise to offspring.

They divide by a different process

called meiosis which involves two
consecutive divisions.

When a cell divides by meiosis it

produces four new cells instead of
just two.

The new cells only have half the

number of chromosomes than that of
the mother cells.
 Where will you see meiosis?

A. Cheek cells

B. Sperm formation

C. Cells in eyes

D. Both A and C
NCERT QUESTIONS
1. Who discovered cells, and how?

Robert Hooke discovered cells. He observed the cells in

thin slices of cork. They appeared like small
compartments when viewed through the microscope.

2. Why is the cell called structural and functional unit of life?

A cell is capable of performing all life functions such as

nutrition, excretion, respiration, and so on. Thus, a cell
is referred to as the functional unit of life. Furthermore,
the cell is the smallest unit of life, and all living beings
are composed of cells. As a result, a cell is referred to
as the structural unit of life.
3. How do substances like CO2 and water move in and out of
the cell? Discuss.

Substances move in and out of the cell because of

diffusion.

If the concentration level of CO2 and water is higher in

an external environment than that inside the cell,
water and CO2 move inside and in case if their
concentration level is low, they move outside.

4. Why is the plasma membrane called a selectively

permeable membrane?

It allows only selective molecules to pass through it.

Plasma membrane is an external covering of the cell. It
separates the contents of the cell from the external
surroundings.
5. Can you name the two organelles we have studied that
contain their own genetic material?

Both mitochondria and plastid possess their own

genetic material and ribosomes.

6. If the organisation of a cell is destroyed due to some

physical or chemical influence, what will happen?

The cell will not be able to perform the basic functions

like respiration, nutrition, excretion etc.

This may stop all the life activities and may result in its
death.
7. Why are lysosomes known as suicide bags?

Lysosomes are known as suicide bags of cell because

it contains digestive enzymes.

When lysosomes burst, the digestive enzymes released

start digesting its own cells.

8. Where are proteins synthesized inside the cell?

Proteins are synthesized in ribosome.

Animal Cell Plant Cell