GIGABIT WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS USING MM-WAVE CIRCUITS

ABSTRACT
Gigabit wireless communications using millimeter-wave (mmWave) circuits represent a
promising avenue for unlocking unprecedented data speeds within fifth-generation (5G)
networks. The utilization of mmWave frequency bands offers the potential for multi-gigabit
per second (Gbps) transmission rates, revolutionizing wireless connectivity. However, the
adoption of mmWave technology poses significant challenges, including high path loss,
susceptibility to obstruction, and limited beam width inherent to high-frequency signals. This
study investigates the feasibility and implications of leveraging mmWave circuits for gigabit
wireless communications. Through a comprehensive examination of the technological
landscape, including channel modeling and performance analysis, the research addresses key
challenges and opportunities associated with mmWave communication in 5G networks. The
analysis encompasses critical parameters such as Power-Delay-Profiles (PDPs), Path Losses
(PL), Shadow Fading (SF), and Path Loss Exponents (PLE), elucidating the intricate
dynamics of mmWave channels. Furthermore, the study explores innovative approaches to
mitigate the challenges posed by mmWave communications, including beamforming
techniques and advanced antenna designs. By optimizing directional transmission and
overcoming obstacles such as path loss and signal attenuation, the research demonstrates the
potential for realizing gigabit wireless communications in real-world scenarios. Addressing
technical challenges and capitalizing on emerging opportunities, mmWave technology
promises to reshape the future of wireless connectivity, unlocking unprecedented data speeds
and driving innovation across various industries.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background

The ever-growing demand for high-speed wireless data transfer is pushing the boundaries of
communication technology. Traditional radio frequency (RF) technologies are reaching their
capacity limits, especially in congested urban environments. This has led to the exploration of
millimeter-wave (mmWave) frequencies (30-300 GHz) as a promising solution for achieving
gigabit wireless communication.

mmWave offers several advantages over conventional RF bands. mmWave spectrum boasts
significantly larger bandwidths compared to lower frequencies, allowing for higher data
transmission rates. The wider bandwidth translates to the potential for gigabit data transfer
rates, supporting applications like high-definition video streaming, virtual reality, and real-
time cloud access. The shorter wavelengths of mmWaves enable the development of highly
directional antennas, reducing interference and improving network capacity.

However, mmWave technology also presents challenges. mmWave signals are more
susceptible to path loss and atmospheric attenuation, limiting range and requiring line-of-sight
communication. Designing high-performance circuits at mmWave frequencies is challenging
due to increased power losses and higher sensitivity to fabrication imperfections. In
comparison to semi omnidirectional and sectored microwave signals, the directional
mmWave channels support a broader range of channel conditions. Realistic channel modells
for millimeter wave is critical for fifth-Generation and beyond the design and analysis of
mobile communication networks. Numerous novel applications such as remote cognition,
imaging, and precise positioning will be allowed by using mmWave and sub-Terahertz
technology (Ju et al., 2019).

In addition to that, given the high carrier frequencies, mmWave connectivity faces a major
propagation loss. In this thesis, we are going to study and analyze the behaviors and
capabilities of the mmWave frequency spectrum in consideration with the atmospheric
impairments like rain, humidity, temperature and etc. We will analyze the wireless channel
propagation schemes that affect the fulfilment of networks in time-delays, Shadow Fading
(SF) receiving power, Path-Loss (PL) and Path-Loss Exponent (PLE).
1.2 Problem Statement

Despite the tremendous potential of mmWave technology for achieving gigabit wireless
communication, several roadblocks hinder its full implementation. The key problem lies in
bridging the gap between the theoretical promise of mmWave and the practical challenges of
circuit design and signal propagation. Additionally, mmWave communications are susceptible
to interference from artefacts such as individuals, buildings, and many others due to their low
diffraction capacity. In this thesis, we will address the cellular channel transmission
characteristics which influence the performance of the system.

This research aims to address the challenges associated with developing mmWave circuits for
gigabit wireless communication systems.

1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study

The main aim of this research is to investigate and develop novel mmWave circuit design
techniques that enable the realization of high-speed and reliable gigabit wireless
communication systems.

The specific objectives of this study are:

 To analyze the propagation characteristics of mmWave signals and their impact on

system performance.
 To explore novel materials and fabrication processes suitable for mmWave circuit
development.
 To design and simulate complete mmWave transceiver circuits capable of achieving
gigabit data rates.
 To evaluate the performance of the designed circuits through simulations and
potentially through fabrication and testing (depending on resource availability).

1.4 Scope of the Study

This research will focus on the development of mmWave circuits for short-range, high-data-
rate wireless communication applications. The study will primarily focus on theoretical
analysis, circuit design simulations, and potential hardware prototyping (subject to resource
constraints). Standards and protocols related to mmWave communication will be considered
for compatibility purposes.

1.5 Significance of the Study

The successful development of mmWave circuits for gigabit wireless communication can
have a significant impact on various domains:
  Next-Generation Wireless Networks (5G and Beyond): This research can
contribute to the advancement of 5G and future wireless network deployments,
enabling ultra-fast data transfer and supporting emerging technologies like the Internet
of Things (IoT) and autonomous vehicles.
 Improved Wireless Connectivity: mmWave-based gigabit communication can
revolutionize wireless broadband access, providing high-speed internet connectivity in
urban and rural areas.
 Enhanced Mobile Broadband Experience: Users can experience seamless streaming
of high-definition content, faster downloads and uploads, and improved
responsiveness in latency-sensitive applications.
 Technological Innovation: This research can pave the way for the development of
novel mmWave applications and advancements in other related fields like radar and
imaging systems.

1.6 Organizations of the thesis

This thesis includes of these chapters

 The first is introduction to the thesis, and it consists of several sections, including
the overview of the study, problem statements, and objective of the project,
research questions, and lastly, the organizations of the study.

 Chapter two studies the literatures available on the evolutions of the arising smart
Internet of Things applications and cellular network systems. The enhancement of
mobile communications nowadays will also be mentioned, and we will also
overview the current trends and requirements of cellular systems. The significance
of millimeter waves as an empowering technology is briefly discussed as well.

 Chapter 3 contains the methods for implementing mmWave channels and system
designs. The attempts and challenges associated with modelling mmWave channels
are discussed, accompanied by an introduction to the system design considerations,
models, and scenarios that will be used in this study.

 Chapter 4 show our simulation results in the different frequency bands for the 5G
urban dense network in various scenarios.

 Lastly, in chapter 5, we will establish our conclusions depending on the previous

chapter findings and provide proposals for future work.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, we are going to discuss the topics related to the enabling technologies for 5G
and the related ideas of our thesis.

2.1 Wireless channel Modelling

2.1.1 Deterministic modelling

To conduct deterministic channels modelling, we require a comprehensive characterization of the
surroundings, such as the locations of nearby things the substances utilized, the characteristics of
the reflective surfaces and the transmitters and receiver's precise locations.
Various methods to modeling the channels in a deterministic manner may be distinguished,
most notably Ray-tracing approaches, recovered impulses response and numerical analytical
strategies such as the FDTD (Finite-Difference-Time-Domain).

Such mathematical models are accomplished via the solution of Maxwell equation , which
serve as the basic instrument and basis for all electro-magnetic studies FDTD observations
demonstrated a higher degree of precision because they calculate the temporal variations of
the electromagnetic fields throughout each location of the surroundings while considering
each of the materials and geometrical characteristics. Nonetheless, this technique is
extremely time and complexity intensive.

The recovered responses are derived from channels testing, the simplest method of displaying
wireless networks. Every channel estimation data gathered in the research can be considered as
this type of channels modeling. Radiation retracing methods are frequently recorded as channels
impulses responses obtained from Maxwell's deterministic interpretation of formulas or other
approximations depending on the geographic and architectural characteristics of various mobile
scenarios. Ray-Trace modeling are used to aid in the time consuming and expensive process of
determining the channel's propagating characteristics scope and effectiveness. Ray-tracing has
become a popular method for researchers since it enables them to simulate wireless-channels
having a low computing cost.

2.1.2 Stochastic channel modeling

Numerous studies are being conducted to create new mathematical methods for Mm-wave
channel, given traditional channel models such as Rayleigh and Rician are really no longer
relevant. The very primary explanation seems since such methods are more suitable for
limited devices, while Mmwave systems have bandwidths of up to fifty GHz. The other
problem seems as such methods overlook the Mm-wave channel's significant dispersion loss
and molecule absorbance.

Numerous studies has being conducted with the objective of defining the multipath elements
the dispersed rays from sharp edges, by estimating statistic distribution for their amplitude
and frequency, phases.

Comprehensive ray-tracing simulation was performed using 220 distinct receivers locations at
300 GHz in an interior office environment. Surprisingly, the received power from dispersed
beams of the identical reflections is limited to a single region (Sun et al., 2018). Those
regions relate with a band of azimuthal angle for which multi-path elements exhibit
comparable or identical multi-path properties (delay, phase, direction). Those regions are
produced when dispersed rays within the identical incident-wave collide alongside each other
over a curved medium.

The purpose of classifying every Non - los pathway into a region is to emphasize the
importance of dispersed signals from rougher surface to multipath elements. The reflecting
parabolic beam is perhaps larger significant as the dispersed beams for every region (have the
most high-power).

2.1.3 Combined model

For the channels modelling process, the Base-station (BS) and user-equipment (UE) should
usually be plotted on a chart before anything further can be done. It is determined how much
path-loss (PL) and shadow is present on a map-by-map base, and randomized shadow
particles are produced using the modelling technique used for ray-tracing.

The stochastic procedure then goes on to solve the remaining problems. It is well recognized
in mm-wave modeling that mixed simulations takes use of the benefits of both stochastic and
deterministic approaches at the same time. In the mm-Magic technique, the current
QuaDRiGa channels modelling is expanded via the use of the previously estimated in
simulation, which is based upon by channels strategy (Sun et al., 2018).

2.2 Millimeter-Wave Propagations

The frequencies range from 30 to 300 GHz, having wave lengths between 10 to 1 mm, is
known as the extremely-high frequencies (EHFs) band by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU). It is also referred to as millimeter-wave. Nevertheless,
owing to this same comparable propagations model of the superhigh frequencies (SHF)
spectrums beginning 3GHz to 30GHz or centimeter-waves, and particularly in the sense of
5G, the SHF spectrum ranging from (3-30) GHz or centimeter waves has also been referred
to as millimeter waves. As a result, the term millimeter wave is usually used to refer to
frequency ranges ranging from 3 to 300 GHz.

Some applications in the millimeter-wave range, including as satellite communications,

radars, and point-to-point communication, have previously made use of this spectrum, but
wireless cellular networks have just lately begun to take use of it. Since mm-Waves have
weak propagation properties, they have had limited penetration through structures and
barriers, have had significant atmospheric absorption, and have been very sensitive to
blocking, the mmWave spectrum has largely been underutilized.

While mmWave frequencies suffer from significant path loss and shadowing effects, they
continue to be very desirable for the forthcoming mobile networks. Figure 2.1 shows the
mmWave spectrum ranges (Pi & Khan, 2011).

Figure 2.1: mmWave Spectrums

Mmwave frequencies is split and designated under various band depending on how they are
used and what wavelengths are used in those frequencies. Mmwave frequency allocation
should consider the distribution properties of radio-transmissions in this frequency range
Although transmissions at lower frequencies may travel for kilometers and readily pass into
structures, mmwave transmissions have a range of just a few kilometers fewer and do not
pass solid objects effectively.

Nevertheless, such millimeter-wave propagations properties may never always unfavorable.

Millimeter-waves provide greater tightly compacted communication connections, resulting in
extremely effective frequency use, as well as increased communication safety. Table 2.1 shows
these categorization of band ranges (Marcus & Pattan, 2005).
 Table 2. 1: mmWave Band ranges and wavelengths

Description Ranges Wavelengths

Q-Band 30 GHz to 50 GHz 10 to 6 mm
U-Band 40 GHz to 60 GHz 7.5 to 5 mm
V-Band 50 GHz to 75 GHz 6 to 4 mm
E-Band 60 GHz to 90 GHz 5 to 3.33 mm
W-Band 75 GHz to 110 GHz 4 to 2.73 mm

2.2.1 Millimeter Wave Propagation Loss Factors

Various Factors affect the mmWave propagations. MmWave propagation losses happen
whenever oxygen, water-vapor, and other gas elements capture mm Waves. There are some
bands where such effects seem to be higher than others, and those bands coincide with the
fundamental resonance frequency of the gaseous particles. Rain additionally has an effect on
mmWave propagations. Water droplets are approximately the same magnitude of radio-
wavelengths and therefore disperse the radio waves. Foliage loss is considerable at mmWave
frequency ranges. Indeed, in certain instances, leaf loss could be a major bottleneck in
propagations. Millimeter-wave frequency ranges are similarly susceptible to penetrating loss,
and in contrast to lower frequencies, the mm-wave rarely penetrate most solid objects,
including buildings, door, and rooms.

2.3 Millimeter-Wave channel modelling problems

Several channels model have being generated and presented. Furthermore, given the mm-
wave application cases, particularly for 5G, the massive bandwidths, and the mm-wave
character, those frameworks could rarely capture all of the mm-wave features. The primary
objective is to create a one-channel paradigm that can be utilized through the whole mm-
wave band by simply changing the variables in relation to the frequency band, situation
application, or location being used.

The primary constraints of presently established channel conditions are briefly discussed,
including the absence of measurement methods, the accessibility of enormous bandwidths, a
double accessibility instances, directional-antennas, as well as the use of tremendous arrays,
which are all significant constraints for millimeter wave channel modelling work (Hemadeh
et al., 2018).

While numerous measuring efforts at milliemeter-waves were conducted, the broad spectrum
of millimeter-waves requires more investigation. The earlier designs had been established for
sub 6 GHz limited band, where the enormous capacity of mm-wave presents certain
constraints.

Due to the fact, since these devices are shifting during device to device (D2D)
communication, a greater Doppler dispersion is anticipated, that has significant effect also for
channel. For mm-Waves, the use of directional-antennas in conjunction of large array or
MIMO may reduce the increased Doppler dispersion and loss, and this must be accounted for
in the channel estimation (Rappaport et al., 2017).
 CHAPTER 3

MMWAVE CHANNEL MODELLING AND SYSTEM DESIGN

In this chapter, we are going to address the details of gigabit wireless communications using
mm-wave circuits. The mmWave communications usually have significantly less than the
sub6 GHz band's range because its wavelength is considerably shorter.

As a result, designing wireless communication systems requires precise and dependable

analysis of mmWave-channel propagation properties. Accepting the wireless transmission
channel is critical for developing the forthcoming wireless development. To understand
wireless signals in densely suburban mmWave mobile media, comprehensive experiments in
practical channels are needed to describe those frequencies for potential wireless and
backhaul networks in indoor and outdoor conditions.

However, the NloS path loss characteristic is unknown, resulting in additional analysis and
experiments. To characterize radio propagation in general, propagation factors such as path
loss, frequency dependent material losses, propagation mechanism (reflections, diffractions
and scattering), delay spread, the effects of rain, foliage losses, atmospheric, and many
attenuation losses have been used.

The above parameters should be determined primarily across the analysis of measured data
collected from multiple channel measurement projects performed in various environments.

3.1 Study Flowchart

The implementation of this project is only going to be software simulations. The
approaches to design this project is shown in figure 3.1. This figure shows the steps that
this work is going to be done from the start to the end, and it helps us find a way to take
till the end of this project.
Figure 3.1: Study Flow chart
3.2 Free-space losses, attenuation and other losses
3.2.1 Free-space losses
The free-space path loss (FSPL) is the ratios of the attenuation of signals intensity between
two isotropic antennas in free-space (Nossire et al., 2018). That is, the difference in gain
among two isotropic antennas which are not influenced by the Earth is referred to as the FSL
and can be calculated as following. Let us say G = 1 (i.e., 0 dB, which means no loss or gain)
and = / Then the power ratio between the input transmitting antenna and sink antennas can
be calculated as (Uwaechia & Mahyuddin, 2020):
4 2 4 2 4 2

=( ) =( ) =( )
2 2
+ + (1)

Where c is the speed of light in a vacuum ( 3 × 108 −1) while also f is he frequency carrier. On the other hand converting the above equation in to decibel gives us (ITU, 2015):

4 2
10log ( ) = 10log [( )+
2
+
2
] dB (2)

So, the FSL between the input and sink antenna gives
= 10log ( ) dB

4
= 20log ( ) + 20log [ ] + 20log [ ]

= 20log(4 ) − 20log(3 × 108) + 20log [ ]

−20log 103 + 20log [ ] − 20log 109

=
92.4 + 20 log [ ] + 20 log [ ] . (3)

3.2.2 Rain, Foliage and atmospheric induced attenuations

When interacting with cellular technology signals beyond the operational frequencies of 10
GHz, rain attenuations is typically the most significant propagation weakness. The
explanation for this is because the scale of rain-drops is roughly equivalent to radio
wavelength at mmWave frequency ranges resulting in a signal scattering effects.
Consequently, mmWave transmissions are more prone than sub-6 GHz signals of longer
wavelengths to be blocked by rain-drops. The rain induced attenuations A (dBs)

0.01%[dB] = [dB/km] eff[km] = [dB/km] [km] 0.01%

(4)
Where stands for the specific attenuations determined in dB/km, eff is the propagation's path length in kilometer. eff{km} = [km] 0.01%, and d is the path-length propagation
distance

and =
1
is the distance-factor, for this occasion, = 35 −0.015
when
0.01% 0 0.01%

1+ / 0

0.01% ≤ 100 /ℎ . After that the attenuation can be derived as follows

= −
(5)
 [ / ] 0.01%

α and k are regression constants obtained as function of frequencies and the polarization
types.

On the other hand, during good conditions, that is, when there is no concentrated water in the
way of fog or rain, the main influence influencing radio wave transmission is attenuations due
to natural gas. The atmosphere's nitrogen structure, viewed as a mixture of various elements,
is largely indicated by the size of molecular oxygen and nitrogen's on a regular basis.
Although water vapors are slight gaseous elements, their existence has a significant effect on
the transmission of electromagnetic emission (Siles et al., 2015). The foundation of
attenuations due to gas are based on the theory of molecular-radiation interactions that are
referred to as absorption mechanisms.

Moreover, another imminent attenuation is the foliage-induced attenuation (Rahim et al.,

2017). Getting the mm - wave mobile systems to a large number of people would be
challenging related to the significant signal attenuation caused by foliage. Differences in
foliage attenuations can be seen between locations in the tropics and those in the temperate
zone. Plants in the tropics are wide while those in the mild zones are usually needle like.
Foliage attenuations are expected to be greater in tropical regions where foliage is comparable
to or larger than the wavelengths and the humidity situation.

Foliage induced attenuations predicted by the ITU-R standards in situations of foliage depths under 400 meters, [ ] is calculated as:
 + 0.6
0.3
= 0.2 , < 400 (6)
[ ] [ ] [ ]

For D < 400 m, f means frequency in MHz, and D means foliage depth in meters. This
describes specific, meaning (6) is possible for a range of frequencies from 200 MHz and
around 95 GHz. When looking at the 12-meter penetration at 38 GHz, the foliage-induced
attenuation adds a further 21 dB of attenuation. For this purpose, the word loss due to foliage
cannot be ignored(Marcus & Pattan, 2005).

Other losses include material penetration loss(Zhao et al., 2013). Penetration failure at
mmWave frequency ranges will represent a major difficulty for frequency ranges above sub
6GHz. In the meantime, the loss rate of penetrations depend more on the medium and
increases with an increased mm - wave frequency range(Ryan et al., 2017).

3.3 Radio-channel propagation mechanisms

The primary processes of NLOS propagation are usually due to reflection, refraction, and
spreading. In general, for the non-line-of-sight route between the source and destination,
signals may still spread to the recipient via reflections from nearby surfaces, bendings, or
diffractions (Abdulrasool et al., 2017). When the obstructing target is larger than the size of
the radio wave, diffractions and scattering occur. Therefore, mmWave signals with small
wavelength become quite susceptible to fading and reflections, due to the poor scattering of
the very low frequency. Different mm - wave propagation measurement activities have been
undertaken to investigate the propagation processes at various mm-Wave frequency ranges
(Hao Xu et al., 2002), (Zhao et al., 2013), and (Janaswamy, 2006). A research in (Hao Xu et
al., 2002) discovered how the reflecting multipath spectrum is closely associated with the
propagation condition throughout the 60 GHz range. Another study in (Janaswamy, 2006)
provided multidirectional approaches at 83.5 GHz primarily for indoor settings, based on
3000 observations in LOS and NLOS environments towards a distance of 160 m.
Nevertheless, in (Janaswamy, 2006), no clear path was identified due to high penetrating
failure, whereas the diffracted routes found had a transmitting power of 11-23 dB less than
the reflected routes.

Generally, parameters like path loss, delay-spreads, shadow fading, and angular distribution are
used to describe wireless propagations. This is accomplished mainly through examining the
FSPL, rain induced attenuations, atmospheric attenuations, foliage-induced attenuations, material
penetration failure, and wireless channel transmission processes information gathered during
multiple channel evaluation projects in a variety of conditions The following sections detail
these criteria.

3.3.1 Path losses and shadow fading

Path loss, represented in decibels (dB), is a term that refers to the depletion of the power
intensity of any transmitting electromagnetic radiation as it travels across spaces [134].
Moreover, shadow-fading arises primarily in NLOS situations caused by barriers, allowing
for substantial signal attenuation (Nourkhiz Mahjoub et al., 2019).

3.3.2 Power Delay Profiles and delay spread

The power delay profiles (PDPs) describe the statistical power transmission of a received
power due to propagation delays across multipath channels, whereas the delay distribution
provides the gap in propagation period among the widest and shortest paths for a huge
amount of energy. Hence, PDPs and delay spreads are both critical variables in describing
mm-wave radio propagations.

3.4 Antenna properties and MIMO Transmission

3.4.1 Antenna Properties
The antennas can experience interferences from signals travelling in directions other than the
primary gain path. The below methods are several probabilistic methods to designing one's
specific antenna design centred on a given Half-Power Beamwidth (HPBW), with all
antennas benefits defined in terms of an isotropic antenna. The antenna patterns have the
following form:

− 2− 2
( , ) =( , 0
)

(7)
0
100

4ln(2) 4ln(2) 41253

= , = , =
2 2

3 3 3 3

Where (θ and ) represent azimuthal and elevational angle deviation from the boresight
position in degree, G0 represents the peak boresight-gain in linear units, (Ɵ3dB; ϕ3dB)
represents azimuthal and elevational HPBWs in degrees, (α; β) denotes variables that rely
on the HPBW amounts, and ŋ = 0.7 denotes a standard typical antenna efficiencies.

The radiation-patterns of sectored cell-site antennas, such as the azimuthal radiation-

pattern, is described in the following as a cardioid (Rappaport & Brickhouse, 1999).
 ( ) = [1 + sin( + )] (8)
2

Where r stands for the antenna gain at azimuthal angle from antenna's maximum lobe.

The elevational-pattern of cell-site antennas are modelled using an ellipse with the base
station as the focal point (Rappaport & Brickhouse, 1999). The basic formula for an ellipse
with its origin at its centre is as follows:-

2 2

+ =1 (9)
2 2

By selecting proper values for a and b, you may replicate typical directional-antenna radiation
patterns.
3.4.2 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) Transmissions
A fundamental technical enabler for fifth-generation (5G) mmWave cellular mobile
communications is MIMO spatial-multiplexing and beamforming. Spatial-multiplexing needs
appropriately spaced and incoherent array antenna elements, whereas beamforming needs
coherence and precisely spaced array antenna elements. MIMO Antenna arrays have been
implemented, and expected to get utilized to boost maximum data rate in conjunction with
beamforming for low Signal to Noise Ratios (SNRs) circumstances such as tower boundary
clients. Beamforming techniques suited for millimeter waves may be generally characterized
as analog, hybrid analog-digital, or lower resolution digital, which all have unique
consequences for deployments in mm-wave MIMO channel models. For example, analog
beamforming involves analogue phase-shifters that are flexibly altered to modify the phase of
antenna components, raising the signal gain to compensate for pathway losses in both LOS
and (NLOS) millimeter wave transmission (Lota et al., 2017).
Multi - antenna elements are required for Mm - wave transmissions to accommodate for such
increased route failures caused by mm-Wave's greater degradation during first metre of
transmission according to Friis laws (Sun et al., 2016).
Creating an extremely directional antenna with narrow beam widths that can be steered across
a wider angle band for the AoA at the receivers (Rx) side will assure a better gain. Such
adaptable beamforming needs various components with excellent coherence, as well as beam
steering, which needs co-polarized antenna arrays that are generally positioned near together
at /2, where is the carrier's frequency. Furthermore, MIMO propagation needs spatial-
multiplexing, which is accomplished through distinct spatial pathways of parallel
propagations.
This imposes the contrarian need of guaranteeing that no coherence exists among antenna
elements broadcasting parallel data streams concurrently, i.e. antenna components that have
either been cross-polarized, orthogonal in spatial beam patterns or are comparatively
separated so far apart (Sun et al., 2014).

The multi-carrier propagation addressed is orthogonal frequency division multiplexing

(OFDM), which adds towards the MIMO channel parameters for an OFDM sub-carrier of
every retrievable multipath element. For example, the channel coefficients for Tx and Rx are
as follows (Mantoro et al., 2017).

ℎ ( )=∑ Φ − 2

, ,
, , , ,

− 2 sin( , , ) (10)
− 2 sin( , , )

ℎ
Where ℎ ( ) represents the MIMO channel coefficients among the transmitting

antenna and the ℎ

receiving for subcarrier frequency . indicates the ℎ
retrievable
multipath element., stands for the gain's amplitude, Φ represents the multipath
component's phase, is the delay time, and denote the antenna array positioning at the Tx-
Rx, respectively, and and indicate the Azimuth Angle of Arrival and Angle of departure,
respectively.

3.5 mmWave Channel Modelling Efforts

Numerous large institutions have participated in the development of mmWave channels for
5G and for different conditions such as LOS and NLOS and numerous frequencies (Uwaechia
& Mahyuddin, 2020). These projects or institutions include i) COST 2100 channel model (Liu
et al., 2012), ii) MiWEBA (Weiler et al., 2016) iii) QuaDRiGa (Jaeckel et al., 2014), iv)
METIS (Carton et al., 2016) v) International Mobile Telecommunications-2020 (IMT-2020)
channel model, vi) 3GPP-mmWave channel models (TR) 38.901, and various other projects.
Additionally, we see many comparable channel and modeling methods in different current
model relying on the relevant material, since they are developed concurrently and individuals
in one program frequently contribute actively to another. For example, the mmMagic project's
members regularly assist in 3GPP and IMT 2020 compliance. Each version, on the other
hand, is distinct and brought originality. The requirement / expectations for the info actually
available on higher frequencies channels may be found in the 3GPP-NR document titled
"Assessment of the frequency band modeling over 6 GHz".

We will quickly discuss a few of those of the most often cited standard patterns for the
millimeter wave medium.

3.5.1 METIS
METIS channel models absorb the spirit of famous channel models, such as Winner model
Families. Models are developed via a thorough review of the literature, analysis of huge
amounts of real measurement data, and ray tracing simulations. The models developed for 5G
scenarios include both massive MIMO and mmWave capabilities. Additionally, METIS
categorizes overall modeling methods as map, stochastic, or hybrid models. This is very
instructive for future channel ideas. The user must decide whether to utilize several models to
simulate the desired propagation scenario techniques. The model used will be determined by
the frequency spectrum, accuracy, complexity, and duration of the calculation (which relies
mostly on the simulated system like the number of BSs and UEs).

3.5.2 Third Generation Partnership Project

This 3GPP model is standard model that take into account the architectural techniques
developed after the WINNER series versions originally created. This is a system level
channels model which incorporates everything for a channel's capability along for all of its
related large scale and small scale characteristics.

This channels prototyping calibrated analysis is formulated in order to offer a clear path for
commercial and scientific organizations interested in implementing 3GPP channel
simulations. It incorporates the time cluster lag timeline (TDL/CDL) paradigm to facilitate the
evaluation of connectivity levels. 3GPP-NR is often abbreviated 3GPP-NR to refer to the
more current advancements that enable channels greater than 6 GHz.
3.5.3 MM-MAGIC
The mm-MAGIC channel-model is a stochastic geometric modeling scheme that augments
the standard simulated systems with additional capabilities to increase its accuracy and usage
possibilities. Surface reflections and obstructing effects, construction penetrating losses,
broad bandwidth coverage, huge array antennas, and spatial stability are all features of the
concept. Over twenty channel evaluations were taken in a variety of settings, notably UMi
urban canyons and UMi openness.

The frequency range spans the range below the 6 GHz-100 GHz, and includes the outdoors,
workplace, airline registration areas, and interior environment. Various experiments have
been conducted to evaluate the reflective and diffused dispersions, the impact of material
reflections obstruction, and frequency dependent channel properties. Specifically, the
blockage concept relying on the METIS functions is created and verified in real-world data
using the Kirchhoff's diffraction formulas. The technique for spatial precision modeling
started by the 3GPP was evaluated.

CHAPTER 4
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

In this section, we are going to make a comparison and analysis of mm-wave channels in
terms of path-loss, shadow fading and power delay profiles by simulating two frequencies
that are in the range of mm-wave frequency bands to see the performance of each of these in
dense-urban conditions.

MATLAB based NYUSIM simulator is used to investigate and analyze these frequency
bands. The software can perform Monte Carlo simulation results providing number of
samples of channel impulse response (CIR) for specific Transmitter and receiver distance.

4.1 Simulation settings and Wireless channel parameters

To investigate and analyze the performance of mm-wave channels, different settings have
been used for the wireless channel in both LoS and NLoS conditions. These settings mainly
consist of antenna configurations and channel properties.
4.1.1 Channel and Antenna Properties.
We have selected MIMO array configurations with 16×4 and 8×2 Uniform Linear Arrays
(ULAs) for UMi and UMa scenarios in both of our scenarios, respectively. These array
elements are 0.5λ spaced. The base station antenna has an azimuthal Half Power Beam Width
(HPBW) angle of 15° for the UMa scenario and 10° for the UMi indoor scenario, and 10° of
the elevation HPBW angle. For the receiver Rx or the mobile station, both the azimuth and
the elevation HPBW angles are 10°.

On the other hand, 800 MHz channel bandwidth is selected for all scenarios and frequencies
to provide the best results in both Los and NLoS conditions. The Base Station (BS) and the
Mobile Station (MS) antennas have a height of 30 and 1.5 meters, respectively, in the UMa
scenario.

For the UMi condition in the indoor environments, the BS antenna has a height of 10 m and 1.5m
for the MS, which is the same as the UMa scenario. These antennas (Tx and Rx) are separated
with a distance range from 10-500 m, and the power for the transmitting antenna is 30 dBm.

Table 4.1: mmWave system parameters.

 Parameters Descriptions
UMi conditions UMa condition

Frequencies 38 GHz and 73.5 GHz 6GHz

Bandwidth 800 MHz 800 MHz

Heights of Base stations 10 m 30 m
Temperatures 21°C
Tx/Rx separation 10-500m 10-150
Foliage attenuation No Foliage 0.4 dB/m x 10 m
Foliage space ------ 10 m
Tx Power 30dBm
Modulation Type OFDM
Antenna Properties Descriptions

Tx Array type, Nt ULA, 16 ULA,16

Rx Array type, Nr ULA, 4 ULA, 4
Environments LOS/NLOS LOS/NLOS
Tx Antenna Spacing 0.5λ
Rx Antenna Spacing 0.5λ

In addition to that, the atmospheric impairment parameters in Nicosia and foliage losses has
been taken into account; 1014 mbar, 50% and 21°C are taken for the biometric pressure,
humidity level and temperature, respectively. For the foliage attenuation, we have accounted
that foliage exists within a distance of 10 meters, considering an attenuation of 0.4 dB/m. The
summary of these parameters is given in table 1.
4.2 Simulation Results
This section will analyze the simulated results based on three frequencies within the sub-
mmWave and mmWave frequency ranges. These frequencies are 6 GHz, 38 GHz and 73.5
GHz. As we have mentioned in the previous section, we will look for two scenarios: UMa and
UMi.

For the UMa, we will see the performance of the mmWave frequencies in outdoor
environments where we simulated both LoS and NLoS conditions with a range of up to 500
m. For the UMi Scenario, this study aims to see the performance of these frequencies in
indoor environments where there are lots of populations and obstacles. Omnidirectional
PDPs, Directional PDPs and Path losses will be discussed for this study.
4.2.1 6GHz mmWave for Urban Macrocell Environment
For the dense UMa condition, we have simulated ten different Tx and Rx combinations
selected randomly for the UMa Scenario. At first, when we come to LoS condition where
there is no obstacle or reflectors/refractors like buildings, cars or any other materials. Figure
4.1 a) shows the Directional PDP with the strongest power for 27.2 m separation between the
transmitting base station and the mobile station.
The simulations show that the delay-spread ( ) of 4.2 ns and a path loss exponent (PLE) of
2.5. In terms of the signal strength, the received power is -6.2 dBm, where the path loss (PL)
for the same Rx gives a value of 83.7 dB, which means the RSSI level of this Rx location is
outstanding. Nonetheless, Figure 4.1 b) shows the omnidirectional PDPs for the same Tx and
Rx combination.
 (a)

(b)

Figure 4.1 (a) and (b): UMa LoS Directional/Omnidirectional Power delay profiles (PDPs)
for 6 GHz.
 Figure 4.2: UMa LoS Omnidirectional and Directional Path Losses for 6 GHz.
Figure 4.2 shows The path losses for the randomly selected 10 Rx locations for the LoS
condition. We see that the path losses increase as the distance between the Tx and the Rx
increases. Shadow Fading (SF) Factor, which plays a significant role in the wireless channel,
is shown in this figure, σ In both directional and omnidirectional are 11.1 dB and 2.4 dB,
respectively. The best directional σ in LoS among the 10 Rx locations is 3.2 dB. On the other
hand, the figure shows the Path Loss Exponent (PLE) for the 6 GHz LoS UMa scenario in
omnidirectional and directional settings. The best directional PLE (η) among all 10 Rx
locations is 2.3. For the UMa NLoS condition, we have also simulated ten random Rx
locations for the same antenna and channel settings as for the LoS condition. In conclusion,
Figure 4.3 shows the results obtained for the NLoS condition.

We see an increase in path losses, shadow fading, PLE for both directional and
omnidirectional compared to those of the LoS condition. The main reason is that for the LoS,
there is a clear sight between the BS and the MS. But for the NLoS, the MS may not have a
clear sight of the BS.
 Figure 4.3: UMa NLoS Omnidirectional and Directional Path Loss for 6 GHz.

4.2.2. 38 and 73.5 GHz mmWave for Dense Urban Microcell Environment
This section will analyze the simulation we have simulated for an indoor dense UMi
environment with many populations and obstacles. There are many differences between the
previous LoS/NLoS UMa environment, and these include the BS height where we have
reduced to 10 m; also, the distance between the Tx and Rx is now 10-150 while previously it
was 10-500 m. In addition to that, there will be no consideration for foliage since the indoor
environment rarely includes trees. The channel bandwidth is the same as for the previous
condition.

I. 38 GHz mmWave for UMi Conditions

First, when we look at the results of the 38GHz frequency band. The results show that the
mmWave frequencies can play a significant position in the developments of 5G. Figure 4.4
(a) and (b) show the UMi LoS environment directional and omnidirectional PDPs for the
38 GHz mmWave band. Since the environment is indoors, the directional PDP for PLE is
3.9 for 28 m Tx-Rx separation with a delay spread of 5.5 ns. We also see that the received
power of this Rx is -41.4 dBm, and the Path Loss (PL) for this Rx is 120.6 dB.
 (a)

(b)

Figure 4.4 (a) and (b): UMi LoS Directional and Omnidirectional PDPs for 38 GHz.
In this situation, we have also added the channel properties for the Outdoor-to-Indoor (O2I)
penetration loss with low loss, and the O2I low loss is 23.8 dB.
On the other hand, figure 4.5 shows the 38 GHz mmWave band UMi LoS omnidirectional
and directional path losses for the ten random Tx and Rx combinations. The results show that
the average directional and best directional PLE (η) are 4.0 and 3.0, respectively. And the
omnidirectional PLE is 2.8. Another factor that we see in this figure is the shadow fading (σ )
for both the directional and omnidirectional settings. The omnidirectional σ is 7.2 dB, while
the directional and the best directional σ are 14.0 and 9.4 dB, respectively. In addition to this,
we see that path loss increases linearly with the distance between the Tx and Rx.

Figure 4.5: UMi LoS Omnidirectional/Directional Path-Loss for 38 GHz.

For the UMi NLoS condition in figure 4.6, the results are different from the previous LoS.
We have average directional and best directional PLE (η) of about 5.4 and 4.6, respectively
And omnidirectional PLE of about 4.4. The omnidirectional σ for the NLoS is now about
8.1 dB, while the directional and the best directional σ values are 15.1 and 7.9 dB,
respectively.
 Figure 4.6: UMi NLoS Omnidirectional/Directional Path-Loss for 38 GHz.

II. 73 GHz mmWave for UMi Conditions

Since 73 GHz band has attracted industries and researchers worldwide by providing
greater multi-gigabits per second channel characteristics. This frequency band is
instrumental for 5G applications. Similar to previous results, the 73 GHz mmWave
frequency band provided a greater signal strength and performance.
Figure 4.7 (a) and (b) show the UMi LoS directional and omnidirectional PDPs for this
band. The received power for directional PDP at Rx distance of 13 m is -18.3 dBm, while
the omnidirectional PDP at the same Rx distance is -62.2 dBm. For the PL, the 13.0 m Rx
gives a value of 97.5 dB and 92.2 dB for the directional and omnidirectional, respectively.
Moreover, Figure 4.8 displays the Directional and omnidirectional PLs and other
parameters from the ten Rx locations we have simulated. Similar to previous results, both
the directional and omnidirectional PLs increase as the distance between the Tx and Rx
increases. The normal directional path loss exponent (η) is 3.4, but for the omnidirectional,
the Pathe Loss Exponent (PLE) is 2.3, and the shadow fading (SF) is 2.9 dB. Lastly, the
best directional PLE (η) and σ are 2.5 and 3.4, respectively.
 (a)

(b)

Figure 4.7 (a) and (b): UMi LoS Directional and Omnidirectional PDPs for 73 GHz.
 Figure 4.8: UMi LoS Omnidirectional/Directional Path-Loss for 73 GHz.

The last figure of our results shows the 73 GHz UMi NLoS condition. For this, our primary
goal was to see the performance of the 73 GHz mmWave band in an indoor condition where
the signal meets with various reflectors, dispersions, blockages or obstacles. We have
simulated 10 Rx locations. The results we have can match the 5th generation of mobile
networks where we need to have enhanced Mobile Broadbands (eMBBs), Ultra- Reliable
Low-Latency Communications (URLLC) and many other specifications.
In summary, figure 4.9 displays the results we have obtained. The NLoS received signals for
this band aren't the same as those for the LoS condition. Due to the multipath problems, ee
see an increase in path losses, shadow fading, and the PLE (η) for both directional and
omnidirectional compared to those of the LoS condition. We have average directional and
best directional PLE (η) of about 5.5 and 4.7, respectively And omnidirectional PLE of about
4.5. The omnidirectional σ for the NLoS is now about 8.0 dB, while the directional and the
best directional σ values are 12.2 and 8.7 dB, respectively.
 Figure 4.9: UMi NLoS Omnidirectional/Directional Path-Loss for 73 GHz.

4.3 Summary of our Results

In this study, we have simulated and analyzed three different frequencies in the mmWave

range. Various parameters which play a significant role in wireless communication channels

have been investigated to achieve our main objectives, including Path Loss (PL), Received

Power (P ) Path Loss Exponent (η), and Shadow Fading (σ ) for directional and

omnidirectional Power Delay Profiles (PDPs). The simulations have shown that

omnidirectional PDPs have low path loss and path loss exponent than directional PDPs. On

the other hand, The directional PDPs have provided more excellent results for the received

power at the Rx location.

Finally, the mmWave frequency bands 6, 38 and 73 GHz are capable of providing the

requirements by overcoming problems faced by wireless channels. The results show that

mmWave bands perform better for the shorter distances, as the space between the transmitting

base station and the receiving mobile station become far, the performance of the channel

degrades dramatically, meaning that there is a greater need for many base stations to cover a

wide range of areas.

 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

5.1 Conclusion

The mmWave frequency ranges have been identified as crucial enablers. This thesis
examined gigabit wireless communications using mm-wave circuits. The work toward mm-
Wave channel estimation was addressed, as well as some established channels models.
Additionally, we discussed the specifics of the channels concept that was examined for
urbanized crowded settings.

The findings of this research indicate that mm-wave is capable of being utilized in Mobile
communication outdoors systems after eliminating certain transmission difficulties associated
with enormous interconnectivity in congested metropolitan settings. We have carried
extensive millimeter-wave measurements at 38, 78 and 6, GHz carrier-frequencies inUrban
Microcells (UMi) and Urban Macrocells (UMa) environments.

Each frequency carrier has provided a tremendous result for its application. The channel path
loss, received power and path loss exponents have been simulated and analyzed. The 6 GHz
frequency band can be used in outdoor environments, while the 38 GHz and 73 GHz carries
can be used in indoor environments.

Nevertheless, the path loss within NLOS scenario under directional propagation is more than
the path loss in the omnidirectional scenario and rises quickly as the range between the BS
and the MS is increased. The large-scale properties of the investigated mmWave frequencies
indicate that they have excellent capability for use in densely populated areas. In certain
situations, high-gain directional antennas using MIMO systems are the best solution for
overcoming significant path loss problems.

In summary, the large scale features for these investigated mm-wave frequencies indicate that
they offer significant opportunity to be used in congested metropolitan areas. In certain
situations, high-gain directional antennas using MIMO Systems is regarded being one best
solution for overcoming significant route losses problems.

5.2 Future Work

Additionally, the future study will examine other mm-Wave transmission situations, like
outdoor-to-indoor(O2I) and penetrating to structures, that provide additional difficulties for
mm-wave implementation in 5G and even future cellular connections.
Additionally, we will investigate and suggest practical beam forming methods for reducing
directional propagation characteristics at mm-Wave frequency ranges using large array-
antennas. This necessitates the consideration of time efficient beams strength and
conditioning methods for channels condition determination at mm-Waves using smaller beam
having strong directional cues.

Throughout such respect, the upcoming research would concentrate upon incorporating novel
channels analysis techniques into hybrids beam forming architectures like a viable paradigm
for upcoming mm-Wave cellular networks.
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