Business research

methods
Chapter 7: Qualitative
Research

Lecturer: Dinh Thi Le Trinh

 Qualitative research
n tell the researcher how (process) and why
(meaning) things happen as they do.
n includes an “array of interpretive techniques
which seek to describe, decode, translate, and
otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not
the frequency, of certain more or less naturally
occurring phenomena in the social world.”
n aims to achieve an in-depth understanding of a
situation
n draws data from a variety of sources:
n People (individuals or groups).
n Organizations or institutions.
n Texts (published, including virtual ones).
n Settings and environments (visual/sensory and virtual
material).
n Objects, artifacts, media products
(textual/visual/sensory and virtual material).
n Events and happenings (textual/visual/sensory and
virtual material).
>Exhibit 7-1 Some Appropriate Uses for Qualitative Research

Decision Arena Questions to Be Answered

Job Analysis • Does the current assignment of tasks generate the most productivity?
• Does the advancement through different job levels incorporate the
necessary training to foster the strongest performance?

Advertising Concept • What images should we use to connect with our target customers’
Development motivations?

Productivity Enhancement • What actions could we take to boost worker productivity without gen-
erating worker discontent?

New Product Development • What would our current market think of a proposed product idea?
• We need new products, but what should they be to take advantage
of our existing customer-perceived strengths?
• Which products will create the greatest synergy with our existing
products in terms of ROI and distribution partner growth?

Benefits Management • Should our compensation plan be more flexible and customizable?
• How do employees perceive wellness-prevention programs as com-
pared to corrective health programs in terms of value?

Retail Design • How do consumers prefer to shop in our store? Do they shop with a
defined purpose, or are they affected by other motives?

Process Understanding • What steps are involved in cleaning a wood floor? How is our product
perceived or involved in this process?

Market Segmentation • Why does one demographic or lifestyle group use our product more
than another?
• Who are our customers and how do they use our product to support
their lifestyle?
• What is the influence of culture on product choice?

Union Representation • How do various departments perceive the current effort to unionize
our plant? Where and what are the elements of discontent?

Sales Analysis • Why have once-loyal customers stopped buying our service?
 Qualitative versus Quantitative
Research
n The issue of trustworthiness of qualitative data
through exacting methodology:
n Carefully using literature searches to build probing
questions.
n Thoroughly justifying the methodology or combination of
methodologies chosen.
n Executing the chosen methodology in its natural setting
(field study) rather than a highly controlled setting
(laboratory).
n Choosing sample participants for relevance to the
breadth of the issue rather than how well they represent
the target population.
 Qualitative versus Quantitative
Research
n The issue of trustworthiness of qualitative data
through exacting methodology:
n Developing and including questions that reveal the
exceptions to a rule or theory.
n Carefully structuring the data analysis.
n Comparing data across multiple sources and different
contexts.
n Conducting peer-researcher debriefing on results for
added clarity, additional insights, and reduced bias.
 Qualitative versus Quantitative
Research
n The controversy:
n Managers deal with the issue of trustworthiness of
qualitative data through exacting methodology:
n Carefully using literature searches to build probing questions.
n Thoroughly justifying the methodology or combination of
methodologies chosen.
n Executing the chosen methodology in its natural setting (field
study) rather than a highly controlled setting (laboratory).
 Qualitative versus Quantitative
Research
n The controversy:
n Managers deal with the issue of trustworthiness of
qualitative data through exacting methodology:
n Choosing sample participants for relevance to the breadth of the
issue rather than how well they represent the target population.
n Developing and including questions that reveal the exceptions to
a rule or theory.
n Carefully structuring the data analysis.
n Comparing data across multiple sources and different contexts.
n Conducting peer-researcher debriefing on results for added
clarity, additional insights, and reduced bias.
n Quantitative research:
n attempts precise measurement of something.
n answer questions related to how much, how often, how
many, when, and who.
n survey is considered a dominant method.
n is often used for theory testing
n the researcher who interprets the data and draws
conclusions from it is rarely the data collector
n often has no contact at all with the participant.
n identical data are desired from all participants
n
n Quantitative data often consist of participant responses
that are coded, categorized, and reduced to numbers so
that these data may be manipulated for statistical
analysis.
n One objective is the quantitative tally of events or
opinions, called frequency of response.
n Qualitative research:
n interpretive research: seeks to develop understanding
through detailed description
n often builds theory but rarely tests it.
n aims to achieve an in-depth understanding of a
situation
n Purpose: based on “researcher immersion in the
phenomenon to be studied, gathering data which
provide a detailed description of events, situations and
interaction be- tween people and things-> providing
depth and detail.”
n Both the researcher and research sponsor often have
more significant involvement in collecting and
interpreting qualitative data.
n The researcher may serve as a participant or a catalyst, as a
participant observer, or as a group interview moderator.
n The research sponsor may observe, influence interview
questions, and add interpretations and insights during the
process.
>Exhibit 7-2 Qualitative versus Quantitative Research

Qualitative Quantitative

Focus of Research • Understand and interpret • Describe, explain, and predict

Researcher Involvement • High—researcher is participant or catalyst • Limited; controlled to prevent bias

Research Purpose • In-depth understanding; theory building • Describe or predict; build and test theory

Sample Design • Nonprobability; purposive • Probability

Sample Size • Small • Large

Research Design • May evolve or adjust during the course of the • Determined before commencing the project
project
• Uses single method or mixed methods
• Often uses multiple methods simultaneously or
• Consistency is critical
sequentially
• Involves either a cross-sectional or a longitudinal
• Consistency is not expected
approach
• Involves longitudinal approach

Participant Preparation • Pretasking is common • No preparation desired to avoid biasing the

participant

Data Type and • Verbal or pictorial descriptions • Verbal descriptions

Preparation
• Reduced to verbal codes (sometimes with com- • Reduced to numerical codes for computerized
puter assistance) analysis

Data Analysis • Human analysis following computer or human • Computerized analysis—statistical and mathemat-
coding; primarily nonquantitative ical methods dominate
• Forces researcher to see the contextual • Analysis may be ongoing during the project
framework of the phenomenon being
• Maintains clear distinction between facts and
measured—distinction between facts and
judgments
judgments less clear
• Always ongoing during the project

Insights and Meaning • Deeper level of understanding is the norm; de- • Limited by the opportunity to probe respondents
termined by type and quantity of free-response and the quality of the original data collection
questions instrument
• Researcher participation in data collection allows • Insights follow data collection and data entry, with
insights to form and be tested during the process limited ability to reinterview participants

Research Sponsor • May participate by observing research in real • Rarely has either direct or indirect contact with
Involvement time or via taped interviews participant

Feedback Turnaround • Smaller sample sizes make data collection faster • Larger sample sizes lengthen data collection;
for shorter possible turnaround Internet methodologies are shortening turnaround
but inappropriate for many studies
• Insights are developed as the research
progresses, shortening data analysis • Insight development follows data collection and
entry, lengthening research process; interviewing
software permits some tallying of responses as
data collection progresses

Data Security • More absolute given use of restricted access • Act of research in progress is often known by
facilities and smaller sample sizes competitors; insights may be gleaned by competi-
tors for some visible, field-based studies
n any knowledge researchers gain can be used to adjust
the data extracted from the next participant.
n Qualitative data are all about texts.
n Detailed descriptions of events, situations, and
interactions, either verbal or visual, constitute the data.
n Data may be contained within transcriptions of
interviews or video focus groups, as well as in notes
taken during those interactions.
n reams of words that need to be coded and analyzed by
humans for meaning.
n at the heart of the qualitative process is the
researcher—and his or her experience—framing and
interpreting the data.
 The process of qualitative
research
n understanding the manager’s problem
n raise a broader question more similar in structure
to the management question.
n involves the deliberate preparation of the
participant, called preexercises or pretasking.
n Pretasking: is rarely used in observation studies and is
considered a major source of error in quantitative
studies.
 The process of qualitative
research
n high level of involvement of both the
sponsor and the interviewer/data collector in
the data interpretation or analysis stages:
n debriefed or interviewed
n with their insight adding richness to the
interpretation of the data.
Qualitative research methodologies
n The researcher chooses a qualitative methodology
based on:
n the project’s purpose
n Schedule: the speed with which insights are needed;
n Budget
n the issue(s) or topics(s) being studied
n the types of participants needed
n the researcher’s skill, personality, and preferences.
Qualitative research methodologies
n Sampling:
n Keep sampling as long as your breadth and

depth of knowledge of the issue.

n Stop when gainning no new knowledge or

insights.
n Sample sizes: vary by technique but are

generally small.
Qualitative research methodologies
n Sampling:
n include just two or three focus groups or a few dozen
individual depth interviews.
n nonprobability sampling: little attempt is made to
generate a representative sample. 3 types:
n Purposive sampling: Researchers choose participants arbitrarily
for their unique characteristics or their experiences, attitudes,
or perceptions; as conceptual or theoretical categories of
participants develop during the interviewing process,
researchers seek new participants to challenge emerging
patterns.
Qualitative research methodologies
n Snowball sampling: Participants refer researchers to others who
have characteristics, experi- ences, or attitudes similar to or
different from their own.
n Convenience sampling: Researchers select any readily available
individuals as participants.
n Interviews:
n is the primary data collection technique
n vary based on:
n the number of people involved during the interview,
n the level of structure,
n the proximity of the interviewer to the participant
n the number of interviews conducted during the research.
n can be conducted individually (individual depth
interview, or IDI) or in groups.
n requires a trained interviewer (a moderator for group
interviews) or the skills gained from experience. Skills
include:
n making respondents comfortable,
n Probing (thăm dò) for detail without making the respondent feel
harassed (quay rối)
n remaining neutral while encouraging the participant to talk openly
n listening carefully
n requires a trained interviewer (often called a moderator for
group interviews) or the skills gained from experience. Skills
include:
n following a participant’s train of thought

n extracting insights from hours of detailed descriptive dialogue.

n Skilled interviewers learn to use their personal similarities with or

differences from their interviewee to mine for information (similarities

are used to convey sympathy and understanding, while differences
are used to demonstrate eagerness to understand and empathize).
n individual conducting the interview needs a fuller understanding of

the dilemma and how the insights will be used.

>Exhibit 7-5 A Comparison of Individual Depth Interviews and Group Interviews

Individual Interview Group Interview

Research Objective
• Explore life of individual in depth • Orient the researcher to a field of inquiry and the language of the
field
• Create case histories through repeated interviews over time
• Test a survey
• Explore a range of attitudes, opinions, and behaviors
• Observe a process of consensus and disagreement
• Add contextual detail to quantitative findings

Topic Concerns
• Detailed individual experiences, choices, biographies • Issues of public interest or common concern
• Sensitive issues that might provoke anxiety • Issues where little is known or of a hypothetical nature

Participants
• Time-pressed participants or those difficult to recruit (e.g., • Participants whose backgrounds are similar or not so dissimilar
elite or high-status participants) as to generate conflict or discomfort
• Participants with sufficient language skills (e.g., those older • Participants who can articulate their ideas
than seven)
• Participants who offer a range of positions on issues
• Participants whose distinctions would inhibit participation
n Interview structure: The researcher chooses either:
n an unstructured interview: no specific questions or order of
topics to be discussed, with each interview customized to each
participant; generally starts with a participant narrative
n a semistructured interview: generally starts with a few
specific questions and then follows the individual’s tangents of
thought with interviewer probes
n a structured interview: often uses a detailed interview guide
similar to a questionnaire to guide the question order and the
specific way the questions are asked, but the questions generally
remain open-ended. Structured interviews permit more direct
comparability of responses; question variability has been
eliminated and thus answer variability is assumed to be real. Also,
in the structured interview, the interviewer’s neutrality has been
maintained.
n Most qualitative research relies on the unstructured or
semistructured interview. They:
n Rely on developing a dialog between interviewer and participant.
n Require more interviewer creativity.
n Use the skill of the interviewer to extract more and a greater
variety of data.
n Use interviewer experience and skill to achieve greater clarity and
elaboration of answers.
n are conducted face-to-face: able to observe and record
nonverbal as well as verbal behavior.
n can be conducted by phone or online: conduct more
interviews within the same time frame and draw
participants from a wider geographic area.
n Interviewer responsibilities
n Recommends the topics and questions.
n Controls the interview, but also plans—and may
manage—the locations and facilities for the study.
n Proposes the criteria for drawing the sample
participants.
n Writes the recruitment screener and may recruit
participants.
n Develops the various pretasking exercises.
n Interviewer responsibilities
n RePrepares any research tools (e.g., picture sorts or
written exercises) to be used during the interview.
n Supervises the transcription process.
n Helps analyze the data and draw insights.
n Writes or directs the writing of the client report,
including extracting video clips for the oral report.
>Exhibit 7-6 The Interview Question Hierarchy

Broad Issue
What do participants consider entertaining?

Narrow to one topic:

What type of movie do participants consider most entertaining?

Narrow the topic:

What do participants find most entertaining about action movies?

Narrow to the client’s specific interest:

Within action movies, how do the computer-enhanced or computer-generated
action sequences contribute to the movie’s entertainment experience?
n Projective techniques
n Word or picture association
n Sentence completion
n Cartoons or empty balloons
n Thematic Apperception Test
n Component sorts
n Sensory sorts
n Projective techniques
n Laddering or benefit chain
n Imagination exercises
n Imaginary universe
n Visitor from another planet
n Personification
n Authority figure
n Ambiguities and paradoxes
n Paper-based exercises
n These techniques are also time-consuming to apply,
lengthening the time frame of the individual or group
interview. They also lengthen the data analysis time.
n Individual depth interviews (IDI):
n is an interaction between an individual interviewer and a
single participant.
n Individual depth interviews generally take between 20
minutes (telephone interviews) and 2 hours (prescheduled,
face-to-face interviews) to complete, depending on the
issues or topics of interest and the contact method used
(life histories may take as long as five hours).
n Participants are usually paid to share their insights and
ideas;
n Interviewees are often provided with advance materials via
mail, fax, or the Internet.
n Managing the individual depth interview
n Participants for individual depth interviews are usually chosen
not because their opinions are representative of the dominant
opinion but because their experiences and attitudes will reflect
the full scope of the issue under study.
n Participants for individual depth interviews also need to be
verbally articulate, in order to provide the interviewer with the
richness of desired detail.
n Individual depth interviews are usually recorded (audio
and/or video) and transcribed to provide the researcher
with the rich detail that the methodology is used for.
n Interviewers are also themselves debriefed to get their
personal reactions to participant attitudes, insights, and
the quality of the interview.
n while some respondents feel more comfortable
discussing sensitive topics or sharing their own
observations, behaviors, and attitudes with a single
person, others are more forthcoming in group situations.
n Group interviews
n is a data collection method using a single interviewer with
more than one research participant.
n can be described by the group’s size or its composition.
n vary widely in size: dyads (two people), triads (three
people), minigroups (two to six people), small groups
(focus groups—6 to 10 people—unarguably the most well
known of group interview techniques), or supergroups (up
to 20 people).
n Group interviews
n The smaller groups: are usually used when the overall population
from which the participants are drawn is small, when the topic or
concept list is extensive or technical, or when the research calls for
greater intimacy.
n Dyads: also are used when the special nature of a friendship or
other relationship (e.g., spouses, superior–subordinate, siblings) is
needed to stimulate frank discussion on a sensitive topic.
n Dyads and triads are also used frequently with young children who
have lower levels of articulation or more limited attention spans
and are thus more difficult to control in large groups.
n A supergroup is used when a wide range of ideas is needed in a
short period of time and when the researcher is willing to sacrifice
a significant amount of participant interaction for speed.
n Group composition:
n Heterogeneous (không đồng nhất): consisting of different
individuals; variety of opinions, backgrounds, actions)
n Homogeneous: consisting of similar individuals; commonality
of opinions, backgrounds, actions.
n Experts: individuals exceptionally knowledgeable about the
issues to be discussed
n Nonexperts: those who have at least some desired
information but at an unknown level.
n the participants are encouraged to interact.
>Exhibit 7-8 Types of Research Using IDIs

Types How Research Is Conducted How Research Is Used

Oral History (narrative ) Ask participants to relate their personal ex- To develop products, for example, books.
periences and feelings related to historical [September 11, 2001: Stories from 55 Broad Street
events or past behavior. by Eddie T. Deerfield and Thomas T. Noland
Jr. (editors); An Album of Memories: Personal Histo-
ries from the Greatest Generation by Tom Brokaw.]

Cultural Interviews Ask a participant to relate his or her experi- To determine product positioning or advertising
ences with a culture or subculture, including creation.
the knowledge passed on by prior genera- (E.g., how people use baking soda leads to
tions and the knowledge participants have positioning the product as not just a baking
or plan to pass on to future generations. ingredient but also a deodorizer, toothpaste
substitute, etc.)

Life Histories Extract from a single participant memories and To determine positioning for company prior to
experiences from childhood to the present an I.D. or name change.
day regarding a product or service category, (E.g., Frosted Flakes and Tony the Tiger—ad
brand, or firm. Participants are encouraged spots where adults feel they must appear in
to share how the significant people in their disguise because they eat a “child’s cereal.”)
lives talked about or were involved with the
organization, how their attitudes or prefer-
ences have changed over their lives with
respect to the organization, and how their
perceptions and preferences have been
altered by their various life experiences.

Critical Incident Technique The participant describes: To evaluate manufacturing processes, personal
sales and telemarketing sales programs,
• What led up to the incident.
compensation or incentive programs, or
• Exactly what he or she did or did not do that other management-related incidents.
was especially effective or ineffective.
• The outcome or result of this action and
why this action was effective or what more
effective action might have been expected.

Convergent Interviewing Experts serve as participants in a sequential To develop appropriate questions for all types
(convergent and series of IDIs; researcher refines the ques- of research (in exploratory research).
divergent interviewing ) tions with each interview in order to con-
verge on the central issues or themes in a
topic area.

Sequential Interviewing Approach the participant with questions To determine store design, advertising devel-
(chronologic interviewing ) formed around an anticipated series of opment, and product design; it is used to
activities that did or might have happened, extract details related to shopping behavior,
in order to have the participant recall the advertising consumption behavior, and
detail of his or her own experience. product use behavior.

Ethnography Interviewer and participant collaborate in a To determine product redesign, advertising

field-setting participant observation and development, positioning, distribution selec-
unstructured interview. tion; to discover reactions and attitudes of
striking employees.

Grounded Theory Using a structured interview, each subsequent To determine product design or redesign and
interview is adjusted based on the findings advertising and promotion development.
and interpretations from each previous
interview, with the purpose to develop general
concepts or theories with which to analyze
the data.
n Drawback of the group interview:
n permit spending only limited time extracting detail from each
participant.
n the increased difficulty recruiting, arranging, and coordinating
group discussions.
n the moderator may create bias in the results by sending verbal
and nonverbal signals that some responses are more favorable
than others. The moderator might also direct discussion down
paths that are least likely to help the client. => Only training,
and subsequent experience, can overcome these potential
weaknesses of group interviews.
n The general rule is: Keep conducting group interviews
until no new insights are gained. Often a limited
number of groups will suffice, or sometimes the number
might grow to 8 or even 12.
n It is often preferable, depending on the topic, to run
separate group interviews for different subsets of the
target population.
n Researchers caution against forming groups solely on
demographic descriptors, favoring “natural”’ groups
(like families, co-workers, church members, etc.) where
the participants share an affinity base.
n Homogenous groups often discover their similarities early and
get along well.
n In heterogeneous groups, the moderator must provide the ice-
breaker activities that get the participants interacting with each
other. the moderator is responsible for developing the
recruitment screener and the group discussion guide.
n Focus Groups
n is a panel of people (typically made up of 6 to

10 participants),
n led by a trained moderator,

n who meet for 90 minutes to two hours.

n The facilitator or moderator uses group

dynamics principles to focus or guide the group

in an exchange of ideas, feelings, and
experiences on a specific topic.
n are often unique in research due to the research
sponsor’s involvement in the process.
n Most facilities permit the sponsor to observe the group and its
dynamics in real time, drawing his or her own insights from
the conversations and nonverbal signals he or she observes.
n Many facilities also allow the client to supply the moderator
with new topics or questions that are generated by those
observing in real time.
n Facilities usually provide for the group to be isolated from
distractions.
n Some facilities allow for product preparation and testing, as
well as other creative exercises.
>Exhibit 7-9 Factors Influencing Participant Contributions in Group Interviews

Positive/Facilitators

Recognition/Ego Enhancement Moderator’s expressed appreciation for participant contributions that contribute to
issue understanding; participant’s open agreement with other participant comments.

Personal Contribution Participant’s desire to be, and perception that his or her contributions are, helpful.

Validation Participant’s need to have his or her feelings, attitudes, or ideas validated.

Catharsis/Load-sharing Participant’s need to share something negative or bothersome with others.

Personal Growth Participant’s desire to increase knowledge or understanding through new perspectives;
participant’s desire for new experiences.

Socialization Participant’s desire to meet new people and make new friends in a “safe” environment.

Expectations Participant’s accurate understanding of the purpose of the group discussion.

Extrinsic Rewards Participant’s value perception of fee for participation.

Negative/Inhibitors

Use of Abstract Terminology Moderator or participant’s use of terminology or unfamiliar jargon.

Ego Threats Participant’s challenging another participant’s knowledge of the subject.

Political Correctness Participant’s withholding comments for fear that his or her contributions might be
perceived as disrespectful of another’s knowledge or opinions.

Ego Defense Participant’s withholding a comment for fear that it will make him or her appear
unintelligent or that the opinion will be unpopular with the group.

Memory Decay Participant’s failure to remember incidents or details of incidents.

Embellishment Participant’s creative additions to memories of behaviors in order to participate fully or

inflate status.

Inarticulation/Rambling Accounts Participant’s inability to express ideas quickly or concisely.

Confusion Participant’s lack of understanding of the issue under discussion.

Reticence Participant’s need to be invited to participate (rather than actively volunteering

comments).

Time Participant’s concern about other obligations.

Dominating/Monopolizing Participant’s attempting to take leadership or the spotlight, thus blocking contributions
of others.
n Fewer and lengthier focus groups are becoming common.
=> activities are needed to bring out deeper feelings,
knowledge, and motivations.
n are often used as an exploratory technique but may be a
primary methodology.
n Obtaining general background about a topic or issue.
n Generating research questions to be explored via
quantitative methodologies.
n Interpreting previously obtained quantitative results.
n Stimulating new ideas for products and programs.
n Highlighting areas of opportunity for specific managers to
pursue.
n Diagnosing problems that managers need to address.
n Generating impressions and perceptions of brands and
product ideas.
n Generating a level of understanding about influences in
the participant’s world.
n because they are qualitative devices, with limited
sampling accuracy, results from focus groups should not
be considered a replacement for quantitative analyses.
n Other venues for Focus Group Interviews
n Telephone Focus Groups:
n When it is difficult to recruit desired participants—members of
elite groups and hard-to-find respondents such as experts,
professionals, physician specialists, high-level executives, and
store owners.
n When target group members are rare, “low incidence,” or widely
dispersed geographically— directors of a medical clinic,
celebrities, early adopters, and rural practitioners.
n When issues are so sensitive that anonymity is needed but
respondents must be from a wide geographic area—people
suffering from a contagious disease, people using
nonmainstream products, high-income individuals, competitors.
n Other venues for Focus Group Interviews
n Telephone Focus Groups:
n When you want to conduct only a couple of focus groups but
want nationwide representation.
n Telephone focus groups are usually shorter than traditional
groups, averaging about one hour.
n Participants could be in their own offices or homes or be brought
to a central location with the necessary equipment.
n A telephone focus group is less likely to be effective under the
following conditions:
n When participants need to handle a product.
n When an object of discussion cannot be sent through the mail in advance.
n When sessions will run long.
n When the participants are groups of young children.
n Online Focus Groups:
n group dynamics using e-mail, websites, blogs, online
communities, or an Internet chat room. => reducing or
eliminating the cost associated with telephone focus groups.
n Posting questions to a newsgroup with an interest in the
research problem can generate considerable discussion.
n have also proved to be effective with teens and young adults, as
well as technically employed segments of the market, those
essentially comfortable with computer use.
n The technology permits use of visual images of materials (e.g.,
ads or product concepts) but retains the barrier between the
group and the moderator. Online focus groups are a trade-off.
n Videoconferencing Focus Groups:
n enables significant savings.
n can be accomplished in a shorter time.
n retains the barrier between the moderator and participants,
although less so than the telephone focus group.
n Recording, analyzing, and reporting group
interviews
n Content analysis: An analytical process provides the
research sponsor with a qualitative picture of the
respondents’ concerns, ideas, attitudes, and feelings.
Combining qualitative methodologies
n Case Study (case history):
n is combines individual and (sometimes) group
interviews with record analysis and observation.
n Researchers extract information from company
brochures, annual reports, sales receipts, and
newspaper and magazine articles, along with direct
observation (usually done in the participant’s
“natural” setting), and combine it with interview data
from participants.
Combining qualitative methodologies
n Case Study (case history):
n The objective is to obtain multiple perspectives of a
single organization, situation, event, or process at a
point in time or over a period of time.
n Case study methodology (case analysis or case write-
up)—can be used to understand particular processes.
n Multiple specific organizations or situations are selected
(rather than one) to profile for cross-case analysis as
they offer critical, extreme, or unusual cases -> a deeper
understanding of the subject emerges.
n
Combining qualitative
methodologies
n Multiple units are chosen as they offer similar results
for predictable reasons (literal replication) or contrary
results for predictable reasons (theoretical replication).
n Sampling: a minimum of 4 cases with a maximum of
15 seems to be favored.
n Interview participants are invited to tell the story of
their experience, with those chosen representing
different levels within the same organization or
different perspectives of the same situation or process
to permit depth of perspective=>thick description.
Combining qualitative
methodologies
n A single case analysis is always performed before any
cross-case analysis is conducted.
n The emphasis is on what differences occur, why, and
with what effect.
n Prescriptive inferences about best practices are
concluded after completing case studies on several
organizations or situations and are speculative in
nature.
 Combining qualitative
methodologies
n Action research:
n Addressing complex, practical problems about which little
is known—thus no known heuristics exist.
n The scenario is studied; corrective action is determined,
planned, and implemented; the results of the action are
observed and recorded; and the action is assessed as
effective or not.
n The process is repeated until a desired outcome is
reached, but along the way much is learned about the
processes and about the prescriptive actions being
studied. Action researchers investigate the effects of
applied solutions.
 Combining qualitative
methodologies
n Action research:
n Ex: Suppose a restaurant that had never received a
customer complaint earns its first challenge by a
disgruntled diner. If no general rule existed about how to
treat unhappy patrons, the organization could study the
situation and come up with alternative actions. It might:
n Ignore the problem. (Its lack of experience would prevent it from
knowing that negative word of mouth—negative buzz—would be
the likely result.)
n Do whatever is necessary to replace the unsatisfactory meal
within the shortest period of time.
Combining qualitative
methodologies
n Accept the current circumstance as uncorrectable, apologize to
the customer, and remedy the situation by picking up the table’s
full dining tab and offering the customer a free meal to get him
or her back in the restaurant another day.
n In action research, one of those alternatives would be chosen
and implemented, and then the results recorded.
n Was the customer happy when he or she left?
n Did the customer return to dine another evening or never return again?
n Over the next three months, what was the customer’s full revenue value?
n If the customer didn’t return, the next time a disgruntled customer voiced
dissatisfaction, a different action would be chosen, implemented, and then
assessed in comparison to the first option’s results.
 Merging qualitative and
quantitative methodologies
n Triangulation:
n the combining of several qualitative methods or
combining qualitative with quantitative methods.
n qualitative studies may be combined with quantitative
ones -> increase the perceived quality of the research
 Merging qualitative and
quantitative methodologies
n Triangulation:
n Four strategies for combining methodologies:
n 1. Qualitative and quantitative studies can be conducted
simultaneously.
n 2. A qualitative study can be ongoing while multiple waves of
quantitative studies are done, measuring changes in behavior
and attitudes over time.
n 3. A qualitative study can precede a quantitative study, and a
second qualitative study then might follow the quantitative
study, seeking more clarification.
n 4. A quantitative study can precede a qualitative study.
 Merging qualitative and
quantitative methodologies
n Many researchers recognize that qualitative research
compensates for the weaknesses of quantitative
research and vice versa. These forward thinkers believe
that the methodologies complement rather than rival
each other.