animals

Review
Transforming the Adaptation Physiology of Farm
Animals through Sensors
Suresh Neethirajan
Ajna Consulting, 42 Edwards Street, Guelph, ON N1E 0B3, Canada; [email protected]; Tel.: +1-226-979-3147




Received: 24 July 2020; Accepted: 25 August 2020; Published: 26 August 2020


Simple Summary: Strategy for the protection and welfare of farm animals, and the sustainable animal
production is dependent on the thorough understanding of the adaptation physiology. Real-time,
continuous, and precise measurement of the multi-dimensions and complex intricacies of adaptive
capacity of farm animals namely the mental, behavioral, and physiological states are possible only
through the sensor-based approaches. This paper critically reviews the latest sensor technologies
as assessment tools for the adaptation physiology of farm animals and explores their advantages
over traditional measurement methods. Digital innovation, diagnostics, genetic testing, biosensors,
and wearable animal devices are important tools that enable the development of decision support
farming platforms and provides the path for predicting diseases in livestock. Sensor fusion data
from a multitude of biochemical, emotional, and physiological functions of the farm animals not only
helps to identify the most productive animal but also allows farmers to predict which individual
animal may have greater resilience to common diseases. Insights into the cost of adoption of sensor
technologies on farms including computing capacity, human resources in training, and the sensor
hardware are being discussed.

Abstract: Despite recent scientific advancements, there is a gap in the use of technology to measure
signals, behaviors, and processes of adaptation physiology of farm animals. Sensors present
exciting opportunities for sustained, real-time, non-intrusive measurement of farm animal behavioral,
mental, and physiological parameters with the integration of nanotechnology and instrumentation.
This paper critically reviews the sensing technology and sensor data-based models used to explore
biological systems such as animal behavior, energy metabolism, epidemiology, immunity, health,
and animal reproduction. The use of sensor technology to assess physiological parameters can
provide tremendous benefits and tools to overcome and minimize production losses while making
positive contributions to animal welfare. Of course, sensor technology is not free from challenges;
these devices are at times highly sensitive and prone to damage from dirt, dust, sunlight, color, fur,
feathers, and environmental forces. Rural farmers unfamiliar with the technologies must be convinced
and taught to use sensor-based technologies in farming and livestock management. While there is
no doubt that demand will grow for non-invasive sensor-based technologies that require minimum
contact with animals and can provide remote access to data, their true success lies in the acceptance
of these technologies by the livestock industry.

Keywords: adaptation physiology; sensors; precision livestock farming; wearable animal sensors;
animal biometrics; animal cognition

1. Introduction
Adaptation physiology or acclimatization is defined as an individual organism’s biological
response to environmental stress. Adaptation can be broadly classified into genetic (generational or
long-term) and non-genetic (phenotypic or short-term) responses to a stressor [1]. Under chronic

Animals 2020, 10, 1512; doi:10.3390/ani10091512 www.mdpi.com/journal/animals

Animals 2020, 10, 1512 2 of 24

stress experienced over several generations, the animal’s acclimatization response becomes genetically
“fixed,” making the animal adapted to its environment.
The physiological and behavioral processes adopted by farm animals in response to environmental
changes are not only crucial for their survival, but frequently also affect the profitability and productivity
of livestock systems. “Farm animals” is a term used to describe a group of animals housed together
in a barn or an animal husbandry. These animals are typically raised for the commercial utility
of produce such as dairy, leather, meat, eggs, wool, etc. Livestock must face the multipronged
challenge of physical, chemical, nutritional, and thermal stress [2]. Stressors or the challenges are
several and may or may not have a direct influence on the animal performance. Factors that act
as stressors and thereby influence livestock productivity include age, breed, geographical location,
water availability, nutrient availability, photoperiod, environmental conditions, interactions with
humans, and management practices [3]. Stressors trigger physiological mechanisms that allow animals
to maintain physical equilibrium and homeostasis [4]. Farm animals respond to environmental
stressors by altering physiological parameters like rectal temperature and respiration rate, drooling,
panting, sweating, heart rate variability, and decreased feed intake [5].
In order to determine which technological advances can improve both livestock productivity
and animal welfare, it is crucial to measure the physiological parameters or adaptation physiology of
farm animals. This emphasis on measurement is driving the development of specific sensor-based
technologies that can monitor these physiological changes. Quantitation of stressors in farm animals
often involves invasive techniques that require animal restraint or close contact between animals and
humans, which can increase the animals’ stress levels [6]. These techniques are also time-consuming,
subjective, and labor-intensive, making them unsuitable for a rational evaluation of stress in farm
animals [7].
Smart systems such as sensor technology play an important economic role in this area [8],
offering considerable long-term financial advantages. The economic welfare modelling framework is
a powerful tool for reinforcing policy decision-making in appraising alternate scenarios for animal
diseases. Sensing platforms and tools are helpful in disease prevention and control strategies, giving
them an important role in advancing public health policy [9].
The economic impact of livestock disease is wide-reaching and multifaceted—direct costs of
a disease include production losses in addition to the costs of treatment and preventative care.
Furthermore, sick animals have a lower economic value. Common treatment practices have a critical
financial impact on the farmers and can impact long-term herd structure as a consequence of the
outbreak. In terms of production parameters, as estimated in a previous study [10], milk production
in cattle with Lumpy skin disease is reduced by up to 65% during the acute phase and 35% upon
the cattle recover from the disease, revealing the disease’s protracted and marked negative impacts.
These economic losses can be largely avoided with the implementation and integration of remote
sensor technology or automated technologies in agricultural and livestock practices.
Livestock welfare in farms remains a major concern; in order to protect livestock from poor welfare
situations, it is imperative to interpret their behavior as well as their cognitive needs and capacities [11].
The recent COVID-19 pandemic particularly demands minimal contact with farm animals, and the
current situation is only expected to increase the demand for the use of sensor-based technologies
and processes that can protect the health of both farm personnel and livestock. Driven by an interest
in animal welfare, research has gathered speed in the development of new sensing approaches and
biosensing methods for non-invasive assessment of physiological stress response in animals [12].
For instance, remote sensing-based technologies and image processing are being widely researched
to aid in the detection of animal health problems and stress levels [13]. With respect to assessing
adaptation physiology in farm animals, sensor technology is considered to be pivotal as it can assist
in acquiring time series of behavioral and physiological data. These sensors include biosensors and
wearable technologies, which are based on advanced statistical and computer science methods that
can be used to predict and assess adaptive responses and resilience in farm animals.
Animals 2020, 10, 1512 3 of 24

Automated remote monitoring and detection of animal welfare indicating parameters using
real-time analysis of sounds, images, videos, and data tracking for body and body weight conditions
may improve biological metrics in livestock [14]. Remote sensor devices such as microphones, cameras,
accelerometers, and thermometers can provide credible information when their data is merged with
individual animal identification and referenced observations and incorporated in algorithms [15].
Sensors in animal health management can help facilitate timely diagnosis and follow-up treatment
for sick farm animals [16]. The use of sensor-based technologies enables early identification of disease
symptoms and subsequent disease management, minimizing the economic losses associated with
infection spread in the herd. These are vital for the survival of any business [17]. Moreover, these
sensors can be linked to cell phones and other mobile devices so that data can be analyzed and
recorded automatically and remotely. The aim of this paper is to critically review sensor technologies
as assessment tools for the adaptation physiology of farm animals and explore their advantages over
traditional measurement methods. Furthermore, the review aims to highlight the challenges involved
in the deployment of sensing technologies, especially regarding their applicability in farm settings.

Literature Collection Methodology

The literature cited in this paper were collected using the Google scholar and the Web of Science
tools. To showcase the leading-edge research in this field and to ensure the recency and narrow down
the search, the author restricted the search to papers published only in the past 5 years. Keywords used
were, animal sensors; livestock wearables; animal physiology and sensors; farm animal sensing
technology; facial recognition and animals; precision livestock farming and sensors; adaptation
physiology measurement. Both the Boolean and individual searches were conducted as part of this
study. Dairy cattle, pigs/swine, chicken and poultry birds, and sheep were primarily focused as part of
the consideration of the common livestock. The number of papers cited in this review is 143, with 36
that were published before 2015. The papers published before 2015 were included as the information
on the sensing technologies for farm animals were scant, and to emphasize the content on the need for
sensors in the adaptation physiology of animals.

2. Assessing Adaptation Physiology Parameters

Precision Livestock Farming (PLF) is a tool for active livestock management with a focus
on improving animal welfare and health and enhancing the economic, social, and environmental
sustainability of livestock farming. The importance of well-managed animal welfare is not limited
to ethical viewpoints; it is also crucial to realize a more efficient process of producing animal
products. The metabolic energy balance in a homeothermic living organism includes several different
components: basal metabolism, the thermal component, the physical component related to movement
or delivering power, the production term (meat, milk, eggs), and the mental component. When applying
stress-monitoring techniques originally developed for humans, animal frustration can be monitored
in real time. This indicates that real-time animal welfare monitoring based on physiological signals
is, in fact, a realistic pathway (Figure 1). Parameters such as temperature, heart rate, peripheral
vasodilation, respiratory rate, sweat production, basal and energetic metabolisms, feed intake, diseased
conditions, and sound all respond to stressful conditions [16]. Farmers can more quickly detect
livestock health problems by evaluating their animals’ physiological responses via measurements of
the temperature in body parts, respiration rate, heart rate variability, body weight, feed, emotions,
non-invasive biomarkers and water intake, activity, and movement.

2.1. Body Temperature

An animal’s ability to maintain homeothermy indicates that the animal is better adapted to the
climatic variations of its environment. Tolerance of higher temperatures, for instance, is identified by
animals’ capability to dissipate excess body heat and keep their standard body temperature within
the limits of homeothermy [3]. For this reason, monitoring changes in animals’ body temperature
Animals2020,
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the limits of homeothermy [3]. For this reason, monitoring changes in animals’ body temperature can
helphelp
can determine
determine theirtheir
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[18].These
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Figure 1. Wearablesensors
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andnovel
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Advantages of Sensors in Assessing Body Temperature
Advantages of Sensors in Assessing Body Temperature
Body temperature can be efficiently and accurately determined with non-invasive infrared
Body temperature can be efficiently and accurately determined with non-invasive infrared
technique [24]. In broilers, for instance, the temperature of the region around the eye is considered to be
technique [24]. In broilers, for instance, the temperature of the region around the eye is considered to
indicative of the total body temperature because of lack of feather insulation around the eye region [25].
be indicative of the total body temperature because of lack of feather insulation around the eye region
All objects produce radiant heat in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. As bodies have
[25]. All objects produce radiant heat in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. As
temperatures above absolute zero, they emit radiation that forms an electromagnetic spectrum that can
bodies have temperatures above absolute zero, they emit radiation that forms an electromagnetic
be absorbed by other surrounding bodies [26]. Thermal infrared (TIR) sensors generate these images
spectrum that can be absorbed by other surrounding bodies [26]. Thermal infrared (TIR) sensors
(thermograms) by capturing the infrared radiation emitted by objects. The information generated
generate these images (thermograms) by capturing the infrared radiation emitted by objects. The
information generated by these images is then determined by algorithms to detect the temperature
Animals 2020, 10, 1512 5 of 24

by these images is then determined by algorithms to detect the temperature change. Thermographic
images may point to alterations in blood flow resulting from increased body temperature due to
stressful environmental conditions. These changes can be related to blood flow and heat transfer in
animals [26]. The temperature of the eye area measured by TIR sensors has been shown to correlate
significantly to changes in core body temperature [6]. Temperature measurements from different body
parts provide information about animal health and allow for timely decision-making for livestock
welfare (e.g., isolating animals with higher body temperature or managing the internal temperatures
of animal housing units).

2.2. Respiration Rate

Respiratory rate (RR) is one of the variables used to assess the physiological adaptability of
animals [27]. In response to alterations in environment, such as transport of cattle by road, animals’
respiratory rates increase to maintain homeothermy. Evaporation is a key regulatory response for
animal body temperature [27]. RR has been shown to be affected by high milk yield, pregnancy, forced
activity, excitement, and pathological conditions [28]. An increased RR is a significant stress indicator,
particularly in thermally stressed animals [29]. Thermal stress results in a reduction in milk production,
animal fertility, and general welfare [30], so early detection of alterations in RR can help farmers take
specific measures to prevent animals from stress, thereby avoiding production losses while addressing
animal welfare.
Visually counting flank movements is the most common technique for assessing respiratory rates
in cattle [31]. However, this is a labor-intensive and time consuming method, and the continuous
assessment of RR in long-term studies can be difficult and physically demanding, eventually resulting
in miscounts [28]. Misinterpretation of results can also occur from nonspecific flank movements that
do not arise from respiration [32]. Moreover, the continuous presence of a person can cause the animals
stress and influence their respiratory rates, misleading the measurements. Therefore, RR sensors were
introduced to assess RR without causing stress to animals. The initial respiratory sensors tested on
animals were designed for human application. These devices consisted of a belt attached around the
animal’s chest (similar to a holter) that measured thoracic and abdominal movements. Another system
to monitor respiratory rate is a laser distance sensor during milking [33]. Respiratory sensors have
been reported to accurately monitor respiratory rates in cattle [28].

2.3. Sweating Rate

Sweating is a physiological mechanism to regulate body surface temperature. Sweat is generated
by the sweat glands in the rainy and dry seasons. The maximum mean values are reported in the
mornings and afternoons during dry season, which aids heat dissipation by evaporation; maximum
sweating capacity is achieved under high temperatures and low humidity, when the sweat glands are
stimulated by increased blood volume to the epidermis [27]. The composition of sweat could be helpful
in determining the internal physiological changes or disturbances in an animal. Sweat glands on pigs
are considered non-functional as they are not stimulated by heat stress. Imperceptible perspiration
in the form of water vapor may have biomarkers such as miRNA (micro Ribonucleic acid) or
micro-concentrations of cortisol or hormones. Validated biomarkers from the sweat of dairy cows, pigs,
and other farm animals are not yet available and would open up new avenues of non-invasive sensing.

Immunosensors
Immunosensors can target biological fluids like saliva and sweat instead of blood, making
these sensors less stressful and invasive for animals. Immunosensors provide highly sensitive and
specific assessment of hormones like cortisol and lactate in animal biological fluids using label-free
electrochemical and chronoamperometric methods. For instance, a mobile, handheld potentiostat
integrated with Bluetooth communication and power source can be used for point-of-care applications.
Bioengineers have designed sensors with a sandwich-like structure that can contain the sensing
Animals 2020, 10, 1512 6 of 24

mechanisms, secure the biosensor to skin, and use capillary action to draw sweat or other fluids
towards the sensing mechanism [34]. Overall, the immunosensor showed remarkable specificity
and sensitivity in addition to its non-invasive and point-of-care capabilities, making the diagnostic
tool a versatile sweat-sensing platform. Skin-deployable microfluidic platform provides a significant
capability for on-the-go real-time collection and monitoring of sweat biomarkers. Resettable epifluidic
sweat patches can be placed on the skin of pigs or the sweat-secreting glands of dairy cows to collect
and analyze sweat composition as a visual indicating sensor [35].

2.4. Heart Rate Variability

The cardiovascular system is regulated by the autonomic nervous system and controls the
physiological systems impacted by stress [36]. The vagal element of the autonomic nervous system
regulates heart rate during stress in farm animals [37]. Heart rate increases when animals are subjected
to heat above their tolerance limits [27], so changes in heart rate can indicate physiological and
psychological stress, disease, and coping strategies in animals [36]. Conventionally, electrocardiogram
(ECG) has been used to detect heart rate variability. Despite providing good signal quality, its long-term
use for continuous heart rate monitoring is inconvenient as the wet electrodes must be in close contact
with skin. Additional limitations include restriction of movement, allergic reactions, skin irritation,
and signal degradation due to continuous contact with wet electrodes [38]. Although dry electrodes
and non-contact electrodes are available, they require the use of a chest band to keep the electrodes in
place. This can be inconvenient, especially for use in animals.

Role of Sensors in Assessing the Variability of Heart Rate

Photoplethysmography (PPG) is a non-invasive and cost-effective method for the detection of blood
volume alteration. PPG is an optical measurement that uses infrared lights to detect changes in blood
volume in the microvascular bed of tissue [39]. This contrasts with the electrocardiogram (ECG), which
measures heart rate by placing electrodes on the chest of the target animal. Doppler radar-based sensing
technologies include: ultra-wide band radar [40] and near-field coherent sensing. Machine-knitted
washable sensor platform based on textile has been developed and validated for precise epidermal
arterial pulse waves and respiratory signals simultaneously [41]. However, this tool has been
demonstrated only for biomedical human applications and would need further modifications for
adoption in livestock sector. Researchers have experimented with non-invasive wearable sensing
systems composed of photoplethysmogram and electrocardiogram (ECG) for continuous monitoring
of vital signs in companion animals [42], but these systems have yet to be fully explored in the livestock
sector. Body size and the shape of animals, chewing habits of pigs, licking habits of cows, body weight,
dust and the harsh barn and farm environments, and discomfort to animals are some of the factors
that make the adoption of HR and RR wearable sensing systems challenging for animal farming
(Table 1). Commercially available textile-based wearable sensors, such as Hexoskin, Biometric Shirt,
Dinbeat UNO’s multiparameter harness-sensing tools developed for humans and pet animals for
measuring heart rate variability, respiratory rate, and maximal oxygen consumption would find new
avenues of application in livestock farming.

2.5. Feed and Water Intake Behavior

Studies on cattle behavior have indicated that illness causes animals to spend less time feeding
and more time resting [43]. Feeding and ruminating behavior in cattle provides significant information
about their productivity, health, and welfare [44]. Changes in ruminating and feeding timing of cows
are indicative of an underlying alteration in their welfare and comfort [45]. It has also been reported
that cows diagnosed with metritis spent less time ruminating than their healthy counterparts during
the pre- and post-calving periods [46]. As alterations in feeding behavior could also be indicative of
illness in animals, several sensing methods have been employed to measure feeding behavior.
Animals 2020, 10, 1512 7 of 24

2.5.1. Sensors for Assessing Food and Water Intake in Animals

Wearable Accelerometers
Wearable accelerometers have been evaluated as a tool for measuring cow behavior [44].
HOBO accelerometers, which are attached to the jaws of cows, can record the time each animal
spends grazing and ruminating [47]. Neck-mounted accelerometers, based on either a multi-class
support vector machine (SVM) or a decision-tree algorithm [48], have been tested for the evaluation
of bovine ingestive behaviors. Neck-mounted triaxial accelerometers have been validated to assess
drinking events, along with the algorithm that can distinguish feeding from drinking from a water
trough [17].

Table 1. Outcomes of using sensor technology for assessing adaptation physiology of farm animals.

Physiological
Farm Animal Parameter/Biological Sensing Technology Outcome Reference
Sample Involved
Rutting span behavior and Health and reproductive
Cattle Video and Photo sensors [6]
back posture assessment
Non-invasive and automated
Eye orbital area
Cattle Infrared thermography detection of bovine respiratory [49]
temperature
disease onset
Accurate classification of
Cattle Grazing behavior Motion sensors [50]
grazing and rumination
Feeding behavior Detection of differences in
Neck-mounted mobile
Cattle differences associated with feeding behavior that are [51]
sensor
lameness associated with lameness
Classification accuracy
Grazing, standing, Collar, halter, and ear tag
Cattle achieved by different sensor [52]
and ruminating sensors
placement
Collar mounted accelerometer
Feeding, ruminating, RumiWatch halter and
Cattle accurate than RumiWatch [44]
and other activity Accelerometer
noseband sensor
Differential pressure Suitability of the device as a
Cattle Respiratory rate [28]
sensor respiratory rate sensor
Reliability of a combined
Drinking and water intake RFID, water flow meter,
Cattle approach recording several [17]
behavior and accelerometer sensors
behavioral measures
Cattle and Eye and muzzle Digital infrared thermal Alternatives to using vaginal
[26]
sheep temperature imaging or rectal temperature
Potential for estimating energy
Cows, goat,
Body acceleration Accelerometers expenditure in grazing farm [53]
and sheep
animals
Grazing and ruminating An alternative to visual
Cows Tri-axial accelerometers [47]
times observations
Ruminating and eating An alternative to direct
Cows Noseband pressure sensor [54]
behavior observation
Objective way to analyze and
Pigs Gait and locomotion Pressure mat [55]
quantify gait
Accuracy in assessing
Pigs Drinking behavior RFID system drinking behavior of [56]
individual pigs
Characterization of posture
Pigs Conformation and posture Accelerometer [57]
changes
Body (rectal) temperatures Association between body
as well as head, neck, surface body temperature and
Broiler Infrared camera [18]
wing, body, and shank stocking density rate in
surface temperatures broilers
Animals 2020, 10, 1512 8 of 24

Table 1. Cont.

Physiological
Farm Animal Parameter/Biological Sensing Technology Outcome Reference
Sample Involved
Broiler head and flock Achieving a higher
Broiler Infrared thermal camera [58]
temperature identification accuracy
Simultaneous quantification of
Horses Walking and trotting Pressure sensor differences in hoof contact [59]
area and limb loading
Nostril dilator showed a 92%
Horses Facial expressions EquiFACS correct classification in [60]
duration in pain/no pain
Cattle Blood samples Biosensor Bovine Herpes Virus [61]
Microfluidics based
Cows Blood and serum Ketosis, Beta hydroxybutyrate [62]
biosensor
Hen movement and Impact of Northern Fowl Mite
Chicken Three-axis accelerometers [63]
activity on the welfare
Monitoring aggressive
Screaming in pigs, tail
Chickens, interactions, context-based
biting in pigs, distress calls Microphones, audio
Cattle and cattle calls labelling, [64]
and alarm calls in chicks, recording sensors
Pigs classification of distress
cough sounds in cattle
vocalizations

2.5.2. Nose Band Sensors

A noseband sensor called RumiWatch was developed to monitor eating and ruminating activities
in dairy cows [54]. Animals deal with stressors like social changes, environmental changes, satiety,
and infection by changing their behavior. Monitoring this behavior on a large scale becomes
impractical because of the manpower required for continuous monitoring of a large groups of animals.
Wearable sensor technologies make it possible to simultaneously measure real-time physiological
parameters in a herd on a large scale when coordinated with appropriate interpretations of outputs [44].
Thus, wearable sensor technologies have an edge over traditional herd-based approaches as the data
from wearable sensors can be analyzed immediately, enabling quick reaction times.

2.5.3. Water Sensors

Water flow sensors can monitor group drinking behavior in pigs and are considered more precise
than experienced observers [65]. The issues and limitations of water sensors includes variable water
flow rates, installing sensors in existing plumbing, short drinking bouts, unspecified drinking behavior
when a snout is in an outlet, and wastage of water [66].

2.5.4. Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) Tags

The requirements of an RFID system include an RFID transponder or ear tag and an RFID antenna
located at the drinking sink or feeding unit. RFID systems (at drinking and feeding areas) have been
used to monitor the events and duration of feeding and drinking behavior of individual pigs [56].
High-frequency (HF), low-frequency (LF), and ultra-high-frequency (UHF) are the frequency ranges
typically used for RFID tags. These systems can have significant differences in read ranges as well as
varying responses to the influence of materials, especially water and metal [67].

2.5.5. Combination of RFID and Accelerometers

A combination of stationary RFID, accelerometer, and water flow meter sensors has been used to
measure beef cattle drinking behavior and herd water consumption in grazing systems. This approach
was determined to be reliable in recording behavioral measures, such as the frequency, duration,
Animals 2020, 10, 1512 9 of 24

and number of visits to the water point per animal as well as the duration of drinking events per
animal visit [17].

2.5.6. Multi Sensor Systems for Continuous Monitoring of Growth

Garrido-Izard and colleagues have monitored a combination of ear skin temperature sensors,
body weight measurement, and the amount of feed consumed and the duration per animal in order to
identify animal behavior changes based on the integration of their intake patterns and the thermal
data. Animals with higher-temperature measurements showed less thermal variability, and vice versa.
The study also showed that animals with less alteration in feed intake during breeding have higher
efficiencies [68].

2.6. Activity, Movement, and Postural Behaviors for Analysis of Animal Welfare
Posture and lying behaviors can be automatically quantified to increase the productivity and
welfare of domesticated animals because changes in posture and activity indicate health and welfare
issues [69]. For instance, changes in behaviors like walking, standing, and lying can indicate sickness
in cows [70]. Monitoring postural changes is important in assessing calf or swine wellness or painful
conditions. Numerous studies have studied postural behavior differences in cows who receive painful
stimuli [71].

2.6.1. Sensors for Assessing Activity, Movement, and Postural Behaviors

Accelerometers
Accelerometers, electromechanical devices that measure acceleration forces, have proven very
accurate in monitoring activity and movement in the animals. The use of accelerometers has
recently been widely used to quantify or evaluate animal behavior [8], grazing behavior in cattle [72],
lying behavior in sows and lameness in cows [73]. The accelerometer’s smaller size and the versatility
of the data generated make these technologies effective for examining animal behavior in farm
settings [74]. Accelerometers are considered to be most efficient in assessing activity in pigs. Increased
activity is indicative of stress in pigs, while reduced activity has been associated with disease [75] or
changes in the environmental conditions of a barn [76].
Analysis of data from two-dimensional accelerometers has revealed that the percentage of time
spent standing increases in calves after castration [77]. In another study, it was shown that five days
after castration, calves preferred more time in lying down and less time in walking activity [78].
The differences between these two studies could possibly stem from the duration of monitoring and a
considerable time-dependent change in behavior.
The current animal welfare determining factors are mostly conducted at a single point in time
(i.e., providing water and food and treating diseases or illnesses as they arise), these assessments are
often considered insufficient. Pattison and colleagues have designed a methodology for the continuous
monitoring of interaction between animals fitted with proximity sensors attached to neck collars.
The resulting data and levels of serum cortisol concentrations are expected to provide a visual map
of the social structures of each group. This will allow scientists to explore the potential of proximity
sensors as a welfare monitoring platform for measuring an animal’s freedom to express its normal
behavior in natural state [79].
Accelerometer sensors have been used to accurately measure active and not-active behaviors of
tiestall-housed dairy cows [80] and predict the behavior of dairy cows from the signal pre-processing
sensor data [81]. Lying behaviors in calves have also been analyzed after administering analgesic
drugs. Lying behavior decreased in calves following the induction of experimental lameness using
an amphotericin B synovitis-arthritis induction model [82]. Accelerometer sensors have also been
effectively used in the regular assessment of behavioral changes in response to pain [71]. The use of
two accelerometers can automatically quantify the lying behavior in free-farrowing sows; challenges
Animals 2020, 10, 1512 10 of 24

of automation in the lying behavior have been addressed in both free-farrowing sows as well as
sows housed in movement-restricting barn environments [73]. More recently, data from triaxial
accelerometers has been used to define general behavior recognition framework in the form of a hybrid
model combined with biomechanical principles and machine learning tools [83].

2.6.2. Video Imaging for Behavior Analysis

In domestic animals, aggression between individuals is a serious stressor and cause of injuries.
Research is increasingly exploring facial expressions as a non-invasive means of obtaining quantitative
data on an animal’s emotional state. Camerlink and colleagues have demonstrated the use of video
imaging in analyzing the emotional state of pigs in an event of aggression or confrontation in dyadic
contest. Facial metrics can be a powerful way of measuring the aggressive intention of animals.
Facial metrics after retreat and/or during the episode of aggression in pigs differed significantly from
the facial features prior to and during aggression [84].
Mounting behavior, observed in both female and male pigs throughout their lifetime, is mostly
prominent during estrus. This behavior is manifested as follows: a pig typically places two front hoofs
on the head or the body of another pig in the lying position. Mounting behavior can cause epidermal
wounds, lameness, and fractures, resulting in economic losses and decreased productivity. Li and
colleagues have developed a learning algorithm that detects swine mounting behavior based on the
visible light images to enable timely detection and intervention [85]. This method has demonstrated
high accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity. However, the sample size of the research included only four
mini pigs, so the system still needs to be validated on a larger scale.

2.6.3. Pressure Mats

Pressure mats are composed of a series of array of pressure sensing components with the
measuring frequency that enables the mats to differentiate the simultaneous impact of different
limbs [55]. Systems from various pressure sensor manufacturers have been able to successfully assess
locomotion in healthy cows, horses, and sheep [59,86,87]. These systems were capable of assessing
lameness in cows [88].

2.6.4. Pedometers
Pedometers objectively measure an animal’s total number of steps and the total distance travelled
via an algorithm that calculates the steps from the raw data [71]. While pedometers are comparatively
easy to deploy and use, there is considerable variation in the number of steps traveled by each calf
on different days and environmental conditions. There might be an association between the distance
traveled by calves and stressful and painful procedures; one study determined that calves traveled
fewer steps for four days following castration [89], while another study showed the association between
stress experienced by calves and the number of steps traveled following castration.
Stress influences the distance traveled by calves, though gender differences must be accounted for
in such studies; it is observed that steers travel fewer steps per day than bulls [89]. Pedometers have
reportedly been useful in intelligently designed experiments to investigate changes in behavior after
the animals go through a painful experience. Pedometers have been demonstrated in identification of
early lameness in dairy cattle, though a 15% decrease in activity was required in order to accurately
detect 92% of the lame cattle [90]. Pedometers can be valuable tools for detecting and assessing
musculoskeletal pain as they rely on the direct quantification of locomotion.

2.6.5. Gait Measurement Using TIR (Thermal Infrared) Sensors

TIR and RGB (red, green, and blue) image based sensor data has reportedly been useful in
evaluating the walking posture and gait analysis of cattle through recorded videos [91]. Changes in
posture while walking can indicate skeletal problems in livestock, so TIR sensors can be implemented
to judge animal well-being.
Animals 2020, 10, 1512 11 of 24

2.6.6. Global Position Systems (GPS) and Real-Time Location Systems (RTLS)
Various research investigations in the last decade have demonstrated the advantage of
GPS telemetry devices for assessing livestock behavior when used in combination with other
sensors/devices [50]. This has been used to distinguish between activities or assess energy
expenditure [53]. GPS collars with activity sensors form an efficient technique for simultaneously
monitoring the movements of grazing livestock and inferring animal behavior [52].
RTLS have been developed to locate the position of an object anywhere inside a specific area.
The design of an RTLS consists of a receiver positioned closer to the desired monitoring space, active
or passive tags deployed on the target objects, and a hardware and software to receive and interpret
positional data. Tags used with RTLSs are typically smaller in size and have a longer battery life
than existing GPS systems [71]. RTLS technology has been investigated to assess the association
between behaviors like distance travelled and duration of time spent at feed bunk with clinical illness
scores. An association was also found between the distance travelled by calves and the level of lung
consolidation by RTLS monitoring, which indicated that assessing movement can help evaluate the
wellness status of livestock animals [92]. The associations derived from these studies strongly suggest
that RTLS platform is a legitimate tool for producing quantitative measurements of cattle activity.
They can be further helpful in evaluating significant changes in pain status or wellness in response to
an intervention [71]. RTLS has the distinctive advantage in monitoring an animal’s location anywhere
within the farm; therefore, it does not restrict assessment to only drinking and feeding behaviors.

2.7. Acoustic Variability

Vocalization process in animals happens through the active generation of sounds with organs to
express distinct physiological status. Vocalization may be spontaneous or triggered by an external
event [93], but their reflection of an animal’s inner state makes them an efficient tool for monitoring
animal wellbeing, stress response, and interaction among species. Heat stress is an important
environmental stressor affecting poultry production and welfare, specifically growth, egg production,
and impaired poultry health. Changes in behavioral and physiological responses due to heat stress
might manifest as distinct vocalizations such as gakel, squawk, and alarm calls [94]. Du et al. [95] have
demonstrated a correlation between vocalization in egg-laying hens and the temperature humidity index
(THI). The authors specifically concentrated on the quantitative measurement of frustration-related
vocalizations (squawk, gakel, and alarm calls) and concluded that specific vocalizations such as poultry
squawk and alarm calls are significantly correlated with THI. Furthermore, because of thermal inertia
in a henhouse, which is a potential early warning detection tool to avoid lags in monitoring the ambient
environment [95].
Acoustic monitoring (or vocalization measurement) is a non-invasive and an accurate method
of measuring biological responses in livestock; it can be used as an indicator of animal well-being in
precision livestock farming, which focusses on addressing animal welfare concerns by facilitating the
automated, continuous monitoring of livestock and enabling timely and appropriate interventions [96].

Sensors for Vocalization

Changes in sound pressure can be transformed into electrical signals, which are then received
by audio equipment and processed as digital signals using signal processing techniques through
standard computers. The definite evaluation of audio data is typically based on spectral analysis,
where acoustic signals automatically separate into bands of appropriate frequencies. This is then
followed by subsequent processing [57].
Vocalization in pigs can be used for several different purposes, such as identification of sex, age
(Figure 2), and stress levels through a decision-tree to classify distress condition in pigs with an accuracy
of 81.92% using the machine-learning technique [97]. In turkey farming, cannibalism is identified as a
major problem resulting in animal stress and loss of productivity. Certain behavioral changes have
2.9. Assessment of Reproductive Performance
Currently, there are no tangible ways to measure reproductive performance, especially with
respect to uterine contractility and suitable diagnostic tests for the onset of labor in sows. Unsuitable
uterine contractility can result in embryonic loss, miscarriages, ectopic pregnancies, and
abnormalities of puerperium in sow [100]. One potential diagnostic tool is the measurement
Animals 2020, 10, 1512 12 ofof24
bioelectric signals from swine uterus using electromyography and magnetomyography. To overcome
the drawbacks in the crude uterine contraction information obtained through tocodynamometer or
been identified in animals prior to cannibalistic behavior, including pecking activity. Acoustic data
with an intrauterine pressure catheter, a 3D uterine electrical activation pattern measurement system
analysis in combination with machine learning techniques has been tested as a tool to continuously
has been demonstrated using electro-myometrial imaging (EMMI) [101].
monitor pecking activity for potential use on turkey farms [98].

Figure 2. Bioacoustics applications in Precision Livestock Farming. Physiological parameters

Figure 2. Bioacoustics applications in Precision Livestock Farming. Physiological parameters
measurement through on-line sound analysis as a basis for health and welfare monitoring in pigs, cows,
measurement through on-line sound analysis as a basis for health and welfare monitoring in pigs,
and poultry.
cows, and poultry.
2.8. Radar-Based Sensors for Activity Behavior
EMMI surface electrical recording has been shown to be a safe, accurate, non-invasive, and
Currently, the activity-based sensors used in the animal farming industry are optical or
feasible method to measure uterine contractions in sheep. Electrophysiological studies using
animal-attached sensors. While sensors attached directly to animals are difficult to manage,
electromyogram sensing systems by Domino et al. [102] demonstrated that myoelectric activity in
the sensitivity of optical sensors decreases in the presence of dirt or changes in the ambient lighting
various regions of sows’ reproductive tract can be used as a reliable measurement to assess pregnancy
conditions. In cases where spatial distribution of the animal movement or the activity is irrelevant,
health as the contractility regulation was superiorly observed in the uterine horn tip. A
Manteuffel [99] hasprovides
tocodynamometer demonstrated that simple
an indirect stationary
measure sensors to measure
of the intrauterine pressureanimal
and is activity can be
the current
beneficial due to easy signal interpretation requiring little computational power. Soon, doppler-based
standard method to determine labor. A combination of electromyography and magnetomyography
radar sensors
sensing willisfind
platforms new avenues
expected in tocodynamometers
to replace the dairy cow guided gatenear
in the system to measure
future. the cow’s
In a preliminary heart
study,
rate and breathing pattern before entering the rotor milking machines.
Brassel et al. [103] have evaluated the performance of automated health monitoring integrated with
an accelerometer-based
2.9. estrus detection
Assessment of Reproductive Performancesystem (ODS) for dairy cows on pasture. Although the ODS
was able to flag health problems faster than human farmers, the use of ODS generated an extremely
Currently,
high rate of falsethere are no[103].
positives tangible ways to measure reproductive performance, especially with respect
to uterine contractility and suitable diagnostic tests for the onset of labor in sows. Unsuitable uterine
contractility can result in embryonic loss, miscarriages, ectopic pregnancies, and abnormalities of
puerperium in sow [100]. One potential diagnostic tool is the measurement of bioelectric signals from
swine uterus using electromyography and magnetomyography. To overcome the drawbacks in the
crude uterine contraction information obtained through tocodynamometer or with an intrauterine
pressure catheter, a 3D uterine electrical activation pattern measurement system has been demonstrated
using electro-myometrial imaging (EMMI) [101].
EMMI surface electrical recording has been shown to be a safe, accurate, non-invasive, and feasible
method to measure uterine contractions in sheep. Electrophysiological studies using electromyogram
Animals 2020, 10, 1512 13 of 24

sensing systems by Domino et al. [102] demonstrated that myoelectric activity in various regions of
sows’ reproductive tract can be used as a reliable measurement to assess pregnancy health as the
contractility regulation was superiorly observed in the uterine horn tip. A tocodynamometer provides
an indirect measure of the intrauterine pressure and is the current standard method to determine labor.
A combination of electromyography and magnetomyography sensing platforms is expected to replace
tocodynamometers in the near future. In a preliminary study, Brassel et al. [103] have evaluated the
performance of automated health monitoring integrated with an accelerometer-based estrus detection
system (ODS) for dairy cows on pasture. Although the ODS was able to flag health problems faster
than human farmers, the use of ODS generated an extremely high rate of false positives [103].

2.10. Health and Disease

Absence of disease is an essential component of overall animal health and well-being. Disease,
lameness, and limb disorders pose a significant challenge to the dairy industry today. Along with
dairy cows, sheep flocks around the farm also face the most persistent and common health challenge
of lameness. Lameness results in decreased milk production and is an important motivator for early
culling of animals. Lameness is painful, and animals suffering from pain frequently diverge from their
normal behavior by changing activity, gait, appetite, posture, and appearance [104].

2.10.1. Sensors for Health and Disease

Bolus and Rumen Sensors

The amplitude and frequency of ruminal contractions in cattle are impacted by metabolic
diseases (such as ruminal acidosis and hypocalcemia) and other diseases that cause fever or pain.
Wireless intraruminal bolus sensors inserted through the esophagus have been developed to monitor
the temperature and pH values of the rumen and reticulum [105]. The assessment process has been
simplified by the advent of commercially available boluses for the measurement of reticuloruminal pH,
where the boluses regularly transmit pH information wirelessly to a central processing region.
Wireless and indwelling sensors for rumen facilitates high-resolution pH measurements in
determining the kinetic behavior and identification of rumen acidosis. The data from this analysis
can assess the physiological status of the rumen and, therefore, the whole animal. While indwelling
rumen pH sensors allow for continuous measurement of pH in individual animals, their application is
limited; the differences in pH between the ruminal locations cannot be measured, and there is also
substantial drift in the baseline sensor data from the non-retrievable sensors [106].

2.11. Metabolic Adaptations

The biochemical interactions within and outside the cellular environment lead to the end
products, which are the metabolites. Comprehensive measurement of metabolites, called metabolomics,
helps researchers gather accurate and sensitive data in order to better depict the phenotype [107].
Metabolomics is a non-invasive tool to identify phenotypes, phenotypic changes, and assessment of
dietary responses [108]. Traditional methods of quantification of phenotypes, such as feed intake and
residual feed intake, are time-intensive, costly, and require specialized equipment [109]. In contrast,
phenotype/trait quantification using the metabolomics approach is cost-effective [110]. There remains
a dearth of metabolomic studies on livestock, especially studies that utilize sensor technologies.

2.12. Use of Biosensors in Metabolomics

Biosensing technologies have started gaining attention in farmed livestock animal studies as they
show promising potential to address the relevant issues of reliable tests, cost of equipment/devices,
and early detection of disease/stress [14]. New and emerging biosensing technologies have the potential
to improve livestock animal management and the associated factors [14]. These technologies monitor
animal welfare by evaluating metabolic and stress biomarkers. The non-invasive early detection of
Animals 2020, 10, 1512 14 of 24

stress by assessing physiological responses will help farmers take timely safety measures for animal
health and welfare. Further advancements in biosensor technology shall generate new approaches for
real-time evaluation of metabolic and physiological responses.

2.12.1. Methane
A non-invasive technique to detect volatile organic compounds or a reliable validated biomarker
allows farmers to responsibly assess animal stress and respond quickly. Such compounds can be
identified in animal breath, skin, urine, feces, blood, and vaginal fluid [111]. Gaseous metabolites
present in the breathing air of cattle include hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and volatile organic compounds
such as phenol and methane. Methane emission in ruminants is an integral part of their energy
metabolism and is thus a valuable indicator of their physiological state [112]. A study conducted to
monitor methane emission in cows using a Fourier transform infrared (FITR) sensor assessed the breath
of the animals and accurately measured the methane-carbon dioxide ratio [113]. Others have assessed
methane levels in milk using the mid-infrared (MIR) spectra biosensor in cows [114]. The results have
concluded that the extent of methane present in milk is directly dependent on the animal’s lactation
stage. Phenol and p-cresol emitted from nasal secretions clearly indicated the bovine respiratory disease
in cattle [115]. Real-time detection of volatile organic compounds using biosensors by integrating with
the halter or the neck collar of cattle or pigs would serve as a non-invasive, portable disease-sensing tool.

2.12.2. Glucose
The concentration of metabolites in tears is correlated to their concentration in the blood. Thus,
tears can be used for the non-invasive continuous evaluation of metabolites. Currently, there are
no devices or sensors available for measurement in livestock tear fluids as there are no scientifically
validated biomarkers. This opens up new avenues of wearable ‘eye-based’ sensors for livestock.

2.12.3. Hormones
Hormone levels related to the reproductive physiology of animals are usually determined to predict
the animal’s reproductive state. The Herd Navigation system is a commercially available biosensor
that can quantify levels of milk progesterone [116]. A handheld, smartphone-based, rapid on-farm
progesterone immunosensor has been developed to monitor milk progesterone levels in cows [117],
with a biosensor composed of a monoclonal anti-progesterone antibody (mAb) immobilized on an
electrode. Others have also reported the use of immunosensors for the assessment of hormone levels
in saliva, where the method is quick and non-invasive in nature.

2.12.4. Pathogen/Virus
Farm livestock is often challenged by outbreaks of viruses like Bovine Herpes Virus-1 (BHV-1),
foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), and Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD) virus, to name a few.
Various immunosensors have been built to determine the presence of these pathogens in animal sera [61],
and these biosensors have produced faster results than conventional enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assay (ELISA) and Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based methods. Biosensor technology offers the
advantage of being used in combination with other devices and being open to multiplexing, making it
suitable for large-scale applications for agriculture and livestock.

2.13. Emotional Expressions

Specific internal or external stimuli trigger short-term, intense states known as emotions, which
can lead to behavioral decisions and social interactions (i.e., approaching or avoiding the stimuli) [118].
Emotions have been shown to be of paramount importance in animal welfare, especially in the
production chain of farm animals [119]. Studies have suggested that communication by vocal
contagion [118], monitoring ear posture [120], facial expressions [121], and body language in livestock
Animals 2020, 10, 1512 15 of 24

animals can provide a better understanding of their emotional adaptation [122]. However, this requires
skillful, experienced workers and may provide erroneous diagnosis [123]. Researchers are evaluating
coding systems that could provide objective readings of animal facial expressions instead of guessing
the meaning of their expressions. A coding system precisely describes the meaning of different facial
expressions such as squinting eyes, posture of ears, eye white region, or pursing lips when an animal
feels a particular emotion. Such techniques have been developed and tested on domestic animals
in some studies. For instance, EquiFACS has been developed as an anatomy-based objective tool to
determine the systematic recording of facial expressions and pain scoring in horses [60]. However,
the scientific community has still not come up with a detailed validation of the outcomes of such a
system in farm animals. It is hypothesized that in the future, developers could create a smart phone
app that could decipher the emotional status of an animal when the user held the phone in front of the
animal’s face.

3. Limitations of Sensing Technologies

Although sensor technology has been proven to provide accurate and reliable results in farm
animal assessment, it poses a unique set of challenges. For instance, optical sensors such as video
cameras, infrared thermography, or depth cameras are commonly used to automatically assess general
activity. These stationary optical devices are prone to reduction in sensitivity due to dirt and dust [124].
Depth cameras are susceptible to disturbances from heat sources including sunlight (in the
case of infrared-based systems) or the color and structure of the animals’ feathers or fur [125,126].
Radiation measurements rely on the analysis of the animal’s emissivity and conductivity values.
Furthermore, infrared sensors need specialized IR translucent window cover materials in
comparison to plastics or steel based covers, as the sensors are prone to damage by physical forces due
to the harsh farming environments [99]. Studies that have attempted to show the correlation between
broiler outer body temperature and core body temperature used IR cameras under well-controlled
research conditions [127]. The high-quality IR cameras used in such studies are expensive and remain
impractical for commercial applications [127].
PPG has contact requirements, so its advanced version, photoplethysmographic imaging (PPGI),
is being considered for use in livestock. Unlike the contact-based requirements in PPG, PPGI is
camera-based, low-cost, non-contact, and convenient. It is also preferable over a PPG sensor in areas
of hygiene, animal welfare, and practical deployment for housed animals [38]. However, even PPGI
technique is not completely free of loopholes. It requires that subjects face the camera and remain
motionless during recording. PPGI signals are also prone to illumination variations and motion-induced
artifacts (Table 2), especially while dealing with webcams through ambient light [128].

Table 2. Challenging factors in deploying sensor technology for animal farming.

Challenges Affected Systems

Dirt and dust Optical sensors
Sunlight Infrared-based sensors
Color and structure of animals’ fur and feathers Time of flight sensors
Physical force Infrared sensors
Expensive instrumentation Photoplethysmographic sensor (PPGI)
Motion-induced artifacts Webcam and PPGI
Networking in rural area farms Wi-Fi and Bluetooth based devices

Use of Big Data in Smart Farming Solutions

The era of “big data” is interdependent on the development of novel sensing technologies
that allow for rapid and inexpensive collection of observations and data [128]. The trend towards
agricultural applications of big data techniques and methods is not strictly about primary production;
Animals 2020, 10, 1512 16 of 24

farmers also aim to improve the efficiency of the entire supply chain and alleviate concerns related to
food security [129].
The extent of literature on the use of big data in smart farming is limited in peer-reviewed literature,
but the commercial viability of Internet of Things (IoT) and new technologies for wireless connectivity
is generating huge amounts of data that can be used for end-to-end livestock management [129].
Furthermore, as all this data is available in real time, it can be used to support decision-making
capabilities that were incomprehensible before.
The scope of the use of big data in adaptive physiology includes automatic phenotype identification
of animal breeds using computer vision and machine learning techniques [130], genomic prediction,
and disease detection for sub-clinical mastitis applying machine learning-based prediction platforms on
milking datasets to study the best predictive models of sub-clinical mastitis [131]. Other methodologies
exploring the detection of sub-clinical mastitis include the use of cytometric fingerprinting and
machine learning [132]. Big data and machine learning have been used for the analysis of animal
behavior [133]. Computer vision-based methods have been employed for automatic recognition in
commercial farms using spatial and temporal information of the nursing behavior of animals and
individual pig recognition, with accuracy rates of 96.7% [134,135].
Machine learning tools have been used to evaluate cattle behavior and feed intake using predictive
clustering trees (PCT) [136] and by combining accelerometer data with machine learning to analyze
cattle behavior including walking, grazing, ruminating while standing, resting while standing,
ruminating while lying, and resting while lying [81]. While this method resulted in excellent behavior
prediction accuracy, the machine struggled to differentiate cow postures based on data from a single
accelerometer. Other methodologies to determine feed intake include the adoption of a machine vision
system for feed intake by individual animals based on deep convolutional neural networks (CNNs)
models, and a low-cost RGB-D (Red, Green, Blue, Depth) camera [137]. Big data and machine learning
are being evaluated in several other areas as standalone methods or in combination with conventional
sensors to evaluate adaptive behavior in livestock.
These technologies can determine several other physiological parameters, such as heat stress
in dairy cows. This method is considered superior to current approaches of determining stressors
as several machine learning algorithms consider nonlinearity in the data, thereby removing the
subjectivity [138]. Big data has been used in the analysis of animal behavior, quantitative risk
assessment for animal disease transmission, and implementation of practices for risk-reduction [139].
In near future, big data application would be commonplace in analyzing animal behavior and welfare.
Big data’s true potential in practical terms will undoubtedly require close collaboration in fields such
as computer science, engineering, mathematics, statistics, and the livestock industry to enable the
development of cutting-edge approaches to analyzing large quantities of heterogeneous data [140].
Predictive machine learning approaches, in combination with sensor-based data, can prove invaluable
in addressing the challenges ahead in animal sciences.

4. Economic Viability of Adoption of Sensors for Adaptation Physiology of Animals

Some of the costs associated with implementation of sensors technology for investigation and
measurement of adaptation physiology of farm animals are expenses involving software, hardware
sensing electronic components, data storage and information costs, data processing, and learning
costs for the producers to develop the management framework. Size of the farm greatly influences
the adoption and profitability of using sensors technologies as the cost/benefit estimations need
a specific minimal farm size to depreciate the investments. The benefits of sensing technologies
that enable real time data collection on the animal behaviors and the adaptation physiology are
beginning to be validated. Benefit–cost ratio, internal rate of return, payback period, net present value,
and milk production measures in evaluating the economic value of the investment in precision livestock
farming platforms such as the Automated Estrus Detection tools [141] assured farm profitability and
enhancement in production efficiency. Cost–benefit analysis of four fictive pig and dairy farms by
Animals 2020, 10, 1512 17 of 24

Hammer et al. [142] showed that the ultra-high frequency and radio frequency identification tags
(UHF-RFID) sensor platform in the simultaneous detection and hotspot monitoring of fattening pigs
and dairy cows is economically advantageous. However, this study was conducted based on only
fictive farms, and did not include additional benefits such as animal welfare indicating parameters for
supporting quality marketing, and the advantages associated to traceability programs.

5. Future Perspectives
The advent of sensor technologies has revolutionized the assessment of livestock behavior and
stress responses. Sensor-based technologies have contributed immensely to minimizing the stress on
animals, improving animal welfare, and consequently preventing economic losses. Early detection of
physiological responses can help farmers take targeted measures to alleviate the strain on their animals,
improve animal welfare, and prevent performance losses by predicting potential disease outbreaks.
Sensor technologies have an edge over traditional assessment methods as they are timesaving and
can automatically take measurements at desired time (Table 1). These efficient technologies aid in the
evaluation of certain responses that can then be used to precisely estimate physiological states such as
stress, welfare, fertility, health, metabolism, and disease.
On the technological front, a number of novel sensor-based methodologies are still in the
explorative phase of development. Some promising sensor candidates include microRNA-based
sensors for detecting bovine respiratory syncytial virus, sensors for the detection of salivary hormones
such as Luteinizing Hormone for the detection of bovine estrus, and electrochemical sensors to detect
antibodies against influenza A and B, to name a few. These rely on highly specific biomarkers for
specific physiological conditions. None of the currently available commercial devices and sensing
systems provide a combination of size, functionality, and wearability that meets the requirements of
the livestock sector or allows for the movement of animals and the simultaneous measurement of
physiological parameters such as respiratory and heart rate. This gap calls for research in the design
and development of sensing technologies for next generation of precision livestock farming.
It should be noted that some of the precision livestock farming sensing platforms do not require
internet connectivity and can possibly function by using Bluetooth and/or radio frequency spectrum.
These sensors may be used in isolation in which encrypted data can be collected from multiple animals
and barn systems, compiled, and sent to a local computational platform for data processing [143].
With the advent of Digital Twins technologies in livestock farming, real-time data transmission
collected by the multitude of sensors from farms is one of the basic design requirements. Moreover,
the OIE—World organization for animal health, strongly advises real-time detection and transmission
of animal health and epidemiological data from the sensors and devices [14] to producers, inspection,
and government agencies. Hence, internet connection in livestock farms becomes necessary. The limited
internet connectivity and the data moving capacity for both rural and urban farms remain a bottleneck
for adoption of sensor-based platforms in investigation of adaptation physiology of farm animals.
Globalization, the post-Covid-19 world, rising per-capita incomes, human population growth,
ecological pressures, and global warming are some of the many important parameters that will
influence the role of technology in the field of adaptation physiology for farm animals. It is evident
that Covid-19 is building individual and societal resilience as it forces entire industries to find new and
innovative solutions for farming, livestock, and other industrial sectors. The emphasis on reducing
animal experiments for research purposes and limiting physical contact with animals is expected to
fuel future research and development as well as create new commercial applications for sensor-based
technologies in the agricultural and livestock sectors.

6. Conclusions
Sensor-based technology can assess many biochemical, metabolic, physical, and immunological
parameters related to adaptation physiology in farm animals. These include measurements of heart
rate variability, respiration rate, body temperature, sweating rate, metabolism, health and diseases,
Animals 2020, 10, 1512 18 of 24

vocalization, activity, movement, postural, feed and water intake behavior, and emotional contagion.
The presented critical review illustrated the promising outcomes of sensor-based technology in farm
animals as an innovative approach for maximizing animal welfare and providing better alternatives
for gauging animal health and response. In addition, sensor-based technologies help in the recognition
of robust breeds (i.e., animals with better adaptation capabilities and stress response).
Despite promising outcomes, the use of novel, highly precise sensor-based technologies face several
challenges that must be addressed in future research. These key challenges include the validation
of large-scale machine learning techniques and issues related to the sensitivity of conventional
sensor-based methodologies. Another important challenge will be imparting the necessary skillset to
farmers in rural areas, so they are equipped and willing to maximize their use of the available technology.
Educating the end-users of sensor-based technology in the use of information technology-based sensor
devices is the only way these innovative new developments can reach their full potential.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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