Volcano - a type of landform that has an opening on the Earth's crust where molten rocks,

smoke, gas, and ashes are erupted.

PHIVOLCS (Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology) - mitigates disasters (volcanic

eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, etc.)

Parts of a Volcano:
Basic - consists of the summit; the peak of the volcano, the slope; the body, and the base; the
bottom part of the volcano, connected to the magma chamber.

Cross-Section:
1. Magma Chamber - where molten rocks are stored.
2. Main Vent/Conduit - pipe/channel where the materials pass through to be ejected.
3. Crater - funnel-shaped; serves as the mouth of the volcano.
4. Side Vent - small opening at the side of the volcano.
5. Parasitic Cone - small and cone-shaped opening located at the side of the volcano. It
releases accumulated volcanic materials.
6. Gas and Volcanic Ash - materials ejected from the mouth of the volcano.

Types of Eruption:
1. Explosive - magma is thick and doesn't flow easily, built-up gasses may block the vent.
Ash and other particles may form a mushroom cloud.
2. Non-Explosive - magma is thin and flows easily. Lava easily flows out of the volcano and
little to no gas forms in the volcano.

Types of Volcanic Eruptions:

1. Phreatic/Hydrothermal Eruption
- Happens to volcanoes in contact with bodies of water.
- Has heat, steam, and water.
- Can cause larger eruptions due to its location.
2. Phreatomagmatic Eruption
- Water in the presence of magma; happens to volcanoes in the presence of
bodies of water.
- Has a violent eruption due to water being mixed with magma.
- Releases fine ashes (base surges).
3. Strombolian Eruption
- characterized by a fountain of lava.
4. Vulcanian Eruption
- characterized by the tall eruption columns that can reach up to 20 km high with
ash fall tephra.
5. Plinian Eruption
- Eruption of gas and pyroclastic materials and magma.
- Causes a wide dispersion of gas.
- Has an explosive reaction with ashes and magma.
Classification of Volcanoes:
ACCORDING TO THE FREQUENCY OF ERUPTION:
1. Active Volcano - has records of eruption for the past 600 years and has erupted within
10,000 years.
2. Inactive Volcano - has no recorded eruption for the past 10,000 years.

ACCORDING TO THE CONE SHAPE:

1. Composite Volcano/Stratovolcano
- has a tall, symmetrical, and steep slope.
- dangerous and explosive (due to the pyroclastic materials and lava)
- Emits hot gas, ash, stiff and slow-moving lava, and pumice.
- Examples: Mayon, Taal, Fuji (Japan), Merapi (Indonesia)
2. Cinder Volcano
- Has circular/oval cones and an almost vertical slope.
- Its size and shape are similar to a hill.
- Built from erupting lava.
- Examples: Mt. Smith, Lava Butte (US), Kula Volcano (Turkey)
3. Shield Volcano
- not high and has a very broad shape with almost no slope.
- characterized by its huge magma chamber.
- shaped like a bowl/shield in the middle of the long, gentle slope.
- Examples: Mauna Kea (Hawaii), Mauna Loa (Hawaii), Mt. Verangell (Alaska)

Magma’s Viscosity (resistance to flow):

Affected by Three Factors:
1. Temperature (hotness/coldness) - has an inverse relation with viscosity.
2. Silica Content (what makes up the volcanic materials; rocks, clay, etc.) - has a direct
relation with viscosity.
3. Gas Content (combination of SO2, CO2, and Water Vapor) - has a direct relation with
viscosity.

Notable Precursors:
1. Increase in the frequency and intensity of earthquakes.
2. Noticeable steaming/fumarolic activity and new and enlarged areas of hot ground.
3. Swelling of the ground surface.
4. Small changes in the heat flow.
5. Changes in the composition/relative abundances of fumarolic gasses.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Volcanic Eruptions:

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Lahar - violent type of mud/debris flow (pyroclastic materials, rocky debris, and water).
2. Nuee Ardentes - clouds of hot ash and poisonous gasses.
3. Damage to Property
 4. Effects on the Environment - clouds of ash, dust, and gas. Emission of SO2 leads to acid
rain.
5. Loss of Life.

ADVANTAGES:
1. Fertile Soil - Volcanic soil (laterite soils) is rich in minerals.
2. Tourism
3. Creation of New Land
4. Building Materials
5. Geothermal Energy

Geothermal Energy:
- Came from the root words Geo (Greek word for “Earth”), and Therme (Greek word for
“Heat”).
- Heat within the Earth.
- renewable energy.

People Capture Geothermal Energy Through:

1. Geothermal Power Plant - uses heat deep within to generate steam to make energy.
2. Geothermal Heat Pump - tap into heat close tk the Earth's surface to heat water/provide
heat for buildings.

CLIMATE
Weather - the day-to-day state of the atmosphere in a specific place.

Climate - the weather of a place average over a period of time (seasons, years, decades). The
average of precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind, etc.

PAG-ASA (Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration) -

responsible for monitoring weather conditions.

Factors Affecting Climate:

1. Latitude - the closer a place is from the equator, the higher the temperature is.
2. Altitude - the height of an object/structure above sea level (2,400m is considered a high
altitude). The higher the altitude, the lower the air pressure, and lower temperature.
3. Topography - geological contours of the land.
Windward Side - area of the mountain where the wind blows.
Leeward Side - area of the mountain where it's dry and has less precipitation.
4. Distance from Large Bodies of Water - places near the bodies of water have more
precipitation than places that are not.
5. Ocean Current - movement of water from 1 place to another. Has 2 types (Warm
currents - comes from equator and goes away from the equator; Cold currents - come
from the polar regions and goes away to the equator).
Factors Affecting Ocean Currents:
1. Prevailing Winds
2. Earth's Rotation
3. Continental Shapes
4. Salinity of Water
5. Heat Capacity
6. Air Pressure
7. Convection Currents

Coriolis Effect - the curving of the path of object/fluid due to the Earth's rotation.

CLIMATE CHANGE:
According to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) - climate change is the
change in the average weather patterns.

Causes:
1. Increase in global temperature
2. Increase in greenhouse gas emissions
3. Deforestation
4. Increase in the use of chemical fertilizers
5. Industrialization
6. Volcanic Eruption

Effects :
1. Changes in air temperature
2. Impact on Biodiversity
3. Impact on human health
4. Impact on Agriculture
5. Impact on water resources
6. Energy crisis
7. Impact on human settlement
8. Impact on physical facilities

Solutions:
- Afforestation should be done.
- Public awareness.
- Burning of fossil fuels should be stopped.
- Alternative sources of energy should be used.
- Natural resources should be preserved.
CONSTELLATION:
Star:
- A massive ball of plasma that emits light throughout the universe.
- A plasma-ionized gas where electrons are ripped away from the atoms; forming a super
heated gas.
- Largest Stars: UY Scuti, Vy Canis Majoris
Smallest Star: EBLM JO555-57Ab

Sun:
- 151.1M kilometers away from the Earth (1.58 x 10-5 light years).
- It takes 8.3 minutes for its light to reach Earth.
- Has 5778K

Characteristics of a Star:
1. Brightness
- Absolute Brightness/Magnitude - luminosity (the amount of light/energy a star
radiates; true brightness).
- Apparent Brightness/Magnitude - what the observer can see; affected by
luminosity and distance.
2. Color
- Depends on the surface temperature.
- Red - cooler star, Blue - hotter star, White and Yellow - mid ranges.
3. Surface Temperature
- Kelvin scale is used in measuring (1K = -273.15C)

Class Color Surface Temperature

O Blue Above 30,000K

B Blue-white 10,000K - 30,000K

A Blue-white 7,500K - 10,000K

F Yellow-white 6,000K - 7,500K

G Yellow 5,000K - 6,000K

K Orange 3,500K - 5,500K

M Red Below 3,500K

4. Size
- Measured the size of a star in terms of its radius.
5. Mass

Constellation:
- A group of stars that appear to form a pattern/picture in the night sky.
 - Rectangular slices (regions) of the heavens.
- Collection of stars distributed in space in three dimensions.

IAU (International Astronomical Union), 1929

- named 88 constellations
- 48 are from Babylonians/Greek
40 are from Europeans from the 18th and 19th Century

4 Functions of Constellations During the Asian Civilizations:

1. Navigation - the Polaris (North Star) is used to find the true north due to it appearing
stationary in the night sky.
2. Determining the Season - constellations appear on different times and different seasons.
3. Agriculture - farmers use constellations to know if they should plow the ground or plant
new crops.
4. Religion

Stars and Constellations Used by Matigsalug Manobo of Bukidnon:

Local Name Month of Appearance Related Agricultural Western Equivalent

Activity

Baha December to February Clearing of forest Taurus

Pandarawa January Start of planning what Pleiades

kinds of crops to plant
and how wide the area
for planting should be

Balatik February Start of planting and Orion’s Belt

setting of traps to
protect the crops from
animals

Malihe March Planting of rice, corn, or

vegetables

Gibbang April and May End of planting season; Gemini

signifies rich harvest

Malara May Stop planting Canis Minor

Lepu Late May Time to clean or clean Aquila

the fields while waiting
for harvest time

Buwaya June Start of the rainy

season