ECEG Department

2. Sensors and their Applications

2.1. Basic Idea of Sensors

The word sensor is derived from the Latin word meaning; perceive, feel, observe,
distinguish, identify, recognize.

Sensors are signaling elements, which detect physical variables (quantities) such as;
displacement, position, angle, filling level, temperature, force, speed, pressure, light,
sound and so on. They convert these physical variables primarily into electrical output
signal parameters and to process electronically.

Example 1: Temperature measurement

Fig.2.1.Principle of sensing element

Temperature detection is sensing of radiant heat energy from a source. This detection can
be done by direct contact or indirect contact with the temperature. For the measurement
of the physical quantity, which is, heat or temperature is sensed by thermo - resistive
elements and is changed to electrical energy. That is the resistance of the metal varies
directly with the temperature.

Example 2: A mercury-in-glass thermometer converts the measured temperature into

expansion and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated
glass tube.

Example 3: The force or stress may change the dimensions of a wire by altering its
resistance. That is the physical quantity that is force will change the
electrical parameter that is resistance of the wire which can be applied to a
measuring device ohmmeter.

Thus a sensor can be defined as:

A sensor (also called detector) is a device that entertains a physical quantity and
converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an (today mostly
electronic) instrument.

For accuracy, most sensors are calibrated against known standards. The output of
sensors is applied to the transducer which converts the physical variables from the sensor
to suitable electrical energy.
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Selection of Sensors

The first step in the selection procedure of sensors is to clearly define the nature of
quantity under measurement and know the range of magnitudes and frequency that the
measurand is expected to exhibit.

The next step will be to examine the available transducer principle for measurement of
desired quantity. The selected transducer type must be compatible with the type and
range of the quantity to be measured and the output device.

The main points to be considered in selecting a sensor suitable for a specific

measurement are: Electrical output characteristics, Sensitivity, Operating range,
Physical environment, Resolution, Linearity, Response time, Stability, Selectivity, Errors.

Electrical output characteristics: Electrical characteristics (uniqueness) should be

compatible (similar in temperament) with the output device.

Sensitivity: A small change in the measurand produces a relatively large change in the
response (reaction) of the sensor.

Operating range: The range should be large enough to encompass all the expected
magnitudes.

Physical environment: The application area and the surrounding condition where the
sensor is used should be appropriate (correct).

Resolution: The resolution of a sensor measures its ability to detect a change in the
perceived quantity, and is usually extracted in terms of the smallest change that can be
detected.

Linearity: Equal changes in the measurand result in equal changes in the response
(output) of the sensor.

Response time: In some applications a very small response (reply) time is required.

Stability: Its outcome does not change with age, mistreatment, or other effects of use.

Selectivity: It is affected by the measurand, but unaffected by other quantities.

For example: A light sensor should be unaffected by changes of temperature.

Errors: They can be either static or dynamic and should be reduced as much as possible.

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2.2. Classification of Sensors

Classification of sensors is conventionally (typically) by:

1. The physical quantity being measured, such as temperature, pressure, flow,
position, velocity, acceleration, displacement, force and so on.
2. The technology used whether the output signal they generate is Analogue or
Digital signal. That is, sensors with analogue output signals are able to carry out
measurements over a continuous range, while digital signals switch ON to OFF
signals.
3. The conversion principle on the electrical phenomena employed by the
transducers, the transduction element with a combination of appropriate sensing
elements and they are classified as Passive and Active sensors (transducers).

 Passive Sensors: Resistive , Capacitive and Inductive

 Active Sensors: EMF generating elements

2.2.1. Passive Sensors

A) Resistive Sensors:

Resistive sensors like (thermistors, strain gauges, photodiodes, and light dependent
resistors) convert the change in the property being measured into a change of electrical
resistance. So, the resistance between the output terminals of a sensor (transducer) gets
varied according to the measurand. In terms of their function the resistive sensors can be
named as:
1. Temperature sensors 3. Position sensors
2. Force or strain sensors 4. Displacement sensors and so on

Examples:

* As the resistance of a semiconductor varies with the change in light intensity, it

results for measurement of temperature
* As the resistance of the conductor is varied in a strain gauge, it results in
measurement of force and pressure
* As the length of a conductor wire in a potentiometer is changed, there by resulting
change in resistance is used for measurement of displacement and position.

1. Thermistors: are passive devices whose conductivity depends on temperature. They

are also called the thermal resistors and the name is derived from thermally sensitive
resistors where the value of a thermistor resistance varies as a function of temperature.
Thermistors are all made as temperature characteristics standardized. That is the relation
between the temperature and their respective resistance value is known. The relationship
for the conductors (metallic materials) which have positive temperature coefficient (PTC)
is determined by:

RT  RO 1  T  For conductors (metallic devices)

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The Resistance/Temperature characteristics of commonly used metal resistive

temperature sensors is given below

Fig.2.2. Resistance/Temperature characteristics of metal resistive sensors

There are also the so called negative temperature coefficient (NTC) semiconductors
where the number of free charge carriers increases with rising of temperature so that their
electrical resistance drops (Fig.2.3)

Fig.2.3. Thermistor resistance–temperature characteristics

Resistive temperature elements made from semiconductor materials are often referred to
as thermistors and they are commonly taken as semiconductor devices. Thus, at room
temperature, these components are usually referred to negative temperature coefficient in
an order of from – 3 up to – 5% per degree.

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The typical temperature range reaches from -600C up to 2000C. For these devices the
temperature dependency can be expressed using the following exponential relationships
as:
 1   1  
     
  T   To    
RT  R0 e or R  k exp   For semiconductor (thermistor) devices
 

Where: RT is the resistance of the thermistor at a final temperature (T) in 0K

R0 is the resistance of the thermistor at a reference temperature (To) in 0K
Rθ is the resistance at temperature θ Kelvin
T is the temperature difference between T & To ( T = T- To) in0K
 &  are the material constants that can be taken from specific data sheet

The reference temperature, the resistance at the reference temperature and the material
constant (  ) for the component can be taken from corresponding dependent constant
specific data sheet. Note that the temperature has to be specified in Kelvin.
The NTC resistors have vastly greatest temperature sensitivity than metal resistance
devices. Any type of temperature measurement or control is a potential application area.
However, the disadvantage for many applications is that the resistance characteristic is
not linear, but exponential. As such a process linearization is needed.

Thermistors can be used for temperature measurement by placing them in a Wheatstone

bridges. As the temperature of the thermistor changes, the change in resistance
(conductivity) causes a deflection of the meter, which allows for easy measurement

Assignment No. 2

The following table shows the calibrated values for an NTC resistive sensor of
R25 = 5KΩ characteristic for  = 39880K. (To = 250C and Ro = 5KΩ)

Measured
temperature T in 0C 0 20 25 40 60 80 100 120
Calibrated resistance
values in ohms 16325 6245 5000 2663 1244 628 339 195

a) Draw the complete Resistance-Temperature characteristic for the given NTC sensor
b) Repeat the above exercise for R25 = 10 KΩ NTC sensor on the same axis.

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2. Strain gauges: The electrical resistance strain gauge is essentially a metal wire or a
semiconductor sensing device whose resistance changes when under strain (stress, force
or pressure). Thus, strain gauges convert a force or a mechanical stress into electrical
signals due to a change in resistance of strained device. The basic concept of electrical
strain gauges is that resistance of a wire changes when subjected to tension or
compression. This change in resistance can be measured accurately with a Wheatstone
bridge. The working of strain gauge is based on the fact that when stress is applied on the
metal conductor its resistance changes owing to change in length and cross sectional area
of the conductor. Resistance of a conductor under stress is also changed due to change in
receptivity of the conductor. This property is called the piezo-resistive effect. That is
why strain gauges are also called the piezo-resistive strain gauges. If a conductor of
length l, area of cross section A, is subjected to axial tension, the resistance will change
because of change in length, area of cross section and receptivity. The electrical strain
gauge is based upon the measurement of the change in resistance that is proportional to
the strain transferred from the sample to the basic gauge element.

Operating principle of resistance strain gauge wire:

The resistance of a metal conductor under stress will be changed because of a change in
overall its length (l), cross-sectional area (A) and resistivity (  ). Thus the resistance of
any metal conductor is given by the expression:

l
R For unstressed resistance
A
Where  is the receptivity of the conductor in Ω.m, l is the length of the conductor in
meters and A is the cross sectional area of the conductor in m2

Physical observable fact (input signal) to the transducer causes variations in resistance by
changing any one of the quantities,  , l and A. If a force of tension F is applied, this
causes the conductor to increase or decrease in length. At the same time the conductor
becomes more narrowed. That is the cross sectional area of the conductor decreases or
increases.

Fig.2.4. Stress and strain: (a) Effect of tensile stress (b) Effect of compressive stress.

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Stress is defined by force/area, so that in Fig. 2.4(a) the stress experienced by the body is
+F/A, the positive sign indicating a tensile stress which tends to increase the length of the
body. In Fig.2.4 (b) the stress is −F/A, the negative sign indicating a compressive stress
which tends to reduce the length of the body. The effect of the applied stress is to produce
a strain in the body which is defined by (change in length) / (original unstressed length).
Thus in Fig.2.4 (a) the strain is  = +Δl /l (tensile), and in 2.4 (b) the strain is  = −Δl /l
(compressive). In both cases the strain is longitudinal, i.e. along the direction of the
applied stress. The relationship between strain and stress is linear for a given body over a
certain range of values. The slope of the straight line is termed the elastic modulus of the
body and is expressed as:

Stress F
Elastic mod ulus  or E  Where: F = Stress (Force) in Kg/cm2
Strain 
E = Elasticity of a material in Kg/cm2
Returning to Fig.2.4 (a) we note that the increase in length of the body is accompanied by
a decrease in cross-sectional area, i.e. a reduction in width and thickness. Thus in Fig.2.4
(a) the longitudinal tensile strain is accompanied by a transverse compressive strain, and
in Fig.2.4 (b) the longitudinal compressive strain is accompanied by a transverse tensile
strain. The relation between longitudinal strain L and accompanying transverse strain T
is:
 T    L Where: µ is Poisson’s ratio, which has a value between 0.3 and 0.5
for most materials.
It can be shown that the relative change in resistance ( R ) of a metallic strain gauge is
approximately given by the following equation.

R l
 G x  G x  And thus R  G    Ro
Ro l
The constant G is called the gauge factor. It indicates the strain sensitivity of the gauge
in terms of the change in resistance per unit resistance per unit strain and expressed as:
R / R
G  1  2  ; and it is closed to 2 for metal conductors. .
l / l

3. Position-Displacement Sensors

Most of the mechanical input measuring systems employ springs from one kind or
another. The displacements are usually very small and so engineering approximations for
small dislocations or deflections are applicable. There is the whole series of mechanical
devices that change shape when force or load is applied. These are called elastic
deformation, pressured elements or force summing devices. The gross displacements or
deflections caused due to applications of force or pressure of the element may directly
actuated a pointer/ scale readout through suitable linkages or gears or the motion may be
transducer to an electrical signal by one means or another.
Displacement obviously associated closely with motion. Displacement implies motion
from one point to another and it also implies position. That is a change from one position
as related to a stable or normal position. Sensors for displacement can be resistive
potentiometers.

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Potentiometers:

A potentiometer is very simple and cheap form of displacement sensors and is widely
used. It converts linear or rotational displacement into a voltage signal. This output
voltage is measured by a voltmeter, which may be calibrated in terms of displacement.
The sensing of distance traveled; as distinct from a fixed reference point for short
distance case can make use of a potentiometer sensor. A simple system of distance
sensing is the use of a linear potentiometer (Fig.2.5a). The moving object is connected to
the slider of the potentiometer, so that each position along the axis will correspond to a
different output from the slider contact either AC or DC can be used since only
amplitude needs to be measured.
The output can be displayed on a meter, converted to digital signals to operate a counter
or used in conjunction with voltage level sensing circuits to trigger some action when the
object reaches some set position.

The main objections (fears) to these potentiometer methods are that the:
 range of movement is limited by the size of potentiometer that is available.
 friction of the potentiometer is an obstacle to the movement.

Fig.2.5. Potentiometer displacement sensors

Fig.2.5 shows potentiometers for the measurement of (a) linear (rectilinear) and (b)
angular (rotary) displacement. They consist of a former with a cylindrical cross-section
which is either a straight cylinder or an arc of a circle. Resistive material is then placed
on the former so that the resistance per unit length is constant (the usual case). This
means that resistance is proportional to the distance d traveled by the wiper between A
and B. From Fig2.5a, the ratio of open circuit voltage ETh to supply voltage VS is given
by:
ETH Voltage across AB Re sis tan ce across AB
 
VS Voltage across CB Re sis tan ce across CB

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Where:
Resistance of CB = total resistance of potentiometer = RP
Rpd
Resistance of AB = fractional resistance =  Rpx
dT
d
x = fractional displacement = .
dT
Therefore the open circuit voltage for a linear displacement potentiometer is:
V d
ETh = VSx= S i.e. voltage is proportional to displacement.
dT
From figure (b), the open circuit voltage for an angular displacement potentiometer is:

Vs
ETh =  Vsx
T
Where: x = θ/θT = the fractional angular displacement.

Photoconductive cells:

Electrical connection in some semiconductor materials occurs when free charge carries
are available in the material when an electric field is applied. In certain semiconductors,
light energy striking them can provide sufficient energy to cause electrons within the
material and increases the flow of current caused by applied voltage. As the light
intensity increases, the current increases while the applied voltage remains constant
which results less resistance. That is why such semiconductors are called the
photoconductive cell or photo resistors or some times light dependent resistors (LDR) as
incident light effectively varies their resistance.

The conductivity of a photodiode depends on the free current carriers available at the pn-
junction of the semiconductor. As photons of light energy strikes atoms near the junction,
the collisions of the photon with inner shell electrons elevate these electrons to a level of
free electrons. These electrons then become a part of a current flowing in the external
circuit connected to the pn-junction. This increase in current carriers causes the increase
of the conductivity of the semiconductor according to the amount of incident light
photons.

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B) Capacitive Sensors:

A capacitor is comprised of two parallel plates of conducting materials separated by an

electrical insulating material called a dielectric. Electrodes are attached to each capacitor
plate for the purpose of making electrical connections. The capacitance sensor is one of
the most recent developments in sensor technology.

Changing in Capacitance:

Capacitive sensors basically consist of a capacitor with variable capacitance. The diagram
below, in Figure (a) shows a simple plate capacitor and the formula for determining its
capacitance C. A is the effective surface area of the plate, d is the plate separation,  o is
the field constant and  r is the dielectric constant of the medium between the plates.

 o r A
C
d
Fig.2.6. Capacitive sensing elements.

The principle of the sensor is based on causing changes in the non electrical variable that
interests us to observe the reflection in changes in the capacitance of the capacitor so that
they can then be measured using a suitable circuit. These changes in capacitance can
either be due to changes in the plate surface area, in the plate separation or in the relative
dielectric permittivity.

Changes in the plate separation:

The capacitance of a plate capacitor is inversely proportional to the distance d between

the plates. Therefore, if external effects cause the separation to increase, the capacitance
decreases and vice versa. Changes in separation can thus used to measure small
displacements. Due to the inverse proportionality, though, the relationship between the
separation and the capacitance is non-linear. If the displacement x causes the plate
separation to increase to d + x the capacitance of the sensor is C1 and if the displacement
x causes the plate separation to decrease to d - x the capacitance of the sensor is C2

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Changes in the effective plate surface area:

Instead of measuring displacement by varying the plate separation, it is possible to move

the plates parallel to one another. This causes the effective surface area of the capacitor
A to decrease since the plates only partially overlap, which results in a lowering of the
capacitance.

Since the capacitance is directly proportional to the overlapping surface area, the
characteristic in this case is linear. In the variable area type, the displacement x causes the
overlap area to decrease by A  wx, where w is the width of the plat.

Changes in the relative dielectric permittivity:

The capacitance of the capacitor is proportional to the relative permittivity of the medium
between the two plates. An increase in the relative permittivity due to the presence of a
different dielectric increases the capacitance.
If the second dielectric is only partially situated within the capacitor, this can be
represented as a parallel connection of two different capacitors, each of which
exclusively has one of the two materials as its dielectric medium. If the original medium
between the plates is air  r  1 , the capacitance increases linearly when the second
medium is introduced.

In the variable dielectric type the displacement x changes the amount of dielectric
material  2  2   1  inserted between the plates.
The total capacitance of the sensor is the sum of two capacitances, one with area A1 and
dielectric constant  1 , and one with area A2 and dielectric constant  2 , i.e

The principle described here can, for example, be used to measure how full a vessel is.
As the vessel fills up, the liquid takes the place of the air between the plates increasing
the relative dielectric permittivity and thus the capacitance of the capacitor.
If this method is used to measure a conducting liquid, one of the electrodes must be
isolated, in which case the vessel itself acts as the second electrode. In a similar way,
such a capacitive sensor can also be used to measure moisture levels or humidity.

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Applications: Typical applications for capacitive sensors involve in industrial

machinery, where the sensors are used for the following purposes:
1. Control of liquid level in containers for various liquids,
2. Detection of non-metallic items on a conveyor belt,
3. Level control for waste reservoirs,
4. Final inspection for packaging processes

C) Inductive Sensors:

An inductor is a coil loop made of a conducting material whose purpose is either to

oppose back alternating current to prevent it from flowing in a circuit. More exactly
inductance is an indication of the ability of the coil to oppose any change in current
flowing through that coil. Inductive sensors usually consist of one or more coils with
variable inductance. The Figure below shows an example of a cylindrical coil and the
formula for determining its inductance L, where l is the length of the coil, A is the
surface area of the coil, N is the number of windings, µo is the field constant and µr is the
relative permeability of the medium inside the coil.

o r N 2 A
L
l
Fig.2.7.Inductive sensing elements

The principle of the sensor involves the influence that the quantity to be measured
(distance or displacement) has over the inductance of the coil(s). The change in
inductance can be detected using a suitable measuring bridge.

Functioning of a differential Inductor: Two identical coils L1 und L2 are located within
a cylindrical housing. The core of the coil is armature that moves along the axis and
detects the displacement. When the armature moves, the permeability of its material
causes the inductance of one coil to increase while the inductance of the other decreases
by the same amount.

Where: Lo = n 2/ inductance at zero gap and  = k /

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2.2.2. Active Sensors

The passive sensors that we have looked before to function properly require some of
power source. But the active sensors do not require power supplies for their operation,
since they generate an EMF proportional to the measurand and are called self generating
sensors. These are the electromagnetic, piezoelectric, thermoelectric, photoelectric, and
photovoltaic.

a) Electromagnetic Sensors:

These elements are used for the measurement of linear and angular velocity and are based
on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. The self generating inductive sensor
utilizes the basic electrical generator principle, that when there is relative motion between
a conductor and a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the conductor (generator action).
This relative motion between field and conductor is supplied by changes in the measured
value. A common example of an electromagnetic sensor is the variable reluctance
tachogenerator for measuring angular velocity (Fig.2.8).

Fig.2.8.Variable reluctance tachogenerator, angular variations in reluctance and flux

A tachogenerator is an inductive sensor that directly converts speed or velocity into an

electrical signal. It consists of a toothed wheel of ferromagnetic material (attached to the
rotating shaft) and a coil wound onto a permanent magnet, extended by a soft iron pole
piece. The wheel moves in close proximity to the pole piece, causing the flux linked by
the coil to change with time, thereby inducing an e.m.f. in the coil. The magnitude of the
e.m.f. can be calculated by considering the magnetic circuit formed by the permanent
magnet, air gap and wheel. The m.m.f. is constant with time and depends on the field
strength of the permanent magnet. The reluctance of the circuit will depend on the width
of the air gap between the wheel and pole piece. When a tooth is close to the pole piece
the reluctance is minimum but will increase as the tooth moves away.

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The reluctance is maximum when a ‘gap’ is adjacent to the pole piece but falls again as
the next tooth approaches the pole piece. Fig.2.8 shows the resulting cyclic variation in
reluctance with angular rotation θ, which is the induced output e.mff signal for variable
reluctance tachogenerator and expressed as:

E  bmwr sin mwr t .

Where: b is the amplitude of the flux variation, m is the number of teeth and wr is angular
velocity of wheel. Since the amplitude (bmwr) and the frequency (f = mwr / 2  ) of the
induced output e.m.f signal are proportional to the angular velocity of the wheel, the
voltage developed can be fed directly into a dc voltmeter calibrated in rpm units.

b) Thermoelectric Sensors:

Thermoelectricity is electrical energy that is generated through the application of heat.

There are many sensors that respond to heat by becoming the voltage or current source.
One of the most commonly used methods of measuring temperature in industry depends
on the thermocouple effect. The principle for measuring temperature with a thermo-
electric effect is based on the thermo- electric voltage that is produced when two wires of
different materials (dissimilar metals) are connected together and the temperature at the
connection is different to that at the reference point. It consists of two electrical
conductors made of different materials that are joined together at one end (the measuring
point). The two open ends are both then connected via copper wires to gauge and held at
a specific temperature (the reference temperature). The reference temperature needs to be
held constant for the temperature measurement to work.

The magnitude of the thermal developed voltage depends on the materials used for the
wires and the amount of temperature differences between the joined ends and the other
ends. If a high-impedance voltmeter is introduced into the circuit, so that current flow is
negligible, then the measured e.m.f. is, to a close approximation, the difference of the
junction potentials, i.e.:

 2
E   T1  T2    T1  T2
2
 Where:  and  are constants of thermocouple materials
T1 is the temperature of the hot junction
T2 is the temperature of the cold (reference) junction

Thus the junction of the two wires of the thermocouple is called the sensing junction.

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2.2.3. Digital Sensors

Digital sensors (transducers) can be considered to range from those that count events or
provide a frequency output to digital encoders. Digital sensors (transducers) signals are in
the form of pulses, frequency of sinusoid and pattern sequences of 1's and0's. They are
not dependent on the amplitude of the signals. Due to that, such signals can be
transmitted over a long distance without acquiring much distortion owing to amplitude
variation and phase shift and they can be manipulated with much less error in electronic
processing circuits.
It is possible to count pulse, determine frequency and encode position very accurately
with high resolution, and the resultant readout is unambiguous (clear). These are the
reasons that the sensors (transducers) having digital output are preferable. However, there
are very few such devices which can provide a direct digital output, and thus, we usually
employ an analogue sensors (transducers) to give a voltage signal and an electronic
analogue –to-digital converter (ADC) for realizing the desired digital data.

Digital sensors (transducers) are also called encoders and do exist, however, are in wide
use for linear and rotary displacement. Encoders convert analog signals to binary form.

Classifications of Encoders

The digital sensors (transducers) or encoders may be classified into three categories
namely; Tachometer Encoder, Incremental Encoder and Absolute Encoder.

Tachometer Encoder: Has only a single output signal consisting of a pulse for each
increment or displacement (Fig.2.9a). If the motion were always unidirectional, a digital
counter could accumulate these pulses for determination of displacement from a known
starting point. However, any motion in reverse direction would produce an identical pulse
which causes error. So, such sensors (transducers) are usually used for measurements of
speed, rather than displacement, in situations where the rotation never reverses. The
reverse motion problem encountered in a tachometer encoder can be solved by employing
an incremental encoder.

Incremental Encoder: It uses at least two signal generating elements (Fig.2.9b). The two
tracks used by incremental encoder are mechanically shifted one fourth (1/4th) cycle
relative to each other. This arrangement allows detection of motion direction by
communicating which signal gets higher first. So that the up down pulse counter can be
signaled to subtract pulses whenever motion reverses. A third output, which produces a
single pulse per revolution at a distinct point, is sometimes provided at zero reference.

An incremental encoder has the advantage of being able of rotating through a many
revolutions as the application needs. However, any false pulse resulting from electrical
noise will cause errors that persist (continue) even on disappearance of those noises. The
failure of power system also causes total loss of position data which can not be retrieved
even after restoration of power supply.

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Absolute Encoder: Are usually limited to measurement of a single revolution and make
use of multiple tracks and outputs which are read out in parallel for producing a binary
representation of the shaft angular position (Fig.2.9c). As there is a one to one
correspondence (message) between shaft position and binary output, so position data are
retrieved on restoration of power supply after its failure. The transient electric noise
causes only short-lived measurement error.

Various types of Encoders

Construction of Encoders

Encoders of the above three types can be constructed mainly int

Fig.2.9. Types of Encoders

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Construction of Encoders: Encoders of the three types can be constructed in two types,
namely contact type and non- contact type encoders. .

Contacting or Brush type Encoders:

They consists of a cylindrical disc with the coding patterns (with conducting and non-
conducting or insulating section) arranged in concentric rings on one side of the disc.
The colored areas are made of conducting materials, while white areas are made of non
conducting material. A thin layer of insulating material is deposited on the conducting
disc to form non conducting areas. The linear version operates in a similar manner with
equal sectors along the length. The circuits of sliding contact coming get in touch with
the conducting areas are completed and the circuits coming in contact with insulted areas
are not completed. In this way the encoder gives out a digital readout which is an
indication of the position. Thus the encoder determines the linear or rotary displacement.

As shown in the Rotary and Linear Encoders Fig.2.10), the readout lamps are shown for
explanatory purpose only. The voltage on the four lamp lines could be sent to a digital
computer directly. For having visual readout, these four voltages are applied a binary
decimal conversion modulate which gives readouts decimally on the display and avoids
the needs to mentally sum up readings.

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While the code pattern is displayed, most convenient for explaining how motion is
represented in the familiar natural binary system, it may have one central drawback. This
drawback is that, if the brushes and segments are not perfectly aligned, an error, at least
one unit can occur in moving the disc from one position to the next.

Non-contact type encoders:

They are basically the standard Logic Gates. Thus the drawback of contact type encoders
is overcome by a binary code decimal system such as Gray Code where in only one bit
change takes place in the transition between any two consecutive numbers. Since the
Gray Code output may not be compatible (well-matched) with the readout devices,
conversion from gray to natural binary numbers may be necessary and is accomplished
by employing standard Logic Gates.

These encoders are cheaper in cost and can be made to have any degree accuracy
provided that the sector is made large enough to accommodate the required number of
chains to binary numbers, and are quite adequate for slowly moving system.
The major problems with such encoders are the:
 Challenge of wear and maintenance of contacts.
 Their resolution depends on the number of digits comprising the binary numbers
(the resolution is ½ n of the full scale (range), where n is the number of digits).

Non-contact (standard Logic Gates) type Encoder

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