Table of Contents

Course Description ........................................................................................................ 16

Learning Objectives ................................................................................................... 16
Key Terms ..................................................................................................................... 17
Module 1: Introduction to OSHA .................................................................................... 31
Module Description .................................................................................................... 31
Module Learning Objectives ...................................................................................... 31
Lesson 1: Introduction to OSHA ................................................................................ 31
Lesson Focus ......................................................................................................... 31
OSHA’s Mission...................................................................................................... 32
State Plans ............................................................................................................. 35
OSHA Standards .................................................................................................... 35
Enforcing Standards ............................................................................................... 37
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................... 37
Lesson 2: Employer Responsibilities ......................................................................... 38
Lesson Focus ......................................................................................................... 38
Employers’ Responsibilities .................................................................................... 38
Safety Data Sheets (SDS) ...................................................................................... 41
Your Right to ... Know About Hazardous Chemicals .............................................. 41
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................... 48
Lesson 3: Workers’ Rights and Responsibilities ........................................................ 49
Lesson Focus ......................................................................................................... 49
Workers' Rights ...................................................................................................... 49
Reporting Safety Hazards ...................................................................................... 52
Whistleblower Protections ...................................................................................... 53
Worker Resources .................................................................................................. 54
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................... 72
Module 2: Managing Safety and Health ........................................................................ 72
Module Description .................................................................................................... 72
Module Learning Objectives ...................................................................................... 73
Lesson 1: Accident Costs and Prevention ................................................................. 73
Lesson Focus ......................................................................................................... 73
Accident Costs........................................................................................................ 74

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 1

 Safety Programs ..................................................................................................... 76
Worksite Analysis ................................................................................................... 81
Hazard Recognition ................................................................................................ 85
Hierarchy of Hazard Controls ................................................................................. 85
Risk Analysis .......................................................................................................... 87
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................... 88
Lesson 2: Accident Causation and Investigation ....................................................... 89
Lesson Focus ......................................................................................................... 89
Understanding Accident Causation ........................................................................ 89
Accident Theories ................................................................................................... 89
Accident Investigation Techniques ......................................................................... 92
Behavior-Based Safety (BBS) Programs ................................................................ 94
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................... 99
Module 3: OSHA Focus Four Hazards .......................................................................... 99
Module Description .................................................................................................... 99
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 100
Lesson 1: Fall Protection ......................................................................................... 100
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 100
Falls and Fall Protection ....................................................................................... 100
Types of Work Requiring Fall Protection .............................................................. 102
Types of Fall Protection—Passive Systems ......................................................... 106
Types of Fall Protection—Active Systems ............................................................ 109
Protection from Falling Objects............................................................................. 110
Case Studies ........................................................................................................ 110
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 111
Lesson 2: Inspection and Safety Monitoring Systems ............................................. 112
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 112
Inspecting Fall Protection Equipment ................................................................... 112
Personal Fall-Arrest Systems (PFASs) ................................................................. 112
Positioning Device Systems ................................................................................. 114
Safety Monitoring System ..................................................................................... 115
Falling Objects ...................................................................................................... 115
Fall Protection Plan .............................................................................................. 115

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 2

 Training ................................................................................................................ 116
Case Study ........................................................................................................... 116
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 117
Lesson 3: Electrocution ........................................................................................... 117
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 117
Electricity .............................................................................................................. 118
Electrical Injuries .................................................................................................. 119
Electrical Hazards and How to Control Them ....................................................... 120
Examples of Electrical Accidents .......................................................................... 123
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 124
Lesson 4: Electrical Hazards—Other Preventive Measures .................................... 124
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 124
Improper Grounding ............................................................................................. 124
Overloaded Circuits .............................................................................................. 125
Power Tool Requirements .................................................................................... 126
Clues that Electrical Hazards Exist ....................................................................... 127
Locking Out and Tagging Out of Circuits .............................................................. 127
Safety-Related Work Practices ............................................................................. 127
Energized Work .................................................................................................... 128
Preventing Electrical Hazards—Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) ............... 130
Training ................................................................................................................ 131
Batteries and Battery Charging............................................................................. 132
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 132
Lesson 5: Struck by Hazards ................................................................................... 133
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 133
What is the Struck-By Hazard?............................................................................. 133
The Danger from Heavy Vehicles ......................................................................... 133
The Danger from Being Struck by Falling or Flying Objects ................................. 141
The Danger from Constructing Masonry Walls ..................................................... 146
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 148
Lesson 6: Caught-in-between Hazards.................................................................... 148
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 148
What is the ‘Caught-in-between’ Hazard? ............................................................ 149

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 3

 Common Construction Site Caught-in-Between Hazards ..................................... 149
Preventing Caught-in-between Hazards ............................................................... 152
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 153
Module 4: Personal Protective Equipment .................................................................. 153
Module Description .................................................................................................. 153
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 153
Lesson 1: Introduction to Personal Protective Equipment ....................................... 154
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 154
What Is Personal Protective Equipment? ............................................................. 154
Personal Protective Equipment Standards ........................................................... 154
Employer Responsibilities .................................................................................... 155
Employee Responsibilities .................................................................................... 157
Case Study ........................................................................................................... 157
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 157
Lesson 2: Eye, Face, and Respiratory Protection .................................................... 158
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 158
Eye and Face Protection ...................................................................................... 158
Training ................................................................................................................ 161
Safe Work Practices ............................................................................................. 161
Respiratory Protection .......................................................................................... 161
What is a Respirator and When is it Needed? ...................................................... 162
Case Study ........................................................................................................... 165
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 166
Lesson 3: Head, Hand, Face, and Foot Protection .................................................. 166
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 166
Why Head Protection is Important ........................................................................ 167
Why Noise Protection is Important ....................................................................... 168
Why Hand Protection is Important ........................................................................ 169
Why Foot Protection is Important ......................................................................... 170
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 172
Module 5: Health Hazards in Construction .................................................................. 173
Module Description .................................................................................................. 173
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 173

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 4

 Lesson 1: Introduction to Hazard Communication Standard .................................... 173
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 173
The Hazard Communication Standard (HCS or HazCom) ................................... 174
Hazardous Materials ............................................................................................. 176
Important Definitions ............................................................................................. 176
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 177
Lesson 2: Labels, SDSs, Symbols, Hazards, and Training ...................................... 177
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 177
Labels ................................................................................................................... 178
Safety Data Sheet (SDS) ...................................................................................... 179
Symbols ................................................................................................................ 185
Physical Hazards .................................................................................................. 186
Health Hazards ..................................................................................................... 186
Controlling Physical and Health Hazards ............................................................. 187
Hazard Communication Program ......................................................................... 190
Training ................................................................................................................ 193
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 194
Lesson 3: Hazardous Materials ............................................................................... 195
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 195
Crystalline Silica ................................................................................................... 195
Asbestos ............................................................................................................... 196
MDA—Methylenedianiline .................................................................................... 202
Lead ..................................................................................................................... 205
Cadmium .............................................................................................................. 210
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 212
Module 6: Stairways and Ladders ............................................................................... 213
Module Description .................................................................................................. 213
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 213
Lesson 1: OSHA Standards and Stairways ............................................................. 213
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 213
OSHA Standards for Stairways ............................................................................ 214
OSHA Standards for Stair-rails and Handrails ...................................................... 215
Dangerous Conditions .......................................................................................... 216

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 5

 Case Study ........................................................................................................... 216
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 217
Lesson 2: Ladders and Training .............................................................................. 217
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 217
Using Ladders ...................................................................................................... 217
Training ................................................................................................................ 223
Case Studies ........................................................................................................ 224
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 226
Lesson 3: Safety Measures ..................................................................................... 226
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 226
Ladder Safety Requirements ................................................................................ 227
Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Inspection ............................................. 227
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 230
Module 7: Concrete and Masonry Construction .......................................................... 231
Module Description .................................................................................................. 231
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 231
Lesson 1: Concrete and Masonry Construction (Part 1) .......................................... 232
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 232
General Requirements ......................................................................................... 232
Shoring ................................................................................................................. 234
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 234
Lesson 2: Concrete and Masonry Construction (Part 2) .......................................... 235
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 235
Lockout/Tagout Procedures.................................................................................. 235
General Requirements for Formwork ................................................................... 235
Shoring and Re-Shoring ....................................................................................... 236
Tiered Single-Post Shores .................................................................................... 236
Vertical Slip Forms ............................................................................................... 236
Reinforcing Steel .................................................................................................. 237
Removal of Form Work ......................................................................................... 237
Pre-Cast Concrete ................................................................................................ 237
Lift-Slab Operations .............................................................................................. 237
Limited Access Zone for Masonry Construction ................................................... 238

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 6

 Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 239
Module 8: Confined Spaces ........................................................................................ 239
Module Description .................................................................................................. 239
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 239
Lesson 1: Overview of Confined Spaces ................................................................. 240
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 240
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 240
Confined Spaces .................................................................................................. 240
Atmospheric Hazards ........................................................................................... 246
Physical Hazards .................................................................................................. 249
Prevention Program.............................................................................................. 251
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 253
Lesson 2: Safety and Training Education ................................................................ 253
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 253
Duties of Employers and Employees .................................................................... 254
Rescue and Emergency Services......................................................................... 257
Testing Protocol.................................................................................................... 257
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 259
Module 9: Cranes, Derricks, Hoists, Elevators and Conveyors ................................... 259
Module Description .................................................................................................. 259
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 259
Lesson 1: General Standards .................................................................................. 260
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 260
Definitions of Key Personnel................................................................................. 260
Hazards Associated with Crane Operations ......................................................... 260
Accidents .............................................................................................................. 262
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 263
Lesson 2: Cranes..................................................................................................... 263
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 263
Types of Cranes ................................................................................................... 264
Load ..................................................................................................................... 264
Guarding ............................................................................................................... 266
Sheaves ............................................................................................................... 266

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 7

 Inspections ........................................................................................................... 267
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 267
Lesson 3: Cranes and Rigging ................................................................................ 268
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 268
Floating Cranes and Derricks ............................................................................... 268
Personnel Platforms ............................................................................................. 269
Personnel Platform-Related Work Practices ........................................................ 271
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 272
Module 10: Ergonomics............................................................................................... 272
Module Description .................................................................................................. 272
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 273
Lesson 1: Ergonomics in the Workplace.................................................................. 273
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 273
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 273
Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs)....................................................................... 273
Physical Risk Factors ........................................................................................... 274
Environmental Risk Factors .................................................................................. 277
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 277
Lesson 2: Improving the Workplace......................................................................... 278
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 278
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 278
Engineering Controls ............................................................................................ 279
Administrative Controls ......................................................................................... 281
Protective Equipment ........................................................................................... 283
Training ................................................................................................................ 284
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 285
Module 11: Excavations .............................................................................................. 286
Module Description .................................................................................................. 286
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 286
Lesson 1: Standards and Protection ........................................................................ 286
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 286
OSHA Standards .................................................................................................. 287
Excavations .......................................................................................................... 287

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 8

 The Dangers of Excavations ................................................................................ 288
Collapses .............................................................................................................. 288
Protection of Employees ....................................................................................... 290
Warning System for Mobile Equipment ................................................................ 294
Case Study ........................................................................................................... 294
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 295
Lesson 2: Essentials of Excavations........................................................................ 295
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 295
Hazardous Conditions .......................................................................................... 295
Access and Egress ............................................................................................... 297
Falls and Equipment ............................................................................................. 298
Planning ............................................................................................................... 298
Inspections of Excavations ................................................................................... 298
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 299
Lesson 3: Soil Classification Systems ..................................................................... 300
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 300
Soil Classification ................................................................................................. 300
Classification of Soil and Rock Deposits .............................................................. 301
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 303
Module 12: Fire Protection and Prevention ................................................................. 304
Module Description .................................................................................................. 304
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 304
Lesson 1: Fire Safety Essentials ............................................................................. 304
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 304
Fires ..................................................................................................................... 304
Fire Prevention and Protection ............................................................................. 305
Fire Extinguishers ................................................................................................. 307
Fire Safety Alarms ................................................................................................ 309
Rescue and Evacuation ........................................................................................ 310
Injuries and First Aid ............................................................................................. 310
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 312
Lesson 2: Fire Prevention and Safety Measures ..................................................... 313
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 313

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 9

 Ignition Hazards.................................................................................................... 313
Temporary Buildings ............................................................................................. 315
Open Yard Storage............................................................................................... 315
Indoor Storage ...................................................................................................... 315
Emergency Planning ............................................................................................ 316
Portable Firefighting Equipment ........................................................................... 316
Fixed Firefighting Equipment ................................................................................ 317
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 318
Module 13: Materials Handling, Use and Disposal ...................................................... 318
Module Description .................................................................................................. 318
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 318
Lesson 1: The Hazards and Methods of Prevention (Manual Handling) .................. 319
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 319
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 319
Bulkiness and Weight of Materials........................................................................ 319
Body Movement.................................................................................................... 319
Methods of Prevention .......................................................................................... 319
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 322
Lesson 2: Materials Handling Equipment ................................................................ 323
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 323
Conveyors ............................................................................................................ 323
Cranes .................................................................................................................. 324
Slings .................................................................................................................... 325
Powered Industrial Trucks .................................................................................... 326
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 327
Lesson 3: Ergonomics, Training, and Education ..................................................... 328
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 328
Ergonomics Safety and Health Principles ............................................................. 328
Fire Safety Precautions ........................................................................................ 329
Training and Education ......................................................................................... 329
Safety and Health Program Management Guidelines ........................................... 330
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 331

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 10

Module 14: Motor Vehicles, Mechanized Equipment and Marine Operations; Rollover
Protective Structures and Overhead Protection; and Signs, Signals and Barricades .. 332
Module Description .................................................................................................. 332
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 332
Lesson 1: Motor Vehicles (Subpart O) ..................................................................... 332
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 332
General Requirements ......................................................................................... 333
Access Roadways and Grades............................................................................. 336
Audible Alarms ..................................................................................................... 336
Struck-by and Caught-in-Between Hazards ......................................................... 336
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 339
Lesson 2: Rollover Protective Structures for Material Handling (Subpart W) ........... 340
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 340
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 340
Case Studies ........................................................................................................ 340
Design of ROPS ................................................................................................... 341
Labeling ................................................................................................................ 342
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 342
Lesson 3: Signs, Signals, and Barricades (Subpart G) ............................................ 342
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 342
Accident Prevention Signs and Tags .................................................................... 343
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 349
Module 15: Safety and Health Programs..................................................................... 350
Module Description .................................................................................................. 350
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 350
Lesson 1: Effective Program Elements .................................................................... 350
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 350
General Guidelines ............................................................................................... 351
Major Elements..................................................................................................... 351
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 367
Lesson 2: OSHA Safety and Health Programs ........................................................ 369
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 369
State Programs..................................................................................................... 369
Consultation Services ........................................................................................... 369

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 11

 Voluntary Protection Programs (VPPs) ................................................................ 370
Strategic Partnership Program ............................................................................. 371
Training and Education ......................................................................................... 372
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 373
Module 16: Scaffolds ................................................................................................... 374
Module Description .................................................................................................. 374
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 374
Lesson 1: Introduction to Scaffolds .......................................................................... 375
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 375
What is a Scaffold?............................................................................................... 375
Types of Scaffolds ................................................................................................ 375
Suspended Scaffolds ............................................................................................ 376
Supported Scaffolds ............................................................................................. 380
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 385
Lesson 2: Overview of OSHA Directives for the Construction of Scaffolds .............. 386
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 386
Suspension Scaffolds ........................................................................................... 386
Supported Scaffolds ............................................................................................. 390
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 394
Lesson 3: Scaffold Safety Measures ....................................................................... 395
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 395
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 395
How Do You Minimize the Risks?......................................................................... 396
Guardrails ............................................................................................................. 397
Personal Fall Arrest Systems ............................................................................... 398
Personnel Requirements for Scaffolding Safety ................................................... 401
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 402
Module 17: Tools - Hand and Power ........................................................................... 403
Module Description .................................................................................................. 403
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 403
Lesson 1: Safe Use of Hand and Power Tools ........................................................ 403
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 403
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 403

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 12

 General Requirements ......................................................................................... 404
Working with Tools at Height ................................................................................ 404
Hand Tools ........................................................................................................... 405
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) .................................................................. 406
Hazards of Hand and Power Tools ....................................................................... 409
Switches ............................................................................................................... 411
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 411
Lesson 2: Classification of Tools ............................................................................. 412
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 412
General Safety Precautions .................................................................................. 412
Electric Power Tools ............................................................................................. 413
Guarding ............................................................................................................... 415
Pneumatic Tools ................................................................................................... 416
Liquid Fuel Tools .................................................................................................. 418
Powder-Actuated Tools ........................................................................................ 418
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 420
Module 18: Welding and Cutting ................................................................................. 421
Module Description .................................................................................................. 421
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 421
Lesson 1: General Requirements ............................................................................ 421
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 421
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 422
Fire Prevention and Protection ............................................................................. 422
Personnel Protection ............................................................................................ 424
Health Protection and Ventilation ......................................................................... 425
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 426
Lesson 2: Oxygen-fuel Gas Welding and Cutting .................................................... 426
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 426
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 426
Cylinders and Containers ..................................................................................... 427
Manifolding of Cylinders ....................................................................................... 429
Service Piping Requirements ............................................................................... 430
Protection of Service Pipe Systems...................................................................... 431

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 13

 Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 432
Lesson 3: ARC Welding and Resistance Welding ................................................... 433
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 433
ARC Welding and Cutting ..................................................................................... 433
Resistance Welding .............................................................................................. 435
Case Study ........................................................................................................... 436
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 437
Module 19: Silica Exposure ......................................................................................... 437
Module Description .................................................................................................. 437
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 438
Lesson 1: The Issue ................................................................................................ 438
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 438
Silica ..................................................................................................................... 439
Over-Exposure to Silica ........................................................................................ 439
Silica Exposure Limits .......................................................................................... 440
Common Silica-Producing Tools and their Controls ............................................. 445
Exposure Assessment Options............................................................................. 449
Exposure Control Options .................................................................................... 450
Hazard Communication ........................................................................................ 452
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 453
Module 20: Lead Exposure ......................................................................................... 454
Module Description .................................................................................................. 454
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 455
Lesson 1: Lead in the Workplace ............................................................................ 455
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 455
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 455
Lead in the Construction Industry ......................................................................... 455
Routes of Exposure to Lead ................................................................................. 456
Activities That Can Cause Lead Exposure ........................................................... 456
Health Hazards of Lead Exposure ........................................................................ 457
Signs and Symptoms of Lead Poisoning .............................................................. 457
Medical Monitoring ............................................................................................... 458
Exposure Assessment .......................................................................................... 458

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 14

 Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 460
Lesson 2: Exposure Reduction & Employee Protection........................................... 460
Lesson Focus ....................................................................................................... 460
Lead Control Measures ........................................................................................ 460
Personal Hygiene and Housekeeping Practices ................................................... 462
Protective Clothing ............................................................................................... 464
Respiratory Protection .......................................................................................... 465
Recordkeeping ..................................................................................................... 466
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 467
Module 21: Asbestos Exposure ................................................................................... 467
Module Description .................................................................................................. 467
Module Learning Objectives .................................................................................... 468
Lesson 1: Asbestos in the Workplace ...................................................................... 468
Lesson Topics ...................................................................................................... 468
What is Asbestos? ................................................................................................ 468
Health Hazards of Exposure to Asbestos ............................................................. 470
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 472
Lesson 2: Protection Against Asbestos ................................................................... 472
Lesson Topics ...................................................................................................... 472
Compliance Program ............................................................................................ 472
Engineering Controls and Safe Work Procedures ................................................ 474
Low-risk Work Activities ........................................................................................ 474
Moderate-risk Work Activities ............................................................................... 475
High-risk Work Activities ....................................................................................... 476
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) .................................................................. 479
Lesson Summary.................................................................................................. 481
Course Summary ........................................................................................................ 482

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 15

 30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach
Course Description
The OSHA 30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach training course is a comprehensive
safety program designed for anyone involved in the construction industry, especially
safety directors, foremen, and field supervisors. OSHA recommends Outreach Training
Programs as an orientation to occupational safety and health for workers, covered by
OSHA 29 CFR 1926. Construction workers must receive additional training, when
required by OSHA standards, on specific hazards of the job.

Learning Objectives
At the conclusion of this course, the student will be able to:

• Explain the importance of OSHA in providing a safe and healthful workplace to

workers
• Locate OSHA Standards references applicable to specific hazardous conditions
and practices (Introduction to OSHA Standards)
• Recognize the aspects of 1926 Subpart C (General Safety and Health
Provisions)
• Implement preventative measures for accidents in their workplace (Subpart D -
Occupational health and Environmental Controls)
• Describe types of personal protective equipment (PPE), and the requirements for
its use in OSHA standards (Subpart E - Personal Protective Equipment)
• Understand the requirements for fire protection in the workplace (Subpart F - Fire
Protection and Prevention)
• Identify the various types of rigging equipment used to protect employees
(Subpart H - Rigging; Subpart N - Cranes and Rigging)
• Identify the critical health and safety hazards of welding and cutting in the
construction industry (Subpart J - Welding and Cutting)
• Identify common electrical hazards and related OSHA standards (Subpart K -
Electrical Standards)
• Understand the importance of scaffolding for workers in elevated workplaces
(Subpart L - Scaffolding)
• Implement measures for protecting workers and equipment from dangerous falls
(Subpart M - Fall Protection)
• Recognize the hazards associated with working in or around excavation sites
(Subpart P - Excavations)
• Understand the safety requirements necessary to protect workers around
concrete and masonry jobs (Subpart Q - Concrete and Masonry)
• Protect workers who perform jobs on or around stairways or ladders at worksites
(Subpart X - Stairways and Ladders)
• List and describe the hazards and prevention required for confined spaces

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 16

Key Terms
Acceptable Entry Conditions: Conditions that must exist in a permit-required confined
space to ensure that employees can safely enter into and work within the space.

Accident: An unplanned event that results in personal injury or property damage.

Acetylene: A chemical that forms explosive mixtures with oxygen or air. For storage, it
is dissolved in acetone, which makes it non-explosive. However, the acetone is under
pressure when stored in steel cylinders for commercial use, which can cause hazards if
not properly stored.

Act: A statute, decree, or enactment resulting from a decision by a legislative body.

Action Level: The level of particulates present in the air that signifies close monitoring
is required so that the PEL is not approached. The action level for lead is 30
micrograms per cubic meter (ug/m3) for eight hours.

Administer: Manage or have jurisdiction over. The federal government administers

OSHA standards and activities in Federal Plan States, while state governments do so in
State Plan States.

American National Standards Institute (ANSI): A private, nonprofit organization that

develops standards for products and services in the United States.

Amperes or Amps: The unit in which electrical current is measured.

Anchorage: A secure point of attachment for lifelines, lanyards, or deceleration

devices.

Approved: For the purpose of this course, the word "approved" means equipment that
has been listed or approved by a nationally recognized testing laboratory or by federal
agencies.

Article: A manufactured item other than a fluid or particle, which:

• Which is formed to a specific shape or design during manufacture,

• Which has end use function(s) dependent in whole or in part upon its shape or
design during end use, and
• Which under normal conditions of use does not release more than very small
quantities, e.g., minute or trace amounts of a hazardous chemical and does not
pose a physical hazard or health risk to employees.

Asbestos: A silicate mineral composed of thin fibrous crystals that has been heavily
used in the construction industry.

Asbestosis: An incurable restrictive lung disease linked to exposure to asbestos.

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 17

Atmospheric Tank: A storage tank which has been designed to operate between
atmospheric pressure and 0.5 PSIG (pounds per square inch gauge).

Attendant: An individual, stationed outside one or more permit spaces, who monitors
the authorized entrants and performs all attendant's duties as assigned in the
employer's permit space program.

Audible Backup Alarms: These devices must be installed on heavy construction

vehicles and maintained in proper working order. They sound an alarm to alert nearby
workers that a potentially dangerous vehicle is backing up.

Authorized Entrant: An employee who is authorized by the employer to enter a permit

space.

Authorized Person: A person assigned by the employer to perform a duty or to be at a

particular job site.

American Wire Gauge (AWG): A measurement standard used to size wire in which
increasing gauge numbers indicate decreasing wire diameters.

Barricade: An obstruction to deter the passage of persons or vehicles.

Bearer (Putlog): A horizontal transverse scaffold member (which may be supported by

ledgers or runners) upon which the scaffold platform rests, and which joins scaffold
uprights, posts, poles, and similar members.

Beryllium: A steel-gray, light, strong, brittle, toxic, bivalent metallic element used chiefly
as a hardening agent in alloys.

Blast Area: The area where explosives are loaded and blasting operations are carried
out.

Blasting Agent: Any material or mixture used for blasting that consists of a fuel and an
oxidizer used for blasting. It is not considered an explosive and its ingredients are also
not classified as explosives.

Blasting Cap: A metallic tube that is closed at one end and contains a charge of
detonating compounds. It can be detonated by a safety fuse placed into the open end of
the tube.

Block: A pulley that uses either sheaves or a grooved wheel through which a rope is
threaded to change the direction of its force.

Bloodborne Pathogens: Infectious microorganisms found in human blood that can

cause diseases. Common examples include the Hepatitis B and C viruses and the
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 18

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS): A division of the US Department of Labor that
measures labor market activity, working conditions, price changes, and productivity in
the US economy to support public and private decision making.

Boatswains' Chair: A single-point adjustable suspension scaffold consisting of a seat

or sling designed to support one employee in a sitting position.

Body Belt: A strap with means both for securing it about the waist and for attaching it to
a lanyard, lifeline, or deceleration device.

Body Harness: A series of straps that can be secured about an employee in a manner
to distribute fall-arrest forces more evenly across the thighs, pelvis, waist, chest, and
shoulders. It can be attached to other components of a personal fall arrest system.

Boom: An inclined spar, strut, or other long member supporting a hoisting tackle.

Boom Angle Indicator: A device that measures the angle of the boom and is usually
mounted on the back of the boom so as to easily readable by the operator.

Boom Stops: A device used to limit the angle of the boom at its highest position.

Brace: A rigid connection that holds one scaffold member in a fixed position with
respect to another member, or to a building or structure.

Brake: To slow or stop motion using power or friction.

Cadmium: A bluish-white malleable ductile toxic bivalent metallic element commonly

used in protective plating and in bearing and soldering materials.

Catastrophic Release: A major uncontrolled emission, fire, or explosion, involving one

or more highly hazardous chemicals, that presents serious danger to employees in the
workplace.

Chemical: Any element, compound, or mixture of elements and/or compounds.

Chimney Hoist: A multi-point adjustable suspension scaffold used to provide access to

work inside chimneys.

Chock: A wedge or block used to keep a vehicle parked on an incline from rolling.

Chromium: A blue-white metallic element found naturally only in combination and

commonly used in alloys and electroplating. Chromium is also the main additive in
stainless steel that adds to its anti-corrosive properties.

Circuit: Completion of the path of a current, including a voltage source, conductors, and
the load (such as a lamp, tool, or heater).

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 19

Closed Container: A container sealed by means of a lid or other device so that neither
liquid nor vapor will escape from it at ordinary temperatures.

Combustible: Refers to a material that can be easily ignited and burned.

Combustible Liquids: In construction, any liquid having a flash point at or above 140°F
and below 200°F. In general industry, any liquid having a flash point at or above 100°F.

Combustion: Burning of a material, i.e., a chemical change accompanied by the

production of heat and light.

Competent Person: One who is capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards
in the surroundings or working conditions which are unsanitary, hazardous, or
dangerous to employees, and who has authorization to take prompt corrective
measures to eliminate them.

Concrete: A mixture of cement, sand, aggregate, and water in specific proportions that
hardens to a strong, stony consistency over varying lengths of time.

Conductors: Materials that contain free electrons, allowing current to flow through
them.

Confined Space: A space that, (1) is large enough and so configured that an employee
can bodily enter it; (2) has limited or restricted means of entry and exit; and (3) is not
designed for continuous employee occupancy.

Connector: A device that is used to couple (connect) parts of a personal fall arrest
system or positioning device system together.

Container: Any bag, barrel, bottle, box, can, cylinder, drum, reaction vessel, storage
tank, or the like that contains a hazardous chemical.

Contaminant: Any material that could cause a person physical harm if it were to come
into contact with them either internally or externally.

Controlled Access Zone: A work area that has been designated and clearly marked in
which certain types of work (such as overhand bricklaying) may take place without the
use of conventional fall protection systems (like guardrails, personal arrests, or safety
nets) to protect the employees working in the zone.

Conveyor: A mechanical means of moving articles or bulk material from place to place,
such as a belt or a chain of receptacles.

Counterweight: Weights used to balance both the loads and the crane in order to
provide stability.

Coupler: A device for locking together the scaffolding tubes.

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Crane: A machine that uses a hoisting mechanism to lift and lower loads and to move
them horizontally across a worksite.

Crawling Board (Chicken Ladder): A scaffold consisting of a plank with cleats spaced
and secured evenly along its length to provide footing for use on sloped surfaces such
as roofs.

Current: The flow of electrons through a conductor. It is measured in Amperes (Amps).

dBA: Adjusted decibels; an expression of the relative loudness of sounds in air as

perceived by the human ear.

Deceleration Device: Any mechanism that dissipates a substantial amount of energy

during a fall arrest, or otherwise limits how much of that energy affects the worker.
Examples include rope grabs; rip stitch, tearing, deforming, or other specially woven
lanyards; and automatic self-retracting lanyards.

Deck: The revolving superstructure or turntable bed of a crane.

Department of Labor: A cabinet-level U.S. federal agency, of which OSHA is a

division. The mission of the Department of Labor is “to foster, promote, and develop the
welfare of the wage earners, job seekers, and retirees of the United States; improve
working conditions; advance opportunities for profitable employment; and assure work-
related benefits and rights.”

Derrick: A derrick is a lifting device that consists of one or more long rigid members
called masts that are joined together at their tops by guy wires. A boom may also be
used as part of a derrick.

Detonating Cord: A flexible cord that is filled with high explosives. When detonated,
these explosives have enough strength to detonate other explosives they come into
contact with.

Detonator: A device consisting of blasting caps (such as electric blasting caps, delay
electric blasting caps, and non-electric delay blasting caps) that is used for detonating a
high explosive.

Double-Cleat Ladder: A ladder with a center rail to allow simultaneous two-way traffic
for employees ascending or descending.

Drum: The spool or cylindrical member around which cables are wound for raising and
lowering loads.

Electric Blasting Cap: A blasting cap detonated by an electric current.

Electric Shock: The physical effects of nerve stimulation and muscle contraction
caused by the flow of electric current through the body.

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Electrocution: Death caused by electrical shock.

Emergency: For a permit space, any occurrence (including any failure of hazard control
or monitoring equipment), either within or outside of the permit space, that could
endanger entrants.

Employer: A person engaged in commerce who has employees. In construction, most

often a contractor or subcontractor.

Entry Permit: A written or printed document that is provided by the employer to allow
and control entry into a permit space. It must include the following information:

• The space to be entered

• The purpose of the entry
• The date and duration for which entry is authorized
• Names or other identifying information of the authorized entrants
• Means of detecting an increase in hazard levels
• Each person serving as an attendant
• Name of the entry supervisor
• Known hazards in the space
• Measured used to isolate the space
• Acceptable entry conditions
• Results of tests and other monitoring systems
• Rescue and emergency services available
• Proper communication procedures
• Equipment (such as PPE) to be provided
• Any additional permits that have been issued for work in the space
• Any other necessary information

Excavation: A man-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression formed by removing earth.

Excavation Work: Work involving the removal of earth from a site to form an open
face, hole, or cavity that uses tools, machinery or explosives. Excavation work is a
major cause of caught-in-between hazards. An unstable trench or excavation can
collapse, killing or injuring workers by suffocation or crushing when a worker is buried
by falling soil.

Explosive: A chemical that causes a sudden, almost instantaneous release of

pressure, gas, and heat when subjected to shock, pressure, or high temperatures.

Facility: The buildings, containers, or equipment that contain a process.

Failure: Load refusal, breakage, or separation of components.

Federal: Being part of, or pertaining to, the United States government.

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Fixed Ladder: A ladder that cannot be readily moved or carried because it is an integral
part of a building or structure.

Flammable: A material that can easily ignite and burn intensely, or has a rapid rate of
flame spread.

Flammable Liquids: For construction, any liquid having a flash point of not more than
140°F (60°C) and a vapor pressure of not more than 40 psi at 100°F. Flammable liquids
are subdivided into categories:

• Category 1 liquids have flash points below 73.4°F (23°C) and boiling points at or
below 95°F (35°C).
• Category 2 liquids have flashpoints below 73.4°F (23°C) and boiling points above
95°F (35°C).
• Category 3 liquids have flashpoints at or above 73.4°F (23°C) and at or below
140°F (60°C).
• Category 4 liquids have flash points above 140°F (60°C) and at or below 199.4°F
(93°C).

Flash Point: The lowest temperature at which the vapors of a liquid can catch fire.

Forklift: A type of powered industrial truck that is used to transport material, clearly
identified by the large forks that are capable of vertical motion and are installed at the
front.

Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI): A fast-acting circuit breaker designed to shut

off electric power in the event of a ground-fault within as little as 1/40th of a second. It
works by comparing the amount of circuit going to and returning from equipment along
the circuit conductors. When the amount going differs from the amount returning by
approximately 5 milliamperes (.005 amps), the GFCI interrupts the current. In the event
someone still experiences an electric shock, the GFCI will reduce the shock to a safe,
often unnoticeable level.

Grounding: An intentional conductive connection to the earth that provides a safe path
back to the source for any fault current that may occur in a circuit.

Guardrail: A protective railing enclosing an elevated platform. The top edge must be
between 39 and 45 inches above the walking or working surface.

Guardrail System: A barrier erected along an unprotected or exposed side, edge, or

other area of a walking/working surface to prevent employees from falling to lower
levels. In addition to a guardrail, a guardrail system might use midrails, screens, mesh,
and intermediate vertical members to provide additional protection.

Handrail: A rail used to provide employees with a handhold for support.

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Hazardous Atmosphere: Atmospheric conditions that could expose workers to the risk
of illness, injury, incapacitation, death, or the impairment of their ability to escape
unaided from a permit space. Causes include:

• Flammable gas, vapor, or mist in excess of 10% of its lower flammable limit (LFL)
• Airborne combustible dust that meets or exceeds its LFL
• Oxygen concentration below 19.5% or above 23.5%
• Concentration of any substance that could result in exposure above its
permissible exposure limit (PEL)
• Any other atmospheric condition that is immediately dangerous to life or health

Hazardous Chemical: Any chemical that poses a physical or health hazard.

Hazards: OSHA defines a hazard as the potential for physical or mental harm. It is
often associated with a condition or activity that, if left uncontrolled, can result in injury,
illness, or death.

Hazard Communication Standard (HazCom): An OSHA standard that requires the

development and dissemination of information about the identities and hazards of the
chemicals present in the workplace.

HCP: Health Care Professional.

Highly Hazardous Chemical: A substance possessing toxic, reactive, flammable, or

explosive materials/chemicals.

Hoist: A device that lowers and lifts loads using a drum or wheel around which rope,
chain, or cable is wrapped. The drum or wheel may be turned manually or by powered
means.

Hole: A void or gap 2 inches (5.1 cm) or more in its smallest dimension, in a floor, roof,
or other walking/working surface.

Hot Work: Work involving electric or gas welding, cutting, brazing, or similar flame or
spark-producing operations.

Hot Work Permit: The employer's written authorization to perform hot work, such as
riveting, welding, cutting, burning, and heating.

Inerting: The displacement of the atmosphere in a permit space by a noncombustible

gas (such as nitrogen) to such an extent that the resulting atmosphere is also
noncombustible.

Inhalation: Breathing in an airborne substance that may be in the form of gases, fumes,
mists, vapors, dusts, or aerosols.

Insulators: Materials with few free electrons through which current does not easily flow,
if at all.

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 24

Jack: A portable device that uses a mechanical or hydraulic lifting system to raise
heavy objects, such as cars, a short distance.

Jib: An arm that extends horizontally from a crane to provide added boom length for
lifting specified loads.

Job-Made Ladder: A ladder that is fabricated by employees, typically at the

construction site, and not commercially manufactured.

Lanyard: A rope suitable for supporting one person. One end is fastened to a safety
belt or harness and the other is secured to a safety line or suitable anchor point.

Leading Edge: The edge of a floor, roof, or formwork for a floor or other
walking/working surface (such as the deck) which changes location as additional floor,
roof, decking, or formwork sections are placed, formed, or constructed.

Lifeline: A component consisting of a flexible line that connects to an anchorage at one

end to hang vertically (vertical lifeline) or that connects to anchorages at both ends to
stretch horizontally (horizontal lifeline), and which serves as a means for connecting
other components of a personal fall arrest system to the anchorage.

Limited Access Zone: The area adjacent to masonry wall construction that clearly
limits access by all but essential employees.

Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG): A flammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases, such

as propane, propylene, butane, and butylenes.

Low-Slope Roof: A roof having a slope less than or equal to 4 inches of vertical rise for
every 12 inches of horizontal length.

Magazine: Any building or structure, other than an explosives manufacturing building,

used for the storage of explosives.

Masonry: Stonework, such as the stone or brick parts of a building or other structure.

Maximum Intended Load: The total load of all persons, equipment, tools, materials,
transmitted loads, and other loads that is reasonably expected to be applied to a
scaffold or scaffold component at any one time.

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA): A nonprofit organization whose goal is

to eliminate death, injury, and property and economic loss due to fire. The NFPA
publishes consensus standards to help reduce the likelihood and mitigate the effects of
fire.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH): An agency of the US
federal government that conducts research and makes recommendations to help
reduce and prevent workplace illnesses and injuries.

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NIOSH Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation (FACE) Report: Details
investigations conducted by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH), allowing the identification and prevention of conditions that contribute to these
fatal injuries.

Non-Permit Confined Space: A confined space that does not contain or, with respect
to atmospheric hazards, have the potential to contain any hazard capable of causing
death or serious physical harm.

Normally Unoccupied Remote Facility: A facility which is operated, maintained, or

serviced by employees who visit the facility only periodically to check its operation and
to perform necessary operating or maintenance tasks.

Opening: A gap or void 30 inches (76 cm) or more high and 18 inches (46 cm) or more
wide, in a wall or partition, through which employees can fall to a lower level.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA): The regulatory agency of

the US Department of Labor established under the Occupational Safety and Health
(OSH) Act in 1970. Its mission is to assure safe and healthy working conditions for
working men and women by setting and enforcing standards and by providing training,
outreach, education, and assistance.

Outrigger (Cranes): A structural member attached to a crane’s carrier frame that helps
level and stabilize the crane.

Outrigger (Scaffolding): A structural member of a supported scaffold that flairs out

from the bottom supports to provide additional stability.

Outrigger Beam (Thrustout): A structural member of a suspension scaffold or

outrigger scaffold that provides support for the scaffold by extending the point of
attachment out and away from the structure or building.

Oxygen Deficient Atmosphere: An atmosphere containing less than 19.5 percent

oxygen by volume.

Oxygen Enriched Atmosphere: An atmosphere containing more than 23.5 percent

oxygen by volume.

Power Crane and Shovel Association (PCSA): A subgroup of the Association of

Equipment Manufacturers (AEM) that explores business issues, technological
questions, and legislative and regulatory concerns that affect manufacturers of cranes.

Pendants: Stationary wire ropes used to support the boom of a crane.

Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL): The maximum amount or concentration of a

chemical a worker may be exposed to for a set amount of time under OSHA regulations.
They are established by OSHA to protect workers from the adverse effects of exposure

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 26

to chemical substances. For example, the PEL for lead is 50 micrograms per cubic
meter (ug/m3) over 8 hours.

Permit-Required Confined Space Program (Permit Space Program): The

employer's overall program for controlling and protecting employees from permit space
hazards, and for regulating employee entry into permit spaces.

Personal Fall Arrest System: A system including, but not limited to, an anchorage,
connectors, and a body harness used to arrest, or stop, an employee during a fall from
a working level. As of January 1, 1998, the use of a body belt for fall arrest is prohibited.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): All types of protective equipment worn and
used by workers, such as hard hats, gloves, boots, eye protection, and respiratory aids.

Physical Hazard: A chemical for which there is scientifically valid evidence that it is a
combustible liquid, a compressed gas, explosive, flammable, an organic peroxide, an
oxidizer, pyrophoric, unstable (reactive), or water-reactive.

Physician or other Licensed Health Care Professional (PLHCP): An individual

whose license, certification, or other legally permitted scope of practice allows him or
her to provide the type of medical care required.

Point of Access: An area used by employees for work-related passage from one area
or level to another.

Portable Ladder: A ladder that can be readily moved or carried.

Portable Tank: A closed container having a liquid capacity of more than 60 U.S.
gallons and not intended for fixed installation.

Positioning Device System: A body belt or body harness system rigged to allow an
employee to be supported on an elevated vertical surface, such as a wall, and work with
both hands free while leaning backwards.

Powered Industrial Trucks: Trucks that are used for the transport of material. They
may be modified to operate in hazardous conditions.

Primary Blasting: The blasting operation by which an original rock formation is

dislodged from its natural location.

Pounds per Square Inch (PSI/P.S.I.): The common unit of measurement for pressure.
(such as for compressed air). It refers to the amount of force applied by 1 pound of
pressure applied to an area of one square inch.

Qualified Person: In addition to a competent person, some OSHA standards require

the presence of a qualified person, who by possession of a recognized degree,
certificate, or professional standing, or who by extensive knowledge, training, and

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 27

experience, has successfully demonstrated the ability to solve or resolve problems
relating to the subject matter, the work, or the project.

Radiant Energy: A kind of energy that travels outward in all directions from its sources.

Radius (Cranes): The horizontal distance from the axis of the rotation of the crane's
superstructure to the center of the suspended load.

Reinforce: To strengthen something by providing additional external support or internal

stiffening for it.

Resistance: A measure of a material’s opposition to a current of electrons.

Retrieval System: The equipment (including a retrieval line, chest or full-body harness,
wristlets if appropriate, and a lifting device or anchor) used for non-entry rescue
operations from permit spaces.

Rope Grab: A deceleration device that travels on a lifeline and automatically, by friction,
engages the lifeline and locks to arrest a fall.

Rollover Protection Structure (ROPS): A structure or system that protects equipment

operators from the injuries that result when equipment overturns.

Safety Can: Means an approved closed container of not more than 5 gallons capacity
with a flash-arresting screen, a spring-closing lid, and a spout cover, and designed so
that it will safely relieve internal pressure when subjected to fire exposure.

Safety Fuse: A flexible cord that contains combustible matter that is used to convey fire
to blasting caps.

Safety-Monitoring System: A safety system in which a competent person is

responsible for recognizing and warning employees of fall hazards.

Scaffold: A temporary framework of poles and planks that is used to support workers
and materials during the erection, repair, or decoration of a building.

Screw Conveyor: A trough or tube containing either a spiral coiled around a shaft,
driven at one end and held at the other, or a Shaftless Spiral, driven at one end and free
at the other.

SDS: Safety Data Sheet, a document containing the chemical hazard and safe handling
information pertaining to a specific chemical or compound, which is prepared in
accordance with the OSHA Hazard Communication Standard.

Self-Retracting Lifeline/Lanyard: A deceleration device containing a drum-wound line

which can be slowly extracted from, or retracted onto, the drum under minimal tension
during normal employee movement and which, after the onset of a fall, automatically
locks the drum and arrests the fall.

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 28

Shield: A structure able to withstand a cave-in and protect employees.

Shoring: A structure that supports the sides of an excavation and is used to prevent
cave-ins.

Signals: Moving signs, provided by workers such as flagmen or by devices such as

flashing lights, to warn of possible or existing hazards.

Signs: Visual warnings of hazards, temporarily or permanently affixed to or placed at

locations where hazards exist.

Silicosis: An occupational lung disease caused by the inhalation of respirable

crystalline silica, which is often created when cutting, sawing, grinding, drilling, and
crushing stone, rock, concrete, brick, block, and mortar.

Sill (Building Bottom of Frame): The horizontal bottom member of a wall or building. It
may be anchored to the foundation, and vertical members, like studs, are attached to it.

Sill (Window Ledge): A ledge below a window, especially one on the inside of a
building.

Single-Cleat Ladder: A ladder consisting of a pair of side rails connected by cleats,

rungs, or steps.

Slab: A flat, rectangular base or foundation of concrete or stone.

Sloping: A technique that employs a specific angle of incline on the sides of an

excavation.

Snap-Hook: A connector consisting of a hook-shaped member with a normally closed

keeper, or similar arrangement, which may be opened to permit the hook to receive an
object and, when released, automatically closes to retain the object.

Stair Rail System: A barrier erected along the unprotected sides and edges of a
stairway to prevent employees from falling to lower levels.

Standards: Conditions or practices required to provide a safe and healthy work

environment.

Steep Roof: A roof having a slope greater than 4 to 12 (vertical to horizontal).

Superstructure: The rotating frame, gantry, and boom or other operating equipment.

Tags: Temporary signs, usually attached to pieces of equipment or structures, to warn

of existing or immediate hazards.

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 29

Tuberculosis (TB): An infectious disease affecting the lungs, caused by bacteria that
can spread through the air in tiny droplets released by coughing.

Testing: The process by which the hazards that may confront entrants of a permit
space are identified and evaluated. Testing includes specifying the tests that are to be
performed in the permit space.

Title 29 of the Code of Federal Regulations: This is the section of the CFR that
contains all OSHA standards and guidelines (29 CFR).

Toeboard: A type of guard installed along the lower edge of scaffold platforms and
overhead walkways that is designed to keep tools and other objects from falling and
injuring workers below. Installing toeboards is considered an engineering control.

Toxic Substance: A substance that can affect the proper functioning of an organism,
resulting in a change in physiology through a chemical process.

Trade Secret: Any confidential formula, pattern, process, device, information, or

compilation of information that is used in an employer's business, and gives the
employer an opportunity to obtain an advantage over competitors who do not know or
use it.

Training: A course of study in which employees are trained to identify and work safely.

Tread Depth: The horizontal distance from front to back of a tread, excluding nosing, if
any.

Trench: A narrow excavation made below the surface of the ground in which the depth
is greater than the width and the width does not exceed 15 feet.

Ultraviolet Rays: Situated beyond the visible spectrum at its violet end; used to
describe radiation having a wavelength shorter than those of visible light and longer
than those of x-rays.

Unprotected Sides and Edges: Any side or edge (except at entrances to points of
access) of a walking/working surface (e.g., floor, roof, ramp, or runway) where there is
no wall or guardrail system at least 39 inches (1 meter) high.

Valve: Device for controlling the flow of fluids (liquids and gases).

Volts: The electrical pressure (measure of electrical force).

Walking/Working Surface: Any surface, whether horizontal or vertical, on which an

employee walks or works, including, but not limited to, floors, roofs, ramps, bridges,
runways, formwork, and concrete reinforcing steel. Does not include ladders, vehicles,
or trailers on which employees must be located to perform their work duties.

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 30

Warning Line System: A barrier erected on a roof to warn employees that they are
approaching an unprotected roof side or edge, and which designates an area in which
roofing work may take place without the use of guardrail, body belt, or safety net
systems to protect employees in the area.

Watts: Measurement work produced by the electrical circuit.

Wire Gauge: System used to measure the physical size of wire.

Workplace: An establishment, job site, or project at one geographical location

containing one or more work areas.

Module 1: Introduction to OSHA

Module Description
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) was established to protect
the health of American workers. In 1970, the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act
was passed to give structure to worker protection activities. OSHA holds employers
responsible for providing a workplace that is free from recognized hazards. This module
will provide an overview of OSHA, employers’ responsibilities, and employees’ rights in
the workplace.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, you will be able to:

• Explain why OSHA is important to workers

• Explain workers’ rights under OSHA
• Discuss employers’ responsibilities under OSHA
• Discuss the use of OSHA standards
• Explain how OSHA inspections are conducted
• Utilize helpful worker safety and health resources

Lesson 1: Introduction to OSHA

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Understand OSHA’s mission

• Explain how state plans work
• Recognize OSHA standards
• Explain how standards are enforced

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 31

OSHA’s Mission

OSHA stands for the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, an agency of the
U.S. Department of Labor established on April 28, 1971. OSHA's responsibility is worker
safety and health protection. The U.S. Congress created OSHA under the Occupational
Safety and Health (OSH) Act, signed into law by President Nixon on December 29,
1970. OSHA was intended "to assure so far as possible every working man and woman
in the nation safe and healthful working conditions and to preserve our human
resources."

OSHA’s current mission is “to ensure safe and healthful working conditions for workers
by setting and enforcing standards and by providing training, outreach, education, and
assistance.” It is the employer’s responsibility to keep the workplace free from any
known or recognized hazard that is likely to cause injury or illness to their workers.

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 32

https://www.osha.gov/Publications/poster.html

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 33

The OSH Act is also known as Public Law 91-596. It covers all private sector employers
and their workers in the 50 states and all territories and jurisdictions under federal
authority. Employers and workers in many fields, including but not limited to
manufacturing, construction, long shoring, agriculture, law, medicine, charity, and
disaster relief are covered by OSHA. Religious groups are covered if they employ
workers for secular purposes, such as maintenance or gardening. The next sections go
into more detail about who is and is not covered by OSHA.

Who is Covered by the OSH Act?

OSHA’s standards apply to all employees and their employers (with a few exceptions) in
the 50 states and certain territories and jurisdictions under federal government authority.
Those jurisdictions include the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands,
American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Wake Island, Johnston Island, and
the Outer Continental Shelf Lands as defined in the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act.
Coverage is provided either directly by OSHA or through an OSHA-approved state
program.

Which Groups Do Not Come Under OSHA's Coverage?

A few groups do not fall under OSHA’s coverage, including:

• The self-employed
• Immediate members of farming families who do not employ outside workers
• Workers whose safety is regulated by a different agency, such as mine workers,
certain truckers and transportation workers, and atomic energy workers
• Employees of other federal agencies whose agency heads, under section 19 of
the OSH Act, are responsible for establishing and maintaining occupational
health and safety programs (OSHA conducts federal workplace inspections in
response to employee reports of hazards. The OSH Act requires federal
agencies to comply with standards consistent with those for private sector
employees.)
• Public employees in state and local governments (some states have their own
plans that cover these workers)

OSHA's Impact

Since OSHA's creation in 1970, the nation has made substantial progress in
occupational safety and health. In 1970, an estimated 14,000 workers were killed on the
job—about 38 every day. Since then, OSHA and its many partners in the public and
private sectors have made enormous progress:

• The work-related fatality rate has been cut to historic lows. In 2019, this number
was about 5,333 or about 15 workers per day. At the same time, U.S.
employment has more than doubled to over 157 million workers at more than 8
million worksites.
• The rate of reported serious workplace injuries and illnesses has also dropped
from 10.9 per 100 workers in 1972 to 2.8 per 100 workers in 2019.

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 34

 • In FY 2019, OSHA conducted 33,393 inspections and State Plans conducted
42,063 inspections.
• In FY 2019, OSHA's On-Site Consultation Program conducted over 26,000 visits
to worksites covering approximately 1 million workers across the nation.

State Plans

State plans are OSHA-approved job safety and health programs operated by individual
states instead of OSHA itself. The OSH Act encourages states to develop and operate
their own job safety and health plans and precludes state enforcement of OSHA
standards unless the state has an approved plan. OSHA approves and monitors all
state plans, which must be at least as effective as federal OSHA requirements.

State plans covering the private sector also must cover state and local government
employees. OSHA rules also permit states and territories to develop plans that cover
only public sector (state and local government) employees. In these cases, private
sector employment remains under federal OSHA jurisdiction. Twenty-two states and
territories operate complete plans and six cover only the public sector.

State plan programs respond to accidents and employee complaints and conduct
unannounced inspections, just like OSHA.

For more information about individual state plans, visit osha.gov/stateplans.

OSHA Standards

OSHA standards are rules that describe the methods that employers must use to
protect their employees from hazards. There are OSHA standards for Construction
work, Agriculture, Maritime operations, and General Industry, which are the standards
that apply to most worksites. These standards protect workers from a wide range of
serious hazards. For instance, they limit the amount of hazardous chemicals workers
can be exposed to, require the use of certain safe practices and equipment, and require
employers to monitor hazards and keep records of workplace injuries and illnesses.

OSHA standards include (but are not limited to):

• 29 CFR 1910—Safety and Health Standards for General Industry

• 29 CFR 1926—Safety and Health Regulations for Construction
• 29 CFR 1928—Safety and Health Standards for Agriculture

These OSHA standards are available online.

Examples of OSHA standards include requirements for employers to:

• Provide fall protection

• Prevent trenching cave-ins
• Prevent exposure to some infectious diseases

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 • Ensure the safety of workers who enter confined spaces
• Prevent exposure to harmful chemicals
• Put guards on dangerous machines
• Provide respirators or other safety equipment
• Provide training for certain dangerous jobs in a language and vocabulary workers
can understand

An example of a specific OSHA standard is 29 CFR 1910.95—Occupational Noise

Exposure. Noise in the workplace can cause adverse effects to a worker’s hearing when
the noise reaches levels above 85db for an 8-hour Time Weighted Average (TWA). The
damage from continuous loud noise exposure is permanent. OSHA requires that
hearing conservation programs are used in workplaces that exceed the 85dB TWA and
for employers to provide Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) at no cost to the
workers. Earplugs and earmuffs are examples of PPE used to reduce noise hazards in
the workplace.

Though PPE is provided for workers at no cost to them, the employer should look for
engineering controls such as sound proofing or using sound barriers to further reduce
the noise. Additionally, the standard requires that workers have annual Audiometric
Testing and training regarding occupational noise.

The General Duty Clause

The General Duty Clause (Section 5(a)(1) of the OSH Act) is used when there is not a
specific OSHA standard that applies to a given situation. It states:

Each employer -- (1) shall furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of
employment which are free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to
cause death or serious physical harm to his employees.

The general duty clause ensures the OSH Act has the flexibility to cover types of work
not yet specifically envisioned in the law. The following is an example of a citation
issued under the general duty clause:

Case Study: Citation 1219419.015/01001 -- OSH ACT of 1970 Section 5(a)(1)

The employer did not furnish employment and a place of employment which were free
from recognized hazards that were causing or likely to cause death or serious physical
harm to employees. Employees were exposed to struck-by hazards from the use of
untested, unrated, and unmarked below-the-hook lifting devices. Among other methods,
one feasible method of abatement to correct the hazard is to follow the guidelines in the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) B30.20-2013, "Below-the-Hook
Lifting Devices, Section 20-1.2.1: Markings". (a) The Hardware Essentials 5-inch
carabiners used to lift transformers. (b) The shop-made spreader bar with two hooks
located next to the paint booth.

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Enforcing Standards

OSHA enforces standards through inspections. The current budget is small—all

together nationwide (together with State partners) there are only about 1,850 inspectors
responsible for the health and safety of 130 million workers, employed at more than 8
million worksites around the nation This translates to about one compliance officer for
every 70,000 workers. At this rate, it would take over 100 years to inspect every
workplace once.

Therefore, OSHA targets the most dangerous workplaces, including industries with
fatalities and serious injuries (e.g., grain handling in Colorado) and construction (i.e.,
falls).

The OSHA inspection process consists of an opening conference, a walkthrough, and a

closing conference with the employer. Results can take up to 6 months, after which
OSHA may issue citations. These may include fines and will specify dates by which
hazards must be abated.

When an OSHA inspection is conducted in the workplace, workers have the right to
have a worker representative accompany the inspector on the inspection. Workers can
talk to the inspector privately. They may point out hazards or describe injuries, illnesses,
or near misses that resulted from those hazards and describe any concern you have
about a safety or health issue. Workers also can find out about inspection results and
abatement measures and get involved in any meetings or hearings related to the
inspection. Workers may also object to the date set for the violation to be corrected and
be notified if the employer files a contest.

Lesson Summary

OSHA was established in 1970 to ensure Americans were protected from unsafe or
unhealthy working conditions. It is the employer’s responsibility to ensure a safe
workplace. With a few exceptions, OSHA standards apply to all employers and
employees in the United States. Those exceptions include the self-employed, farming
families who do not employ outside workers, employees of other federal agencies, and
public employees in state and local governments. Since OSHA was created, work-
related fatality rates have fallen dramatically.

OSHA encourages states to develop and enforce their own worker safety plans, as long
as they are approved by OSHA. If these plans cover the private sector, they must also
cover state and local governments. Twenty-two states and territories currently operate
plans covering both private and public employees, while six others have plans covering
only state and local government employees.

OSHA standards are rules that describe methods employers must use to protect their
employees from hazards. OSHA’s standards for the construction industry are contained
in 29 CFR 1926. An important section of the standards includes the general duty clause,
which states that, aside from all specific regulations, employers are generally
responsible for maintaining a safe and healthy workplace. Standards are enforced by

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OSHA inspectors, but because there are so few inspectors in relation to the number of
worksites, only the most dangerous worksites are routinely inspected.

Lesson 2: Employer Responsibilities

Lesson Focus

At the end of the lesson, students will be able to:

• Identify and explain employers’ responsibilities as specified by OSHA

• Recognize and know how to use safety data sheets

Employers’ Responsibilities

Employers are responsible for maintaining conditions and adopting reasonable

practices necessary to protect workers on the job. The first and best strategy is to
control the hazard at its source. Engineering controls do this, unlike other controls that
generally focus on the worker who is exposed to the hazard. The basic concept behind
engineering controls is that, to the extent feasible, the work environment and the job
itself should be designed to eliminate hazards or reduce exposure to hazards.

Employers should be familiar with the standards that apply to their workplaces and
comply with these standards. This includes ensuring that workers are provided with—
and use—personal protective equipment when needed. When exposure to hazards
cannot be engineered completely out of normal operations or maintenance work, and
when safe work practices and other forms of administrative controls cannot provide
sufficient protection, an additional method of control may be the use of protective
clothing or equipment

Employers must also comply with the OSH Act's General Duty Clause when no specific
standards apply. OSHA also encourages all employers to adopt a safety and health
program that includes management leadership, worker participation, and a systematic
approach to finding and fixing hazards. Safety and health programs, known by a variety
of names, are universal interventions that can substantially reduce the number and
severity of workplace injuries.

Under the OSH Act, employers’ responsibilities include (but are not limited to) the
following:

• Provide a workplace free from recognized hazards and comply with OSHA
standards
• Examine workplace conditions to make sure they conform to applicable OSHA
standards
• Make sure employees have and use safe tools and equipment and properly
maintain this equipment
• Establish and update operating procedures and communicate them so that
employees follow safety and health requirements

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• Provide training required by OSHA standards in a format, language and
vocabulary workers can understand
• Keep records of injuries and illnesses
• Set up a reporting system
• Provide copies of logs (i.e., OSHA 300), upon request
• Post the annual summary
• Report within 8 hours any work-related fatalities and within 24 hours, all work-
related inpatient hospitalizations, amputations, and losses of an eye
• Provide medical exams when required by OSHA standards and provide workers
access to their exposure and medical records
• Not discriminate against workers who exercise their rights under the Act
• Post, at a prominent location within the workplace, the OSHA poster (or the
state-plan equivalent) informing employees of their rights and responsibilities
• Post OSHA citations and abatement verification notices
• Provide and pay for most Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

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Safety Data Sheets (SDS)
Your Right to... Know About Hazardous Chemicals

Employers must have a written hazard communication program that includes

information on:
• Container labeling
• Safety Data Sheets (SDSs )
• Worker training

Training must include information about the physical and health hazards of the

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chemicals and how workers can protect themselves including specific procedures
the employer has implemented to protect those working with chemical materials. These
protections include safe work practices, emergency procedures, and personal protective
equipment.

Safety Data Sheets include information such as the properties of each chemical; the
physical, health, and environmental health hazards; protective measures; and safety
precautions for handling, storing, and transporting the chemical. The information
contained in the SDS must be in English (although it may be in other languages as
well). In addition, OSHA requires that SDS preparers provide specific minimum
information as detailed in Appendix D of 29 CFR 1910.1200. The SDS preparers may
also include additional information in various section(s).

Sections 1 through 8 contain general information about the chemical identification,

hazards, composition, safe handling practices, and emergency control measures (e.g.,
firefighting). Sections 9 through 11 and 16 contain other technical and scientific
information, such as physical and chemical properties, stability and reactivity
information, toxicological information, exposure control information, and other
information including the date of preparation or last revision. The SDS should state that
no applicable information was found if the preparer does not find relevant information for
any required element.

The SDS must also contain Sections 12 through 15, to be consistent with the UN
Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals (GHS), but
OSHA will not enforce the content of these sections because they concern matters
handled by other agencies.

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https://www.osha.gov/sites/default/files/publications/OSHA3514.pdf

Lesson Summary

Employers are responsible for maintaining conditions and adopting reasonable

practices necessary to protect workers on the job. Employers must also comply with the
OSH Act's General Duty Clause when no specific standards apply. OSHA also
encourages all employers to adopt a safety and health program that includes
management leadership, worker participation, and a systematic approach to finding and
fixing hazards. Safety and health programs, known by a variety of names, are universal
interventions that can substantially reduce the number and severity of workplace
injuries.

Safety Data Sheets (SDSs) contain information about potentially hazardous chemicals
that may be encountered on a worksite, such as the properties of each chemical; the
physical, health, and environmental hazards; protective measures; and safety
precautions for handling, storing, and transporting the chemical. The information
contained in the SDS must be in English (although it may be in other languages as
well). SDSs should be made readily accessible to workers and inspectors.

An SDS is divided into 16 sections, containing general information about the chemical
identification, hazards, composition, safe handling practices, and emergency control
measures (sections 1-8), as well as other technical and scientific information, such as
physical and chemical properties, stability and reactivity information, toxicological
information, exposure control information, and other information including the date of
preparation or last revision. The SDS should state that no applicable information was
found if the preparer does not find relevant information for any required element.

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Lesson 3: Workers’ Rights and Responsibilities
Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Identify and explain workers’ rights as specified by OSHA

• Properly report safety hazards
• Explain whistleblower protections
• Locate worker resources

Workers' Rights

In addition to a generally safe and healthful workplace, OSHA guarantees workers other
rights, such as the right to receive notification and training regarding hazardous
chemicals or the right to submit a complaint to OSHA without fear of retribution. The
following table lists workers’ rights as specified by OSHA:

The following sections provide further details about the rights listed in the table above.

Know about hazardous conditions

In addition to a generally safe workplace, workers have the right to know about
hazardous substances in their workplace. Employers must have a written, complete
hazard communication program that includes information on container labeling as well
as safety data sheets (SDSs).

Worker training must include the physical and health hazards of the chemicals and how
workers can protect themselves, including specific procedures the employer has
implemented to protect workers. This training must be in a language and vocabulary
that workers can understand.

The program must also include a list of the hazardous chemicals in each work area and
the means the employer uses to inform workers of the hazards of non-routine tasks. It

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must also make sure that hazardous chemical containers are properly labeled with the
identity of the hazardous chemical and appropriate hazard warnings. In addition, the
program must explain how the employer will inform other employers of hazards to which
their workers may be exposed (for example, contract workers).

Information about injuries and illnesses in your workplace

OSHA's Recordkeeping rule requires most employers with more than 10 workers to
keep a log of injuries and illnesses. The log, which is also called the OSHA 300, must
contain all work-related injuries and illnesses resulting in lost workdays, restricted work,
or transfer to another job, as well as any incident requiring more than first aid treatment.

Workers have the right to review the current log and the logs stored for the past 5 years.
The employer must provide this by the end of the next workday. The names and other
information on the log may not be removed unless the case is a "privacy concern case"
(a privacy concern case involves an intimate body part, mental illness, HIV, or other
sensitive information). For more detail, see 1904.29(b)(7).

You also have the right to view the annually posted summary of the injuries and
illnesses (OSHA 300A). Each year from February 1 through April 30, employers must
post a summary of the injury and illness log from the previous year (OSHA Form 300A)
in a place where workers can see it. The right to review the log includes former
employees, their personal representatives, and authorized employee representatives.

Complain or request hazard correction from employer

Often the best and fastest way to get a hazard corrected is to notify your supervisor or
employer. OSHA guarantees that you have the right to do so without fear of retaliation.
Many hazards may not be known to the employer or the employer’s representative, and
once the hazard has been revealed it will be correct promptly. Should it not be correct,
the employee has the option of filing a complaint with OSHA (see below).

Training as provided in the OSHA standards

You have a right to get training from your employer on a variety of health and safety
hazards and standards that your employer must follow. We have already covered the
Safety Data Sheet (SDS), which is one important way employers can provide
information about hazards to their employees. Other required training may include
lockout-tagout, bloodborne pathogens, noise, confined spaces, fall hazards in
construction, personal protective equipment, and a variety of other subjects.

Hazard Exposure Records and Medical Records

Under OSHA's standard 1910.1020, you have the right to examine and copy exposure
and medical records, including records of workplace monitoring or measuring a toxic
substance. This is important if you have been exposed to toxic substances or harmful
physical agents in the workplace, as this regulation may help you detect, prevent, and
treat occupational disease.

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Examples of toxic substances and harmful physical agents are:

• Some metals and dusts, such as, lead, cadmium, and silica
• Biological agents, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi
• Physical stress, such as noise, heat, cold, vibration, repetitive motion, and
ionizing and non-ionizing radiation

OSHA standards require employers to measure exposure to potentially harmful

substances, and workers or their representatives have the right to observe the testing
and examine the results. If the exposure levels are above the limit set by the standard,
the employer must tell workers what will be done to reduce their exposure.

File a Complaint with OSHA

You may also file a complaint with OSHA if you believe a violation of a safety or health
standard or an imminent danger situation exists in your workplace. You may request
that your name not be revealed to your employer. You can file a complaint on OSHA's
website, in writing, or by telephone. You can contact OSHA by calling 1-800-321-OSHA.

If you file a complaint, you have the right to find out OSHA's action on the complaint and
request a review if an inspection is not made.

Complaints from employees and their representatives are taken seriously by OSHA. It is
against the law for an employer to fire, demote, transfer, or discriminate in any way
against a worker for filing a complaint or using other OSHA rights.

Participate in an OSHA Inspection

If an OSHA inspection is conducted in your workplace, you have the right to have your
representative accompany the inspector on the inspection.

You also have the right to talk to the inspector privately. You may point out hazards or
describe injuries, illnesses, or near misses that resulted from those hazards, and
describe any concerns you have about a safety or health issue.

You also have the right to find out about inspection results and abatement measures
and get involved in any meetings or hearings related to the inspection. You may also
object to the date set for the violation to be corrected and be notified if the employer
files a contest.

Contest: If an employer disagrees with the results of the OSHA inspection, he or she
may submit a written objection within 15 days of the issuance of a citation to OSHA,
called a Notice of Contest. Workers may only contest the amount of time the employer
is given to correct the hazard.

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Worker Rights Practice Worksheet

Across: 4. Exposure; 6. Injuries; 7. Healthful; 8. Correction; 9. Inspection

Down: 1. Hazardous; 2. Retaliation; 3. Training; 5. OSHA

Reporting Safety Hazards

Workers have a right to take action to secure their safety and health on the job without
fear of punishment. That right is spelled out in Section 11(c) of the OSH Act, which says
the employer shall not punish or discriminate against employees for complaining about
safety hazards to the employer, a union, or to OSHA or any other government agency.
Workers are also protected from retaliation for their participation in OSHA inspections,
conferences, hearings, and other OSHA-related activities.

Workers also have the right to refuse to do a job if they believe in good faith that they
are exposed to an imminent danger. "Good faith" means that even if an imminent
danger is not found to exist, the worker had reasonable grounds to believe that it did
exist. Since the conditions necessary to justify a work refusal are very stringent, refusing
work should be an action taken as a last resort. If time permits, the condition should be
reported to OSHA or the appropriate government agency first.

If you believe you have been punished for exercising your safety and health rights, you
must contact OSHA within 30 days in order to preserve the protections provided under
the OSH Act. The tables below provide information on how OSHA responds to the way
a complaint is reported.

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Whistleblower Protections

Workers cannot be transferred, denied a raise, have their hours reduced, be fired, or be
punished in any other way because they exercised any right given to them under the
OSH Act. Help is available from OSHA for whistleblowers.

OSHA recommends that the following message be posted for outreach students:

If you have been punished or discriminated against for using your rights, you must file a
complaint with OSHA within 30 days of the alleged reprisal for most complaints. No form
is required, but you must send a letter or call the OSHA Area Office nearest you to
report the discrimination within 30 days of the alleged discrimination.

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Worker Resources

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NIOSH is OSHA’s sister agency. Workers can request that NIOSH conduct Health
Hazard Evaluations (HHEs) of workplaces in cases where workers are getting sick from
an unknown cause or are exposed to an agent or working condition that is not regulated
by OSHA.

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Health care providers can also be a resource on the health effects of toxic substances,
proper medical and first aid treatment, and other health-related issues.

Lesson Summary

OSHA guarantees workers certain specific rights in addition to the general right to a
safe workplace. Among these are the rights to receive proper training and information
about previous, current, and expected hazards, and the right to file a complaint with
OSHA or NIOSH without fear of retaliation. Workers may also participate in relevant
OSHA inspections. Workers must report safety hazards to OSHA within 30 days and
may do so online, in writing, of by telephone.

OSHA’s standards provide protections to whistleblowers who report workplace safety

violations. Workers cannot be transferred, denied a raise, have their hours reduced, be
fired, or be punished in any other way because they exercised any right given to them
under the OSH Act.

Module 2: Managing Safety and Health

Module Description
Employers are encouraged to develop and maintain a safety and health program that
provides policies, procedures, and practices that protect employees from occupational
safety and health hazards. In addition to preventing injuries, illnesses, and fatalities,

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addressing safety and health issues in the workplace saves the employer money and
adds value to the business.

This module begins with an overview of accident costs, direct and indirect. Then we
explore the elements and processes of safety programs and worksite analysis. The job
hazard analysis is commonly used for training workers as to how to perform a job in the
safest manner possible. Hazard recognition and the hierarchy of hazard control are also
discussed.

Next, the module explains how to understand accident causation and the various
accident theories. If you learn the cause-and-effect relationship of accident causation
and the human element, then you can reduce injuries and illnesses. The final lesson
concludes with an overview of incident investigation techniques.

Module Learning Objectives

At the end of this module, students will be able to:

• Determine the direct cost of an accident

• Determine the indirect cost of an accident
• Describe the true cost of an accident related to human error factors
• Summarize the components of a safety program
• Explain how hazards are identified, prevented, and controlled
• Discuss safety training and program improvement
• Analyze worksites and tasks to identify hazards
• Explain the hierarchy of hazard control
• Understand accident causation theories
• Explain how unsafe behaviors contribute to accidents
• Understand the role of a safety management system in preventing accidents and
incidents
• Identify incident investigation techniques to find a root cause of an event

Lesson 1: Accident Costs and Prevention

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Determine the direct and indirect costs of an accident

• Identify the components of a successful safety program
• Explain the importance of a workplace hazard analysis
• Recognize different types of hazards
• Explain the Hierarchy of Hazard Control
• Perform a risk analysis

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Accident Costs

According to the 2016 Liberty Mutual Workplace Safety Index, the most disabling,
nonfatal workplace injuries added nearly $59 billion to direct U.S. worker compensation
costs. This translates into more than a billion dollars a week spent by businesses as a
result of these injuries. Many accidents are expensive when considering lost time
events. However, there are many more cost factors related to accidents that can be
direct or indirect. To evaluate the total cost of the accident, you must combine both the
direct and indirect costs.

These costs come out of the employer’s profits. Depending on the company’s profit
margin, significant additional sales are required to offset the costs of a workplace injury.

SOURCE: MIOSHA CET #0182 / 12/09

Direct Costs of an Accident

The direct costs of an accident are directly associated with the event and are easily
quantifiable. Most direct costs are paid by the insurance company of the employer.
Examples of some of these costs are:

• Physical therapy
• Medical expenses
• Repair fees for damaged equipment
• Increases in workers’ compensation premiums
• Continuation of pay
• Compensatory damages
• Costs for legal services

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Indirect Costs of an Accident

The indirect costs of an accident are not paid through insurance and therefore are
unrecoverable. While the direct costs are easy to quantify, the indirect costs are often
unseen or impossible to quantify. The indirect costs of an accident are usually greater—
sometimes much greater—than the direct costs. Some examples of indirect costs
include:

• Wages paid to injured workers for absences not covered by worker’s

compensation
• Lost wages and work stoppages associated with the worker injuries
• Overtime due to the accident
• Administrative costs and time spent by safety personnel, clerical workers, and
other employees after the injury
• Training for replacement workers
• Lost productivity due to the injury
• Low employee morale
• Accommodation for the injured employee within the organization
• Clean up and replacement costs of damaged material, machinery, and property
• Poor customer and community relations

Cost Estimate Calculator

The National Council on Compensation Insurance, Inc. (NCCI) collected statistics and
data from insurance claims for policy periods 2015 through 2017. This data was
incorporated by OSHA in the Safety Pays Cost Estimator for accidents. The NCCI data
showed that the magnitude of indirect costs is inversely related to the severity of an
accident. Using these numbers, OSHA created the Safety Pays Cost Calculator.

The following chart will give the relationship between direct costs and indirect costs in a
ratio that is used to calculate the total accident cost.

Direct Costs Indirect Cost Ratio

$0-$2,999 4.5
$3000-$4,999 1.6
$5,000-$9,999 1.2
$10,000 or more 1.1

To use the cost estimate calculator, you need to know either the injury type or the
workers compensation direct cost of an accident and the company’s profit margin.
However, if the profit margin is not known to the officer using the cost estimator, then
OSHA will give a default 3% profit margin for calculation of the direct and indirect costs
in relation to the additional sales needed to pay total cost of the accident.

As an example of this calculator, if you select an amputation from the entry type menu
and give the company a profit margin of 10%, the calculator will give you the following
information:

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 • Amputation: (1) Instance
• Direct Cost: $96,003
• Indirect Cost: $105,603
• Total Cost: $201,606
• Additional Sales needed to recuperate cost (Indirect Cost): $1,056,030
• Additional Sales needed to recuperate cost (Total Cost); $2,016,060

Therefore, this example illustrates that just one instance of an amputation has
historically cost $96,003 in direct costs and $105,603 in indirect costs, yielding a total
injury cost of $201,606.

When workers stay whole and healthy, the direct cost-savings to businesses include:

• Lower workers’ compensation insurance costs

• Reduced medical expenditures
• Smaller expenditures for return-to-work programs
• Fewer faulty products
• Lower costs for job accommodations for injured workers

Here are some examples of how companies can “pay themselves” by preventing
accidents and avoiding the associated costs:

RAM Construction paid itself $246,000. “It took several years, but we decreased our
Experience Modification Rate (EMR) from a high of 1.43 to a low of 0.286. This
reduction resulted in an average savings in workers’ compensation costs of $82,000 per
year for the last 3 years.” (Safety Director, RAM Construction Services, Livonia, MI;
MIOSHA CET #0182 / 12/09).

Kamminga and Roodvoets paid itself $211,000. “We developed a more visible and
structured safety and health system. Our Experience Modification Rate (EMR) is now
below 0.6, resulting in savings in our workers’ compensation costs this year of more
than $211,000. (Safety Director, Kamminga and Roodvoets, Grand Rapids, MI;
MIOSHA CET #0182 / 12/09).

Safety Programs

Workplace injuries are preventable and a safety and health management

system (SHMS) is the best way to prevent them. A safety program with a systematic
approach integrates occupational safety and health objectives into the company’s
organizational structure. The results include:

• An effective system that supports the organization’s philosophy

• Safety and health policies and goals that are clearly communicated
• Accountability for implementing the system
• Long-term solutions rather than one-time fixes
• Evaluation of results over time to promote continual improvement

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 • A system that positively impacts the company’s bottom line

The components of a successful safety program include:

• Leadership from management

• Worker participation
• Hazard identification and assessment
• Hazard prevention and control
• Education and training
• Program evaluation and improvement
• Communication and coordination for host employers, contractors, and staffing
agencies

Leadership from management

A committed management unit provides clearly defined objectives and goals for
organizational safety. They finance the safety activities through purchases and resource
allocations. Every level of management should value safety practices and
accomplishments as much as they value regulatory compliance and water quality.

Leaders’ commitment to safety ensures a company safety vision exists. This vision
should be communicated regularly and widely, and it should align with and support
company values and promote and communicate the concept of "safe production."
Management leadership means that business owners, CEOs, managers, and
supervisors at all levels are fully committed to continuously improving workplace safety
and health performance. Safety leaders have the courage to demonstrate they value
safety by working and communicating with team members to identify and limit
hazardous situations even in the presence of other job pressures such as scheduling
and costs.

Here are some steps managers can take to demonstrate their commitment to safety
leadership:

• Writing or personally signing a clearly defined safety policy that acknowledges

that safety and health are as important as productivity, water quality, regulatory
compliance, and customer service
• Communicating the policy and values to all levels of the organization
• Visually setting examples of safety behavior and demonstrating actions
consistent with a safety culture
• Allocating resources for safety and health
• Holding all levels of the organization accountable for safety performance

Worker Participation

Workers have much to gain from a successful safety and health program—and often the
most to lose if the program fails. Workers often know the most about their jobs and are
often those closest to potential hazards. Worker participation means that all workers,
including contractors, subcontractors, and temporary staffing agency workers:

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 • Have opportunities to participate throughout the process of designing and
implementing the safety program
• Have access to information they need to participate effectively in the program
• Are encouraged to participate in the program and feel comfortable reporting
safety and health concerns

Workers are often best positioned to identify safety and health concerns and program
deficiencies, such as emerging workplace hazards, unsafe conditions, close calls/near
misses, and actual incidents. By encouraging reporting and following up promptly on all
reports, employers can address issues before someone gets hurt or becomes ill.
By encouraging workers to participate in the program, leadership also signals that it
values worker input into safety and health decisions. Management should acknowledge
and provide positive reinforcement to workers who actively participate in the program.
Maintain an open-door policy that invites workers to talk to managers about safety and
health. Encourage workers to make suggestions about safety and health.

Hazard Identification and Assessment

A proactive, ongoing process to identify and assess hazards in order to fix them is a
core element of any effective safety and health program. Failure to identify or recognize
hazards is frequently one of the “root causes” of workplace injuries, illnesses, and
incidents, and indicates that the safety and health program is ineffective. Hazard
assessment can (and should!) lead to opportunities to improve program performance.

A hazard is any condition or action that can cause an organizational loss. An

organizational loss can come in the form of an injury or illness, damaged equipment, or
even worker turnover. When a loss occurs, the organization must determine the root
cause of the loss and not just the symptoms. The assessment process must be
structured, detailed, and deliver actionable measures to address the root cause. Hazard
identification and assessment can be accomplished by:

• Worksite analysis of past, present, and predictive data from reports,

instrumentation, and maintenance logs, as well as worker injury and illness
records
• Worksite inspections for safety hazards
• Investigating each accident until the root cause is completely disclosed
• Identifying hazards that may arise outside of normal operating conditions,
including emergencies and start-up or shut-down operations
• Characterizing the true composition of a hazard, giving a priority value to each
component, and identifying appropriate hazard controls

Hazard Prevention and Control

Preventing and controlling hazards will protect workers from injury and illness, but will
also give employees a clear sign that the company cares about their wellbeing. It is
always preferable to eliminate hazards entirely, but when that is not possible other
hazard controls are appropriate.

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Tips for implementing hazard prevention and controls are as follows:

• Identify what controls are available for each type of hazard

• Select the proper controls by doing a detailed hazard assessment
• Develop, maintain, and update a hazard control plan
• Select controls that are applicable for all aspects of the organization and
conditions
• Implement the selected hazard controls with a priority on elimination and
substitution of hazards
• Follow up on all hazard controls for each task to make sure they are protective
enough

Assess and understand the hazards you have identified and the types of incidents that
could result from worker exposure to those hazards. Use this information to determine
which controls to implement and to set priorities for implementing them. To ensure that
control measures remain effective, track progress in implementing controls, inspect
controls once they are installed, and follow routine preventive maintenance practices.

Education and Training

Education and training can be thought of as a tool that binds each step together to keep
hazard control efforts cohesive. The role of education and training must be a factor in
helping both management and workers maintain an overall culture of safety. Effective
education and training for employers, managers, supervisors, and workers means they:

• Have the knowledge and skills needed to work safely and avoid creating hazards
that could place themselves or others at risk
• Can demonstrate awareness and understanding of workplace hazards and how
to identify, report, and control them
• Have received specialized training when their work involves unique hazards

General workers should have safety awareness training with regular operations or
maintenance training. However, if they work in a specialized area that exposes them to
unique hazards, then training must be applicable to those hazards. Effective training
can be done peer-to-peer, in formal classrooms, online, or at the worksite. Provide
opportunities for workers to ask questions and offer feedback during and
after the training. As the program evolves, institute a more formal process for
determining the training needs of workers responsible for developing, implementing,
and maintaining the program.

Program Evaluation and Improvement

Any safety program must be continually analyzed and improved in order to stay current
and effective. Periodically step back and evaluate what works and what does not, and
whether you are on track to achieve your program goals. Evaluate the program initially
to verify that it has been implemented as intended, and then on a regular basis once it is
established. Whenever you identify opportunities to improve the program, make the

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adjustments and monitor how well it performs as a result. Share the results of your
monitoring and evaluation within the workplace to help drive further improvement.

Consider assessing risk by multiplying together the probability a negative event will
occur and the severity of the outcome if an event occurs.

The probability of an accident occurring can be broken down into 5 categories:

• Remote
• Unlikely
• Occasional
• Probable
• Frequent

Severity refers to the consequence of an accident when it does occur:

• Minor
• Marginal
• Serious
• Catastrophic

You can assign numbers 1-5 to the probabilities and 1-4 to the severity, and by
multiplying those numbers together you find your R-value or risk assessment value. For
example, if your risk assessment tells you that a task is probable (4) and would have
serious consequences (3) then the R-value will be 4x3=12.

Establish and follow procedures to collect, analyze, and review performance data in
order to determine the probability and severity of an accident. You should consider both
leading and lagging indicators.

Leading indicators reflect the potential for injuries and illnesses that have not yet
occurred. These include things like the level of worker participation in safety training, the
number of hazards and close calls reported, the number and frequency of inspections,
and the number of hazards identified during inspections.

Lagging indicators generally track worker exposures and injuries that have already
occurred. These include the number and severity of injuries and illnesses that have
occurred, the results of worker exposure monitoring, and the amount paid to workers’
compensation claims.

Communication and Coordination for Host Employers, Contractors, and Staffing

Agencies

Most employers occasionally have other employers’ workers present in their workplace,
including janitorial staff, temporary clerical support, or specialized service workers such
as electricians or mechanics. These workers, like those you employ, can be exposed to
safety or health hazards present in your workplace.

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The host company must take responsibility for all workers, including contract and
staffing agency workers. Employers must establish mechanisms to coordinate their
efforts and communicate information to ensure that all workers on site and their
representatives can participate in efforts to prevent and control injuries and illnesses,
and that workers are afforded equal protection against hazards.

Many public sector organizations are not under the jurisdiction of federal OSHA or even
a state OSHA, but the contract companies are under an occupational safety agency that
will regulate and cite them for violations. However, local government officials have a
moral obligation to make sure that workers of all types who do business with them are
protected from hazards.

Outline the procedures and processes for coordinating safety and health
responsibilities, as well as and the procedures for communicating between the host
employer and contractor, subcontractor, or temporary staffing agency. Document these
in writing. To keep the workers safe, the company should:
• Communicate with all outside contractors the importance of worker safety
• Coordinate with supervisors, owners, and workers throughout the project to make
sure the worksite is safe
• Hold all workers and agencies accountable for operating a safe worksite
• Verify that the bids and contracts specify that safe work practices are a must for
working with the company

A safety culture will protect the workers from injury and illness because the company
places a value on the lives of the workers. This is a deposit into the “good will” bank of
the worker and will be rewarded with loyalty. A deep commitment to a safety culture will
lead to worker retention and organizational benefits far beyond regulatory compliance.

Worksite Analysis

Hazard prevention and control comes from all levels of the organization, including the
chief executive officer and extended all the way down to the workers themselves. A
safety management system depends not only on individual responsibility but also on a
system that can prevent hazards across all work activities.

What is a JHA?

One of the most common systems for identifying and preventing hazards on a jobsite is
through a Job Hazard Analysis (JHA). A JHA helps workers identify the specific hazards
associated with the different steps of a task. Unlike a standard operating procedure
(SOP), which only shows employees how to perform the task, a JHA includes additional
information about the hazards associated with each component of a job. It is common to
develop a JHA by starting with the SOP to get the steps outlined in chronological order.
The safety committee, which should include a selection of the working crew, can dissect
the steps to see if and where a hazard may present itself.

Once the hazard or hazards are identified, then the workers will look to the hierarchy of
hazard control to see if they can either eliminate the hazard, substitute it, engineer a

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control, use existing or new work rules as an administrative control, or as a last resort
wear personal protective equipment during that step. Once the proper controls have
been determined, a JHA worksheet should be filled out and kept for the review of the
employees prior to performing the task. Some JHAs can be done in advance for jobs
that are routine, while others are done onsite right before beginning the task. However,
even JHAs that are done prior should be revisited by the work team before any work
begins. If there is any doubt as to the steps, hazards, or hazard controls, then the work
should not proceed until all questions have been answered.

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Sample JHA

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This job involves a worker grinding iron castings to remove burrs left by a previous
operation. To accomplish this, he reaches into metal box to the right of the grinder to get
a 15-pound casting. He then carries it to a grinding wheel and grinds off the burrs. He
does this 20 to 30 times per hour. Let’s consider step 1 of the following task.

The JHA for step 1 of this process would include the following:

In the “Step” column:

• Reach into metal box to right of machine, grasp casting, and carry it to the
wheel

In the “Hazard” column:

• Picking up the casting, an employee could drop it onto his/her foot. The
casting’s weight could cause a serious injury to the foot or toes
• Contact with sharp burrs and edges of castings could cause severe
lacerations
• Strains to the lower back from reaching, twisting, and lifting 15-pound
castings

In the “New Procedure or Protection” column:

• Remove castings from the box and place on a table next to the grinder
• Wear steel-toed shoes with arch protection
• Change to protective gloves to allow a better grip

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 • Use a device to pick up the castings

Hazard Recognition

A hazard is anything that can injure or hurt an individual. The presence of hazards in a
workplace does not necessarily mean injuries or accidents will occur. An accident
requires both the presence of a hazard and exposure to the hazard in order to occur. A
JHA should identify whether the hazard itself or the exposure to the hazard is the
primary concern. For example, in a trenching or excavation operation, a cave-in is
possible even when no workers are present. Only when workers are present would it be
considered an accident because only then are workers exposed to it.

Hazard recognition should be first and foremost taught to the front-line supervisors who
have control over the work conditions affecting both them and the workers they
supervise. Hazard recognition must also be taught at the level of each worker as they
become employed at the facility. Some hazards, such as working at heights, are fairly
obvious, but there are also hazards that may not be as obvious. Workers may be
exposed to an odorless toxic fume, for example, meaning they would not be aware that
they are being poisoned. This is a common hazard in confined spaces.

Hazard Types

Hazard types help classify hazards according to what negative effects they might have
on workers. Examples of hazard types are:

• Ergonomics
• Caught-in
• Contact-with
• Chemical exposure
• Flammable liquids
• Laceration
• Falls to below
• Falls to the same level
• Mechanical hazards
• Engulfment

There are many more hazard types that are job specific, so the worker must be trained
to recognize these hazards from the first day of work. Once the hazards are identified,
the next stage is to learn how to control them and prevent them from injuring workers.

Hierarchy of Hazard Controls

Controlling exposures to occupational hazards is the fundamental method of protecting

workers. Traditionally, a hierarchy of controls has been used as a means of determining
how to implement feasible and effective control solutions.

One representation of this hierarchy is as follows:

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The idea behind this hierarchy is that the control methods at the top of graphic are
potentially more effective and protective than those at the bottom. Following this
hierarchy normally leads to the implementation of inherently safer systems, where the
risk of illness or injury has been substantially reduced.

The following are the levels of the hierarchy of controls:

• Eliminating the hazard is the primary way to protect workers. If workers do not
have any exposure to that hazard because it is not present, then they will not be
injured or harmed.
• Substituting one substance or process for another is a secondary way to
protect workers from injury or illness. For example, if there is work with the gas
chlorine and the workplace decides to go to liquid bleach, that substitution would
protect the workers from exposure to a hazardous gas.
• Engineering controls create a physical barrier between the worker and the
hazard point. This physical barrier is not something that can easily be removed or
bypassed without worker intervention. An example of engineering control is a
machine guard on a table saw. If workers want to use the table saw without the
machine guard, they would have to physically take off that guard and then
operate the machinery.
• Administrative controls are work rules set by the employer to protect workers
from injuries or illnesses. A work rule, policy, or procedure, along with the
employer’s safety culture, are company norms that will translate into tangibly
better outcomes. An example of an administrative control is to have workers read
the procedure on how to safely do a task. This procedure would be detailed,

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 identify the hazards, and help the worker select the appropriate control for that
hazard.
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is the very last line of defense for worker
safety and health because even when using PPE, they are still exposed to that
hazard. If the worker must still be exposed to a hazard even after other controls
are implemented, then PPE should be selected for protection. Personal
protective equipment must be accompanied with a PPE hazard assessment that
identifies the right protective equipment to match the hazard that the workers are
exposed to. For instance, disposable gloves can be worn to protect against
biological hazards. If a worker is cleaning up a bloodborne pathogen spill from
human fluids, then he or she would use gloves. The PPE hazard assessment
would tell him or her what types to use, such as latex gloves, nitrile gloves, or
even thicker gloves depending on whether there is also a needlestick hazard.

Risk Analysis

Risk analysis is a way to understand the nature and complexity of a hazardous

condition. A proper risk analysis is done through assessing the risk involved for the
workers when confronted with a hazard. Usually, risk analysis includes the probability of
the hazard creating an accident and the likelihood that the incident will result in an injury
or illness of a certain severity. Therefore, risk is calculated by multiplying the probability
an event will happen by the expected severity.

Probability is often divided into five levels: improbable, remote, occasional, probable,
and frequent. In most risk analyses, each probability category can be assigned a
number between 1 and 5.

The severity factors also are delineated into levels, this time four of them: negligible,
marginal, critical, and catastrophic. Similar to the probability factor, numbers between 1
and 4 are assigned to the severity factors.

Using this system, an assessment can be performed that yields a specific number to
describe the risk level and classify the hazard. Combined with the human error factor,
the probability and severity may both increase any hazard that has a high risk.

Frequency of Catastrophic Critical Marginal Negligible

Occurrence- (Fatality) (OSHA (First-Aid) (Near Miss)
Probability (4) Recordable) (2) (1)
(3)
Frequent (5)
Probable (4)
Occasional (3)
Remote (2)
Improbable (1)

Case Study

A worker in a laboratory is using acid without any hand protection. The probability of a
chemical burn is high enough to warrant the top level of likelihood of an event occurring,

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which is a 5. The consequence of a chemical burn will yield a severity of 3. Calculating
the risk of this use of acid in a laboratory without hand protection therefore yields a risk
factor of 15. Using the maximum scale of 20 (the highest probability of 5 multiplied by
the highest severity of 4) shows that this action by the worker is a high-risk activity. In
this example, the use of chemicals without proper personal protective equipment has an
element of behavioral deficiency. This at-risk behavior can be identified through a
behavioral-based safety inspection and coached.

Lesson Summary

There are many cost factors related to accidents that can be direct or indirect. The
direct costs of an accident are directly associated with the event and are easily
quantifiable. Most direct costs are paid by the insurance company of the employer. The
indirect costs of an accident are not paid through the insurance and therefore are
unrecoverable.

The components of a safety program include:

• Management leadership
• Worker participation
• Hazard identification and assessment
• Hazard prevention and control
• Education and training
• Program evaluation and improvement
• Communication and coordination for host employers, contractors, and staffing
agencies

A hazard is anything that can injure or hurt an individual. Hazard identification is primary
to understanding how an accident can happen. Hazard types are ways to classify what
specifically the hazard is to the worker.

One of the most common ways for workers to visualize hazards prior to undertaking a
job is through a Job Hazard Analysis (JHA). A JHA identifies the steps required to
perform a task, the hazards associated with each step, and the controls necessary to
mitigate the hazards.

Once hazards are identified, they must be controlled to prevent illness or injury. The
hierarchy of hazard controls ranks these in order of preference, from complete
elimination of the hazard (most preferred) through substitution of the hazardous material
or task, engineering controls, administrative controls, and finally wearing personal
protective equipment (PPE – the control of last resort).

For individual hazards, an employer may need to perform a risk analysis to determine
the risk associated with those hazards. Risk is calculated by assigning numbers
between 1 and 5 to the probability level and numbers between 1 and 4 to the severity.

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Lesson 2: Accident Causation and Investigation
Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Understanding Accident Causation

• Accident Theories
• Incident Investigation Techniques
• Behavior-Based Safety Programs

Understanding Accident Causation

OSHA strongly encourages employers to investigate all workplace accidents, both those
that cause harm and the “close calls” that could have caused harm under slightly
different circumstances. Investigating a worksite accident—a fatality, injury, illness, or
close call—provides employers and workers the opportunity to identify hazards in their
operations and shortcomings in their safety and health programs. Most importantly, it
enables employers and workers to identify and implement the corrective actions
necessary to prevent future incidents. Accident investigations that focus on identifying
and correcting root causes, not on finding fault or blame, also improve workplace
morale and increase productivity by demonstrating an employer’s commitment to a safe
and healthful workplace.

To understand accident causation, investigations rely on the idea that most accidents
are caused by human error. Therefore, if you learn the cause-and-effect relationship of
accident causation and the human element, then you can reduce injuries and illnesses.
Though there are additional factors to consider, the human element is a leading cause
of accidents.

Note: Though there are some definitions that create a distinction between “accidents”
and “incidents,” for the purposes of this training the two words will be used
interchangeably.

Accident Theories

A variety of theories have been developed over the years to help us understand how
accidents happen. The following are brief introductions to these theories.

Single Factor Theory

The Single Factor Theory for accident investigation is the most basic of the accident
causation models. The single factor theory assumes that one event is solely responsible
for an accident. It is akin to the “pilot error syndrome” that states that the cause of an
airplane accident was solely an error caused by the pilot. In modern accident causation
models, the single factor theory has little to no value.

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H.W. Heinrich’s Domino Theory

In 1931, industrial safety pioneer H.W. Heinrich proposed a theory referred to as the
axioms of industrial safety, a series of ten principles designed to protect workers. The
first axiom dealt with accident causation, stating “the occurrence of an injury invariably
results from a completed sequence of factors, the last one of these being the accident
itself.” A lineup of dominoes is the image most often used to demonstrate this principle,
which eventually became known as the domino theory.

In all the domino theories, there are 3 phases that are influencers of an accident. These
phases are:

• Pre-contact phase, prior to the event happening

• Contact phase, which refers to the event as it’s happening
• Post-contact phase, which refers to after the release of unplanned energy, the
product downtime, or the injury or illness

In a later model of the domino theory, managerial influence and managerial error
dominoes were added. In the later model, loss was organizational loss as opposed to
just an accident. An example of organizational loss could be property damage, loss of
public trust, as well as an illness or injury.

A criticism of the domino theory holds that more dimensional approaches were required
because an accident might have multiple factors and causes that don’t operate in a
linear fashion.

Multiple Factor Theory

The multiple factor theory looks at not just the 3 phases in the domino theory of pre-
contact -- contact -- post contact, but also other factors that influence an accident.
Multiple factor theories analyze things such as management, the machines, the media,
and the man. The role of management would be to create the organizational structures,
the policy, and procedures that ensure safety. The machinery includes the design,
shape, size, and the type of equipment or materials being used. The role of media can
be described as an environmental factor that might influence worker or manager
behavior, while the factor of the man includes gender, age, mentality, fatigue factors,
height, weight, etc.

In analyzing all these factors, it becomes apparent that your model does not include just
the influencers. Unlike previous theories, management’s role is more concrete in the
multiple factor theories. Strong management that respects the role of occupational
safety will support and lead the safety effort of the organization.

Human Factor Theory

The human factor theory states that every accident is caused by human error. This
theory analyzes the factors that lead to human error, such as overload, inappropriate
activities, and inappropriate responses.

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Overload doesn’t always mean that the worker is overburdened, but the job itself may
have excess stressors such as noise, heat, or unclear instructions. Workers can often
feel overloaded when given too many tasks at a time or work instructions do not clearly
define the goals. Front-line supervisors are charged with making sure that the workers
understand the steps of each task.

There are two types of failures that cause human errors: active failures and latent
failures. An active failure is usually caused by the worker or person engaged in an
activity. The actions give an immediate consequence, which is the direct cause of the
accident. Latent failures lay the foundation of an active failure due to such issues as:

• Ineffective training
• Poor engineering of the equipment or location
• Poor or inadequate supervision
• Ineffective communication
• Unclear roles for the worker

James Reason’s Swiss Cheese Theory

In recent years, a professor from Manchester University in the United Kingdom, James
Reason, developed an accident causation model based on the analogy of holes in
Swiss cheese. In his analysis of an accident, he uses a visualization of a complete
system with no holes. In a complete system, management is involved, employees are
motivated, there is a safety management system in place, and a safety culture exists in
the organization.

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https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Fig-1-The-Swiss-Cheese-Model-by-James-Reason-
published-in-2000-Adopted-from-Perneger_fig1_324280519

A breakdown of any one of these components creates a hole similar to the hole in a
slice of Swiss cheese. As more holes develop, the system becomes less effective and
more dysfunctional. Eventually, the holes in each system will line up and allow a release
an accident to occur. This model combines the linear nature of the domino theory with
the complexity of the multiple factor theory.

For example, an employee handling caustic chemicals may wear gloves, but if the
walkway isn’t clear he can still trip. If the walkway is clear and he does not trip, the
container the chemical is in might be defective and rupture. If the container does not
rupture, the chemical may still emit fumes that could impair the worker. The key is to
provide a sufficient number of layers of protection and monitor each layer for
deficiencies so that they can be corrected.

How to Use Accident Theories

With the possible exception of the single-factor theory, all of these accident theories
could potentially be useful in determining how and why an accident occurred. Most
accidents involve some sort of domino-like sequence, even if the time elapsed was very
short. Virtually all accidents result from the intersection of multiple factors, and on
construction sites in particular accidents are often the result of too many “holes” in the
layers of protection. The important thing is for employers and employees alike to
consider the causes of accidents and take concrete steps to prevent the same
accidents from happening again in the future. Every accident should be a learning
opportunity!

Accident Investigation Techniques

The following are some of the common techniques used to investigate accidents.

Root Cause Analysis

A root cause analysis is a detailed procedure used by safety professionals to look

beyond the initial reactions, which may be informed more by emotion than careful
thought, to assign blame for an incident.

A root cause analysis must be conducted to determine all factors and variables
responsible for an accident. Most of these types of analysis will require a team of
trained professionals who are familiar with accident causation models, as well as good
investigators and critical thinkers. There are many types of root cause analysis, but they
all seek to do the same thing: address the source cause of any accident.

The 5 Whys

The 5 Whys is an accident investigation technique often used by safety professionals to

conduct a root cause analysis. It uses quantifiable questions that build on one another

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to get closer and closer to that cause. Although this technique is called the 5 Whys, it
often takes more questions than that to get to the root cause.

Here is an example of how the 5 Whys can be used to investigate an accident:

A worker receives a laceration from touching an unguarded blade on a handfed ripsaw.

Using the 5 Whys technique for questioning, the investigator can begin with these
questions:

Q: Why did the worker receive a laceration?

A: Because he touched unguarded blade.

Q: Why did the worker touch the unguarded blade?

A: Because the guard was not placed on the saw.

Q: Why was the guard not on the saw?

A: Because the worker believed he could work faster without the guard.

Q: Why did the worker believe it is better to work faster and not safer?
A: Because the worker gets paid on a quota basis.

Q: Why is management placing a greater importance on production quotas over

safety?
A: Because management receives a bonus for achieving production quotas.

In this brief example, the use of production quotas indirectly led to the worker valuing
speed over safety. There may be many other factors related to why the worker received
a laceration in the scenario, such as:

• Poor organizational safety culture

• Untrained worker
• Management and supervisors have unfair expectations of production quotas
• Workers fear retribution for slowing down production to address safety concerns
• Upper management has condoned and/or rewarded production goals over safety
concerns

When conducting a 5 Whys accident analysis, the investigator will dig deeper to
uncover an accident’s cause. This new revelation may lead the organization to address
gaps in their safety management system. The 5 Whys is an accident investigation
technique often used by safety professionals to conduct a root cause analysis. It uses
quantifiable questions that build on one another to get closer and closer to that cause.
Although this technique is called the 5 Whys, it often takes more questions than that to
get to the root cause.

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Behavior-Based Safety (BBS) Programs

There is a safety and health tool known as a behavior-based safety (BBS) program that
picks at-risk behaviors and monitors workers to understand why they are behaving in
that way. There are a number of behaviors that can cause a worker to perform work
unsafely or below expectations. These performance traps or snares will reveal
themselves in a BBS observation. To correct these behaviors, the coach must be able
to identify them and must know how to help the worker overcome them.

The following are common human performance snares and ways to overcome them.

Time Constraints

One of the most common human performance snares arises when workers feel that
they have a time constraint forcing them to cut corners. There are many actual time
pressures related to jobs, such as due dates, daily schedules, quotas, and frontline
supervision time crunches.

Some time pressures are legitimate and cannot be easily adjusted. In an emergency
situation, for example, an employee might have to make important decisions rapidly. In
such a situation, employees tend to rely on habit strength, meaning they resort to the
methods they have used most frequently in the past. As part of a behavior-based safety
program, workers will be trained to habitually use safe behaviors, leading them to that
habit strength in times of emergencies.

However, in some cases workers use time constraints to avoid safe behaviors that may
require more effort or attention than they want to give. In these situations, a coaching
session with workers should include tools that can help deal with time constraints. The
coach can perform a self-check or arrange a peer-check to see if there was truly a time
constraint to performing the task. A pre-job briefing would help workers see the whole
job and visualize how long it will take ahead of time. A careful consideration of the
worker’s attitude at the time of the job could also reveal whether they are placing an
unreasonable amount of time pressure on themselves. Be sure to consider whether
policy and procedure were followed for the employee performing the task, or bypassed.

Interruptions or Distractions

In some cases, an at-risk behavior is caused because the worker is distracted or

interrupted during the task. In order to successfully coach this individual, there must be
an assessment of what the distraction was and where it came from. Distractions might
arise from the worker him/herself, or from external sources (like another employee’s
phone ringing).

The first step in dealing with interruptions or distractions is to remove them, or to

remove the employee from the distraction area. The employee should perform a system
check prior to resuming the task to make sure all conditions are still safe for operations.
It may also be a good idea to have the worker seek assistance from a coworker before
resuming work in order to assess the situation for any more distractions or interrupting

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factors. Ultimately all distractions should be removed so that the worker can focus on
how to perform a task safely.

Multitasking

The term multitasking implies that someone can do more than one task at the exact
same time. It is nearly impossible for workers to multitask in the purest sense of the
word. Workers can, however, try to switch rapidly from one task to the next in order to
multitask. This can become a very dangerous pattern of behavior that can lead to
mistakes in one or more of the processes the worker is trying to do at the same time.
The worker should prioritize a list of tasks he/she needs to accomplish first. Once a task
is accomplished then the next task in line should be tackled. If the worker feels that they
have too many tasks that are due at the same time, then instead of attempting to
multitask they should speak to their manager about delegating or adjusting some of the
responsibilities.

Overconfidence

When a worker is overconfident, he/she will be more likely to take risks and injure
him/herself or others. In some instances, the worker will feel that they do not need to be
checked because they have performed the work correctly in the past. However, this is
not always the case and even the best worker can forget steps in the procedure.

To help workers overcome the feeling of overconfidence (that they are too skilled to
make a mistake), the coaches or supervisors should ask them how they would feel if
they did not get all the steps correct and there was an incident. Pointing out the
possibility of something going wrong may help get them to rethink their own abilities.
Additionally, a coaching session may include a self-check during which they are asked
to question or challenge their own expectations.

The supervisor should routinely reinforce expectations of policies and procedures with
individual workers.

Vague Guidance

Some workers develop at-risk behaviors because they only received vague guidance
about the task. It is possible that the supervisor himself/herself might not have a good
understanding of the task at hand. Vague guidance can lead to dangerous work
practices and lost productivity.

Workers should be encouraged to ask questions if they’re unsure of any guidance given
by the supervisor. The supervisor should have a good understanding of the job and
ensure that all workers understand each task that has been assigned to them. In some
cases, the supervisor might even require retraining on how to perform tasks that they
are responsible for delegating.

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Overnight Shift Work

It is not uncommon to observe a decrease in worker performance during overnight shift

work. Experienced nightshift workers learn how to adapt to the schedule. However, new
workers will need time to adjust to this lifestyle change. During this adjustment period,
the chances of at-risk behavior due to drowsiness or other related factors go up.
Therefore, at home, the late shift worker should be encouraged to create systems to
keep them from getting fatigued, such as using blackout curtains and shutting off all
electronic devices during the sleep hours. When coaching a worker who is showing at-
risk behavior during the night shift, consider the simple things that lead to fatigue. It
must be your common goal to have a worker assimilate to the new schedule when they
are new on a job. In some cases, the shift supervisor should monitor the new hire and
coach them on how to get better sleep after the job is complete. Additionally, some
coaching from coworkers might help.

Some other behaviors related to late-night work can lead to lazy turnovers during the
day shift when the workers feel fatigued in the final hours of the work shift and become
labored. Therefore, final checks must be done before the day shift workers come to take
over the process. To combat this issue, it may be necessary to have a more detailed
shift turnover between the lead operators. Another tool that can be used to combat this
issue is to have a detailed checklist of each shift, regardless of if it’s day or night. The
checklist will serve as a reminder of what is required for each shift.

Peer Pressure

Just like in school, the social impact from peers in the workforce is very important to
monitor. This impact can be both good and bad depending on the individuals involved.
When a workforce is very tightknit and the safety culture values low risk, then many
workers will encourage each other to maintain safe behaviors.

In some cases, however, there may be a “bad apple” among the workers. If this bad
apple has some social impact on the workers, then more workers will undertake at-risk
behaviors as a result. Is important for the front-line supervisor to be an agent of change
and not be the bad influence themselves. The assessment of at-risk behaviors may lead
to modeling from an agent of influence in that group. It may be the front-line supervisor
or perhaps someone who’s been there for considerable numbers for years.

Some behaviors that commonly result from peer pressure include:

• Taking shortcuts with safety

• Ineffective or misleading communication
• Inadequate use of procedures
• Dereliction of rules
• Inadequate job briefings
• Not using peer checks
• Inadequate self-checks

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In these instances, there may be a need to take progressive disciplinary action,
especially in cases of workers who are being pressured into poor behavior. The
influencer must be identified and put on notice until the behavior changes. The
management team should consider separating the work team or unit across two
different locations or divisions in the company.

A positive way to encourage new peer pressure that reinforces safe behavior is to offer
mentoring and coaching opportunities for all at-risk workers. Peer mentoring can help
the workers see that it is possible for someone at their level to have a positive strong
influence. This will also indicate to the worker that the organization cares for them and is
willing to work with them to improve behaviors.

Change

Some workers are averse to change and become more prone to at-risk behaviors when
changes are implemented. Even when change is inevitable, workers need to feel that
they are part of the system in order to be more comfortable with the idea of change and
understand that it may be in their own best interests. In some cases, it is better to inform
workers of the change well in advance and give them all scenarios related to the
change before any actions are taken.

A change analysis should be conducted before major changes are implemented. A

change analysis is a detailed process that is utilized to determine what domino effects
will result from changing a major element of their system. This analysis is performed
through the entire organization and utilizes systematic steps to analyze all
repercussions of the change. For instance, if a company wants to change from using
gas chorine to liquid bleach, then a change analysis is in order. The release of gas
chlorine into the atmosphere can create adverse effects for the whole community and
not just the workplace. However, liquid chlorine bleach is not as harmful to a
community if released into the atmosphere. The change analysis would incorporate all
necessary parts, equipment, training, and regulatory requirements prior to the
occurrence of such a major change in the system.

Physical Environment

There may be some performance issues due to the actual layout of the workspace.
Things like poor lighting, ventilation problems, or even the layout of machines can lead
to problematic or dangerous behaviors. Many workplaces conduct worksite analyses to
make sure that there are no environmental factors adversely impacting any part of the
job.

Workers will be the first ones to see if there are any physical and environmental
problems that are leading them to at-risk behaviors. They will work around them as best
as possible through whatever means available to them.

A third-party audit is an excellent way to analyze the work environment to ensure that
there are no physical issues that would lead the workers to adopt at-risk behaviors.
When the assessment is complete, a third-party auditor will have a final report with

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recommendations. Once recommendations have been read and understood, the
organization should start making all the required changes to the physical environment
promptly.

Mental Stress

Mental stress is produced by many things in the work environment, though workers may
also bring stresses from home. It may be tempting to trust that workers will separate
their work and home lives, but realistically some workers will exhibit at-risk behaviors
because of home stresses.

Mental stress can produce severe outcomes when they are coupled with at-risk
behavior in the workplace. Some jobs are not forgiving when it comes to any form of
deviation from safe practices. In such cases, workers will not only hurt themselves and
their coworkers, but their behavior might even adversely affect the community or the
environment. Mental stress coupled with fatigue can also be a deadly combination for
employees and their coworkers. Distractions as well as worker harassment may be an
outcome of mental stress. Some workers internalize stress in such a way that they
become pressurized with emotions until there is a breaking point.

A workplace should have areas where workers can release mental stresses to prevent
at-risk behaviors. Another strategy is to provide an employee assistance program for
workers, which gives them the chance to talk about any stresses that are happening in
their lives to a psychologist or other mental health professional. These mental health
professionals are trained to help workers cope with stress.

Additionally, when at-risk behavior is observed and mental stress is determined to be

the culprit, then the coaching should be sympathetic. When dealing with situations when
workers are under stress, understanding the source of stress is important. The best
approach is to try and eliminate the source of stress in the work atmosphere. Clearly
communicating all expectations of the organization to have stress free workers and
environments is of the utmost importance. Workers who demonstrate severe stress
levels should have increased supervision and coaching. If stress cannot be eliminated,
then a management approach must be taken.

Stress-limiting activities include:

• Workplace sponsored teambuilding activities

• Calisthenics and yoga
• Wellness programs
• Sponsoring of a community event
• Collaborating with a nonprofit organization to perform activities such as feeding
the homeless, reading books to children, or helping with literacy programs

Understanding common human performance snares will enable the steering committee
or assigned coaches to give the workers a better understanding of how to combat some
at-risk behaviors which will help them perform their jobs in a better way.

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Lesson Summary

To understand accident causation, investigations rely on the idea that most accidents
are caused by human error. Therefore, if you learn the cause-and-effect relationship of
accident causation and the human element, then you can reduce injuries and illnesses.
Though there are additional factors to consider, the human element is a leading cause
of accidents.

Theories of accident causation include:

• Single factor theory, which traces the cause of an accident back to a single
factor. This is unrealistic and the single factor theory is rarely used.
• H.W. Heinrich’s domino theory, which analyzes an accident as a chain of three
phases: pre-contact, contact, and post-contact. According to Heinrich, by
removing one of the “dominos” in this sequence, accidents and their negative
effects can be prevented.
• The multiple factor theory holds that there are more than Heinrich’s three phases
to consider when investigating an accident – that there are multiple factors that
contribute to the cause.
• The human factor theory traces all accidents back to human error.
• James Reason’s Swiss cheese theory uses the holes in slices of Swiss cheese
to explain accident causation. The holes represent breakdowns in safety, and
when enough holes line up an accident can occur.

Commonly used accident investigation techniques include root cause analysis and the 5
Whys. A root cause analysis is a detailed procedure used by safety professionals to
look beyond the initial reactions, which may be informed more by emotion than careful
thought, to assign blame for an incident.

A behavior-based safety (BBS) program picks at-risk behaviors and monitors workers to
understand why they behave in those ways. Some common human performance snares
include time constraints, distractions, multitasking, overconfidence, vague guidance,
and peer pressure.

Module 3: OSHA Focus Four Hazards

Module Description
Construction safety is one of OSHA's top concerns. Construction is among the most
dangerous industries in the country and construction inspections comprise 60% of
OSHA's total inspections. In 2019, preliminary data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics
indicate that there were 1,061 fatal on-the-job injuries to construction workers – more
than in any other single industry sector and nearly one out of every five work-related
deaths in the U.S. that year. Also, in 2018, private industry construction workers had a
fatal occupational injury rate nearly three times that of all workers in the United States.

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The Construction Focus Four Module was developed in support of the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Construction Outreach Program’s effort to
help workers in the construction industry understand the hazards they face and know
what their employer’s responsibilities are regarding protecting workers from workplace
hazards.

OSHA’s Construction Focus Four hazards include 1) falls, 2) caught-in or caught-

between injuries, 3) struck-by injuries, and 4) electrocution. The OSHA standards
covered here identify various construction worksite areas and activities that can lead to
these hazards. In this module, you will learn about the duties of the employers, the
importance of identifying and evaluating focus four hazards, and the necessity of
providing training to employees.

Module Learning Objectives

At the end of this module, students will be able to:

• Identify the focus four hazards

• Describe various types of hazards that fall into the focus four categories
• Explain how workers can protect themselves from the focus four hazards
• Recognize employer requirements to protect workers from these hazards

Lesson 1: Fall Protection

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe the causes and dangers of falls

• Identify the types of work requiring fall protection
• Understand how passive fall protection systems work
• Understand how active fall protection systems work
• Explain how to provide protection from falling objects

Falls and Fall Protection

Falls are the leading cause of fatalities in the construction industry. In 2019, 401 out of a
total of 1,102 construction fatalities were the result of falls (NIOSH). Data from a long-
term study indicates the types of falls that are causing worker deaths. In the period
1992-2005, about one-third of the fatal falls in construction were from roofs, 18% were
from scaffolding or staging, 16% were from ladders, and 8% were from girders or
structural steel. The other 25% of fatal falls includes falls through existing floor
openings, from nonmoving vehicles, from aerial lifts, etc.

The Physics of a Fall

A body in motion can cover vast distances in a short period of time. Consider this:

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 • A body in free fall can travel 4 feet in 0.5 seconds
• A body in free fall can travel 16 feet in 1 second
• A body in free fall can travel 64 feet in 2 seconds
• A body in free fall can travel 144 feet in just 3 seconds

Because gravity causes us to fall at accelerating speeds, it only takes a few seconds for
a falling body to cover a great distance and impact the ground or another surface with a
great deal of force. Such force can easily cause injuries or death.

Fall Prevention Measures

In order to prevent workers from falling, employers must:

• Select fall protection systems appropriate for given situations

• Use proper construction and installation of safety systems
• Supervise employees properly
• Use safe work procedures
• Train workers in the proper selection, use, and maintenance of fall protection
systems

Areas Required to Have Fall Protection

Depending on the circumstances, the following areas are required to have fall
protection:

• Unprotected sides and edges

• Leading edges
• Hoist areas
• Holes
• Formwork and reinforcing steel
• Ramps, runways, and other walkways
• Excavations
• Dangerous equipment
• Overhand bricklaying and related work
• Roofing work on low-slope roofs
• Roofs
• Pre-cast concrete erection
• Residential construction
• Wall openings
• Walking/working surfaces not otherwise addressed

Duty to Have Fall Protection

Fall protection is generally required when one or more employees have exposure to
falls of six feet or greater to a lower level.

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Surfaces must be inspected before the work begins. Employees are only permitted to
be on surfaces that are strong enough to support them. Employers are required to
assess the workplace to determine if the walking/working surfaces on which employees
are to work have the strength and structural integrity to safely support workers.
Employees are not permitted to work on those surfaces until it has been determined that
the surfaces have the requisite strength and structural integrity to support workers.
Once employers have determined that the surface is safe for employees to work on, the
employer must select one of the available options for the work operation if a fall hazard
is present.

Types of Work Requiring Fall Protection

Leading Edge Work

The leading-edge means the unprotected side and edge of a floor, roof, or formwork for
a floor or other walking/working surface (such as a deck) which changes location as
additional floor, roof, decking, or formwork sections are placed, formed, or constructed.

Almost all sites have unprotected sides and edges, wall openings, or floor holes at
some point during construction. If these sides and openings are not protected at your
site, injuries from falls or falling objects may result, ranging from sprains and
concussions to death.

Each employee who is constructing a leading edge six feet (1.8 meters) or more above
lower levels shall be properly protected. Suitable protection may be provided by
guardrail systems, safety net systems, or personal fall arrest systems.

Examples of leading-edge accidents:

• A roofer, handling a piece of fiberboard, backed up and tripped over a 7-inch

parapet. He fell more than 50 feet to ground level and died of severe head
injuries.
• Two connectors were erecting light-weight steel I-beams on the third floor of a
12-story building, 54 feet above the ground. One employee removed a choker
sling from a beam and then attempted to place the sling onto a lower hook on a
series of stringers. While the crawler tower crane was booming away from the
steel, the wind moved the stringer into the beam the employee was standing on.
The beam moved while the employee was trying to disengage the hook, causing
him to lose his balance and fall to his death.

Hoist Areas

Each employee in a hoist area must be protected from falling 6 feet (1.8 meters) or
more by guardrail systems, personal fall arrest systems, or other appropriate means. If
guardrail systems or portions of those systems must be removed to facilitate hoisting
operations, as during the landing of materials, and a worker must lean through the
access opening or out over the edge of the access opening (to receive or guide

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equipment and materials, for example), that employee must be protected by one of the
appropriate means.

Case Study: NIOSH FACE Report 91-15

A 36-year-old millwright foreman fell 41 feet to his death through an unguarded platform
opening. At the time of the incident, an open-sided steel structure had been constructed
to support eight air conditioning units on the platform. Four air-conditioning units had
been installed and the fifth unit had been lifted into position by a crane. In order to level
the unit, three millwrights were positioned on one side of the air-conditioning unit, while
the victim was kneeling on the opposite side. The victim stood up and apparently tripped
or stumbled and fell backwards landing on the steel grating of the platform walkway.
Momentum from the fall caused the victim to roll into an adjacent opening which was
about 17 feet long by 7 feet wide. The victim fell through the opening, struck a steel
support crossbeam about 20 feet below, and fell an additional 21 feet to the ground.
The victim was pronounced dead 4 hours later at the emergency room of a local
hospital.

What do you think went wrong?

• The platform opening was not properly guarded

• The victim was not wearing a personal fall arrest system or any other tether
• The victim was out of reach of other workers who might have steadied him
• The platform may have been cluttered, leading to a trip and fall
• The steel grating may not have been level, creating an increased risk of rolling off

Formwork and Rebar

Formwork means using forms and framing to contain and shape wet concrete until it is
self-supporting. Formwork includes the forms on or within which the concrete is poured
and the frames and bracing that provide the forms stability.

Rebar or reinforcing bar work means placing steel bars or a mesh of steel wires used
into reinforced concrete and masonry structures to strengthen the structures when they
are under tension. During formwork or re-bar assembly, employees must be protected
from falls of six feet or more by personal fall arrest systems, safety net systems, or
positioning device systems.

Case Study: NIOSH FACE Report 90-25

On the day of this incident, two crews of three men each were working in different
locations on the third floor of a building. The crews were screeding (smoothing
off/leveling up) the concrete as it was being poured on the formwork. The victim (the
owner) and one co-worker were using a 16-foot aluminum strike-off (a straightedge
used to remove excess, freshly placed concrete, mortar, or plaster) to screed the
concrete surface, while the third co-worker spread the concrete with a rake. The three
workers were moving backwards as they worked on the concrete surface. An 8-inch by
8-inch support "H" column was located directly in the path of the victim. Approximately 2

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feet behind the "H" column was a 48-inch by 91-inch floor opening designed to
accommodate future ductwork for the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning system.
The floor opening was covered with a 1/2-inch-thick by 48-inch-wide by 92 1/2-inch-long
section of particle board. The words "DO NOT STEP ON THIS" were painted on the
surface of the covering. As the victim and fellow co-worker screeded the concrete near
the "H" column, the victim moved backwards around the column and stepped on the
floor opening cover. The cover bowed under the victim's weight, causing it to dislodge
from its supports. The victim and cover fell through the opening 36 feet to the ground
floor.

What do you think went wrong?

• The particle board cover was not sufficiently strong to support a worker who
might accidentally step on it
• The column was not properly marked as an obstacle to be avoided while working
• The workers were not paying sufficient attention as they moved backwards
across the floor

Ramps, Runways, and Walkways

It is common on a construction site for workers to use ramps and various kinds of
walkways to move around the site and to carry materials and tools from one task to
another. Each employee using ramps, runways, and other walkways must be protected
from falling 6 feet (1.8 meters) or more.

Excavations

Excavations are needed to complete many construction tasks, such as pouring a

foundation. Each employee at the edge of an excavation 6 feet (1.8 meters) or deeper
must be protected from falling by guardrail systems, fences, barricades, or covers when
the excavations are not readily seen because of plant growth or other visual barriers.

Where walkways are provided to permit employees to cross over excavations,

guardrails are required on the walkway if it is 6 feet (1.8 meters) or more above the
excavation.

Employers should also ensure there is a safe way to enter and exit any excavations and
keep materials away from the edges of trenches. OSHA requires safe access to and
egress from all excavations 4 feet (1.22 meters) or deeper, using ladders, steps, ramps,
or other safe means of entry and exit. These devices must be located within 25 feet (7.6
meters) of all workers.

Dangerous Equipment

Each employee working above dangerous equipment must be protected from falling into
or onto the dangerous equipment by guardrail systems or by equipment guards even in
those cases where the fall distance is less than 6 feet (1.8m).

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Overhand Bricklaying

Except as otherwise specified in the OSHA Fall Protection Standards, each employee
performing overhand bricklaying and related work 6 feet (1.8 m) or more above lower
levels must be protected from falling by guardrail systems, safety net systems, or
personal fall arrest systems, or must work in a controlled access zone.

Note: Bricklaying operations performed on scaffolds are regulated by subpart L of

OSHA 1926 – Scaffolds.

Low-Sloped Roof Work

OSHA defines a low-slope roof as a roof having a slope of less than or equal a ratio of 4
to 12 (4:12)—for example, 4 inches of vertical rise for every 12 inches of horizontal
length. Each employee engaged in roofing activities on low-slope roofs with unprotected
sides and edges six feet or more above lower levels must be protected from falling by
guardrail systems, safety net systems, and personal fall arrest systems, or a
combination of a warning line system and guardrail system, warning line system and
safety net system, warning line system and personal fall arrest system, or warning line
system and safety monitoring system.

Safety Monitoring System: a safety system in which a competent person is

responsible for recognizing and warning employees of fall hazards.

Warning Line System: a barrier erected on a roof to warn employees that they are
approaching an unprotected roof side or edge, and which designates an area in which
roofing work may take place without the use of guardrails, body belts, or safety net
systems to protect employees in the area.

Steep Roofs

OSHA defines a steep roof as having a slope of more than 4 to 12 (4:12). Each
employee on a steep roof with unprotected sides and edges 6 feet (1.8 meters) or more
above lower levels must be protected by guardrail systems with toe-boards, safety net
systems, personal fall arrest systems, or by other appropriate means.

Case Study: NIOSH FACE Report 88-43

On the day of the incident, the victim and a co-worker were applying 4-foot by 8-foot
pieces of sheeting to the roof of the garage portion of the dwelling. The roof had a 10:12
slope (i.e., it rose 10 inches for each foot in length). When the victim and his co-worker
finished applying the sheeting, the victim prepared to cut a 6-inch overhang off the front
of the garage roof. The victim lowered a rope to the ground where a second coworker
attached a 7 1/4-inch circular saw. The victim pulled the saw up to the roof, then called
to the second co-worker to throw him an extension cord. The victim caught the
extension cord, but as he began to unwind and lower it back to the ground to be
plugged in, he lost his balance. The victim fell off the roof but was able to grasp the toe
board at the edge of the roof. The first co-worker tried to pull the victim back onto the

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roof but was unable to do so. The victim fell feet first through the open front of the
dwelling, but as he fell, his feet struck a rafter. This caused his body to turn 180 degrees
and he hit the concrete garage floor headfirst.

What do you think went wrong?

• Even though the worker was conducting leading-edge work without a guardrail or
safety net, he neglected to use (or was not provided with) a personal fall arrest
system (PFAS). Because the roof was steep, such a system was required.

Pre-Cast Concrete

Each employee who is 6 feet (1.8 meters) or more above lower levels while erecting
pre-cast concrete members and related operations, such as grouting of pre-cast
concrete members, must be protected by guardrail systems, safety net systems, or
personal fall arrest systems.

Wall Openings

Each employee working on, at, above, or near wall openings (including those with
chutes attached) where the outside bottom edge of the wall opening is 6 feet (1.8
meters) or more above lower levels and the inside bottom edge of the wall opening is
less than 39 inches (1.0 meter) above the walking/working surface must be protected
from falling by the use of a guardrail system, a safety net system, or a personal fall
arrest system.

Case Study: MASSACHUSETTS FACE 97-MA-050-01

A 33-year-old male carpenter was fatally injured when he fell through the open side of
the third floor of a structure being renovated from a factory into an office building. The
victim was working with two co-workers to place a 300-pound wooden box beam onto
the roof eight and one-half feet above the floor using a manual hoist. The hoist
mechanism released, allowing the beam to fall and strike the victim, pushing him out the
opening. He fell approximately 22 1/2 feet to the ground below, sustaining severe head
injuries. Security personnel called for emergency medical assistance. The ambulance
transported the victim to a nearby hospital, where he never regained consciousness and
died two days later of his injuries.

What do you think went wrong?

• The open side of the structure was not properly protected with a guardrail or
safety net
• The hoist may not have been properly maintained or inspected before use
• Workers may not have been trained properly in the use of the hoist and/or safety
practices to maintain around openings
Types of Fall Protection—Passive Systems

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Passive systems are protective systems that do not involve the actions of employees.
Guardrails and safety nets are examples of passive fall protection systems. These
systems are an important part of fall protection at a worksite because they can prevent
falls even when the worker is not paying attention.

Guardrails

Guardrails are one the most common forms of fall protection. They can be constructed
of wood, pipe, structural steel, or wire rope (flags must be attached to wire rope to
increase visibility). Guardrails must have a top rail, a midrail, posts, and, when
necessary, a toe board. Steel or plastic bands must not be used as top rails or midrails.
Manila, plastic, or synthetic rope being used for top rails or midrails must be inspected
as frequently as necessary to ensure that it continues to meet the mandated strength
requirements.

Guardrail systems must be able to withstand a force of at least 200 pounds (890 N)
applied within 2 inches (5.1 cm) of the top edge in any outward or downward direction,
or at any point along the top edge. When the 200-pound test is applied in a downward
direction, the top edge of the guardrail must not deflect to a height less than 39 inches
(1.0 m) above the walking/working level. Guardrail system components selected and
constructed in accordance with Appendix B to subpart M of OSHA 1926 will be deemed
to meet this requirement.

Guardrails: Design Criteria

The top edge of a guardrail must be 42 inches (1.1 m) plus or minus 3 inches (8 cm)
above the walking/working level. When conditions warrant, the height of the top edge
may exceed the 45-inch height, provided the guardrail system meets all other necessary
criteria.

Midrails, screens, mesh, or intermediate vertical members must be installed between

the top edge of the guardrail system and the walking/working surface when there is no
wall or parapet wall at least 21 inches (53 cm) high. Midrails, when used, should be
installed at a height midway between the top edge of the guardrail system and the
walking/working level. Top rails and midrails should be at least one-quarter inch (0.6
cm) in diameter or thickness to prevent cuts and lacerations. If wire rope is used for top
rails, it should be flagged at intervals of 6 feet or less with high-visibility material.

For pipe railings, the posts, top rails, and intermediate railings should be at 1 ½ inches
in diameter (schedule 40 pipe) with posts spaced not more than 8 feet (2.4 m) apart on
the centers. For structural steel railings, the posts, top rails, and intermediate rails
should be composed of at least 2-inch by 2-inch (5 cm x 10 cm) by 3/8-inch (1.1 cm)
angles, with posts spaced not more than 8 feet (2.4 m) apart on the centers.

Screens and mesh, when used, should extend from the top rail to the walking/working
level and along the entire opening. Intermediate members (such as balusters), when
used between posts, should not be more than 19 inches (48 cm) apart.

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Other structural members (such as additional midrails and architectural panels) must be
installed such that there are no openings in the guardrail system that are more than 19
inches (.5m) wide.

Safety Net Systems

Safety net systems must be installed as close as practicable under the walking or
working surface, but in no case more than 30 feet below the surface. The closer the net
is to the surface, the smaller its overall size can be. If the net is not vertically more than
5 feet from the working level, it must extend outward from the outermost projection of
the work by 8 feet in order to reliably catch falling objects or workers. If the net is
vertically between 5 feet and 10 feet from the working level, it must extend outward from
the outermost projection of the work by 10 feet. If the net is vertically more than 10 feet
from the working level, it must extend outward from the outermost projection of the work
by 13 feet.

Safety nets must be drop-tested at the jobsite after they are installed and before use,
whenever relocated, after major repair, and at 6-month intervals after installation, if left
in one place. These drop-tests consist of a 400-pound bag of sand 28-32 inches in
diameter being dropped into the net from the highest working or walking surface, but not
from less than 42 inches above that level.

Safety nets must have enough clearance beneath them to prevent contact with the
surface or structures below when a load equal to the drop-test weight is dropped on
them. They must be capable of absorbing an impact force that is equal to the drop test
weight. All materials, scraps, equipment, and tools that have fallen in the net must be
removed as soon as possible and at least before the next work shift.

The maximum size of each opening in the mesh of a safety net shall not exceed 36
square inches (230 cm2) or be longer than 6 inches (15 cm) on any side, and the
opening, measured center-to-center of mesh ropes or webbing, should not be longer
than 6 inches (15 cm). The net must have a border rope with a minimum breaking
strength of at least 5,000 pounds. If safety nets are connected together, the connection
must be as strong as the individual nets and hold them not more than 6 inches apart.

Covers

Covers are used to protect personnel from falling through holes in walking surfaces.
Covers for holes in floors, roofs, and other walking/working surfaces must meet the
following requirements:

• All covers must be secured when installed so as to prevent accidental

displacement by the wind, equipment, or employees
• All covers should be color coded or marked with the word "HOLE" or "COVER" to
provide warning of the hazard
• Covers located in roadways and vehicular aisles must be capable of supporting,
without failure, at least twice the maximum axel load of the largest vehicle
expected to cross over the cover

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 • All other covers shall be capable of supporting, without failure, at least twice the
weight of employees, equipment, and materials that may be imposed on the
cover at any one time

Note: This provision does not apply to cast iron manhole covers or steel grates used on
streets or roadways.

Types of Fall Protection—Active Systems

Active fall protection systems require workers to be engaged in ensuring that proper
protection is in use. This may include activities such as donning a full-body harness with
an attached lanyard and attaching the lanyard to appropriate anchorage point.

Active systems are designed to operate in free fall situations and must be connected to
other systems/components or activated to provide protection. Active systems are
designed to protect employees from falls and other forces that can cause injury.

Personal Fall Arrest Systems (PFAS)

When used according to the manufacturer’s instructions, a Personal Fall Arrest System
(PFAS) can save a life should a fall occur. Generally, a PFAS consists of three major
components:

• A full-body harness
• A shock-absorbing lanyard or retractable lifeline
• Secure anchors

Personal Fall Arrest Systems (PFAS) shall not be attached to a guardrail system or
hoists. All components of a fall arrest system must be inspected by a competent person
before each use and after any impact. Defective components must be immediately
removed from service.

Fallen employees should immediately be rescued unless it is determined they can self-
rescue. Suspension trauma, also known as harness hang syndrome or orthostatic
intolerance, occurs after a worker has fallen into a fall arrest harness and is suspended
in a hanging position until rescue arrives. When hanging in a fall harness, the leg straps
support the body’s weight. During this time, the leg straps of the fall protection harness
crush the femoral arteries on the inside of the legs, cutting off blood circulation, a
common type of suspension trauma.

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When stopping a fall, a PFAS must:

• Limit the maximum arresting force on an employee to 1,800 pounds (8 kN) when
used with a body harness
• Be rigged such that an employee can neither free fall more than 6 feet (1.8 m),
nor contact any lower level
• Be attached to an anchor point capable of withstanding 5000 pounds of force or
be designed, installed, and used as part of a complete personal fall arrest system
that maintains a safety factor of at least 2 and is used under the supervision of a
qualified person
• Bring an employee to a complete stop and limit maximum deceleration distance
an employee travels to 3.5 feet (1.07 m)
• Have sufficient strength to withstand twice the potential impact energy of an
employee free falling a distance of 6 feet (1.8 m), or the free fall distance
permitted by the system, whichever is less

Protection from Falling Objects

When employees are exposed to falling objects, the employer must require employees
to wear hardhats and implement one of the following measures:

Erect toe-boards, screens, or guardrail systems to prevent objects from falling from
higher levels.

-or-

Erect a canopy structure and keep potential fall objects far enough from the edge so
that those objects will not go over the edge if they are accidentally displaced.

-or-

Barricade the area to which objects could fall, prohibit employees from entering the
barricaded area, and keep objects that may fall far enough away from the edge of a
higher level so that those objects would not go over the edge if they were accidentally
displaced.

Case Studies

Worker Falls from Scaffolding

This accident occurred during the construction of a new two-story wood frame house.
The work on the day of the accident involved inserting pillars into the floor joists, which
were then lifted by a mobile crane. Three workers were engaged in this assembly work
on the ground, including the victim (a new employee) and two coworkers who carried
out the elevated assembly work. The framing for the second-floor roof was completed in
the morning after which the workers took a lunch break.

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After the break, work resumed on the site and workers carried on with the same
assignments. The incident happened when the victim went to stand on a scaffolding
board that was stretched over the second-floor ceiling beam. As the worker stood on the
board it suddenly fell onto the first-floor concrete foundation, killing the worker.

What do you think were some of the causes of the accident?

• The scaffolding board was not fixed

• No guardrail system or personal fall protection system was used by employees
while working at heights greater than six feet
• No competent person for fall protection was onsite during the construction of this
project
• While the victim had been newly employed the day of the accident, he was not
given new hire safety orientation prior to starting work

Worker Struck by Falling Plywood

On a clear, windy morning a 24-year-old laborer was helping load trusses on the
ground. 60 feet above them, coworkers were nailing 8 ft. by 4 ft. plywood to the roof of a
newly constructed commercial construction project. The coworkers on the roof only had
one more sheet of plywood to nail down and they would be finished with this side of the
building. As one worker on the roof moved to hand off the last piece of plywood to a
second worker, a gust of wind ripped the plywood from the first worker’s hands, and it
started to slide down the roof. The first worker stated in a panic he tried to jump on the
plywood to catch it but his yo-yo retractable fall protection lanyard of 6 feet grasped him
and stopped his slide, allowing the plywood to continue off the roof. The wind caught the
plywood as it slid towards the edge of roof and flung it 30 feet from the building where
the laborer was loading the trusses. The plywood struck the back of the laborer’s head
just below his protective hard hat knocking him to the ground.

What do you think were some of the causes of the accident?

• Not enough attention was paid to the weather conditions

• Workers reacted with panic, potentially circumventing their training on best
practices, or else demonstrating a deficiency in training
• No canopy structure was erected to catch falling objects
• The area around the building that was kept free of other workers should have
extended out a sufficient distance to prevent accidents like this one

Lesson Summary

Falls are the leading cause of fatalities in the construction industry. Because falling
bodies accelerate so quickly, a fall does not have to be from a great height to cause
severe injuries or death. It is crucial to have adequate fall protection in a variety of
settings around a worksite, including unprotected sides and edges, holes, hoist areas,
excavations, roofs, and wall openings.

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There are two types of fall protection: active systems and passive systems. Active
systems, such as personal fall arrest systems (PFASs), require the worker to be actively
engaged with the safety mechanism. Passive systems, on the other hand, include
guardrails and safety nets, and can protect workers whether or not they are actively
monitoring their safety.

It is additionally important to protect workers from falling objects at many worksites. Toe
boards, nets, and canopy structures are some common controls. Barricades may also
be used to keep people out of the areas where falling objects pose a risk.

Lesson 2: Inspection and Safety Monitoring Systems

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Inspect fall protection equipment

• Describe the components of personal fall-arrest systems
• Describe the components of positioning device systems
• Describe the requirements of a safety monitoring system
• Understand when a fall protection plan may be used
• Explain the necessary training for inspection and safety monitoring

Inspecting Fall Protection Equipment

Fall protection equipment must be inspected before each use for tears, cuts, burns, and
abrasions. Distorted hooks, damaged springs, deformed eyelets or D-rings, and any
other non-functioning parts must be replaced before using the equipment. Clean any
dirt, grease, oil, corrosives, or acids that may have gotten onto the equipment, and be
sure to read the manufacturer’s labels.

Personal Fall-Arrest Systems (PFASs)

A personal fall-arrest system consists of a full body harness and the associated
hardware that slows a worker's rate of descent and keeps him or her from hitting the
ground. Personal fall arrest systems are different from positioning devices, such as
body belts, which allow employees to work on elevated vertical surfaces, such as walls
and telephone poles, with both hands free.

Harnesses

Harness systems are constructed of synthetic fibers. When used as a PFAS, only
harnesses that encompass the entire body (a full body harness) are permitted because
only those will distribute the weight across the waist, pelvis, and thighs. Body belts
cannot be used for fall arrest.

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Lanyards

Lanyards are flexible lines made of synthetic fiber or wire rope that have a connector at
each end for connecting the body harness to a deceleration device, lifeline, or
anchorage. Lanyards and vertical lifelines must have a minimum breaking strength of
5000 pounds.

The following are some of the types of lanyards:

• Self-retracting: Eliminates excess slack in the lanyard (cable, rope, or web).

Self-retracting lifelines are deceleration devices that contain a drum-wound strap
or wire rope that moves in and out of the case under the tension posed by
employee movement, much like the shoulder strap on a car seat belt. If an
employee falls, the inertial mechanism automatically locks the drum, arrests the
fall, and limits the free fall distance to two feet.
• Shock absorbing: Slows and eventually stops descent and absorbs the forces.
Energy absorbing lanyards, or "rip stitch" lanyards as they are sometimes called,
consist of a fabric strap that is folded back and forth on itself in an S-shaped
zigzag pattern, then stitched along the edge. The shock imposed by a fall breaks
the stitching and the webbing unfolds like an accordion to dissipate the energy
and absorb the impact load.
• Synthetic rope: Absorbs some of the force by stretching
• Synthetic webbing: Strong but not flexible (absorbs little force)

Lifelines

Lifelines consist of flexible material connected at one or both ends to an anchorage

point. There are two types of lifelines:

Vertical: hangs vertically (5000-pound minimum breaking strength).

Horizontal: Connects at both points to stretch horizontally (serves as connection point

for other components of PFAS; the total system must have a safety factor of two and be
capable of locking in both directions on the lifeline).

Snap Hooks

Snap hooks are used to connect lanyards to compatible D-rings on a body harness.
They must be connected to a harness or anchorage point only. Snap hooks and D-rings
must have tensile strength of 5000 pounds and be proof tested to a minimal tensile load
of 3600 pounds. All snap hooks must have a locking mechanism that remains closed
and locked until unlocked and pressed open for connection or disconnection.

Anchorage Points

The anchorage point is most effective when it is above the employee’s head, located
such that it does not allow an employee to fall more than 6 feet. Anchorages used for
the attachment of personal fall arrest equipment must be independent of any anchorage

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being used to support or suspend platforms, and it must be capable of supporting at
least 5,000 pounds per employee attached. It should be designed, installed, and used
under the supervision of a qualified person as part of a complete personal fall arrest
system that maintains a safety factor of at least two.

Positioning Device Systems

A positioning device system is a body belt or body harness system rigged to allow an
employee to be supported on an elevated vertical surface, such as a wall, and work with
both hands free while leaning. Positioning device systems must be inspected before
each use for defects, and defective components must be removed from service.
They should be rigged such that an employee cannot free fall more than 2 feet (0.9 m)
and secured to an anchorage capable of supporting at least twice the potential impact
load of an employee's fall or 3,000 pounds, whichever is greater.

A positioning device system is not a fall arrest system! A positioning device system is
designed to allow an employee to safely work at heights. A fall arrest system is
designed to stop an employee who has already begun to fall. They should not be
interchanged.

Warning Line System

A warning line system is an awareness device erected on a roof to warn employees that
they are approaching an unprotected roof side or edge, and which designates an area
in which roofing work may take place without the use of guardrail, body belt, or safety
net systems to protect employees in the area.

Warning line systems and their use shall comply with the following provisions:

• The warning line shall be erected around all sides of the roof work area.
• Warning lines shall consist of rope, wire, chains, or supporting stanchions, which
are used to warn employees of an unprotected edge, and must be erected as
follows:
• It must be flagged at not more than 6 foot intervals with high-visibility materials.
• The rope, wire, or chain must be rigged and supported such that:
• Its lowest point (including sag) is no less than 34 inches from walking/working
surface.
• Its highest point no more than 39 inches from surface.
• Stanchions, with rope, chain, or wire attached, must be able to withstand, without
tipping over, a force of 16 pounds applied horizontally against the stanchion, 30
inches (.8 m) above the walking/working surface, perpendicular to the warning
line, and in the direction of the floor, roof, or platform edge.
• The rope, wire, or chain used must have a minimum tensile strength of 500
pounds.
• No employee is permitted between roof's edge and a warning line unless the
employee is performing roof work in that area.

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Note: A warning line system is used mainly on roofs, where the use of PFAS is
impractical.

Controlled Access Zone (CAZ)

A controlled access zone (CAZ) is an area at a worksite where certain hazardous work
is taking place without the use of guardrails, PFASs, or safety nets. Only qualified
personnel involved in the task (such as overhead bricklaying) are permitted in the CAZ.
Ropes, wires, tapes, or chains with supporting stanchions are used to designate the
area, which should be erected between 6 and 25 feet away from any unprotected edge.

Safety Monitoring System

Employers must designate a competent person to monitor the safety of other

employees, and the employer has the duty to ensure that the safety monitor complies
with the following requirements:

• He/she must be competent to recognize fall hazards.

• He/she must warn employees when it appears that they are unaware of a fall
hazard or are acting in an unsafe manner.
• He/she must be on the same walking/working surface and within visual sighting
distance of employees being monitored.
• He/she must be close enough to communicate orally with the employees.
• He/she must not have other responsibilities which could take attention from the
monitoring responsibilities.

Each employee working in a controlled access zone must be directed to comply with all
instructions from the monitor. It is recommended that employers have a written plan for
using the safety monitoring system to address the identification of the monitor, the roles
of employees in the monitoring system, and training for using the monitoring system.

Falling Objects

Employers are required to protect their employees from falling objects. A common
method for doing so involves the installation of toe boards (at least 3.5 inches wide)
along the edges of the overhead walking/working surfaces for a distance sufficient to
protect persons working below. The toe boards must be capable of withstanding,
without failure, a force of at least 50 pounds applied in any downward or outward
direction at any point along the toe board. Where tools, equipment, or materials are
piled higher than the top edge of a toe board, paneling or screening should be erected
from the walking/working surface or toe board to the top of a guardrail system's top rail
or midrail, for a distance sufficient to protect employees below.

Fall Protection Plan

The fall protection plan option is available only to employees engaged in leading edge
work, precast concrete erection work, or residential construction work who can

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demonstrate that it is unfeasible or it creates a greater hazard to use conventional fall
protection equipment.

A Fall Protection Plan must be prepared by a qualified person and developed

specifically for each site. It should be maintained up to date and any changes to the
plan must be approved by a qualified person. A copy of the plan with all approved
changes must be maintained at the site. The fall protection plan should document the
reasons why the use of conventional fall protection systems (guardrail systems,
personal fall arrest systems, or safety nets systems) is infeasible or why their use would
create a greater hazard.

Elements of a Fall Protection Plan

A fall protection plan must consist of the following elements:

• Statement of Policy
• Fall Protection Systems to be Used
• Implementation of Plan
• Enforcement
• Accident Investigation
• Changes to the Plan

Training

All employees exposed to fall hazards must receive training by a competent person to
address the nature of fall hazards in the work area, procedures for erecting,
maintaining, disassembling, and inspecting fall protection systems to be used, and the
use and operation of fall arrest equipment.

An employee training program must cover the role of an employee in a safety

monitoring system (when used), limitations on the use of mechanical equipment for low-
slop roofs, the roles of employees in fall protection plans, the procedures for handling
and storing equipment, and the standard contained in 29 CFR 1926.500-503.

Case Study

Fall during the Assembly of a Suspended Scaffold for Bridge Painting

The following is a case study of an accident involving falls and fall protection. The
accident occurred while suspended scaffold was being installed for painting bridge
girders. The suspended scaffold was comprised of the main pipes supported by chains
hung from the bridge girders and single tubes that extended perpendicular to the main
pipes. The plan called for installing two layers of scaffold. Measures to prevent a fall
when this scaffold was completed included safety netting that was stretched below the
bottom of the lower scaffold platform to the right and left of bridge girders to make
personnel movement easy. Two lift trucks, each with a maximum work height of 15
meters, were being used for this work. Each truck was moved after each scaffold
section was complete.

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On the day of the accident, three workers exited onto the ground from one of the lift
trucks in order to move the vehicle. However, the truck could not be moved forward
because the truck tires were stuck in river sand. Five other workers, who had their
safety belts on and attached to the hanging chains, were on scaffold boards watching
and waiting for the truck to be moved.

After several minutes, some of these workers who were tied off on the scaffold heard a
loud sound and turned in time to see a fellow worker attempting to catch one of the
chains as he fell beneath the single tubes. The worker had been attempting to adjust
the chains by himself. He fell while attempting to adjust the hanging chain or during his
movement from the scaffold board to a flange below.

What do you think were some of the causes of the accident?

Although the victim had been wearing a safety harness while waiting on the scaffold,
when he moved to adjust the hanging chains, he was no longer wearing it and it wasn't
tied off. Workers should have waited on the ground while the truck was being moved,
and not at an elevated site that posed a danger of falling. The operations chief for
scaffolding erection also did not provide proper supervision regarding the proper use of
personal fall arrest systems.

Lesson Summary

A positioning device system is a body belt or body harness system rigged to allow an
employee to be supported on an elevated vertical surface, such as a wall, and work with
both hands free while leaning.

A warning line system is an awareness device erected on a roof to warn employees that
they are approaching an unprotected roof side or edge, and which designates an area
in which roofing work may take place without the use of guardrail, body belt, or safety
net systems to protect employees in the area.

A Fall Protection Plan must be prepared by a qualified person and developed

specifically for each site. The Fall Protection Plan must be maintained up to date. Any
changes to the plan must be approved by a qualified person. A copy of the plan with all
approved changes must be maintained at the site. The fall protection plan shall
document the reasons why the use of conventional fall protection systems (guardrail
systems, personal fall arrest systems, or safety nets systems) is infeasible or why their
use would create a greater hazard.

Lesson 3: Electrocution
Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Explain how electricity works and its dangers

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 • Identify the types of electrical injuries
• Understand how to control electrical hazards

OSHA's electrical standards address electrical workplace hazards, equipment, work

practices, safety practices, and more. Employees working on, near, or around electricity
may be exposed to dangers such as electric shock, electrocution, burns, fires, and
explosions. The objective of the standards is to minimize the potential hazard by
specifying design characteristics when installing and using electrical equipment and
systems.

Electricity

Electrical current is the flow of electrons from a voltage source back to its source. It
requires a source of voltage, a circuit path through a conductor, and a load that uses the
current flow as work. An example would be a battery connected to a lightbulb. The
battery is the voltage source, the lightbulb is the load, and the wires connecting the bulb
to the positive and negative terminals are the circuit path.

Working with electricity can be dangerous. In 2019, there were 166 electrical fatalities,
with almost half occurring in the construction or related industries. Additionally,
construction has the highest rate of fatal electrical injuries, a rate approximately 7 times
the rate averaged across all industries.

Safety Tips

• When working with or near electricity, always assume that all overhead wires are
energized at lethal voltages. Never assume that a wire is safe to touch, even if it
is down or appears to be insulated. Never touch a fallen overhead power line;
instead, call the electric utility company to report fallen electrical lines.
• Stay at least 10 feet (3 meters) away from overhead wires during cleanup and
other activities. Many lines require a much more significant safe working
distance. If working at heights or handling long objects, survey the area before
starting work for the presence of overhead wires.
• If an overhead wire falls across your vehicle while you are driving, stay inside the
vehicle and continue to drive away from the line. If the engine stalls, do not leave
your vehicle. Warn people not to touch the vehicle or the wire. Call or ask
someone to call the local electric utility company and emergency services.
• Never operate electrical equipment while you are standing in water.
• Never perform repairs to electrical cords or equipment unless qualified and
authorized.
• Have a qualified electrician inspect electrical equipment that has gotten wet
before energizing it.
• If working in damp locations, inspect electric cords and equipment to ensure that
they are in good condition and free of defects, and use a ground-fault circuit
interrupter (GFCI).
• Always use caution when working near electricity.

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Electrical Injuries

The following are the main types of electrical injuries:

Direct Injuries:

• Electrical shock and related symptoms resulting from the shock (e.g., tissue
damage, neurological disorders, muscle contractions that can cause falls and
other injuries, etc.)
• Electrocution (death due to electrical shock)
• Burns
• Arc flash/blast (usually resulting in burns, concussion injuries, etc.)

Indirect Injuries:

• Falls
• Back Injuries
• Cuts to the hands

Electrical Shock

An electrical shock is received when electrical current passes through the body. This
occurs when your body completes an electrical circuit that includes a voltage source,
such as when touching an exposed energized circuit with one part of your body and a
grounded point with another part of your body, or when contacting two different
energized conductors at the same time.

The severity of the shock depends on the path of the current through the body, the
amount of current flowing through the body (amps), and the duration of the shocking
current through the body.

Remember, low voltage does not mean low hazard!

Levels of Electric Shock

mA* Affect
0.5–3 Tingling sensation
3–20 Muscle contractions and pain
10–40 "Let go" threshold may be exceeded. Worker may be
unable to release a live circuit
20–150 Painful shock with severe muscle contraction, breathing
may become difficult
30–75 Possible respiratory paralysis
100–200 Possible ventricular fibrillation affecting the heart
200–4,000 Likely heart damage or stoppage
*mA = milliampere = 1/1,000 of an ampere

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The overcurrent at which a typical fuse or circuit breaker opens is 15,000 milliamps (15
amps). These devices are designed to protect the electrical system—not people! By the
time these devices open, death or very serious injury is likely to have already occurred.

Burns and Arc Flash

Burns are among the most common shock-related injuries. Burns can occur when you
touch exposed energized electrical wiring or equipment. Many burns also occur as a
result of arc flash, which refers to a flashover of electric current that leaves its intended
path and travels through the air from one conductor to another, or to ground. Burns
resulting from arc flash or other means often occur on the hands, although other parts of
the body may be affected, and may be very serious injuries that require immediate
attention. In the case of arc flash, additional internal injuries may occur with the burns
as a result of the concussive force sometimes produced. The heat of an arc flash is four
times that of the surface of the sun.

Falls

Electric shock can also cause indirect injuries. Workers on ladders and in elevated
locations who experience a shock can fall, resulting in serious injury or death.

Electrical Hazards and How to Control Them

Electrical accidents are caused by many factors, including unsafe equipment and/or
installation, unsafe workplace environments, and unsafe work practices. The following
sections outline some common electrical hazards and the appropriate controls.

Exposed Electrical Parts

Live parts of electric equipment operating at 50 volts or more must be guarded against
accidental contact, which may be done using cabinets or other forms of enclosures, or
by any of the following means:

• By location in a room, vault, or similar enclosure that is accessible only to

qualified persons
• By partitions or screens so arranged that only qualified persons will have access
to the space within reach of the live parts. Any openings in such partitions or
screens shall be so sized and located that persons are not likely to come into
accidental contact with the live parts or to bring conducting objects into contact
with them
• By location on a balcony, gallery, or platform so elevated and arranged as to
exclude unqualified persons
• By elevation of at least eight feet or more above the floor or other working
surface and so installed as to exclude unqualified persons

Conductors Entering Boxes, Cabinets, or Fittings

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Conductors entering boxes, cabinets, or fittings must be protected from abrasion.
Openings through which conductors enter must be effectively closed. Unused openings
in cabinets, boxes, and fittings also must be effectively closed.

Covers and Canopies

All pull boxes, junction boxes, and fittings must be equipped with covers. If metal covers
are used, they should be grounded. In energized installations, each outlet box should
have a cover, faceplate, or fixture canopy.

Overhead Power Lines

Overhead power lines usually are not insulated, meaning equipment or workers that
comes into contact with them are at risk of electrical shock. The following are examples
of the equipment most likely to come into contact with power lines at a worksite:

• Cranes
• Ladders
• Scaffolds
• Backhoes
• Scissors lifts
• Raised dump truck beds
• Paint rollers

Overhead and buried power lines are especially hazardous because they may carry
extremely high voltage. Fatal electrocution is the main risk, but burns and falls from
elevation are also hazards. Using tools and equipment that can come into contact with
power lines increases the risk.

Power line hazards can be avoided if the following precautions are taken:

• A distance from the power lines of at least ten feet is maintained. A much greater
distance may be required, depending on the voltage capacity of the lines.
• Warning signs are posted.
• Power lines are assumed to be energized.
• Wood or fiberglass ladders, not metal ladders, are used.
• Special training and personal protective equipment are provided to power line
workers.
• Power lines are de-energized and/or shielded when necessary.

Inadequate Wiring

A wire that is too small for the current is a hazard. If a portable tool with an extension
cord, for instance, has a wire too small for the tool, it will draw more current than the
cord is designed to handle, with the potential of causing overheating and a possible fire,
all without tripping the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker could be the right size for the
circuit but not for the smaller-wire extension cord.

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Use the correct wire! The wire you should use depends on the operation, building
materials, electrical load, and environmental factors. Use fixed cords rather than flexible
cords when possible. If using an extension cord, use the correct one. The OSHA
standards require flexible cords to be designed for hard or extra-hard usage. These
ratings are to be indelibly marked at approximately every 24" on the cord. Because
deterioration occurs more rapidly in cords, which are not rugged enough for construction
conditions, the NEC and OSHA have specified the types of cords to use in a
construction environment. This rule designates the types of cords that must be used for
various applications, including portable tools, appliances, and temporary and portable
lights. The cords are designated HARD and EXTRA HARD SERVICE.

Defective Cords and Wires

Sometimes, the insulation inside of an electrical tool or appliance is damaged. When

insulation is damaged, exposed metal parts may become energized if a live wire inside
touches them. Electric hand tools that are old, damaged, or misused may have
damaged insulation inside. If you touch damaged power tools or other equipment, you
may receive a shock. You are more likely to receive a shock if the tool is not grounded
or double-insulated.

Cords are most commonly damaged as a result of:

• Aging
• Door or window edges
• Staples or fastenings
• Abrasion from adjacent materials
• Activity in the area
• Improper use
• Lifting tools/equipment with the cords
• Pulling on cords to unplug

Improper use of cords can also cause shocks, burns, or fire. The normal wear and tear
on extension and flexible cords at your site can loosen or expose wires, creating
hazardous conditions. Cords that are not of the three-wire type, not designed for hard-
usage, or that have been modified, increase your risk of contacting electrical current.

The following controls will help protect workers from electric shock as a result of
defective cords or wires:

• Live wires should be insulated where required

• Cords should be checked before use
• Only cords that are three-wire type should be used
• Only cords marked for hard or extra-hard usage should be used (designated by
"S" at the beginning of the cord type; SJ indicates junior hard usage)
• Only cords, connection devices, and fittings equipped with strain relief should be
used
• Cords should be removed by pulling on the plugs, not on the cords

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 • Cords not marked for hard or extra-hard use, or which have been modified, must
be taken out of service immediately

Flexible cords and cables must be protected from damage! DO NOT use flexible wiring
where frequent inspection would be difficult or where damage would be likely. Flexible
cords must not be run through holes in walls, ceilings, or floors; run through doorways,
windows, or similar openings (unless physically protected); or hidden in walls, ceilings,
floors, conduit, or other raceways.

Arc Flash Hazard

An arc flash is a MUCH more significant event than a typical short circuit. It occurs when
a flashover of electric current leaves the intended path and travels through the air from
one conductor to another, or to ground. The results of an arc flash are often very violent,
with a large amount of concentrated radiant energy exploding outward from electrical
equipment, creating pressure waves that can damage a person's hearing, a high
intensity flash that can damage eyesight, and a superheated ball of gas that can
severely burn a worker’s body and even melt metal. Temperatures of arc flashes have
been recorded as high as 35,000 °F.

An arc flash, and its resulting release of energy, can only occur if an arc between two
differences of electrical potential occurs. A difference of electrical potential (voltage
reading) exists between any two-phase conductors, or any phase conductor and a
grounded part (in grounded systems only). An arc flash can be caused by accidental
contact with electrical components, an accumulation of dust, corrosion, dropped tools,
improper installation of equipment, and improper work procedures.

When an arc occurs, current that is available from the source of electrical energy
passes from one conductor to the other conductor at the point of the arc fault. Because
the travel of current in an arc flash is not contained within a conductor, but travels
through free air, the effects of the energy are not contained. This energy is referred to
as "incident energy."

Examples of Electrical Accidents

• Two workers were moving an aluminum ladder. One of them was electrocuted
when the ladder came into contact with overhead power lines.
• A worker was raising a mast on a water well drilling truck when the mast came in
contact with high voltage overhead lines, electrocuting the worker.
• A worker was electrocuted when the boom of a rotary drilling truck contacted an
overhead power line. The victim was standing at the controls, lowering the boom,
and was thrown several feet away from the truck.
• A worker was fatally injured when he was electrocuted and fell to the concrete
floor while working from an 8' fiberglass step ladder. He was changing an
energized ballast on a two-bulb florescent light fixture, located approximately 11'
6" off the ground.

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Lesson Summary

Electrical current is the flow of electrons from a voltage source back to its source. It
requires a source of voltage, a circuit path through a conductor, and a load that uses the
current flow as work. An example would be a battery connected to a lightbulb. The
battery is the voltage source, the lightbulb is the load, and the wires connecting the bulb
to the positive and negative terminals are the circuit path.

Electrical injuries on a worksite often result from exposed electrical parts. Any such
parts should be guarded against accidental contact with workers. Another common
source of electrical injury comes from contact with uninsulated overhead powerlines.
Power lines should always be assumed to be live, and proper signage should indicate
where power lines are located on the worksite. Inadequate or defective wiring can also
cause electrical injuries, including through arc flash. In an arc flash, electricity arcs
through the air between two conductors or between a conductor and ground. Severe
burns and other injuries can result.

Lesson 4: Electrical Hazards—Other Preventive Measures

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe electrical hazards related to grounding and overloaded circuits

• Explain power tool requirements
• Identify when electrical hazards exist
• Explain how to lock-out and tag-out circuits
• Describe safety practices related to working with electricity
• Explain the precautions necessary when doing energized work
• Identify the necessary personal protective equipment (PPE) for electrical work
• Explain how to safely use batteries
• Describe the necessary training elements for working with electricity

Improper Grounding

Grounding creates a low-resistance path from a tool to the earth to disperse any
unwanted current, preventing it from finding a more damaging path to ground, such as
through a person. When a short or lightning occurs, the excess energy flows to the
ground, helping protect you from electrical shock, injury, and death. Tools plugged into
improperly grounded circuits may become energized, creating a hazard.

Control: Ground Tools and Equipment

Always properly ground power supply systems, electrical circuits, and electrical
equipment. Inspect electrical systems before each use to ensure that the path to ground
is continuous. Don’t remove ground prongs from tools or extension cords and don’t use

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tools or extension cords with missing or damaged ground plugs. Be sure to ground
exposed metal parts of equipment.

Control: Use a Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI)

A ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) helps protect you from shock by detecting
differences in current as small as 5 milliamps between the amount of electricity flowing
into a circuit and the amount flowing out of the circuit. A GFCI shuts off electricity in as
little as 1/40th of a second if a ground fault is detected.

Control: Assured Equipment Grounding Conductor Program (AEGCP)

An assured equipment grounding conductor program (AEGCP) includes a written

description of specific procedures adopted by the employer to help prevent electric
shock. It should be implemented by a competent person designated by the employer.
As part of the program, each cord set, attachment cap, plug, and receptacle of cord
sets, and any equipment connected by cord and plug, except cord sets and receptacles
which are fixed and not exposed to damage, shall be visually inspected before each
day's use for external defects, such as deformed or missing pins or insulation damage,
and for indications of possible internal damage. Equipment found damaged or defective
should not be used until repaired. Other tests and inspections should include tests for
continuity and the correct attachment of the grounding conductor. Records of the tests
should be kept and made available.

The AEGCP on construction sites must cover all cord sets, receptacles not part of a
building or structure, and equipment connected by plug and cord that is available for
use.

Overloaded Circuits

Too many devices plugged into a circuit can result in heated wires and possibly fire.
Wire insulation melting can cause arcing and fire in the area where the overload exists,
including inside a wall.

Electrical protective devices are designed to automatically open a circuit if excess

current from overload or ground-fault is detected, shutting off the electricity. Electrical
protective devices include ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs), fuses, and circuit
breakers.

Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI): A device for the protection of personnel that
functions to de-energize a circuit within an established period of time when a current to
ground exceeds some predetermined value that is less than that required to operate the
overcurrent protective device of the entire supply circuit.

Fuses: (Over 600 volts, nominal) Overcurrent protective devices with a fusible opening
in the circuit that is heated and severed by the passage of overcurrent through that part,
breaking the circuit.

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Circuit Breakers:

(600 volts or less, nominal) Devices designed to manually open and close a circuit, and
to open the circuit automatically on a predetermined overcurrent without damage when
properly used within its rating.

(Over 600 volts, nominal) Devices capable of making, carrying, and breaking currents
under normal circuit conditions, and also capable of making, carrying for a specified
time, and breaking currents under specified abnormal circuit conditions, such as those
of short circuit.

Power Tool Requirements

Power tools must:

Be grounded through a 3-wire cord with one wire going to ground,

-or-

Be double insulated,

-or-

Be powered by a low-voltage isolation transformer,

-or-

Be powered by a properly designed and self-contained battery power unit.

Tool Safety Tips

The following are some safety tips to consider when using power tools:

• Use gloves and appropriate footwear when using tools and when safe and
appropriate to do so.
• Store tools in a dry place when not in use.
• Don't use tools in wet/damp conditions unless they are designed for this purpose.
• Keep working areas well lit.
• Ensure that tools and cords do not create a tripping hazard.
• Don't carry a tool by the cord.
• Don't yank the cord to disconnect the tool from the electrical source.
• Keep cords away from heat, oil, and sharp edges.
• Disconnect tools when not in use and when changing accessories such as
blades and bits.
• Remove damaged tools from use.
• Avoid accidental starting. Do not hold fingers on the power switch or button while
carrying a plugged-in tool or while tagging damaged tools.

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Preventing Electrical Hazards

The following measures should be taken to prevent electrical hazards associated with
the use of power tools:

• Inspect tools before use

• Use the right tool correctly
• Protect your tools from damage
• Use double insulated tools when appropriate

Temporary Lights

Temporary lights should be protected from contact and damage, and they should not be
suspended by cords unless designed for that.

Clues that Electrical Hazards Exist

The following are some clues that can help you determine whether an electrical hazard
exists:

• When there are tripped circuit breakers or blown fuses

• When tools, wires, cords, connections, or junction boxes are warm to the touch
• When a GFCI shuts off a circuit
• When there is worn or frayed insulation around a wire or a connection

More Information: If a GFCI trips while you are using a power tool, there is a problem.
Don't keep resetting the GFCI and continue to work. You must evaluate the "clue" and
decide what action should be taken to control the hazard.

Locking Out and Tagging Out of Circuits

The following steps must be performed when locking out and tagging out circuits:

• Apply locks to the power source after de-energizing

• Verify circuit is de-energized by testing with known functioning meters
• Tag deactivated controls and power sources
• Tag de-energized equipment and circuits at all points where they can be
energized
• Tags must identify equipment or circuits being worked on

Safety-Related Work Practices

To protect workers from electrical shock:

• Use barriers and guards to prevent passage through areas of exposed energized
equipment

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 • Pre-plan work, post hazard warnings, and use protective measures
• Keep working spaces and walkways clear of cords
• Use special insulated tools when working on fuses with energized terminals.
• Don’t use worn or frayed cords and cables
• Don’t fasten extension cords with staples; hang the cords from nails or suspend
them using wire

Employers must not allow employees to work near live parts of electrical circuits unless
the employees are protected by one of the following means:

• De-energizing and grounding the parts

• Guarding the part by insulation
• Any other effective and approved means

In work areas where the exact location of underground electrical power lines is
unknown, employees using jack hammers, bars, or other hand tools that may contact
the lines must be protected by insulating gloves, aprons, or other protective clothing that
will provide equivalent electrical protection.

Flexible cords must be connected to devices and fittings so that strain relief is provided
which will prevent pull from being directly transmitted to joints or terminal screws.
Equipment or circuits that are de-energized must be rendered inoperative and must
have appropriate locks and tags attached at all points where the equipment or circuits
could be energized.

As appropriate, the employer must ensure that all wiring components and equipment in
specific hazardous locations are maintained in a dust-tight, dust-ignition-proof, or
explosion-proof condition. There shall be no loose or missing screws, gaskets, threaded
connections, seals, or other impairments to a tight condition.

Avoiding Wet Conditions

The following are important points to consider in avoiding wet conditions:

• If you touch a live wire or other electrical component while standing in even a
small puddle of water, you may get a shock.
• Damaged insulation, equipment, or tools can expose you to live electrical parts.
• Improperly grounded metal switch plates and ceiling lights are especially
hazardous in wet conditions.
• Wet clothing, high humidity, and perspiration increase your chances of being
electrocuted.

Energized Work

Energized work must be done in safe work conditions or the reasons for not doing so
must be properly documented and justified. To justify energized work, an employer must

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demonstrate that de-energizing introduces additional or increased hazards, or is
infeasible due to equipment design or operational limitations.

Work on circuits with voltages less than 50 volts may be performed in an energized
state if a proper assessment has been completed and there is no increased exposure to
electrical burns or explosion risks due to arcs.

Examples of increased or additional hazards that could provide justification to work on

energized circuits over 50 volts include interruption of life support equipment,
deactivation of emergency alarm systems, or the shutdown of hazardous location
ventilation equipment.

Energized Electrical Work Permit

If justification for energized work is demonstrated, then the work can be performed only
after proper completion of a written permit.

Elements of an Energized Electrical Work Permit include the following:

• Description and location of the circuit and the equipment involved

• Justification for energized work
• List of the safe work practices to be applied
• Results of a shock risk assessment
• Determination of the shock protection boundaries as noted in NFPA 70E
• Results of an arc flash analysis
• Required PPE
• Means used to restrict entry of qualified personnel into the work area
• Completion of a job briefing, including a discussion of job specific hazards
• Authorized and signed energized work approval

Exemptions to a Work Permit

Work that is performed on or near live parts by qualified persons and related to tasks
such as testing, troubleshooting, and voltage measuring may not require an energized
electrical work permit as long as the appropriate safe work practices and required PPE
are used.

NFPA 70E Complements OSHA Regulations

In lieu of detailed specifications, OSHA recognizes, and in some cases refers to,
industry consensus standards such as the National Fire Protection Association's
(NFPA) 70E as a tool for assisting with regulatory compliance. A copy of NFPA 70E is
considered by many to be a critical addition to every employer's safety library.

The National Fire Protection Association provides free access to read and review their
standards, including 70E. This service allows users to view the standards after
registering with the association. This access is available on the NFPA website.
Accessing this standard is critical to a full and complete understanding of the definitions,

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work practices, controls, documentation, and equipment necessary to provide a safe
work site and to ensure compliance with the applicable OSHA standards.

Approach Boundaries to Energized Parts

Approach boundaries are perimeters at various distances from a potentially hazardous

energized part designed to keep employees safe by requiring certain safety measures
be taken when any worker must cross these boundaries. The following are some types
of approach boundaries related to electrical work:

Arc Flash Boundary: In those activities or conditions where the hazard of an arc flash
is present, the arc flash boundary is that distance from the source that an exposed
individual could receive second degree burns. In other words, the individual is
potentially in harm's way.

Limited Approach Boundary: In those activities or conditions where the hazard of an

electrical shock is presented by energized electrical components, this is the distance at
which exposure to a shock is possible.

Restricted Approach Boundary: This is the distance at which there is a heightened

possibility of electrical shock from energized electrical components, due to a
combination of existing conditions, personnel movement, and proximity.

Note: Any personnel working on energized parts must have training on the
requirements of NFPA 70E. Please complete the additional training program on this
code prior to working on energized parts. Detailed information regarding the application
of the boundaries can be found in NFPA 70E. Annex C, Section 1.2.3 of this standard
provides an excellent graphical representation of the boundaries which may be useful
for training and enforcement activities.

Preventing Electrical Hazards—Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

When it is necessary to handle or come close to wires with a potentially live electrical
charge, it is essential to use proper insulating personal protective equipment (PPE) to
help protect employees from coming into contact with the hazardous electrical energy.

The following measures can provide protection from electrical hazards:

• Proper foot protection

• Rubber insulating gloves, hoods, sleeves, matting, and blankets
• Hard hat (insulated—nonconductive)

Safety Shoes and Boots

Safety shoes and boots should be nonconductive and should protect your feet from
completing an electrical circuit to ground. Safety shoes can help protect against open
circuits of up to 600 volts in dry conditions. These shoes should be used with other

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insulating equipment and in connection with active precautions to reduce or eliminate
the potential for providing a path for hazardous electrical energy.

Hard Hats

Specific types of hard hats are needed when performing electrical work. A "Class E"
electrical/utility type hard hat protects against falling objects and high-voltage shock and
burns. Wearing a hard hat provides protection for your head of up to 20,000 volts.

Type of PPE for Arc Flash Protection

When work must be performed within an Arc Flash Boundary, a flash hazard analysis
determines and documents the incident energy exposure of the worker in cal/cm2.
Flame-resistant (FR) clothing and PPE must be used by anyone crossing any part of
her or his body into the Arc Flash Boundary as based on the incident energy calculation.

Training

Employees working with electric equipment must be trained in safe work practices,
including:

• De-energizing electric equipment before inspecting or repairing

• Using cords, cables, and electric tools that are in good repair
• Lockout/tagout recognition and procedures
• Using appropriate protective equipment

De-Energizing Electrical Equipment

Accidental or unexpected starting of electrical equipment can cause injury or death.

Before any inspections or repairs are made, the current must be turned off at the source
and this location locked in the "OFF" position. Additionally, the switch or controls of the
machine, or other equipment being locked out of service, must be tagged securely to
show which equipment or circuits are being worked on.

A De-Energizing or Lockout / Tag out Program requires the following:

• Application of locks to all power sources, including all potential sources of

electrical energy, after each source has been de-energized
• Application of a tag on each de-energized control identifying who has locked the
control out, and instructing others to not unlock or re-energize the control
• Proper training for all workers involved in or potentially impacted by the de-
energization of the equipment. Included in this training should be the following
groups of employees:
o Authorized employees—those who lock out and/or tag out machines or
equipment in order to perform maintenance or servicing
o Affected employees—those whose job requires them to use or operate
equipment or machines being maintained or serviced

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 o All other employees—who work or operate in areas where lockout/tagout
procedures are used

Batteries and Battery Charging

The following are important guidelines for safely using batteries on a worksite:

• Batteries of the unsealed type must be located in enclosures with outside vents
or in well-ventilated rooms and shall be arranged so as to prevent the escape of
fumes, gases, or electrolyte spray into other areas.
• Ventilation must be provided to ensure diffusion of the gases from the battery
and to prevent the accumulation of an explosive mixture.
• Racks and trays should be substantial and treated to make them resistant to the
electrolyte.
• Floors should be of acid resistant construction unless protected from acid
accumulations.
• Face shields, aprons, and rubber gloves must be provided for workers handling
acids or batteries.
• Facilities for quick drenching of the eyes and body must be provided within 25
feet (7.62 m) of battery handling areas.
• Facilities should be provided for flushing and neutralizing spilled electrolyte and
for fire protection.
• Battery charging installations should be located in areas designated for that
purpose.
• Charging apparatus should be protected from damage by trucks.
• When batteries are being charged, the vent caps should be kept in place to avoid
electrolyte spray. Vent caps should be maintained in functioning condition.

Lesson Summary

Grounding refers to the practice of providing a safe, low-resistance path for electricity to
return to ground should a fault occur. Proper grounding techniques and safety
precautions, such as using a ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) are crucial to
protecting employees. Overloaded circuits present one example of a hazard that
requires proper grounding and a GFCI to prevent. Power tools must also be properly
grounded, or else double-insulated or battery-powered. Tools, including temporary
lights, should always be inspected before use.

Other important safety-related work practices include locking out and tagging out
deenergized circuits, keeping workspaces clear of cords and wires, and only using safe
(not frayed or worn) extension cords.

Energized work can be particularly dangerous, since the current continues to flow while
the work is done. Energized work can only be performed under certain conditions when
deenergizing the components is not possible. An energized work permit is also required.

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Employees should be provided with the proper personal protective equipment (PPE)
when necessary. For electrical work, this could include safety shoes and belts, rubber
insulating gloves, and class E hard hats.

Lesson 5: Struck by Hazards

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Define a struck-by hazard

• Explain the dangers and controls associated with heavy vehicles
• Explain the dangers and controls associated with falling or flying objects
• Explain the dangers and controls associated with constructing masonry walls

What is the Struck-By Hazard?

According to OSHA, being struck by objects is a leading cause of construction-related

deaths (only falls rank higher). In 2016, there were 93 struck-by fatalities in the
construction industry, or just under 10% of all construction deaths. Safety and health
programs must include ways to limit or eliminate the many causes of struck-by
accidents.

Typically, struck-by accidents are associated with vehicles, falling or flying objects, or
masonry walls.

The Danger from Heavy Vehicles

If vehicular safety practices are not followed at a work site, workers are at risk of being
pinned (caught) in between construction vehicles and walls or stationary surfaces,
struck by swinging equipment, crushed beneath overturned vehicles, or many other
similar accidents. When working near a public roadway, workers are additionally
exposed to being struck by trucks, cars, or other vehicle traffic.

Important engineering controls that help avoid hazards from heavy vehicles include the
following measures:

• Always install, use, and maintain vehicle back-up alarms.

• Station flaggers behind vehicles that have obstructed rear views.
• Keep non-essential workers away from areas of vehicle use.
• Keep workers away from temporary overhead activities.
• Place barriers and warning signs around hazardous operations and public
roadways.
• Never put yourself between moving or fixed objects.
• Always wear bright, highly visible clothing when working near equipment and
vehicles.

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Seat Belts

The use of seatbelts in construction equipment or other motor vehicle must be made
mandatory to reduce the effects of a crash. Research shows that the use of a seat belt
reduces the risk of a fatal injury by 45% for front seat occupants of a car and by 60% for
occupants of light trucks. Workers must wear seat belts in all vehicles that are equipped
with seat belts.

Internal Traffic Control Plans for Work Zones

Using an internal traffic control plan (ITCP) for work zones is the best practice for
construction site vehicle safety. The ITCP can be utilized by the project manager as a
communication and coordination tool to control the movement of construction workers,
vehicles, and equipment in the activity area.

ITCPs are intended to promote the safety of the roadway and to prevent caught in or
struck by accidents to workers or others in the area. Some considerations when
developing an internal traffic control plan are:

• Internal signage denoting the activity area

• Specific protocols and procedures for construction vehicle ingress/egress
• Movement of traffic within the activity area
• Designated areas that prohibit workers that are on foot
• Communication protocol between all parties on the construction site.

Portable LED Tower Lighting

It is important for nighttime work zones to have proper lighting that will improve visibility
for all the work activities within that area. Floodlights using high-efficiency light emitting
diodes (LED) that are mounted on portable trailers or on moving equipment are very
helpful and, in some cases, considered required equipment. LED Tower lights are
lightweight and can be mounted between 14 and 15 feet high with a directional aim to
the work area.

The use of LED lighting will provide low maintenance and durable lighting of good
quality for the work area. This type of lighting will also reduce glare, helping avoid any
spillover or struck by/caught in accidents. This type of portable setup can be labor-
intensive, so it is best to use it for short-term projects like lane or road closures.

Road Closure Program

Construction projects must be analyzed to determine if any road closures are necessary
before setting up construction activities. The city or county where the road closure will
occur would have to conduct a cost benefit analysis to determine its impact on the
surrounding area. Some of the considerations that will be made during this cost-benefit
analysis will be traffic volumes, the duration of the project, and the length of the detour
that will be required. Another consideration will be provisions that need to be made for

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residents and businesses that are affected by the road closure. The possibility of closing
the road prior to the construction activities will eliminate any chances of struck-by
vehicle hazards for the workers as well as the general public.

Lane Closure Policy/Map

There are some states that have adopted lane closure policies based on traffic
mapping. Traffic mapping informs traffic engineers what areas are prone to more traffic
during various times of a day or on a specific day of the week as compared to other
areas. Understanding the flow of traffic through the community will lead to effective work
lane closure policies. For instance, Colorado DOT (CDOT) has identified six distinct
regions that have their own unique lane closure policies. CDOT will publish lane closure
maps and spreadsheets for engineers and contractors. This program has helped the
CDOT plan more effective closures based on the specific needs of the region.

Working around Other Vehicular Traffic

When working in an area that is exposed to vehicular traffic, it is important to be aware

of struck-by accidents. There are a few areas of concern when controlling traffic due to
construction activities, including:

• Maintenance of traffic basics

• Traffic control devices
• Flagger Procedures

The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) uses Federal guidance for traffic control
devices known as the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD). In the
MUTCD, the instruction is to use signs and channelizing devices to warn and direct
traffic to the open lanes. Communication with the traveling public starts in the advance
warning area, where channeling devices and warning size are based on:

• The build of the road (two lane, multilane)

• Where the work is located (the shoulder, travel lanes, the median)
• Speed limit of the travel lane

Traffic Control Devices

Each temporary traffic control device has its own purpose and use. The person who is
creating a traffic plan must be aware of all road conditions prior to the choice of
channeling devices.

Maintenance of Traffic (MOT) zones are divided into 4 distinct areas:

• Advanced Warning Areas - Used as the first indication to the motorist that there
is upcoming construction work in the roadway or shoulder. In the advanced
warning area, the signs will warn of
o Road Work
o Men at Work

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 o Lane Closed or Flagger Ahead
o Workers Ahead
• Transition Area - Used to channel the motorist to the open travel lane.
• Activity Area - This section will have the buffer space for motorist to get back
into the travel way, if they go through the MOT towards the worksite.
• Termination Area - Used to channel the traffic back into the usual travel lanes.

The first goal of every traffic control zone is to warn the vehicles of the change that is
about to take place. The disruption of the driver’s pattern is a hazardous latent condition
that could result in a struck-by incident. The signs that are posted leading into the
construction zone and stretching all the way to the end of the construction zone must be
uniform in design and expectations.

The channeling devices should be placed in a pattern that begins in the advanced
warning area so that when the cones are parallel to the work area they have been
angled back. This angling of the channeling devices is referred to as the taper. The
taper length and the spacing between each column are determined through a
calculation of the posted speed limit. As the speed of the vehicles increases, the
amount of taper length and buffer space created prior to the activity area must also
increase.

At the activity area, the channeling devices are placed adjacent to the traveled way to
keep the traffic out and work as warning devices for the workers. Some construction
zones will have barricades as an engineering control to avoid the struck-by accidents. It
is also important to keep the buffer space area free from equipment or staging material,
to give the wayward driver an opportunity to swerve back into their own lane. If there is
any material in that Transition Area, then the driver can have a collision in the MOT
zone.

Common channeling devices include the following:

• Traffic Cone
• Tubular marker
• Drums
• Vertical panels
• Type I barricades
• Type II barricades
• Type III barricades
• Longitudinal Channelization Devices (LCD)
• Arrow boards
• Portable Changeable Message Sign (PCMS)
• Radar Display Speed Unit
• Portable Regulatory Sign
• Truck/Trailer Mounted Attenuators (TMA’s)
• Temporary Lane Separators
• Painted or Raised Pavement Markers
• Temporary Signals

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The use of traffic control devices is crucial to the maintenance of traffic operations. Any
such devices placed in the road must:

• Fulfill a need: A channeling device is needed to guide and direct traffic and
pedestrians to the safest traveling path. These devices are helpful in creating
barriers and boundaries on a temporary basis. It also helps in training the drivers
regarding what is expected of them on the road.
• Command attention: Both drivers and pedestrians must look at the channeling
devices. These are generally made from a retro reflective material, have a
warning light, and will warn and alert drivers of hazards created by construction
and maintenance activities in or near the roadways. Any disregard for the
channeling devices or signs can increase the likelihood of a struck by accident.
• Convey a clear and simple meaning: The traffic control engineer must choose
an appropriate traffic control device that gives a clear meaning to the drivers. No
channeling device or message should cause an accident due to its design.
• Command respect: Both drivers and pedestrians must obey and respond to the
road signs, channeling devices, or traffic personnel. Everything that the MOT
operator does must be communicated through authority.

Traffic Control Signage

The use of temporary traffic control devices and signage can greatly reduce traffic
related hazards. These signs come in three categories:

• Warning: Warning signs have a basic shape, usually diamond, to denote a

hazard ahead. Sometimes the signs are orange with black legend or yellow with
black legend.
• Regulatory: Regulatory signs are legal obligation which, if broken, can result in a
traffic citation. This obligation is denoted on the sign that is usually in a
rectangular design with a white background and black legend. However, there
are some regulatory signs with unique shapes such as the eight-sided stop sign.
• Guidance: Guidance signs are generally rectangular in shape in basic white on
green colors. However, signs indicating construction activity ahead may be black
on orange.

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30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 138
Flagger Safety

All workers who are designing or maintaining the MOT for a construction zone must be
trained for their responsibilities. The flaggers play a very important part in the protection
of the workers. Each flagger must have knowledge of proper techniques and
requirements for controlling the traffic.

The ultimate control of public safety lies within the communications made by the flagger.
The flagger must understand how to maneuver the traffic along the channeling devices;
give guidance to the pedestrian, cyclist, and motorist.

The first priority of the flaggers is first to protect themselves, the personnel on the
construction site, the drivers and the pedestrians. In all cases, the flagger must leave an
escape route for themselves in case someone disregards a warning sign. The flagger
must warn the crew of the potential danger. In some cases, the flagger will be the
primary person to obtain vehicle information and driver description.

The flagger must also be visible to oncoming traffic therefore proper high visibility
apparel must be worn during flagging operations. It is important that the flaggers remain
alert and stay off the path of any approaching vehicle.

Flagger Responsibilities

It is important for the flagger to never turn his back to traffic or perform any other activity
while flagging. The basic rules of conduct which the flaggers must all adhere to are:

• Stay alert to the needs of the emergency vehicles cruise

• Report a car if they refuse to obey instructions
• To cover or remove flagger signs when no flagging operations are present
• Never mingle with the work crew, traveling public, or people
• Do not lean against any vehicle

It’s also imperative for the lead flagger to have communication with all other flaggers.
This communication can be two-way radios or hand signals, whichever is more
appropriate for the situation. The flaggers must also be equipped with a stop/slow
paddle and an illuminated flagging station during nighttime operations.

In order to get a vehicle to stop, the flagger must present the stop side of the paddle
and with a raised hand palm out. To proceed, the flagger will rotate the stop/slow paddle
to the slow indication and deliberately and slowly waive the drivers through the work
zone.

If there’s a driver who is going faster than the posted speed limit, then it is the
responsibility of the flagger to slow him/her down. The procedure to slow down the
driver involves showing the slow side of the paddle to the driver while indicating him/her
to slow down by slowly raising and lowering the palm of the hand.

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In case of emergency, when the flagger is not equipped with a stop/slow paddle, they
can use a flag for immediate MOT usage. During nighttime operations it is also
necessary for the flagger to have a flashlight, lantern or the lighted signals that display a
red warning light.

The flags are 24 x 24” and are used by qualified flagger to control the traffic. To stop
traffic the flagger should hold their hands straight out with the flag facing downwards
and the other hand extended with the palm facing the driver. Both hand gestures should
be shoulder height for maximum visibility.

When it’s time for the flagger to release traffic, they will put the flag to their side to wave
the traffic through by rotating their bodies as they motion with their non-flag bearing
arm.

To slow the traffic, the flagger must slowly raise and lower the flag from their side to
shoulder height. This will signal the driver that they are going too fast and need to adjust
their speed through the works zone.

Safety Controls

Additional tips for safety around heavy vehicles include:

• Use manufacturer-approved safety restraints unless the vehicle is not designed

for them.
• Never allow workers to drive equipment in reverse without an alarm or flagger.
• Enforce a limited access zone before dumping or lowering buckets.
• Properly turn off and block all equipment, including accessories.
• Set parking brakes and use chock wheels if parked on an incline.
• Install cab shields on hauling vehicles to protect against struck by and rollover
injuries.
• Never exceed the vehicle’s rated lift capacity or carry unauthorized personnel.
• Use signs, barricades, and flaggers to protect workers near roadways.
• Use proper lighting and reflective clothing/vests at night.

Struck-By Case Study

A Department of Transportation (DOT) maintenance worker (the victim) died after he

was struck by a car that intruded into a work zone where he and a coworker were
installing reflectors on a guardrail located along the median of an interstate highway.
Shortly before the incident, the victim and his coworker placed “WORK AREA AHEAD”
signs 1,000 feet in advance of their work area on both the south and north shoulders of
the westbound lanes. After placing the signs, they drove west and parked their work
truck on the north shoulder across the road and west of the section of guardrail they
planned to work on. They walked approximately 650 feet to an area where they began
their work installing reflectors. They walked westward working their way back toward
their work truck, stopping every 12.5 feet to install reflectors on the guardrail. Both
workers were working from the traffic side of the guardrail when the victim’s coworker

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looked up, saw a car approaching in the left lane headed toward them, and yelled a
warning to the victim. The coworker was able to lift one leg over the guardrail and get
out of the car’s travel path before the car struck the guardrail and then the victim.

Maintenance and Safety

Proper maintenance of vehicles and the surfaces on which they operate will eliminate
many struck by injuries. Be sure to require workers to check equipment before each
shift, to only drive vehicles/equipment on safely constructed and maintained surfaces,
and to ensure every vehicle has a working, properly maintained brake system.

The Danger from Being Struck by Falling or Flying Objects

Workers are at risk from falling objects when they are required to work around cranes,
scaffolds, overhead electrical line work, etc. There is a danger from flying objects when
using power tools, or during activities like pushing, pulling, or prying, that can cause
objects to become airborne. Flying/falling objects can also roll off rooftops, or be
accidentally kicked off walkways, scaffold platforms, etc. if they are not properly
constrained. Depending on the situation, injuries from being struck by flying or falling
objects range from minor ones like bruises to severe ones like concussions, blindness,
and death.

Training

Loose debris left on a roof can easily be blown by a gust of wind which will carry it to the
ground below where a worker could be standing. When working in this kind of an
environment, accidents are inevitable. Workers must be trained to be careful and
remain constantly on the lookout for such conditions, securing all materials in an
appropriate manner. Employers must educate their employees on how to prevent
accidents and exposures. Employers have a responsibility under OSHA standards to
educate and train their employees to recognize and avoid unsafe conditions that can
lead to struck-by injuries.

Ways to Avoid Being Struck by Falling or Flying Objects

Workers can be struck by falling or flying objects or by materials that slide, collapse, or
otherwise fall on them. To protect workers from these types of injuries, OSHA requires
that employers:

• Require workers to use hardhats/helmets when appropriate

• Train employees to stack materials to prevent sliding, falling, or collapsing
• Install protective devices onsite, such as toe boards on elevated platforms and
walkways
• Install debris nets beneath overhead work

Safety nets must be installed as close as practicable under the walking/working surface
on which employees are working, but in no case more than 25 feet (7.6 m) below such

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levels. When nets are used on bridges, the potential fall area from the walking/working
surface to the net must be unobstructed.

Properly Use and Inspect Power Tools and Equipment

Before each use, inspect equipment and tools to ensure that they work properly. Loose
parts can fly into the air and cause damage. Never allow workers to use powder
actuated tools until they are properly trained on how to use and maintain them. A
qualified person who is properly trained should inspect all equipment before use.

PPE for Power Tools and Equipment

Ensure that workers use all required PPE when operating power tools and equipment.
Examples of required PPE include:

• Safety glasses and goggles

• Face shields
• Hardhats/helmets

Head Protection Equipment

Head injuries are generally caused by falling or flying objects, or by bumping the head
against a fixed object. Head protectors in the form of protective hats can resist
penetration and absorb the shock of a blow. The shell of the protective hat is hard
enough to resist many blows and the suspension system keeps the shell away from the
wearer's skull. Some protective hats can also protect against electrical shock.

Protective hats are made in the following types and classes:

• Type 1: Helmets with a full brim.

• Type 2: Brimless helmets with a peak extending forward from the crown.
• Class G: General service, limited voltage. Intended for protection against impact
hazards. Used in mining, construction, and manufacturing.
• Class E: Utility service, high voltage. Used by electrical workers.
• Class C: Special service, no voltage protection. Designed for lightweight comfort
and impact protection. Used where there is a possibility of bumping the head
against a fixed object.

Compressed Air and Flying Objects

Compressed air is a productive tool when used correctly. If used incorrectly, it can
launch unexpected and very dangerous objects into the air that can strike and injure
unsuspecting workers.

Follow these steps when using compressed air to keep objects from flying:

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 • Limit compressed air pressure to a safe level when cleaning floors, equipment,
etc.
• Ensure equipment parts are fastened before cleaning
• Always use appropriate guarding
• Never use compressed air to clean clothing

Nail Gun Safety

One of the most used power tools in the construction field is the nail gun. It is also
responsible for an estimated 37,000 emergency room visits, with 68% involving
construction workers. A study of apprentice carpenters by OSHA states that:

• 2 out of 5 were injured using a nail gun during their 4 years of training
• 1 out of 5 were injured twice
• 1 out of 10 were injured three or more times

Most of the injuries caused by a nail gun involve structural damage to tendons, joints,
nerves, and bones in the hands and fingers. Some serious injuries related to being
struck by a nail from a nail gun (nailer) are:

• Paralysis
• Blindness
• Brain damage
• Bone Fractures and
• Death

There are various types of specialized nailers, such as for framing, roofing, and flooring.
The framing nail guns are powerful pieces of equipment that fire larger nails. Framers
are therefore even more at risk from the mishandling and misuse of nailers.

Workers who understand the trigger mechanism can greatly reduce the potential for
injury. The trigger has two basic control mechanisms:

• Finger trigger
• Contact safety tip

These trigger mechanisms can be single discharge or multiple discharge when the
controls are activated. The safest type of nail gun trigger is the one that only fires a nail
when the controls are activated in a certain order. Nails cannot be fired in a bump fire
mode but only through a single shot trigger, restricted trigger, or by a trigger fire mode.

Nail gun accidents can happen in a variety of manners with different types of triggers.
Contact triggers can have a double fire discharge of a second unintended release. If a
person has the activation trigger depressed and knows the safety contact, then the
nailer will discharge and most likely cause an accident.

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Nails can also penetrate lumber material and discharge into a person on the other side
of the lumber. The nail can ricochet from hitting a wood knot, metal, or other hard
surface and strike a nearby worker with the nail. If a worker is in the habit of gripping the
nail gun by the trigger when traveling with the unit, it may lead to an accidental
discharge of the nail gun.

Workers can get injured if a part of the nailer is not working properly or missing
altogether. Each worker must check their tools before each shift and prior to each use.
This will ensure that all tools and equipment are in proper working order with all safety
features working properly.

When workers are working in an awkward position, it may be difficult for them to control
the application or angle of the nailer. In some cases, the workers might use their body
as a brace and put themselves in the line of fire.

Tips for Safe Nail Gun Use

Use the full sequential trigger nail gun for the safest trigger mechanism. This type of
trigger reduces the risk of unintentional nail discharge or double fires. New workers
should be restricted to using the full sequential trigger nail guns only until they are fully
oriented with other trigger types.

All workers that use nail guns must be trained on how to use the tool and its safety
features. Hands-on training is always the best form of training, so the worker can see
how to use the equipment firsthand. OSHA recommends the following training topics:

• How nail guns work and how triggers differ

• Main causes of injuries – especially differences among types of triggers.
• Instructions provided in manufacturer tool manuals and where the manual is kept
• Hands-on training with the actual nailers to be used on the job. This gives each
employee an opportunity to handle the nailer and to get feedback on topics such
as:
o How to load the nail gun
o How to operate the air compressor
o How to fire the nail gun
o How to hold lumber during placement work
o How to recognize and approach ricochet-prone work surfaces
o How to handle awkward position work (e.g., toe-nailing and work on
ladders)
o How best to handle special risks associated with contact and single
actuation triggers such as nail gun recoil and double fires. For example,
coach new employees on how to minimize double fires by allowing the nail
gun to recoil rather than continuing to push against the gun after it fires.
o What to do when a nail gun malfunctions

Training should also cover:

• Company nail gun work procedures

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 • Personal protective equipment
• Injury reporting
• First aid and medical treatment

Establish nail gun work procedures for workers that:

• Include mandatory reviews of the tool operations and maintenance manual

• Have O and M manuals onsite for review
• Check tools and power source for proper operations and require broken or
malfunctioning equipment to be taken out of service immediately
• Check lumber surfaces to ensure that there are no knots, nails, hangers, or
anything that can impede the nail from going through the material
• Keep hands at least 12 inches away from the point of impact of the nailer.
• Disconnect the compressed air when servicing, traveling or clearing a nail jam
from the equipment
• Analyze the dangers of nail gun work and mitigate as many hazards as possible
prior to working in the area
• Provide Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) such as hard hats, high impact
eye protection, and hearing protection
• Encourage reporting and discussion of injuries and near misses to help workers
learn how to identify hazards. Once the hazards have been identified, prompt
correction of the problem is needed.
• Provide first aid and medical treatment for workers at the job location. Getting
workers medical care as quickly as possible to limit the impact of the accident.

Nail Gun Case Study

A carpenter apprentice was killed when he was struck in the head by a nail that was
fired from a powder actuated tool. The tool operator, while attempting to anchor a
plywood form in preparation for pouring a concrete wall, fired the gun causing the nail to
pass through the hollow wall. The nail travelled some twenty-seven feet before striking
the victim. The tool operator had never received training in the proper use of the tool,
and none of the employees in the area were wearing personal protective equipment.

Roofing and Multi-Story Construction

Workers must always be aware that a tool or a piece of building material or equipment
could accidentally fall from roofs or above-ground building levels. Ensure that workers:

• Use safety nets or other protective means when objects can fall on workers
below
• Use limited access zone guidelines to keep outsiders and non-essential workers
from being struck
• Install toe boards on scaffolds and walkways when appropriate

Always use PPE to protect the face and head when there is a chance of being struck by
a falling or flying object at a construction site. During the workday, you can be struck by

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an unsecured falling roofer’s hammer or by a piece of lumber that accidentally falls
through a hole in the floor above your work area.

Examples of PPE to be used during building activities include hardhats, face shields,
and goggles

Working Around Cranes and Hoists

It is extremely hazardous to work underneath heavy equipment, especially when it is

being operated. Heavy debris can fall from a swinging bucket. A crane can accidentally
break something loose and send it flying. If hoists break during use, their loads can
tumble down and strike workers. Work must not be performed beneath an elevated,
unsecured load at any time.

Always follow these safe practices while working around cranes and hoists:

• Never allow employees to work underneath suspended loads

• Barricade areas and post warning signs to keep non-essential employees and
outsiders away from overhead equipment
• Inspect cranes and hoists before each use to ensure components are in good
working condition
• Never exceed the lifting capacity of cranes and hoists
• Watch for tail-swing (the distance from the centerline of rotation to the extreme
rear swing arc of the counterweight)

When operating cranes and hoists during construction work, always:

• Secure tools and building materials to keep them from falling or being pushed
over
• Barricade areas underneath operation and post warning signs
• When using hoists for scaffold work, use toe boards, screens, or guardrails to
keep materials and tools from falling
• Use debris nets or other appropriate safeguards to intercept falling objects

The Danger from Constructing Masonry Walls

Because of the tremendous weight of a masonry wall or slab, if one collapses on a

worker, it can cause permanent injury or death. Proper safeguards should be used, and
all jacks and equipment used to support and position such walls and slabs must be
reliably maintained and kept failsafe.

Avoiding Struck-By Hazards Related to Masonry Construction

Only essential workers should be allowed near this type of operation. To enforce this,
set up a limited access zone around operations. Additionally, be sure to:

• Have concrete structures checked by qualified persons before placing loads

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 • Adequately shore or brace structures until they are permanently supported
• Secure unrolled wire mesh so it cannot recoil
• Never load a lifting device beyond its intended capacity

Abrasive Wheels and Tools

Abrasive wheels and tools may throw off flying fragments, creating a struck-by incident.
Many incidents are due do the blade wheel fracturing and flying towards the worker. In a
2017 case, OSHA reported an employee of a freight trucking company was working on
an abrasive grinding wheel. The wheel broke apart and struck the employee in the right
eye. This event lead to an OSHA inspection of the workplace where the organization
was cited for a violation in the machine guarding standard for portable power tools. This
citation was $11,408 to the employer on top of having an injured worker.

Most of the injuries from angle grinders are in the head and face area. The high speed
of a disc when broken will cause disfiguring, permanent disabilities or even a fatality.
Such injuries occur for many reasons, such as, but not limited to:

• The wheel kicking back from the surface it is cutting. This usually will cause the
blade to fly back on the operator.
• Blade cracks but the guard has been removed causing the blade to fly back and
injure the operator.
• When the blade is not rated for the grinder, it will shatter causing a shrapnel that
will create many foreign body embedment’s or lacerations.
• Overhead use of the grinder is associated with fatal intracranial injuries.

Equip abrasive wheels with guards that:

• Cover the spindle end, nut, and flange projections

• Maintain proper alignment with the wheel
• Do not exceed the strength of the fastening
• Guard so that a minimal amount of the wheel is exposed

Before mounting an abrasive wheel, inspect it closely for damage and perform a sound
or ring test to ensure that the wheel is free from cracks or defects. To perform a ring
test, tap the wheel gently with a light, non-metallic instrument. If the wheel sounds dull
or dead, do not use it—it is likely cracked and could fly apart. Keep in mind that this test
is most accurate if the abrasive wheel is suspended and not held. By holding the wheel
too firmly, you could possibly alter the sound, giving off a false indicator of defects.

To prevent an abrasive wheel from cracking:

• Fit the wheel on the spindle freely

• Tighten the spindle nut enough to hold the wheel in place without distorting the
flange
• Let the tool come up to speed prior to grinding or cutting
• Don’t stand in front of the wheel as it comes up to full speed

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 • Use eye and/or face protection while operating wheel

The following information applies to abrasive wheel work rests:

• Keep work rests not more than 1/8th inch from wheel surface. This minimizes the
chance of jamming the work between the wheel and the rest, which may cause
the wheel to break.
• Don’t adjust the wheel while it is rotating.

Additional safe operating tips for angle grinders is as follows:

• Use the correct disc size for the wheel’s rpm

• Remove cracked or chipped discs from service
• Stop using if vibration is very apparent
• Keep the guard in place
• Don’t use an angle grinder above your head. Stand next to the plane of the
cutting wheel
• Always wear gloves, goggles, face-shields and hard hats when operating the
equipment

Lesson Summary

There are many ways to protect workers from being struck by objects and equipment.
Two important general rules to follow are to never put anyone between moving or fixed
objects, and to always wear bright, highly visible clothing when working near equipment
and vehicles.

Many struck-by accidents are associated with vehicles, falling or flying objects, and
masonry walls. For example, workers are at risk from falling objects when they are
required to work in the vicinity of cranes, scaffolds, and overhead electrical lines. There
is also danger from flying objects when using power tools or during activities like
pushing, pulling, or prying that can cause objects to become airborne. A road closure
program that employs traffic control devices and/or signage must be used whenever
work will be done on or near an active roadway.

Flying or falling objects can also roll off rooftops or be accidentally kicked off walkways
or scaffold platforms if not properly constrained. Depending on the situation, injuries
from being struck by flying or falling objects range from minor ones like bruises to
severe ones like blindness or death. Because improper operation of heavy vehicles and
equipment poses a life-threatening danger to construction workers, always follow safe
practices to minimize injuries and save lives.

Lesson 6: Caught-in-between Hazards

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

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 • Explain what a caught-in-between hazard is
• Identify common construction-site caught-in-between hazards
• Prevent caught-in-between hazards

What is the ‘Caught-in-between’ Hazard?

In this lesson we will discuss situations in which workers can be caught-in-between

equipment, moving loads, or even safety guards. This hazard exists in many of the
situations where struck-by hazards also exist. For instance, a worker can be caught-in-
between a falling slab and a concrete foundation, or a worker can be caught (or pinned)
in between a vehicle and a structure. Also, workers can be caught-in-between the sides
of a collapsed trench that is not properly braced, or warehoused construction materials
that were not correctly stacked to prevent sliding. In 2016, there were 72 construction
deaths that were reportedly caused by a caught-in-between event.

The recognized hazards related to caught-in-between accidents usually arise from:

• Cranes and Heavy Equipment

• Tools and Equipment
• Material Handling
• Trenching and Excavations

Common Construction Site Caught-in-Between Hazards

When workers are not paying attention to their body position in relation to a caught-in-
between hazard, they may place themselves between an immovable object and a
moveable one. Sometimes, the worksite has limited access and pathways between
staging materials. In such a situation, the workers may find themselves squeezing
between a loaded forklift and pallets of materials. If the forklift operator loses his focus
for even a second, the workers walking between the two loads can be crushed. A clear
walking path must be established with the workers being trained to keep that path free
from heavy equipment.

Cranes and Heavy Equipment

Cranes and heavy equipment can cause a variety of injuries to the workers in a
dangerous location. Workers must never place their bodies between the tracks and the
super structure of a crane. Though it is the closest area to communicate with the driver,
it is an extremely dangerous location. The crane operator and the personnel must have
alternative means of communication to avoid this practice.

Workers that place themselves between a fixed object such as a wall and have heavy
equipment operating behind them or next to them are also in the line of fire. If a
backhoe operator is starting an excavation next to the wall where the person is
standing, then the possibility of an accident becomes greater.

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When a crane is actively moving a load from one area to the next, it produces a swing
radius for the rotating part of the equipment with the load. The individual that is within
the swing radius of the crane can be struck by the load or, if the load drops, they can be
caught in between the material and the ground.

It is important that workers always keep a safe distance from the equipment to avoid
having their feet or legs crushed by being rolled over. Some workers get caught up in
the job and forget the boundaries that must be maintained between equipment,
vehicles, and themselves. It is common for individuals to cross the path of a skip loader
or backhoe and get their feet crushed by the equipment.

In the construction standard 1926.1424, OSHA requires work area controls for a swing
radius hazard where there are accessible areas in which the equipment’s rotating
superstructure (whether permanently or temporarily mounted) poses a reasonable risk
of striking and injuring an employee, or pinching or crushing the employee against any
part of the equipment.

The work area must be marked off to indicate the area that is off limits to anyone on the
construction site not authorized or trained to recognize the hazards within that swing
arm radius. Additionally, the general public must be restricted from entering the
construction site, especially around cranes and derricks with an active load.

Tools and Equipment

Most tools and equipment that are not used per the manufacturer’s recommendations
can lead to a hazardous condition. Portable power tools and bench tools often have
guards taken off by workers for reasons that are behaviorally driven. Workers may feel
that they are able to see the work better, so they remove the guard on the equipment,
creating a new hazard.

When a guard is missing, it becomes easier for loose clothing, gloves, or jewelry to get
caught up in the rotating parts of the equipment. Once that occurs the speed of most
equipment will snag the loose item and pull it into the machinery. In the event of that
happening, it becomes more difficult to pull out the part of the body that the loose item is
attached to. That could lead the worker into a crushing injury. It is best practice to never
place hands or body parts near the moving parts of a tool.

The construction manager should have a daily inspection of the integrity of the
equipment that is on the construction site. Each person that uses the equipment must
also keep a log of when it was checked and if there are issues such as broken parts or
missing safety functions. This will ensure a regular check of the equipment and help in
avoiding any future caught-in-between accidents.

Material handling

Workers must use extreme caution when moving material from one location to another.
It is common to see workers “stabilizing” a load by placing their hands on the material

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as it is traveling by crane or rough terrain forklifts. This practice can lead to being
crushed by the load if there is a shift due to road conditions, driver error, or poor rigging.
Workers that have to guide a load in any way must not use their own hands on the load,
but rather should employ an approved tag line or guide line.

The proper stacking and storing of material is important too, because the worker that is
walking next to the load will be more susceptible to getting trapped under the load if
there is a shift in its balance. A clear walking path for pedestrians is needed to ensure
that if any material tips and falls, it will not land on a worker.

Storage of materials must be in a manner that will aid in the stability of the product.
They must be stacked or interlocked in a way so as to not create a falling object hazard.
The height of the material also matters as to the stability of the cargo. If the product is
too high, then it will be easier for it to tip one side or the next. This can lead to someone
getting trapped underneath the load.

Workers must be ever mindful not to position themselves in a way that will pin them
against an immovable structure. Hazard recognition tools and training will ensure
employees can anticipate and avoid such situations. A system of near miss reporting
can bring to light any conditions that may be hazardous and cause a debilitating injury.

Masonry and Stone Work

The hazards associated with handling concrete slabs include being caught-in-between
slabs if they fall or shift onto a worker. Some caught-in-between hazards have also
been documented while transporting granite and marble slabs. During loading,
transport, and unloading of these slabs, the loads have been known to shift and tip over.
Workers can either be caught in between slabs or they can be struck by shifting or
falling slabs.

Jacking equipment must be capable of supporting at least two and one-half times the
load being lifted during jacking operations, and the equipment must not be overloaded.
Lifting inserts that are embedded or otherwise attached to tilt-up wall panels must be
capable of supporting at least two times the maximum intended load applied or
transmitted to them. Lifting inserts for other pre-cast members, excluding tilt-up
members, must be capable of supporting four times the load. Lifting hardware members
must be capable of supporting five times the maximum intended load applied to the
lifting hardware.

Erected shoring equipment must be inspected immediately before, during, and after
concrete placement. All base plates, shore heads, extension devices, and adjustment
screws must be in firm contact, and secured when necessary, with the form and
foundation. Shoring equipment that is found to be damaged or weakened after erection
must be reinforced immediately.

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Vehicles

We have already discussed the need to equip vehicles with backup alarms or provide
flaggers when drivers do not have a clear view to the rear. It is bad enough if a worker is
struck by a vehicle, but if he or she is also pinned or caught-in-between another
stationary surface, there is a high likelihood that life or limb will be lost. Blind spots on
construction vehicles must always be checked for. When a vehicle is large and has an
enclosed cap, it can make blind areas around the equipment which are hard to see.
This can be hazardous for ground workers and pedestrians, specifically on roadway
work zones.

Trenches

If a trench collapses on a worker, he or she may be caught in the rubble. In addition to

the collapse hazard, at times a backhoe may be used to lower material like a precast
pipe section into a trench with a worker present. In this case he or she may be
adequately protected by remaining in a trench box while the backhoe is operated.

If a trench worker was to stand directly between the hoisting path and the trench box
wall, he/she would be vulnerable to both the struck-by and caught-in-between hazards.
However, if a long trench box (or several adjoining ones) was provided and the worker
was far enough away from the backhoe and hoisting path to eliminate a struck-by or
caught-in-between hazard, then he or she could safely remain in the trench box.

Preventing Caught-in-between Hazards

Engineering controls like shoring, fall protection systems, and properly stacking building
materials can help prevent caught-in-between hazards. Some strongly recommended
safety practices include:

• Never allow workers to enter an unprotected trench (or excavation) that is 5 feet
or deeper unless an adequate protective system is in place; in many cases,
trenches less than 5 feet deep may also require such a system.
• Ensure the trench (or excavation) is adequately protected by sloping, shoring,
benching, or trench shield systems.
• Follow fall protection guidelines per 1926.502, Subpart M.
• Always properly stack building materials so they are clear of work areas and so
they do not suddenly shift or slide onto a worker.

Trenches

Trenches 5 feet or deeper must be protected using any of the following protective
systems, designed or verified by a competent person and/or engineer:

• Sloping
• Shoring
• Benching
• Trench Shield Systems

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In many cases, even trenches that are less than 5 feet deep must be secured.
Protective systems are used to ensure that trenches do not collapse onto workers.

Guardrails and Suspended Load Clearances

Guardrail requirements can actually create a hazard at the leading edge of installed
floor or roof sections by creating the potential for employees to be caught-in-between
guardrails and suspended loads. Ensure there is an allowance for a clear workspace or
path through which to guide any suspended load into position for placement and
welding of members. Operational plans must always allow for adequate work areas in
which to move suspended loads.

Stacking Building Materials

Building materials must be stacked in such a way as to prevent their toppling over.
Always allow enough space around stacks of materials or wide walkways to allow
workers to quickly move out of the way in case materials slide or are accidentally
pushed over.

Lesson Summary

Operational plans must always allow for adequate work areas in which to move
suspended loads. While guardrails are a critical engineering control used to protect
workers from falling, they can pose a caught-in-between hazard under certain
circumstances. Guardrail requirements can actually create a hazard at the leading edge
of installed floors or roof sections by creating a possibility of employees being caught in
between guardrails and suspended loads. Because workers can also be caught in
between the sides of a collapsed trench that is not properly braced, or warehoused
construction materials which were not correctly stacked to prevent sliding, engineering
and workplace controls like shoring, fall protection systems, and properly stacking
building materials are essential to keep workers safe.

Module 4: Personal Protective Equipment

Module Description
This module will provide employers and employees alike with knowledge concerning the
proper selection, care, and use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). They also will
be informed of the requirements for compliance with OSHA requirements.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

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 • Describe the role of PPE in controlling exposure to hazards in the
workplace
• Identify parts of the body most vulnerable to injury and name hazards
associated with each
• Describe the appropriate PPE to be worn for worker safety

Lesson 1: Introduction to Personal Protective Equipment

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Explain what personal protective equipment is and why it is used

• Explain OSHA’s personal protective equipment standards
• List the employer’s responsibilities
• List the employee’s Responsibilities

What Is Personal Protective Equipment?

Personal protective equipment, commonly referred to as "PPE", is equipment worn to

minimize exposure to hazards that cause serious workplace injuries and illnesses.
These injuries and illnesses may result from contact with chemical, radiological,
physical, electrical, mechanical, or other workplace hazards. Personal protective
equipment may include items such as gloves, safety glasses and shoes, earplugs or
muffs, hard hats, respirators, or coveralls, vests, and full body suits.

All personal protective equipment should be safely designed and constructed, and
should be maintained in a clean and reliable fashion. It should fit comfortably,
encouraging worker use. If the personal protective equipment does not fit properly, it
can make the difference between being safely covered or dangerously exposed. When
engineering, work practice, and administrative controls are not feasible or do not
provide sufficient protection, employers must provide personal protective equipment to
their workers and ensure its proper use. Employers are also required to train each
worker required to use personal protective equipment to know:

• When it is necessary
• What kind is necessary
• How to properly put it on, adjust, wear and take it off
• The limitations of the equipment
• Proper care, maintenance, useful life, and disposal of the equipment

If PPE is to be used, a PPE program should be implemented. This program should

address the hazards present; the selection, maintenance, and use of PPE; the training
of employees; and monitoring of the program to ensure its ongoing effectiveness.

Personal Protective Equipment Standards

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The Occupational Safety and Health Administration requires that, when necessary,
employers establish and administer an effective Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
program for employees in order to reduce the effects of workplace hazard exposure
and, as a result, the workplace accident rate.

OSHA Requires: “Protective equipment, including personal protective equipment for

eyes, face, head, and extremities, protective clothing, respiratory devices, and
protective shields and barriers, shall be provided, used, and maintained in a sanitary
and reliable condition wherever it is necessary by reason of hazards of processes or
environment, chemical hazards, radiological hazards, or mechanical irritants
encountered in a manner capable of causing injury or impairment in the function of any
part of the body through absorption, inhalation or physical contact.” [1926.95(a)]

Payment for PPE

When PPE is required to protect employees, it must be provided by the employer at no

cost to the employees, except for specific items, including:

• Safety-toe footwear, including steel-toe shoes or steel-toe boots, not

limited to the worksite
• Prescription safety eyewear
• Everyday clothing and weather-related gear and
• Logging boots

Employer Responsibilities

Hazard Assessment

The employer must assess the workplace to determine if hazards are present, or likely
to be present, that may necessitate the use of personal protective equipment. While an
employer's first responsibility upon identification of a workplace hazard is to eliminate it
through the use of engineering controls and administrative controls, PPE often is the
final solution for remaining hazards.

Physical Hazards

Physical hazards include:

• Repetitive or awkward motion

• High and low temperatures
• Light radiation
• Welding
• Brazing
• Heat treating
• High intensity lighting
• Falling objects
• Sharp objects

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 • Sources of rolling or pinching objects
• Electric hazards
• Hazardous floor conditions

Health Hazards

Health hazards include:

• Types of chemicals an employee could be exposed to

• Harmful dusts, fumes, and mists
• Radiation
• Noise

Selection of PPE

The selection of personal protective equipment depends on the hazard the worker
needs to be protected against, the level of hazard present, and the availability of
suitable equipment. Individual components of clothing and equipment should be
assembled to both protect the worker from the specific hazard, as well as minimize any
hazards (such as tripping) that might arise from the PPE itself. PPE should, wherever
possible, be provided for the exclusive use of a single employee.

Periodic reevaluation of the selection is necessary in order to deal with changes in

workplace conditions or wearer activities. The type of PPE selected is very important;
different brands of PPE should be tried by workers to get the best possible protection.
For example, using the wrong types of gloves to work with solvents can lead to
ineffective protection.

Training

The employer must provide training to each employee using PPE. This training should
include at least the following:

• When and why PPE is necessary

• What PPE is required for certain jobs
• How to properly put on, take off, adjust, and wear PPE
• The limitations of the PPE
• The proper care, maintenance, useful life, and disposal of PPE
• How damaged, worn out, or defective PPE can be replaced

Maintenance

All PPE should be inspected for tears, leaks, punctures, breaks, contamination, or signs
of wear before use. Damaged or defective equipment should not be used. PPE should
be stored carefully and kept clean to prevent damage. Contaminated PPE that cannot
be decontaminated should be disposed of properly.

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Recordkeeping

The employer must maintain records of the workplace hazard assessment and
employee training.

Employee Responsibilities

Employees are responsible for the following:

• Attending all required training sessions regarding PPE

• Wearing PPE as required and trained
• Cleaning, maintaining, and caring for PPE as required and trained
• Reporting potential hazards they identify to their supervisors
• Informing their supervisors or safety managers of the need to repair or
replace PPE
• Following all warnings and precautions.
• Listening to and following directions from supervisors or safety
managers

Case Study

This accident occurred in a cellophane-tape manufacturing factory during work to wash

a drum that contained an adhesive. The victim, who was on the night shift, was working
with a group leader to monitor the machine that applies a coat of adhesive and to
conduct sampling inspections. While they were taking turns working in thirty-minute
shifts, the victim did not return to work after a break. When the group leader searched
for the victim, he found him unconscious, having fallen head-first into an empty drum
that previously contained adhesive. Although the victim was immediately taken to the
hospital for emergency treatment, he never regained consciousness. It was discovered
that a group leader on the day shift had washed the drum with toluene, before the task
was transferred to the night shift workers at the time of the shift-change meeting.

What do you think went wrong?

• Ventilation was not used at a site where toluene was used.

• The victim bent forward to wash the inside of the drum that still
contained toluene vapor.
• The victim did not use a respirator during the washing work.

Lesson Summary

• Personal protective equipment, commonly known as PPE, is worn to

minimize exposure to hazards, such as those resulting from chemical,
physical, electrical, mechanical, or other sources.
• Common examples of PPE in construction include gloves, safety
glasses, safety shoes, earplugs, earmuffs, hard hats, respirators,
coveralls, vests, and body suits.

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 • All PPE should fit comfortably. If it does not fit properly, it may expose
workers to hazards.
• Employers are responsible for the following:
o Establishing a PPE program
o Paying for necessary PPE for workers
o Assessing the worksite for hazards
o Selecting the most appropriate PPE
o Training workers and supervisors on how to properly select and
use PPE on the worksite
o Maintaining PPE in good working condition
o Keeping records of workplace hazard assessments and the
necessary control methods, including PPE
• Employees are responsible for the following:
o Attending all required training sessions regarding PPE
o Wearing PPE as required and trained
o Cleaning, maintaining, and caring for PPE as required and
trained
o Reporting potential hazards they identify to their supervisors
o Informing their supervisors or safety managers of the need to
repair or replace PPE
o Following all warnings and precautions.
o Listening to and following directions from supervisors or safety
managers

Lesson 2: Eye, Face, and Respiratory Protection

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe proper eye and face protection as required by OSHA

• Describe proper respiratory protection as required by OSHA

Eye and Face Protection

Every day an estimated 1,000 eye injuries occur in American workplaces. The financial
cost of these injuries is enormous—more than $300 million per year is lost in production
time, medical expenses, and workers compensation. However, no dollar figure can
adequately reflect the personal toll these accidents take on injured workers and their
families. Providing adequate, proper eye and face protection is crucial to a safe
worksite.

What contributes to eye injuries at work?

• Not wearing eye protection: The BLS reports that nearly three out of
every five workers injured were not wearing eye protection at the time
of their accidents.

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 • Wearing the wrong kind of eye protection for the job: About 40% of
the injured workers were wearing some form of eye protection when
the accident occurred, but often, it was not the correct eye protection
for the job being done.

What causes eye injuries at work?

• Flying Particles: The BLS found that almost 70% of the accidents
studied resulted from flying or falling objects or sparks striking the eye.
Injured workers estimated that nearly three-fifths of the objects were
smaller than pin heads. Most of the particles were said to be traveling
faster than hand-thrown objects when accidents occurred.
• Contact with Chemicals: Chemicals caused one-fifth of the injuries.
• Other accidents: Miscellaneous accidents were caused by objects
swinging from a fixed or attached position—like tree limbs, ropes,
chains, or tools pulled into an eye while a worker was using them.

Where do accidents occur most often?

Potential eye hazards can be found in nearly every industry, but BLS reported that more
than 40% of injuries occurred among craft workers, like mechanics, repairers,
carpenters, and plumbers.

Over a third of the 40% injured operated machinery, such as assemblers, sanders, and
grinding machine operators. Laborers suffered about one-fifth of the eye injuries. Almost
half the injured workers were employed in manufacturing; slightly more than 20% were
in construction.

How can eye injuries be prevented?

• Always wear effective eye protection: To be effective, eyewear must

be appropriate for the hazard and also must be properly fitted. All eye-
protective equipment provided by an employer must meet ANSI Z-87.1
standards (American National Standards Institute).
• Better training and education: The BLS reported that most workers
were hurt while doing their regular jobs. Workers injured while not
wearing protective eyewear most often said they believed it was not
required by the situation. Even though the vast majority of employers
furnished eye protection at no cost to employees, about 40% of the
workers received no information on when and what kind of eyewear
should be used.
• Maintenance: Eye protection devices must be properly maintained.
Scratched and dirty devices reduce vision, cause glare, and may
contribute to accidents.

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Eyewash Stations

Any time workers may be exposed to corrosive materials, employers must provide
facilities for drenching or flushing the eyes and body. These facilities should be within
the work area itself so that they can be accessed immediately in case of an emergency.
To that end, eyewash stations should be located no more than 10 seconds away from
the hazard area, meaning that workers should be able to reach one within 10 seconds
of an accident. They should be located on the same level as the source of the hazard
and the path of travel should be free of obstructions. The emergency equipment location
should be well lit and identified with a highly visible sign.

If employees accidentally get something into their eyes, they must go directly to the
eyewash station and flush their eyes with water for at least 15 minutes. They should
hold the eyelids open and "look" directly into the water streams. They should NOT rub
their eyes. Rubbing the eyes may scratch or embed particles. Employees should seek
medical attention immediately.

Eye and Face Protectors

Common forms of eye and face protection include:

• Safety glasses [spectacles] are protective eyewear with safety

frames and impact-resistant lenses, as well as built-in side shields or in
some cases removable side shields. Safety glasses provide impact
protection and do not typically provide protection against liquid
splashes, mists, or vapors. If they do provide protection against those
hazards, they will be marked as a splash protector. Always check
safety glasses for marks reading “ANSI/ISEA Z87” which indicate they
provide appropriate impact protection.
• Goggles are fitted eye protection that completely encloses the eyes
and facial area immediately surrounding the eyes. Goggles of soft,
pliable body design provide adequate eye protection from many
hazards including impact, dust, mists, vapors, and splashes. These
goggles are available with clear or tinted lenses and perforated, port
vented, or non-vented frames. Goggles with direct ventilation typically
are used for impact hazards and dusts, not for protection against
chemical splashes or vapors. Goggles with indirect ventilation can be
used for protection from dusts and splash hazards. Those with no
ventilation can provide protection from impact, dusts, splashes, mists
and vapors. Single lens goggles provide similar protection to
spectacles and may be worn in combination with spectacles or
corrective lenses to ensure protection along with proper vision. Check
the goggle lens and body for specific “ANSI/ISEA Z87” marks
indicating they provide appropriate impact protection.
• Face shields may be used in operations when the entire face needs
protection and should be worn to protect the eyes and face against
flying particles and metal sparks. Specifically designed shields also
provide protection from chemical and biological splashes. Wearing a

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 face shield does not necessarily protect from impact hazards. Face
shields may be lifted away from the face, so the wearer should put on
safety glasses under the face shield to protect the eyes when the face
shield is in the raised position.
• Welding shields with eye shields are designed to protect users from
the visible and invisible (ultraviolet and infrared) rays a welding arc
emits. Tinted shields should be provided to protect workers' eyes and
face from infrared or radiant light burns, flying sparks, metal spatter,
and slag chips encountered during welding, brazing, soldering,
resistance welding, bare or shielded electric arc welding and
oxyacetylene welding and cutting operations. Workers should protect
their eyes from welding light by wearing a welder's helmet fitted with a
filter shade that is suitable for the type of welding work they are doing.
Tinted lenses are available in varying shades or degrees of tinting, and
it's the employer's responsibility to provide the appropriate lenses for
the hazard to be encountered.

Training

Employers must provide adequate training for all supervisors and workers who require
eye and face protection to protect from any hazards or other conditions identified in the
PPE Hazard Assessment. Training should include:

• Proper selection, fit, and use of eye and face protection

• Inspection and maintenance of eye and face protection
• How and where to obtain protective eyewear and replacements if
necessary
• The manufacturer’s instructions, warnings, cautions, and equipment
limitations

Safe Work Practices

To ensure safe work practices are followed, employees must:

• Read and follow all warnings and precautions that may be found on
equipment and hazardous materials
• Avoid throwing tools or participating in horseplay
• Keep sharp or pointed objects away from his or her eyes
• Follow the supervisor's or safety manager's suggestions and
recommendations for working safely

Respiratory Protection

Inhalation is one of the most common ways dangerous particles often found on a
construction site can enter the human body. To avoid the hazards associated with
inhaling such particles, workers and employers should use four basic methods:

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 • Substitution involves replacing the hazardous material or process
with a non-hazardous or less hazardous one.
• Engineering controls include enclosing the process so that
contaminants do not get into the workspace, improving the ventilation,
and changing the equipment or processes.
• Administrative controls include restricting access to contaminated
areas, limiting the total time workers are exposed, and establishing
housekeeping procedures to control exposure.
• Personal protective equipment includes respirators. PPE should
always be the last resort for protecting workers. In some cases,
however, respirators are the only effective means of protection
available.

OSHA requires employers to use engineering control measures and/or substitution of

less toxic materials to control inhalation hazards where feasible. When effective
engineering controls are not feasible, or while they are being instituted, appropriate
respirators should be used. In any workplace where respirators are necessary to protect
the health of employees, or whenever respirators are required by the employer, the
employer should establish and implement a written respiratory protection program with
worksite-specific procedures.

What is a Respirator and When is it Needed?

A respirator is a protective device that covers the worker's nose and mouth or the entire
face and head to keep airborne contaminants out of the worker's respiratory system and
to provide a safe air supply. There are two major categories of respirators:

• Air Purifying Respirators use a filter to purify the air as the worker
breathes it in. Examples include:
o Disposable Particulate Masks
o Half Mask Respirators
o Full Face Mask Respirators
o Gas Masks
o Powered Air Purifying Respirators
• Supplied Air Respirators use a supply line of fresh air or oxygen from
a tank. Examples include:
o Airline Respirators
o Emergency Escape Breathing Apparatus
o Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)

Selecting the Correct Respirator

The first step in selecting the correct respirator is to determine the level of hazard that is
posed by the environment in which work will be done. There are five questions that are
used to determine that level:

• What type of contaminant is present?

• What is the form of the contaminant?

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 • How toxic is the contaminant?
• What is the concentration of the contaminant?
• What will be the length and duration of the exposure?

Employees should always work with their supervisor or safety professional to determine
the correct answers to these questions, which help select the appropriate NIOSH-
certified respirator for the conditions present. Without the technical knowledge to make
correct decisions, it's best to consult with an industrial hygienist or safety professional
who is trained to provide professional guidance on proper respirator selection and use.

Before an employer provides any employee with a respirator to use in a workplace, the
employer must create a formal written respiratory protection program and have every
employee who will wear a respirator medically evaluated by a licensed healthcare
professional. The program must contain the requirements for program administration,
worksite-specific procedures, respirator selection, employee training, fit testing, medical
evaluation, and respirator use, cleaning, maintenance, and repair.

Medical Evaluation

Workers assigned to tasks that require respirator use must be physically able to perform
the work while using the respirator. A medical evaluation must be performed by a
physician or other licensed health care practitioner (PLHCP) by using a medical
questionnaire [Appendix C of the OSHA standard] or by a medical examination that
provides the same information as the questionnaire. This evaluation must be done
before the employee is fit tested and uses the respirator in the workplace.

Fit Testing

Not all respirators fit everyone. Different types of respirators and even different brands
of the same type of respirator have different fits. Employers must provide a sufficient
number of respirator models and sizes to ensure that every employee can select an
acceptable respirator that fits properly.

Additionally, tight-fitting respirators cannot provide proper protection without a tight seal
between the facepiece and the wearer’s face. Therefore, fit testing is required for tight-
fitting facepiece respirators before a worker uses one for protection.

A respirator fit test checks whether a respirator properly seals and fits the face of
someone who wears it. The fit can be tested in two ways: qualitatively and
quantitatively.

Qualitative fit testing involves using a harmless odoriferous or irritating substance in the
breathing zone while the respirator is being worn. If no odor or irritation is detected by
the wearer, this indicates a proper fit.

Quantitative fit testing uses a machine to measure respirator fit. The fit testing
instrument numerically measures the amount of leakage into the respirator while the

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wearer performs exercises that could cause facepiece leakage. If no leakage is
detected, this indicates a proper fit.

Inspection before Use

Every time an employee uses a respirator, he or she must first inspect it. The facepiece,
headband, valves, connecting tube, fittings, and any cartridges, canisters or filters must
be in good condition to provide proper protection. To properly inspect a respirator before
using it, one should look for:

• Chips or cracks in the faceplate

• Cracks or holes in the breathing tube or airlines
• Worn or frayed straps
• Worn or damaged fittings
• Bent or corroded buckles
• Dirty or improperly seated valves

Give special attention to rubber or plastic parts that can deteriorate or lose pliability. If
you find anything wrong with your respirator, do not use it! Have it repaired or replaced
immediately.

Training

Training is essential for correct respirator use. Employees must know how to properly
select, use, and maintain respirators. Training must include an explanation of the
following:
• Why respirator use is necessary
• Nature of the respiratory hazard and consequences of not fitting, using, and
maintaining the respirator properly
• Reason(s) for selecting a particular type of respirator
• Capabilities and limitations of the selected respirator
• How to inspect, put on and remove, and check the seals of the respirator
• Respirator maintenance and storage requirements

Donning (putting on) a Respirator

When donning a respirator, workers should read the manufacturer's instructions

carefully. They must be able to demonstrate proper donning of the respirator to their
supervisor or to a safety professional. When using a tight-fitting respirator, the wearer
must perform a user seal check to ensure that an adequate seal is created each time
the respirator is put on. This involves conducting positive and negative pressure checks
based on the manufacturer's recommendation.

• To conduct a positive pressure check, close off the exhalation valve

and exhale gently into the facepiece. The face fit is considered
satisfactory if a slight positive pressure can be built up inside the
facepiece without any evidence of outward leakage of air at the seal.

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 • To conduct a negative pressure check, close off the inlet opening of
the canister or cartridge(s) by covering with the palm of the hand(s) or
by replacing the filter seal(s), inhale gently so that the facepiece
collapses slightly, and hold the breath for ten seconds. If the facepiece
remains in its slightly collapsed condition and no inward leakage of air
is detected, the tightness of the respirator is considered satisfactory.

IMPORTANT: User seal checks are not substitutes for qualitative or quantitative fit
tests!

Case Study

This accident occurred during work to lift a drain pump through a manhole in a
sewerage construction worksite.

The work was to replace the pipes for rainwater. As another drain pump became
necessary, it was decided to use the drain pump from another manhole in which work
was almost completed. Accordingly, two workers opened the cover of the manhole and
entered, using a ladder.

After a short while, a colleague who was going to the material shed spotted the two
workers lying at the bottom when he looked into the manhole. He raised an alarm with
other workers, one of whom ran to the spot, entered the manhole, and called out to
them but received no answer. Immediately afterwards, this worker also collapsed.

Although the three were taken to a hospital by a rescue team, the first two workers died,
and the would-be rescuer was hospitalized with brain damage caused by hypoxia (a
lack of oxygen).

The two fatalities were attributed to anoxia (meaning, without oxygen) inside the
manholes.

What do you think were some of the causes?

• Although survey results had been provided by the client, neither the
general contractor nor the subcontractor assessed the worksite as
presenting the hazard of anoxia.
• The employer and supervisor failed to measure the oxygen content of
the hole and to carry out ventilation measures before allowing any
employee to enter.
• The project should have been declared a Permit Required, Confined
Space, and all elements of OSHA's standard for PRCS should have
been implemented.
• Neither special education nor rescue training concerning work at sites
with the danger of anoxia was provided to workers.

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Lesson Summary

• To be effective, eyewear must be appropriate for the encountered

hazard and also be fitted properly. All eye-protective equipment
provided by an employer must meet ANSI standards.
• Not wearing eye protection and wearing the wrong kind of eye
protection for the job are common factors in eye injuries on the job.
Causes of eye injuries include flying particles, contact with chemicals,
and objects swinging from a fixed or attached position.
• Eye injuries be prevented with:
o Effective eye protection
o Better training and education
o Maintenance
o Face and eye protection includes:
o Goggles
o Face shields
o Welding shields
• Because many substances that are health hazards can become
airborne, knowing how to protect workers is very important. A
respirator is a protective device that covers the worker's nose and
mouth or the entire face and head to keep airborne contaminants out
of the worker's respiratory system and to provide a safe air supply.
There are two major categories of respirators: air purifying respirators
and supplied air respirators.
o Every time an employee uses a respirator, he or she must first
inspect it.
o When necessary, workers must be able to demonstrate proper
donning and doffing of respirators. If you find anything wrong
with a respirator, do not use it; instead, have it repaired or
replaced immediately.

Lesson 3: Head, Hand, Face, and Foot Protection

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Explain why head protection is important

• Identify potential hazards
• Explain why occupational noise is dangerous and identify its sources
• Explain why hand protection is important
• Explain why foot protection is important

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Why Head Protection is Important

Injuries to the head can be very serious. Even a relatively minor cut on the head can
bleed a great deal. Impact forces on the head can lead to concussions and brain
damage. Additionally, other areas of potentially severe injury, such as the eyes and
ears, are located on the head. This means that damage to the head has the potential to
create a variety of different injuries simultaneously.

Constructions sites in particular are full of opportunities for head injuries. Impact to the
head from a falling object or passing vehicle, for example, could cause neck sprains,
concussions, or skull fractures. Electric shock could cause burns or other injuries.
Confined spaces and exposed supports offer opportunities for workers to bang their
heads.

How Hard Hats Protect an Employee's Head

Employees working in areas where there is a possible danger of head injury from
impact, falling or flying objects, or electrical shocks and burns, must be protected by
hard hats. Employers must provide hard hats that meet the appropriate ANSI standards.
They must protect an employee's head with a rigid shell that resists and deflects blows
to the head and a suspension system inside the hat that acts as a shock absorber.
Some hats serve as insulators against electrical shocks. Hard hats may also shield the
scalp, face, neck, and shoulders against splashes, spills, and drips. Some hard hats are
constructed so that face shields, goggles, hoods, or hearing protection can be added.

A daily inspection of the hard hat shell, suspension system and other accessories for
holes, cracks, tears or other damage that might compromise the protective value of the
hat is essential. Consult the helmet manufacturer for information on inspecting and
using a hard hat.

https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/prevention/ppe/headwear.html

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Note: OSHA does not specify when an employer must provide hard hats. It's up to each
employer to make that determination based on the hazards of the workplace and
through the required completion of a proper hazard assessment.

Why Noise Protection is Important

Noise is a common problem in many workplaces. Research has shown that high levels
of noise will damage your hearing. Losing your hearing is typically a gradual process
and is less noticeable than other types of workplace injuries. It is, however, a permanent
handicap for those who are affected.

Remember the four "P"s of hearing loss: it is painless, permanent, progressive, and
usually preventable.

Determining the need to provide hearing protection for employees can be challenging.
Employee exposure to excessive noise depends upon a number of factors, including:

• The loudness of the noise as measured in decibels (dB)

• The duration of each employee’s exposure to the noise
• Whether employees move between work areas with different noise
levels
• Whether noise is generated from one or multiple sources

OSHA’s hearing conservation program requires employers to monitor noise exposure

levels in a way that accurately identifies employees exposed to noise at or above 85
decibels (dB) averaged over 8 working hours, or an 8-hour time-weighted average
(TWA). When an employer determines the "Action Level" of 85 dBs has been reached,
they must create a formal written hearing conservation program.

Hearing Protection Devices

Many types of hearing protection devices are available. Popular types of hearing
protection devices, along with their proper care instructions, are the following:

• Foam Earplugs: When not using your foam earplugs, store them in a
clean, cool, dry place. If your foam earplugs become soiled, torn, or
stiff, discard them and ask your supervisor or safety manager for a new
pair.
• PVC Earplugs: When not using your PVC earplugs, store them in a
clean, cool, dry place. If your PVC earplugs become soiled, you can
clean them according to the manufacturer's guidelines. If your PVC
earplugs become torn or brittle, discard them and ask your supervisor
or safety manager for a new pair.
• Earmuffs: When not using your earmuffs, store them in a clean, cool,
dry place. Always inspect your earmuffs for cracks around the foam
cups. If your earmuffs are damaged, have them repaired immediately
or ask your supervisor or safety manager for a new pair.

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Why Hand Protection is Important

A number of disabling accidents on the job involve the hands. Without your fingers or
hands, your ability to work would be greatly reduced. Human hands are unique. No
other creature in the world has hands that can grasp, hold, move, and manipulate
objects quite like ours. They are one of your greatest assets and, as such, must be
protected and cared for.

Potential Hazards to the Hand

• Traumatic Injuries: An employee can suffer a traumatic injury to his or

her hands in many ways:
o Tools and machines with sharp edges can cut hands.
o Staples, screwdrivers, nails, chisels and stiff wire can puncture
hands.
o Getting your hands caught in machinery can sprain, crush or
remove your hands and fingers.
• Contact Injuries: Coming into contact with caustic or toxic chemicals,
biological substances, electrical sources or extremely cold or hot
objects can irritate or burn one's hands.
• Repetitive Motion Injuries: Whenever you repeat the same hand
movement over a long period of time, you run the risk of repetitive
motion problems. Repetitive motion problems can appear as a numb or
tingling sensation, chronic or acute pain, loss of gripping power in your
hands, or in many other ways.

Gloves

There are many types of gloves available today to protect against a wide variety of
hazards. The nature of the hazard and the operation involved will affect the selection of
gloves. However, the variety of potential occupational hand injuries can make selecting
the right pair of gloves challenging. The following factors may influence the selection of
protective gloves for a workplace:

• Type of chemicals handled

• Nature of contact (total immersion, splash, etc.)
• Duration of contact
• Area requiring protection (hand only, forearm, arm)
• Grip requirements (dry, wet, oily)
• Thermal protection
• Size and comfort

When selecting chemical-resistant gloves, be sure to consult the manufacturer’s

recommendations, especially if the gloved hand(s) will be immersed in the chemical.

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Instructions for the Safe Removal of Contaminated Gloves

When removing contaminated gloves, remember to:

• Pull one glove near your wrist towards your fingertips until the glove
folds over
• Carefully grab the fold and pull towards your fingertips. As you pull you
are turning the glove inside-out
• Pull the fold until the glove is almost off
• To avoid contamination of your environment, continue to hold the
removed glove, then completely remove your hand from the glove
• Slide your finger from your glove-free hand under the remaining glove,
then continue to slide your finger towards your fingertips until almost
half of your finger is under the glove
• Turn you finger 180 degrees and pull the glove outwards and towards
your fingertips; as you do this, the first glove will be encased in the
second glove and the inside of the second glove will also be turned
outwards
• Grab the gloves firmly, by the uncontaminated surface (the side that
was originally touching your hand), release your grasp of the first glove
you removed, and pull your second hand free from its glove
• Dispose of the gloves properly

Protective gloves should be inspected before each use to ensure that they are not torn,
punctured, or made ineffective in any way. A visual inspection will help detect cuts or
tears. In some cases, a more thorough inspection by filling the gloves with water and
tightly rolling the cuff towards the fingers will help reveal any pinhole leaks may be
needed. Gloves that are discolored or stiff may also indicate deficiencies caused by
excessive use or degradation from chemical exposure. Any gloves with impaired
protective ability should be discarded and replaced.

Why Foot Protection is Important

Scientists and engineers have marveled for centuries at the design and structure of the
human foot. It is rigid enough to support the weight of your entire body, and yet flexible
enough to allow you to run, dance, play sports, and take you anywhere you want to go.
They also absorb a great deal of stress on a construction site and, as a result, are a
common spot for injuries, which can include debilitating injuries that would prevent you
from working in the future. Employees who face possible foot or leg injuries from falling
or rolling objects or from crushing or penetrating materials should wear protective
footwear.

Potential Hazards to the Foot

The following are some of the hazards that are commonly associated with foot injuries:

• Impact Injuries: If you have ever stubbed your toe, you know that
impact injuries can hurt. At work, heavy objects can fall on your feet. If

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 you work around sharp objects, you might also step on something
sharp and puncture your foot.
• Injuries from Spills and Splashes: Liquids such as acids, caustics, and
molten metals can spill onto your shoes and boots. These hazardous
materials can cause chemical and heat burns.
• Compression Injuries: Heavy machinery, equipment, and other objects
can roll over your feet. The result of these types of accidents is often
broken or crushed bones.
• Electrical Shocks: Accidents involving electricity can cause severe
shocks and burns.
• Extremes in Cold, Heat, and Moisture: If not protected, your feet can
suffer from frostbite if you must work in an extremely cold environment.
Extreme heat, on the other hand, can blister and burn your feet.
Finally, extreme moisture in your shoes or boots can lead to fungal
infections.
• Slipping: Oil, water, soaps, wax, and other chemicals can cause you to
slip and fall.

Housekeeping

Poorly maintained machinery and tools, sloppy work areas, and cluttered aisles all
contribute to foot injuries. It is important that employers institute proper housekeeping
measures to reduce the likelihood of a foot injury occurring. Keep walkways or other
high-traffic areas clear of debris or tools that a worker might accidentally kick or run into.
Ensure heavy materials or equipment are secured so that they cannot fall or be dropped
onto workers’ feet. Ensure all tools that could cause a foot injury are inspected and
maintained properly so that they do not malfunction.

Wearing and Using Safety Footwear

Select and use the right kind of footwear for the job you are going to be performing.
Prior to 2005, footwear was required to meet or exceed the standards set by ANSI
(ANSI Z41-1991). Since high-quality footwear can sometimes last for decades, shoes
with this designation may still be in use. Following 2005, footwear has been required to
conform to the newer ASTM F 2413 Specifications for Performance Requirements for
Protective Footwear.

The specifications in ASTM F2413 contain the following standards:

• Footwear should be impact and compression resistant at the toe.

• The metatarsal bones at the top of the foot should be protected.
• The shoes should reduce electrical conductivity to avoid static that
could cause ignition of flammable gasses or other substances, as well
as to avoid the potential hazards arising from stepping on a live
electrical wire.
• The shoes should be puncture resistant.

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Care of Protective Footwear

As with all protective equipment, safety footwear should be inspected prior to each use.
Shoes should be checked for wear and tear at reasonable intervals. This includes
looking for cracks or holes, separation of materials, and broken buckles or laces. The
soles of shoes should be checked for pieces of metal or other embedded items that
could present electrical or tripping hazards. Employees should follow the manufacturers’
recommendations for cleaning and maintenance of protective footwear. Remember to
do the following:

• Select footwear that fits properly.

• Inspect your footwear before you use it. Look for holes and cracks that
might leak.
• Replace footwear that is worn or torn.
• After working with chemicals, cleanse your footwear appropriately to
rinse away any chemicals or dirt before removing footwear.
• Avoid borrowing footwear; footwear is personal protective equipment.
• Store footwear in a clean, cool, dry, ventilated area.

Lesson Summary

• Head injuries can be very serious and are common on construction

sites. Causes include falling objects, passing vehicles, or electric
shocks.
• Hard hats should be provided to workers if they are exposed to head
hazards. Hard hats should have a rigid outer shell, a suspension
system that acts as a shock absorber, and, if necessary, they should
be shock resistant. Hard hats should be inspected daily.
• High noise levels are also common on worksites and can present
hazards for workers. Noise is measured in decibels, and when the
noise action level of 85 decibels is reached, employers must create a
written hearing conservation plan. Hearing protection devices include
foam and PVC earplugs, as well as earmuffs.
• There are many potential hazards to the hands on a worksite.
Common injuries include traumatic injuries (a single, traumatic event
causes the injury), contact injuries (the hands come into contact with
dangerous or caustic substances), and repetitive motion injuries
(resulting from repeating the same motion over and over again).
• Gloves are the most common form of hand protection. The type of
gloves used depends on a variety of factors, including the type of
chemical being handled, the duration of the contact, and the grip
requirements.
• Contaminated gloves must be removed carefully to avoid getting any
caustic substances on your hands in the process.
• Foot hazards on a worksite include impact injuries, compression
injuries, electrical shocks, extreme temperatures, and slipping on oil or
lubricant.

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 • Foot injuries can be avoided by implementing proper housekeeping
techniques to keep walkways clear of debris or tools. Depending on
the working conditions, special footwear may also be required, such as
shoes with steel toes.

Module 5: Health Hazards in Construction

Module Description
The Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) provides information to workers and
employers about various chemical hazards that exist in the workplace, and what
protective measures they can take to prevent the adverse effects of such hazards.

This module will give you a basic understanding of how to deal with hazardous
chemicals and how workers can prevent and protect themselves from chemical hazards
at a construction worksite.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

• Describe the purpose of The Hazard Communication Standard (HCS)

• Discuss labels and Safety Data Sheets
• Differentiate between physical and health hazards associated with
hazardous chemicals
• Distinguish between symbols used to identify hazards
• State how to prepare and implement a written hazard communication
program
• Explain the importance of proper training

Lesson 1: Introduction to Hazard Communication Standard

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe the Hazard Communication Standard (HCS or HazCom)

• Identify common hazardous materials
• Provide important definitions associated with the HCS

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The Hazard Communication Standard (HCS or HazCom)

The Need of a Hazard Communication Standard

According to OSHA, over 650,000 hazardous chemical products exist, and hundreds of
new ones are being introduced annually. More than 32 million workers are potentially
exposed to one or more chemical hazards in more than 3 million American workplaces.
It would be very difficult if not impossible for individual employers or local enforcement
agencies to keep track of all of these chemicals and their associates' hazards. As a
result, the HCS was developed to ensure all relevant information needed to protect
workers is readily available. Chemical manufacturers and importers are required to
evaluate the hazards of the chemicals they produce or import and prepare labels and
safety data sheets to convey the hazard information to their downstream customers.
Employers with hazardous chemicals in their workplaces are then responsible for
having labels and safety data sheets for their exposed workers and training them to
handle the chemicals appropriately.

The simple idea behind the Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) is that workers
have both a need and a right to know about the hazards and identities of the chemicals
they are exposed to when performing their tasks and duties.

The Hazard Communication Standard Coverage

Implementation of HCS for all those companies who import, produce, distribute, or use
hazardous chemicals in the United States is mandatory. They must provide proper
information and training to all of their affected employees. The HCS covers both
physical (such as explosive, flammable) and health (acute and chronic) hazards.

The HCS is also aligned with the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and
Labeling of Chemicals (GHS). This update to the HCS will provide a common and
coherent approach to classifying chemicals and communicating hazard information on
labels and safety data sheets. This update will also help reduce trade barriers and result
in productivity improvements for American businesses that regularly handle, store, and
use hazardous chemicals while providing cost savings for American businesses that
periodically update safety data sheets and labels for chemicals covered under the
hazard communication standard.

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 174

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 175
Hazardous Materials

Hazardous and toxic materials are those chemicals that may be present in a workplace
and have the capacity to cause harm. Mixtures, fuels, solvents, paints, and dusts may
all be considered hazardous substances or materials.

Recognition of Hazardous Chemicals

Before working with or using chemicals, it is important to recognize those that may be
physically hazardous or are capable of posing health problems to you. Recognition of
hazardous chemicals prior to work can reduce the risk of chemical accidents.
Depending on exposure, chemicals can cause many serious health effects such as
cancer, nervous system damage, lung damage, liver damage, kidney damage, and
reproductive system effects.

Important Definitions

• Personal Protective Equipment: The devices or clothing used by

workers to protect against hazards in the environment are called
personal protective equipment (PPE). Some common examples of
PPE are respirators, gloves, and chemical splash goggles.
• Toxicity: The term toxicity is used to describe the ability of a substance
to cause a harmful effect.
• Flashpoint: This is the minimum temperature at which a liquid
produces enough vapor within a test vessel to form a flammable
mixture with air near the surface of the liquid. The factor that
determines whether a liquid is flammable or not is its flashpoint.
• Flammable Liquids: Liquids that have a flashpoint below 100 °F (37.8
°C). Flammable materials require more care than combustible
materials because they ignite at lower temperatures.
• Combustible Liquids: Liquids that have a flashpoint at or above 100 °F
(37.8 °C).
• Container: Any bag, barrel, bottle, box, can, cylinder, drum, reaction
vessel, storage tank, or the like that contains a hazardous chemical.
For the purposes of this section, pipes or piping systems, and engines,
fuel tanks, or other operating systems in a vehicle, are not considered
to be containers.
• Exposure or Exposed: Exposure (or exposed) means that an employee
is subjected, as a condition of employment, to a chemical that is a
physical or health hazard, including potential (accidental or possible)
exposure. "Subjected" in terms of health hazards includes any route of
entry (such as inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, absorption, or
injection).
• Hazard Warning: Any pictograms, words, pictures, symbols, or
combination thereof appearing on a label or other appropriate form of
warning which conveys the specific physical and health hazard(s),
including target organ effects of the chemical(s) in the container(s).

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 • Immediate Use: Immediate use means that the hazardous chemical
will be under the control of and used only by the person who transfers
it from a labeled container and only within the work shift in which it is
transferred. Any hazardous material decanted—transferred from a
primary to a secondary container—should have the labeling
information transferred to the secondary container also.
• Organic Peroxide: Any carbon-containing compound with two oxygen
atoms joined together. Organic peroxides can be severe fire and
explosion hazards.
• Oxidizer: A chemical other than a blasting or explosive agent that
initiates or promotes combustion in other materials, thereby causing
fire either by itself or through the release of oxygen or other gases.
• Pyrophoric: Pyrophoric means a chemical will ignite spontaneously in
air at a temperature of 130 °F (54.4 °C) or below.
• Unstable (Reactive): Unstable (reactive) means a chemical that in its
pure state, or as produced or transported, will vigorously polymerize,
decompose, condense, or become self-reactive under conditions of
shocks, pressure, or temperature.
• Water-Reactive: Water-reactive means a chemical that reacts with
water to release a gas that is either flammable or presents a health
hazard.

Lesson Summary

• The simple idea behind the Hazard Communication Standard (HCS or

HazCom) is that workers have both a need and a right to know about
the hazards and identities of the chemicals they are exposed to when
performing their tasks and duties. The standard covers both physical
and health hazards.
• Hazardous materials are those substances, often chemicals, found on
a worksite that pose a danger to workers.

Lesson 2: Labels, SDSs, Symbols, Hazards, and Training

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe the importance and contents of labels

• Describe Safety Data Sheets (SDSs)
• Recognize the symbols found on SDSs
• Describe the physical and health hazards found on a construction site
• Explain how to control physical and health hazards
• Describe a proper Hazard Communication Program (HCP or HazCom)
• Describe the proper training necessary

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Labels

The HazCom standard requires that information about chemical hazards is provided on
labels using quick visual notations, providing immediate recognition of the hazards.
Labels must also provide instructions on how to handle the chemical so that users are
informed about how to protect themselves. Labels are considered the most immediate
source of information about chemicals and their hazard potential. All hazardous
chemical containers must be labeled.

The following information must be included on all labels:

• Contact Information: Name, address, and telephone number of the

chemical manufacturer, importer, or other responsible party.
• Product Identifier: This can be (but is not limited to) the chemical
name, code number or batch number. Complete chemical name or
names, no abbreviations; formula may be used as an option.
• Signal Word: This word is used to indicate the relative level of severity
of the hazard and to alert the reader to a potential hazard. There are
only two signal words: “Danger” and “Warning.”
• Hazard Statement(s): Describe the nature of the chemical’s hazards,
including, where appropriate, the degree of hazard. For example:
“Causes damage to kidneys through prolonged or repeated exposure
when absorbed through the skin.” All of the applicable hazard
statements must appear on the label.
• Precautionary Statement(s): Describe recommended measures that
should be taken to minimize or prevent adverse effects resulting from
exposure to the hazardous chemical or improper storage or handling.
• Pictogram(s): Graphic symbols used to communicate specific
information about the hazards of a chemical.

Labels must appear on each container and must be legible and written in English,
although other languages can also be used if required. Many manufacturers of
chemicals also include safe handling procedures on labels.

Pictograms

Pictograms are graphic symbols used to communicate specific information about the
hazards of a chemical. Pictograms on labels alert users to the chemical hazards to
which they may be exposed. The pictograms on a label are determined by the chemical
hazard classification. The pictograms OSHA has adopted improve worker safety and
health, conform with the Globally Harmonized System (GHS) for chemical information,
and are used worldwide. Each pictogram consists of a symbol on a white background
framed within a red border and represents a distinct hazard.

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It is important to note that the OSHA pictograms do not replace the diamond shaped
labels that the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) requires for the transport of
chemicals, including chemical drums, totes, tanks, or other containers. Those labels
must be on the external part of a shipped container and must meet DOT requirements.

Safety Data Sheet (SDS)

A safety data sheet (SDS) provides detailed information about a specific hazardous
material. Although labels are a good way to provide information about hazardous
chemicals, sometimes you need more information than can be included on a label. The
SDS includes information such as the properties of each chemical; the physical, health,
and environmental health hazards; required protective measures; and safety
precautions for handling, storing, and transporting the chemical. The information
contained in the SDS must be in English (although it may be in other languages as
well).

The SDS must be maintained in the facility for use by personnel while the material is in
the facility and must be retained for a period of at least 30 years. As you’ve seen, SDSs
are required to be presented in a consistent, user-friendly, 16-section format.

Note: It is the employer's responsibility to translate the information contained on the

SDS into an understandable format and convey that information about the hazards
associated with working with any of the hazardous materials in the facility before an

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employee is ever exposed to the hazard. The SDS must always be immediately
available to all affected employees for review; however, they can be stored
electronically.

Click here for a sample SDS.

Section 1: Identification

This section identifies the chemical on the SDS as well as the recommended uses. It
also provides the essential contact information of the supplier. The required information
consists of:

• Product identifier used on the label and any other common names or
synonyms by which the substance is known
• Name, address, phone number of the manufacturer, importer, or other
responsible party, and emergency phone number
• Recommended use of the chemical (e.g., a brief description of what it
actually does, such as flame retardant) and any restrictions on use
(including recommendations given by the supplier)

Section 2: Hazard(s) Identification

This section identifies the hazards of the chemical presented on the SDS and the
appropriate warning information associated with those hazards. The required
information consists of:

• The hazard classification of the chemical (e.g., flammable liquid,

category1)
• Signal word
• Hazard statement(s)
• Pictograms
• Precautionary statement(s)
• Description of any hazards not otherwise classified

Section 3: Composition/Information on Ingredients

This section identifies the ingredient(s) contained in the product indicated on the SDS,
including impurities and stabilizing additives. The required information consists of:

• Chemical name(s)
• Common name and synonyms
• Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) number and other unique identifiers
• Impurities and stabilizing additives, which are themselves classified
and which contribute to the classification of the chemical

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Section 4: First-Aid Measures

This section describes the initial care that should be given by untrained responders to
an individual who has been exposed to the chemical. The required information consists
of:

• Necessary first-aid instructions for relevant routes of exposure

(inhalation, skin and eye contact, and ingestion)
• Description of the most important symptoms or effects, and any
symptoms that are acute or delayed
• Recommendations for immediate medical care and special treatment
needed, when necessary

Section 5: Fire-Fighting Measures

This section provides recommendations for fighting a fire caused by the chemical. The
required information consists of:

• Recommendations of suitable extinguishing equipment, and

information about extinguishing equipment that is not appropriate for a
particular situation
• Advice on specific hazards that develop from the chemical during the
fire, such as any hazardous combustion products created when the
chemical burns
• Recommendations on special protective equipment or precautions for
firefighters

Section 6: Accidental Release Measures

This section provides recommendations on the appropriate response to spills, leaks, or

releases, including containment and cleanup practices to prevent or minimize exposure
to people, properties, or the environment. The required information may consist of
recommendations for:

• Use of personal precautions (such as removal of ignition sources or

providing sufficient ventilation) and protective equipment to prevent the
contamination of skin, eyes, and clothing
• Emergency procedures, including instructions for evacuations,
consulting experts when needed, and appropriate protective clothing.
• Methods and materials used for containment (e.g., covering the drains
and capping procedures)
• Cleanup procedures (e.g., appropriate techniques for neutralization,
decontamination, cleaning, or vacuuming; adsorbent materials; and/or
equipment required for containment/clean up)

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Section 7: Handling and Storage

This section provides guidance on the safe handling practices and conditions for safe
storage of chemicals. The required information consists of:

• Precautions for safe handling, including recommendations for handling

incompatible chemicals, minimizing the release of the chemical into the
environment, and providing advice on general hygiene practices (e.g.,
eating, drinking, and smoking in work areas is prohibited)
• Recommendations on the conditions for safe storage, including any
incompatibilities. Provide advice on specific storage requirements (e.g.,
ventilation requirements)

Section 8: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection

This section indicates the exposure limits, engineering controls, and personal protective
measures that can be used to minimize worker exposure. The required information
consists of:

• OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs), and American Conference

of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) Threshold Limit Values
(TLVs)
• Appropriate engineering controls (e.g., use local exhaust ventilation, or
use only in an enclosed system)
• Recommendations for personal protective measures to prevent illness
or injury from exposure to chemicals, such as personal protective
equipment (PPE) (e.g., appropriate types of eye, face, skin or
respiratory protection needed based on hazards and potential
exposure)
• Any special requirements for PPE, protective clothing or respirators
(e.g., type of glove material, such as PVC or nitrile rubber gloves; and
breakthrough time of the glove material)

Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties

This section identifies physical and chemical properties associated with the substance
or mixture. The minimum required information consists of:

• Appearance (physical state, color, etc.)

• Upper/lower flammability or explosive limits
• Odor and odor threshold
• Vapor pressure and density
• pH level
• Relative density
• Melting point/freezing point
• Solubility(ies)
• Initial boiling point and boiling range

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 • Partition coefficient: n-octanol/water
• Flash point and auto-ignition temperature
• Evaporation rate
• Decomposition temperature
• Flammability (solid, gas)
• Viscosity

NOTE: The SDS may not contain every item on the above list because information may
not be relevant or is not available.

Section 10: Stability and Reactivity

This section describes the reactivity hazards of the chemical and the chemical stability
information. This section is broken into three parts: reactivity, chemical stability, and
other. The required information consists of:

• Reactivity: a description of the specific test data for the chemical(s).

• Chemical stability: an indication of whether the chemical is stable or
unstable under normal ambient temperature and conditions while in
storage and being handled.
• An indication of the possibility of hazardous reactions, including a
statement whether the chemical will react or polymerize, which could
release excess pressure or heat, or create other hazardous conditions
• A list of all conditions that should be avoided
• A list of all classes of incompatible materials with which the chemical
could react to produce a hazardous situation
• A list of any known or anticipated hazardous decomposition products
that could be produced because of use, storage, or heating

Section 11: Toxicological Information

This section identifies toxicological and health effects information or indicates that such
data are not available. The required information consists of:

• Information on the likely routes of exposure (inhalation, ingestion, skin

and eye contact). The SDS should indicate if the information is
unknown.
• Description of the delayed, immediate, or chronic effects from short-
and long-term exposure.
• The numerical measures of toxicity (e.g., acute toxicity estimates such
as the LD50; the estimated amount [of a substance] expected to kill
50% of test animals in a single dose.
• Description of the symptoms. This description includes the symptoms
associated with exposure to the chemical including symptoms from the
lowest to the most severe exposure.
• Indication of whether the chemical is listed in the National Toxicology
Program (NTP) Report on Carcinogens (latest edition) or has been

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 found to be a potential carcinogen in the International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC) Monographs (latest editions) or found to
be a potential carcinogen by OSHA.

Section 12: Ecological Information (non-mandatory by OSHA)

This section provides information to evaluate the environmental impact of the

chemical(s) if it were released to the environment. The information may include:

• Data from toxicity tests performed on aquatic and/or terrestrial

organisms, where available
• Whether there is a potential for the chemical to persist and degrade in
the environment
• Results of tests of bioaccumulation potential
• The potential for a substance to move from the soil to the groundwater
• Other adverse effects (e.g., environmental fate, ozone layer depletion
potential, and/or global warming potential)

Section 13: Disposal Considerations (non-mandatory by OSHA)

This section provides guidance on proper disposal practices, recycling or reclamation of

the chemical(s) or its container, and safe handling practices. The information may
include:

• Description of appropriate disposal containers to use

• Recommendations of appropriate disposal methods to employ
• Description of the physical and chemical properties that may affect
disposal activities
• Any special precautions for landfills or incineration activities

Section 14: Transport Information (non-mandatory by OSHA)

This section provides guidance on classification information for shipping and

transporting of hazardous chemical(s) by road, air, rail, or sea. The information may
include:

• UN number (i.e., four-figure identification number of the substance)

• UN proper shipping name
• Transport hazard class(es)
• Environmental hazards
• Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code)
• Guidance on transport in bulk
• Any special precautions which an employee should be aware of or
needs to comply with, in connection with transport or conveyance
either within or outside their premises

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Section 15: Regulatory Information (non-mandatory by OSHA)

This section identifies the safety, health, and environmental regulations specific for the
product that is not indicated anywhere else on the SDS. The information may include
any national and/or regional regulatory information of the chemical or mixtures
(including any OSHA, Department of Transportation, Environmental Protection Agency,
or Consumer Product Safety Commission regulations).

Section 16: Other Information

This section indicates when the SDS was prepared or when the last known revision was
made. The SDS may also state where the changes have been made to the previous
version. You may wish to contact the supplier for an explanation of the changes. Other
useful information also may be included here.

Availability of SDSs

Every employer must train every affected employee in the information derived from the
SDS for each hazardous material in the facility, before exposing the employee to the
hazard. An employee should ideally only need to consult an SDS on an infrequent or
emergency basis.

Note: Remember, it is the employer's responsibility to ensure that each employee who
handles or uses any hazardous material knows where SDSs are located and how to
read and understand them.

Symbols

Whenever you are working with materials that have a Department of Transportation
(DOT) hazard class shipping label, you should be aware that this represents a specific
hazard. Information regarding specific hazards denoted by DOT labels is contained on
the material's SDS.

Explosive symbols (DOT hazard class labels) are used with those materials which
release a great amount of energy in the form of light, expanding pressure, and heat
within a short passage of time. Water reactive materials react with water and can
explode. Furthermore, unstable reactive materials can react or become self-reactive
subject to pressure, temperature, or shock.

Compressed gas cylinder symbols were created by the Compressed Gas Association
and adopted by OSHA, and should appear on every cylinder of compressed hazardous
gas.

Gases are used in various manufacturing processes. Because these gases are bottled
under great pressure, misuse or unsafe handling could lead to an accident.

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Note: Do not expose flammable or combustible materials to fire, heat, sparks, flames or
any other source of heat or ignition.

Physical Hazards

There are frequently two types of hazards (physical and health) present in a workplace
where hazardous chemicals or materials are present. Physical hazards refer to dangers
presented by physical objects or forces on the worksite, as opposed to biological
dangers. Falls, falling objects, caught-in-between accidents, and electrical hazards are
examples of physical hazards. They are responsible for hundreds of deaths and injuries
each year in the United States. Accidents involving physical hazards are often the
consequence of a lack of training or neglect concerning the flammability of chemicals.
Fire and explosion are common physical hazards.

Health Hazards

Hazardous chemicals can affect our health in different ways. Generally, two terms—
acute and chronic—are used in order to understand the nature of the health hazards.
Acute effects indicate that symptoms have arisen rapidly compared to chronic effects,
which means symptoms have manifested themselves over a longer period of time.

Example: If you accidentally spill a strong acid on your hand and the acid begins to
burn your skin, this is an acute effect as opposed to a chronic effect.

Determination of Health Hazards

Determining whether a hazard is affecting the health of a worker or not can be very
difficult. Often, the signs and symptoms associated with the acute or chronic health
effects of working are already present in the same workers as a result of non-
occupational sources. For example, lung cancer, kidney failures, and nervous system
breakdowns are some common health problems that may occur in occupationally
exposed persons but, of course, can also be found in non-occupationally exposed
persons.

Chronic Health Hazards

Chronic effects develop as a result of long-term exposures. Some examples of chronic

health hazards include:

• Silicosis
• Some dermatitis (others may be from an acute exposure)
• Lung Cancer (from occupational exposure to carcinogens)

Note: Asbestos is a good example of a chronic health hazard. Those people who are
exposed to asbestos may take several years to develop serious lung diseases.

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Health Hazard Symbols

The following symbols are used to identify various kinds of health hazards:

• The skull and crossbones symbol represents a poisonous material.

• The hand and test tubes symbols are used to identify corrosive
materials.
• The radiating fan symbol is used to represent radioactive materials.

Routes of Exposure-Health Hazards

Health hazards can affect a body through four routes of entry:

• Absorption
• Inhalation
• Ingestion
• Injection

The last of these, injection, is unlikely to occur on a worksite, but the other three are
common hazards in construction:

• Skin Absorption: Some chemicals enter into the body by absorption

through the skin. Always use personal protective equipment or clothing
in order to protect your body from skin contact with hazardous material.
If you are exposed, the proper response should be initiated, based on
the chemical involved and the nature of the exposure.
• Inhalation: Inhalation is the most common route of entry into the body.
It normally occurs when you inhale fumes, vapors, hazardous gasses,
or dust. It is the employer's responsibility to be aware of such hazards
in the workplace and to protect employees from inhalation hazards.
• Ingestion: Do not eat or smoke immediately after handling any
hazardous material. When working with hazardous materials, wear
appropriate PPE, and then always wash your hands properly before
eating, drinking, or smoking.

Controlling Physical and Health Hazards

There are a number of ways to control the physical and health hazards associated with
chemicals in a workplace. The following measures can protect you from physical and
health hazards:

• Safe work practices help assure that you are using chemicals safely
and correctly.
• Product Substitution: There are many chemicals that perform similar
jobs. One of the many responsibilities an employer has is to attempt to
find a chemical that is less toxic but able to accomplish the same job.

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 • Engineering Controls: An orderly and well-designed workplace can
minimize exposure to hazardous chemicals. Some engineering
controls, like exhaust systems and wetting systems used to control
dust, are good examples of hazard control.
• Training and communication play an essential role in every field of
life. It is vital to know how to work safely with hazardous chemicals.
• Environmental monitoring is a component in keeping an
environment free from a buildup of hazardous chemicals that could
lead to an unsafe working environment.
• Personal Monitoring: Monitor yourself and coworkers for symptoms
(such as dizziness, eye or throat irritation, skin rashes) that would
indicate that you or your coworkers have been exposed to a hazardous
material or chemical. If these or other symptoms appear, report them
to your supervisor immediately.
• Personal Protective Equipment: Always use gloves, aprons, masks,
or other PPE whenever called for on a label or SDS.

Basic First Aid

First aid should be provided only by individuals who are properly trained and provided
with the proper protective equipment. The employer must ensure prompt first aid
treatment for injured employees, either by providing a trained first aid provider at the
worksite, or by ensuring that emergency treatment services are within reasonable
proximity of the worksite. Adequate first aid must be available in the critical minutes
between the occurrence of an injury and the availability of physician or hospital care for
the injured employee.

While OSHA does not prescribe a number of minutes, they have long interpreted the
term 'near proximity' to mean that emergency care must be available within no more
than 3-4 minutes’ travel from the workplace. Medical literature establishes that, for
serious injuries such as those involving stopped breathing, cardiac arrest, or
uncontrolled bleeding, first aid treatment must be provided within the first few minutes to
avoid permanent medical impairment or death. Accordingly, in workplaces where
serious accidents such as those involving falls, suffocation, electrocution, or amputation
are possible, emergency medical services must be available within 3-4 minutes if there
is no employee on the site who is trained to render first aid.

OSHA does exercise discretion in enforcing the first aid requirements in particular
cases. For example, they recognize that in workplaces such as offices, where such
serious work-related injuries are less likely, a longer response time of up to 15 minutes
may be reasonable.

Blood-borne Pathogens

Bloodborne pathogens are pathogenic microorganisms that are found in human blood,
tissue, and organs. These pathogens include the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
and the Hepatitis B virus (HBV).

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Employees must make sure that they never come in contact with any blood or body
fluids without proper safeguards in place. Treat all human blood and certain human
body fluids as if they were known to be infectious for HIV, HBV, and other bloodborne
pathogens. This is known as taking “universal precautions.” If they have to handle any
such fluids, workers must wear all appropriate personal protective equipment, especially
gloves and safety glasses. Employees must handle and dispose of all sharps—such as
needles and syringes—carefully in order to avoid suffering a puncture wound or
laceration.

Appropriate use of personal protective equipment (PPE) is required by the Bloodborne

Pathogens Standard (if exposure to blood and other potentially infectious materials is
anticipated, meaning where occupational exposure remains even after engineering and
work practice controls have been implemented). Wear appropriate gloves and other
required PPE when hand contact with blood, mucous membranes, other potentially
infectious materials (OPIM) or non-intact skin is anticipated; when performing vascular
access procedures; or when handling contaminated items or surfaces.

The employer must ensure that employees wash hands and any other exposed skin
with soap and water and flush mucous membranes with water as soon as feasible after
contact with blood or OPIM. They should provide readily accessible hand washing
facilities and ensure PPE is properly disposed of. Protective clothing must be removed
before leaving the work area and placed in an appropriately designated area or
container for storage, washing, decontamination, or disposal.

Temperature Stress

Extremely hot or cold temperatures at the work site can cause various disorders.
Employees must make sure to take protective measures against heat and cold stresses.

Heat stress is one of the most common occurrences in the workplace. It can cause
various disorders, including heat exhaustion, heat cramps, and heat stroke. The
symptoms of heat stress may include headaches, thirst, nausea, muscle cramps,
dizziness, and weakness. Due to the severity of the consequences of heat stress,
employers must regularly monitor all potentially affected employees and their
workplaces and take appropriate preventive measures.

Sunburns can be avoided by keeping the skin covered with sun blocking material. If an
employee experiences heat cramps, she or he should first be taken to an air-
conditioned or fanned area, provided water to drink, and monitored appropriately.

Heat exhaustion is caused by excessive exposure to heat and/or physical activity.

Medical attention should immediately be sought for any employee suffering from heat
exhaustion.

If left untreated, heat stroke can be fatal. Therefore, heat stroke should be considered
a medical emergency. Until the paramedics arrive, the employee must be kept cool.
Frostbite and hypothermia are two disorders that can be caused by cold exposure. If
there is a risk of cold exposure, employees must always dress warmly and there should

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be limited exposure to the skin. Cold temperatures that result in inadequate circulation
of the blood to the extremities, such as the fingers and toes, may cause frostbite.
Employees with frostbite must not move or rub the affected area, but must instead seek
medical attention immediately and warm the affected areas slowly to avoid causing
irreversible tissue damage.

Hypothermia is characterized by lowered body temperature. If an employee

experiences hypothermia, he must immediately receive appropriate medical attention.

Hazard Communication Program

It is required that all chemical manufacturers, importers, and distributors convey

complete information about a chemical and its hazards in the form of labels and SDSs.
It is also mandatory that employers conduct hazard communication training programs in
order to provide complete information to their employees through SDSs, labels, and
training sessions.

Written Hazard Communication Program

A written program must be established in all workplaces where employees are exposed
to hazardous chemicals. It should include a list of all hazardous chemicals that are
present in the workplace and indicate where employees can get copies of written
information about safe chemical handling procedures. A written program also indicates
the person in the facility who is responsible for the various aspects of the program. The
written program must also describe requirements and information about labels, SDSs,
and employee training.

Click here for the OHSA fact sheet on HazCom standards and the written hazard
communication program.

Note: Written programs may not be required in laboratories and those workplaces
where employees are dealing with sealed containers.

Sample Hazard Communication Program

The following is a sample HazCom template developed by the Washington State

Department of Labor and Industries (https://lni.wa.gov/safety-health/_docs/HT9-
CR.doc). It provides a good example of how a proper HazCom written program could be
organized.

A. Company Policy

(Add Name of Employer) is committed to the prevention of exposures that result in injury and/or illness; and
to comply with all applicable state health and safety rules. To make sure that all affected employees know
about information concerning the dangers of all hazardous chemicals used by (Add Name of Employer), the
following hazard communication program has been established. This written program will be available in
(Specify the location) for review by any interested employee.

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All work units of (Add Name of Employer) will participate in the hazard communication program.

B. Container Labeling

(Add name of person and title) is responsible for container labeling procedures, reviewing, and updating.
The labeling system used at (Add Name of Employer) is as follows:
(Describe the labeling system, including the labels or other forms of warning used, and written alternatives to labeling, if any.)

The procedures for proper labeling of all containers, and reviewing and updating label warnings are as
follows:

(Describe the procedure for labeling, including:

• a description of the procedures for labeling of secondary containers used, including making
sure that they have the appropriate identification and hazard warning, etc.;
• a description of procedures for reviewing and updating label warnings, how often the review is
conducted; and the
• the name of the person and position who is responsible for reviewing and updating label
warnings.)

It is the policy of (Add Name of Employer) that no container will be released for use until the above
procedures are followed.

C. Safety Data Sheets (SDS)

(Add name of person and title) is responsible for establishing and monitoring (Add Name of Employer)’s
SDS program. This person will make sure procedures are developed to obtain the necessary SDSs and
will review incoming SDSs for new or significant health and safety information. This person will make
certain that any new information is passed on to affected employees.

The procedures to obtain SDSs and review incoming SDSs for new or significant health and safety
information are as follows:

(Describe the procedure for obtaining and updating SDSs, including:

• procedures on how to make sure copies are current and updated;
• how any new information is passed on to affected employees; and
• the procedures for employee access in work areas.)

Copies of SDSs for all hazardous chemicals in use will be kept in (Specify the location). SDSs will be
available to all employees during each work shift. If an SDS is not available or a new chemical in use does
not have an SDS, immediately contact:
(Add name of person and title)

Note: If an alternative to printed Material Safety Data Sheets is used (such as computer data), provide a
description of the format.

D. Employee Information and Training

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(Add name of person and title) is responsible for the employee training program.
The procedures for how employees will be informed and trained are as follows:

(Describe the procedure for employee training, including:

• the methods used for general and site-specific training;
• how employees will be informed when non-routine tasks arise.

If your employees work at other employers’ job sites, then specify where and
how these employees will have access to SDSs and labels, and how they will be
informed of precautionary measures to take during normal or emergency
operations, if any.)

(Add name of person and title) will make sure that before starting work, each new employee of (Add Name
of Employer) will attend a health and safety orientation that includes information and training on the
following:

• An overview of the requirements contained in the Hazard Communication Standard.

• Hazardous chemicals present at his or her work places.
• Physical and health risks of the hazardous chemical.
• The symptoms of overexposure.
• How to determine the presence or release of hazardous chemicals in his or her work area.
• How to reduce or prevent exposure to hazardous chemicals through use of control procedures,
work practices, and personal protective equipment.
• Steps (Add name of Employer) has taken to reduce or prevent exposure to hazardous chemicals.
• Procedures to follow if employees are overexposed to hazardous chemicals.
• How to read labels and review SDSs to obtain hazard information.
• Location of the SDS file and written hazard communication program.
• An overview of the requirements contained in the Hazard Communication Standard.

Before introducing a new chemical hazard into any section of this employer, each employee in that section
will be given information and training as outlined above for the new chemical.

E. Hazardous non-routine tasks

Periodically, employees are required to perform hazardous non-routine tasks. (Some examples of non-
routine tasks are confined space entry, tank cleaning, and painting reactor vessels.) Non-routine tasks that
are performed at (Add Name of Employer) include:

1. (Add any non-routine tasks performed by employees)

2. (Add any non-routine tasks performed by employees)
3. (Add any non-routine tasks performed by employees)

Prior to starting work on such projects, each affected employee will be given information by (Add name of
person and title) about the hazardous chemicals he or she may encounter during these activities:

(For each non-routine task identified above:

• list the specific chemical hazards;

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 • protective and safety measures the employee can use; and the
• steps the employer has taken to reduce the hazards, including ventilation,
respirators, presence of another employee, and emergency procedures.)

F. Multi-employer work places

It is the responsibility of (Add name of person and title) to provide employers of any other employees at the
work site with the following information:

• Copies of SDSs (or make them available at a central location) for any hazardous chemicals that
the other employer(s)’ employee may be exposed to while working.
• Inform other employers of any precautionary measures that need to be taken to protect employees
during normal operating conditions or in foreseeable emergencies.
• Provide other employers with an explanation of the labeling system that is used at the work site.

It is also the responsibility of (Add name of person and title) to identify and obtain SDSs for the chemicals
the contractor is bringing into the work place.

G. List of hazardous chemicals

The following table lists all known hazardous chemicals used by our employees. Further information on
each chemical may be obtained by reviewing SDSs located at (Specify location).

The criteria (e.g., label warnings, SDS information, etc.) used to evaluate the chemicals are:
(Include a description of a plan for how you will update the list.)

List of Chemicals / SDS identity:

(Here is where you put the chemical list developed during the inventory. Arrange this list so that you
are able to cross-reference it with your SDS file and the labels on your containers.)

Chemical Name Manufacturer Location Used

(Insert information here) (Insert information here) (Insert information here)
(Insert information here) (Insert information here) (Insert information here)
(Insert information here) (Insert information here) (Insert information here)

Training

Training must be provided to all employees exposed to hazardous chemicals. It must

include information on how to handle chemicals safely, how to read and understand
labels, SDSs, and other warning information, and what PPE is required before handling
or using the hazardous material. It is required, and critical, that employees be trained
before working with materials that represent a hazard.

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Note: Remember, it is not sufficient to just provide SDSs to read. These documents can
be long and technical and contain a great deal of information that may not be directly
relevant to all workers. It is the employer’s responsibility to provide, in addition to the
SDSs, an easily understood version of the relevant safety information.

Lesson Summary

• The HazCom standard requires that information about chemical

hazards is provided on labels using quick visual notations, providing
immediate recognition of the hazards.
• Labels must include the manufacturer’s contact information, the
product identifier, a signal word (“danger” or “warning”), a hazard
statement, a precautionary statement, and the relevant pictograms,
which describe the specific hazards associated with the chemical.
• A safety data sheet (SDS) provides detailed information about a
specific hazardous material. Although labels are a good way to provide
information about hazardous chemicals, sometimes you need more
information than can be included on a label. The SDS includes
information such as the properties of each chemical; the physical,
health, and environmental health hazards; required protective
measures; and safety precautions for handling, storing, and
transporting the chemical.
• Explosive symbols (DOT hazard class labels) are used with those
materials which release a great amount of energy in the form of light,
expanding pressure, and heat within a short passage of time.
• Physical Hazards refer to dangers presented by physical objects or
forces on the worksite, including electrical hazards.
• Health hazards are commonly the result of hazardous chemicals,
which can affect our health in different ways. Generally, two terms—
acute and chronic—are used in order to understand the nature of the
health hazards. Acute effects indicate that symptoms have arisen
rapidly compared to chronic effects, which means symptoms have
manifested themselves over a longer period of time.
• It is required that all chemical manufacturers, importers, and
distributors convey complete information about a chemical and its
hazards in the form of labels and SDSs. It is also mandatory that
employers conduct hazard communication training programs in order
to provide complete information to their employees through SDSs,
labels, and training sessions.
• Training must be provided to all employees exposed to hazardous
chemicals. It must include information on how to handle chemicals
safely, how to read and understand labels, SDSs, and other warning
information, and what PPE is required before handling or using the
hazardous material.

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Lesson 3: Hazardous Materials
Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe the hazards and controls associated with crystalline silica

• Describe the hazards and controls associated with asbestos
• Describe the hazards and controls associated with Methylenedianiline (MDA)
• Describe the hazards and controls associated with lead
• Describe the hazards and controls associated with cadmium

Crystalline Silica

Permissible Exposure Limit for Silica Dust

Respirable (breathable) crystalline silica, consisting of very small particles (typically at

least 100 times smaller than ordinary sand found on beaches or playgrounds) is
generated by high-energy operations like cutting, sawing, grinding, drilling, and crushing
stone, rock, concrete, brick, block, and mortar, or when abrasive blasting with sand.
Employee exposure to respirable silica dust must not exceed 50 (μg/m3) micrograms
per cubic meter of air averaged over an 8-hour work shift. The action level for respirable
silica dust is an airborne concentration of 25 μg/m3 calculated as an 8-hour TWA.
Exposures at or above the action level may trigger requirements for exposure
assessment.

Silica can be found in construction materials (bricks, tile, concrete, sand, and masonry
products), on demolition sites, and is commonly generated by such tasks as:

• Sand blasting, abrasive work that can create respirable crystalline

silica
• Transportation or dumping of sand, crushed rock, and blocks
• Drilling operations
• Sanding, sawing, cutting, or grinding of masonry materials

Preventing exposure to silica dust can be achieved by using engineering and

administrative controls, like wetting down soil at a construction site, having workers use
respirators, monitoring dust levels, and using drill systems and grinding tools that apply
water to minimize the creation of dust at the point of generation.

Silicosis

Silicosis can disable a person by making breathing difficult and painful. Other symptoms
associated with silicosis include loss of appetite, fevers, and loss of body weight.
Silicosis may also cause lung cancer or death.

There are two types or degrees of silicosis:

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 • Acute silicosis develops after a few months or as long as 2 years following
exposures to extremely high concentrations of respirable crystalline silica.
• Chronic silicosis usually occurs when exposed at moderate to low
concentrations of respirable crystalline silica for 15-20 years.

Asbestos

Asbestos is the generic term for a group of naturally occurring, fibrous minerals with
high tensile strength, flexibility, and resistance to heat, chemicals, and electricity.

In the construction industry, asbestos is found in installed products such as sprayed-on

fireproofing, pipe insulation, floor tiles, cement pipe and sheet, roofing felts and
shingles, ceiling tiles, fire-resistant drywall, drywall joint compounds, and acoustical
products. Because very few asbestos-containing products are being installed today,
most worker exposures occur during the removal of asbestos and during the renovation
and maintenance of buildings and structures containing asbestos.

Exposure by inhaling loose asbestos fibers can cause disabling or fatal diseases such
as gastrointestinal cancer, cancers of the lung or lung-cavity lining, and severe lung
impairment asbestosis. The symptoms of these diseases often do not appear for 20 or
more years after initial exposure.

Classification of Asbestos Work

The OSHA standard establishes a classification system for asbestos construction work
that spells out mandatory, simple, technological work practices that employers must
follow to reduce worker exposures. Under this system, the following four classes of
construction work are matched with increasingly stringent control requirements:

• Class I asbestos work is the most potentially hazardous class of

asbestos jobs. This work involves the removal of asbestos-containing
thermal system insulation and sprayed-on or troweled-on surfacing
materials. Employers must presume that thermal system insulation and
surfacing material found in pre-1981 construction is made of asbestos-
containing materials (ACM). That presumption, however, is rebuttable.
If you believe that the surfacing material or thermal system insulation is
not ACM, the OSHA standard specifies the means that you must use
to rebut that presumption. Thermal system insulation includes ACM
applied to pipes, boilers, tanks, ducts, or other structural components
to prevent heat loss or gain. Surfacing materials include decorative
plaster on ceilings and walls; acoustical materials on decking, walls,
and ceilings; and fireproofing on structural members.
• Class II work includes the removal of other types of ACM that are not
thermal system insulation such as resilient flooring and roofing
materials. Examples of Class II work include removal of asbestos-
containing floor or ceiling tiles, siding, roofing, or transite panels.

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• Class III asbestos work includes repair and maintenance operations
where ACM or presumed ACM (PACM) are disturbed.
• Class IV work includes custodial activities where employees clean up
asbestos-containing waste and debris produced by construction,
maintenance, or repair activities. This work involves cleaning dust-
contaminated surfaces, vacuuming contaminated carpets, mopping
floors, and cleaning up ACM or PACM from thermal system insulation
or surfacing material.

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PEL—Permissible Exposure Limit

Employee exposure to asbestos must not exceed 0.1 fibers per cubic centimeter (f/cc)
of air, averaged over an 8-hour work shift. Short-term exposure must also be limited to
not more than 1 f/cc, averaged over 30 minutes. Rotation of employees to achieve
compliance with either permissible exposure limit (PEL) is prohibited.

To determine expected exposures, a competent person must perform an initial

exposure assessment to assess exposures immediately before or as the operation
begins. This person must perform the assessment in time to comply with all standard
requirements triggered by exposure data or the lack of a negative exposure assessment
and to provide the necessary information to ensure all control systems are appropriate
and work properly. A negative exposure assessment demonstrates that employee
exposure during an operation is consistently below the permissible exposure limit (PEL).

The initial exposure assessment must be based on the following criteria:

• Results of employee exposure monitoring, unless a negative exposure

assessment has been made
• Observations, information, or calculations indicating employee
exposure to asbestos, including any previous monitoring

For Class I asbestos work, until employers document that employees will not be
exposed in excess of the 8-hour TWA PEL and short-term exposure limit (STEL),
employers must assume that employee exposures are above those limits.

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Asbestos and Smoking

Studies show that smokers who are exposed to asbestos have a greatly increased risk
of lung cancer. Quitting smoking will reduce the risk of lung cancer. People who were
exposed to asbestos on the job at any time during their life, or who suspect they may
have been exposed, should not smoke. If they smoke, they should stop.

General Compliance Requirements

For any employee exposed to airborne concentrations of asbestos beyond the allowable
limits, the employer must provide and ensure the use of protective clothing, such as
coveralls or similar full-body clothing, head coverings, gloves, foot coverings, face
shields, vented goggles, or other appropriate protective equipment wherever the
possibility of eye irritation exists. The employer must also provide and ensure the use of
respirators where necessary. The employer must provide medical examinations for
workers who, for 30 or more days per year, engage in Class I, II, or III work or
experience related to asbestos.

Recordkeeping

The employer must keep an accurate record of all measurements taken to monitor
employee exposure to asbestos. This record must include: the date of measurement,
operation involving exposure, sampling and analytical methods used, and evidence of
their accuracy; number, duration, and results of samples taken; types of protective
devices worn; name, social security number, and the results of all employee exposure
measurements. This record must be kept for 30 years.

What Kinds of Building Materials May Contain Asbestos?

Exposure to asbestos dust can occur at major construction job sites, in shipyards, in
industry, and during construction or renovation of buildings. Even workers' families and
friends can be at risk, as asbestos can often be carried on clothing.

There are many products containing asbestos. The following list gives an idea of the
widespread use of asbestos, even though more products than those listed here may
contain asbestos.

More Information:
Product Location Includes Approximate Primary Dates of
Range of % Use
of Asbestos
Roofing tiles Roofs 20 – 30 1930 –
present
Roofing shingles Roofs 20 – 32 1930 –
present
Sprayed coating Ceilings, walls, and 1 – 95 1935 – 1978
Steelwork

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Troweled coating Ceilings, walls 1 – 95 1936 – 1978
Asbestos—cement Fireplaces, boilers 20 – 50 1930 –
sheet present

Millboard, rollboard Walls, commercial buildings 80 – 85 1925 –

present
Asphalt—asbestos Floor 26 – 30 1920 – 1980
tile
Preformed pipe wrap Pipes 50 1926 – 1975

Paper tape Furnaces, steam valves, 80 1901 – 1980

flanges, electrical wiring

Putty (mudding) Plumbing joints 20 – 100 1900 – 1973

Gaskets/Packing Pipe flanges, boiler doors, 10 – 80 1900 – 1989
valves, pipes

Hot tops Used with ingot molds in 10 – 80 1960 – 1980

the steel pouring process

MDA—Methylenedianiline

Introduction

Methylenedianiline (MDA) is a light-brown crystalline solid with a faint odor that is

soluble in alcohol and benzene and slightly soluble in water. It is used for making
polyurethane foams, which have a variety of uses including as insulating materials. It is
also used for making coating materials, epoxy glues, dyes, and rubber.

Routes of exposure to MDA include skin absorption, inhalation, and ingestion. Short-
term (acute) overexposure to MDA may produce symptoms such as fever, chills, loss of
appetite, vomiting, and/or jaundice. Short-term contact with MDA may irritate the skin,
eyes, and mucous membranes, and sensitization to MDA may also occur. Long-term
(chronic) overexposure may cause cancer as well as damage to the liver, kidneys,
blood, and spleen.

In the construction industry, MDA is used to coat exterior surfaces, such as concrete
structures, pipes, and floors. These surfaces, located inside or outside of buildings, are
often coated by spray application. The standard, however, covers both spray and roll-on
applications.

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Permissible Exposure Limits

No employee may be exposed to MDA above the permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 10
parts per billion (ppb) as an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA), or above a short-term
exposure limit (STEL) of 100 ppb over a 15-minute sampling period.

Action Level

The action level for a concentration of airborne MDA is 5 ppb as an 8-hour TWA. When
the action level is reached, an employer must begin compliance activities such as
exposure monitoring, medical surveillance, or temporary removal. The employer shall
repeat such monitoring for each such employee at least every six months.

Regulated Areas

Regulated areas must be established where airborne concentrations exceed or are

expected to exceed the PEL, and where employees handle or use non-airborne MDA
liquids or mixtures. These areas must be marked off from the rest of the workplace to
minimize the number of persons potentially exposed.

No eating, drinking, smoking, chewing of tobacco or gum, or applying of cosmetics is

permitted in regulated areas. Access to regulated areas must be limited to authorized
persons only, and employees working in these areas must be required to wear
appropriate personal protective equipment and protective clothing which will prevent or
minimize exposure.

Decontamination Areas

Decontamination areas, located outside of but as near as practical to the regulated

area, must also be established for decontaminating workers, materials, and equipment
contaminated with MDA. The decontamination area must include an equipment storage
area, wash area, and clean change area.

Exposure Monitoring

Breathing-zone air samples that are representative of each employee's exposure to

airborne MDA over an 8-hour period will determine employee exposure. Determination
of employee exposure to the STEL must be made from breathing zone air samples
collected over a 15-minute sampling period. The MDA standard requires that initial
monitoring be performed for employees exposed to MDA unless objective or historical
monitoring data prove that exposures are below the action level. MDA operations within
a regulated area need not be monitored periodically if all employees are wearing
supplied-air respirators while working in that regulated area.

Medical Surveillance

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A medical surveillance program is required under the supervision of a licensed
physician, without cost, for those employees who are:

• Exposed at or above the action level for more than 30 days per year
• Subject to 15 or more days of dermal exposure
• Exposed in an emergency
• Showing signs and symptoms of MDA exposure

The employer must conduct exams at least annually following the initial exam, as well
as following emergency situations or when the employees develop any signs and
symptoms associated with MDA exposure. The examining physician must provide in
writing the results of these exams to the employer or employee.

The employer must provide the examining physician(s) with:

• A copy of the MDA standard and its appendices

• A description of the affected employee's duties related to potential
MDA exposure
• The employer's current actual or representative MDA exposure level
• A description of the protective equipment or clothing used
• Information from previous employment-related medical exams

An employer must temporarily remove an employee from work when occupational

exposure to MDA is at or above the action level, or where dermal exposure to MDA may
occur, in the following circumstances:

• Following an emergency situation

• When an employee has signs/symptoms indicative of acute MDA
exposure
• When the examining physician determines that an employee's
abnormal liver function tests are not associated with MDA exposure
but may be exacerbated as a result of occupational exposure to MDA

An employee may return to her or his former job status when:

• The employee no longer shows signs or symptoms of MDA exposure

• The physician so advises
• A subsequent medical determination shows the employee no longer
has a detected medical condition that poses an increased health risk
from MDA exposure

Respiratory Protection

Employers must provide respirators at no cost to the employees and ensure that they
are used when engineering and work practice controls are being installed; when
engineering and work practice controls are not sufficient to reduce exposure to or below
the PEL; when engineering controls are not feasible in repair or maintenance and spray

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application processes; and during emergencies. Keep in mind that engineering controls
MUST BE USED to the fullest extent feasible.

Protective Clothing and Equipment

The employer must provide personal protective equipment and clothing, at no cost to
the employee, and ensure the proper use of such equipment when the employee is
subject to dermal exposure to MDA; where liquids containing MDA can be splashed into
the eyes; or where airborne concentrations of MDA are in excess of the PEL.

Recommended protective clothing and equipment may include, but are not limited to,
aprons, coveralls, gloves, foot coverings, face-shields, and/or goggles. It is the
employer's responsibility to determine the appropriate PPE and ensure it is used.
However, employees informed of the possibility of their exposure to MDA should take
precautions including reading of the standard associated with it.

Recordkeeping

The employer must keep an accurate record of all measurements taken to monitor
employee MDA exposure for at least 30 years. This record must include:

• The date of measurement.

• The operation involving MDA exposure.
• The sampling and analytical methods used and evidence of their
accuracy.
• The number, duration, and results of samples taken.
• The description of the type of respiratory protective devices used.
• The name, social security number, and exposure of the employees
whose exposures are represented through the information.

Lead

Lead is a very corrosion-resistant, dense, ductile, and malleable blue-gray metal that
has been used for at least 5,000 years. Early uses of lead included building materials,
pigments for glazing ceramics, and pipes for transporting water. The castles and
cathedrals of Europe contain considerable quantities of lead in decorative fixtures,
roofs, pipes, and windows. Prior to the early 1900s, uses of lead in the United States
were primarily for ammunition, brass, burial vault liners, ceramic glazes, leaded glass
and crystal, paints or other protective coatings, pewter, and water lines and pipes.

The advent of the electrical age and communications, which were accelerated by
technological developments in World War I, resulted in the addition of bearing metals,
cable covering, caulking lead, solders, and type metal to the list of lead uses. With the
growth in production of public and private motorized vehicles and the associated use of
starting-lighting-ignition (SLI) lead-acid storage batteries and terne metal for gas tanks
after World War I, demand for lead increased. Most of these uses for lead continued to
increase with the growth in population and the national economy. Contributing to the

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increase in demand for lead was the use of lead as radiation shielding in medical
analysis and video display equipment and as an additive in gasoline.

By the mid-1980s, a significant shift in lead end-use patterns had taken place. Much of
this shift was a result of the U.S. lead consumers compliance with environmental
regulations that significantly reduced or eliminated the use of lead in nonbattery
products, including gasoline, paints, solders, and water systems. More recently, as the
use of lead in nonbattery products has continued to decline, the demand for lead in SLI-
type batteries has continued to grow. In addition, the demand for lead in non-SLI battery
applications also has continued to grow. Non-SLI battery applications include motive
sources of power for industrial forklifts, airport ground equipment, mining equipment,
and a variety of nonroad utility vehicles, as well as stationary sources of power in
uninterruptible electric power systems for hospitals, computer and telecommunications
networks, and load-leveling equipment for electric utility companies.

By the early 2000s, the total demand for lead in all types of lead-acid storage batteries
represented 88% of apparent U.S. lead consumption. Other significant uses included
ammunition (3%), oxides in glass and ceramics (3%), casting metals (2%), and sheet
lead (1%). The remainder was consumed in solders, bearing metals, brass and bronze
billets, covering for cable, caulking lead, and extruded products.

Reproductive Risks

Lead may impair the reproductive systems of both men and women. It can result in
decreased sex drive, impotency, and sterility in men. Lead can also alter the structure of
sperm cell to raise the risk of birth defects. There is evidence of miscarriage and
stillbirth in women whose husbands were exposed to lead or who were exposed to lead
themselves. Lead exposure also may result in decreased fertility, and abnormal
menstrual cycles in women. The course of pregnancy may be adversely affected by
exposure to lead since lead crosses the placental barrier and poses risks to developing
fetuses. Children born of parents either one of whom were exposed to excess lead
levels are more likely to have birth defects, mental retardation, behavioral disorders or
die during the first year of childhood.

Worker Exposure

In construction, lead is used for roofs, cornices, paints, and tank linings. In plumbing,
soft solder, used chiefly for soldering tinplate and copper pipe joints, is often an alloy of
lead and tin. Lead is most commonly taken into the body by inhalation. When workers
breathe in lead as a dust, fume, or mist, their lungs and upper respiratory tract deliver
the lead into the body. They can also absorb lead through the digestive system if it
enters the mouth and is ingested.

Workers potentially at risk for lead exposure include those involved in iron work,
demolition work, painting, lead-based paint abatement, plumbing, heating and air
conditioning maintenance and repair, electrical work, carpentry, renovation, and
remodeling work. Plumbers, welders, demolition workers, and painters are among those
workers most often exposed to lead. Workers at the highest risk of lead exposure are

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often those involved in abrasive blasting, as well as welding, cutting, and burning on
steel structures.

Other operations with the potential to expose workers to lead include:

• Lead burning
• Using lead-containing mortar
• Power tool cleaning without dust collection systems
• Rivet busting
• Cleanup activities where dry expendable abrasives are used
• Movement and removal of abrasive blasting enclosures
• Manual dry scraping and sanding
• Manual demolition of structures
• Heat-gun applications
• Power tool cleaning with dust collection systems
• Spray painting with lead-based paint

Symptoms of Chronic Overexposure

Chronic overexposure to lead may result in severe damage to blood-forming, nervous,

kidney, and reproductive systems. Some common symptoms of chronic overexposure
include:
• Loss of appetite, metallic taste in the mouth, anxiety, constipation, and
nausea.
• Symptoms of pallor, excessive tiredness, weakness, insomnia,
headache, and nervous irritability.
• Muscle and joint pain or soreness, fine tremors, numbness, dizziness,
hyperactivity, and colic (n lead colic, there may be severe abdominal
pain)

Damage to the central nervous system in general and to the brain (encephalopathy) in
particular is one of the most severe forms of lead poisoning. The most severe, often
fatal, form of encephalopathy may be preceded by vomiting, a feeling of dullness
progressing to drowsiness and stupor, poor memory, restlessness, irritability, tremor,
and convulsions. It may arise suddenly with the onset of seizures, followed by coma and
death. There is a tendency for muscular weakness to develop at the same time. This
weakness may progress to paralysis often observed as a characteristic "wrist drop" or
"foot drop" and is a manifestation of a disease to the nervous system called peripheral
neuropathy.

Chronic overexposures to lead also results in kidney disease with few, if any, symptoms
appearing until extensive and most likely permanent kidney damage has occurred.
Routine laboratory tests reveal the presence of this kidney disease only after about two-
thirds of kidney function is lost. When overt symptoms of urinary dysfunction arise, it is
often too late to correct or prevent worsening conditions, and progression to kidney
dialysis or death is possible.

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Click here for more information from health guide for lead published by the Michigan
Department of Labor and Economic Opportunity.

Worker Protection

The most effective means of protecting workers is to minimize their exposure through
engineering controls, good work practices, proper training, and the use of personal
protective clothing and equipment, including respirators where required. The employer
should, as needed, consult a qualified safety and health professional to develop and
implement an effective worker protection program. Some measures employers can use
to protect workers include the following:

• Survey the workplace for lead-containing items. Conduct exposure monitoring as

required by the OSHA standard. This requires air samples to be taken.
• Replace lead-containing products with lead-free or lower lead content products
when possible. Where lead-containing products cannot be replaced, train
workers on hazards and safe work practices.
• Use proper engineering controls to ensure the work area is well-ventilated.
• Ensure workers have appropriate personal protective equipment, such as
goggles, proper respiratory protection, coveralls, gloves, et cetera as required by
the OSHA standard.
• Conduct routine Blood Lead Level testing for workers who are potentially
exposed to lead.
• Make a lead monitoring program available for workers. The program should
consist of biological monitoring and medical surveillance. Such monitoring
programs are required by OSHA if employees are found to be exposed at or
above the lead action level.
• Provide workers with effective lead removal products. Hand washing with
standard soap and water is not effective at removing lead residue from hands.
• If you have concerns that your workers are being exposed to lead, you may
contact NIOSH to have the work environment assessed for free. For more details
visit the NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation website.
• You may also contact the OSHA Consultation Program, a free consultation
service funded by OSHA to find out about potential hazards at your worksites
and improve your occupational safety and health management systems: OSHA
Fact Sheet: The OSHA Consultation Program.
• Refer to OSHA’s lead standard for actions required to ensure your workers are
safe. Contact your state OSHA office to see if your state has additional
requirements.

Protective Clothing and Equipment

Employers must provide workers who are exposed to lead above the PEL, or for whom
the possibility of skin or eye irritation exists, with clean, dry protective work clothing and
equipment that are appropriate for the hazard. Employers must provide these items at
no cost to employees. Appropriate protective work clothing and equipment used on
construction sites includes:

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 • Coveralls or other full-body work clothing
• Gloves, hats, and shoes or disposable shoe coverlets
• Vented goggles or face shields with protective spectacles or goggles
• Welding or abrasive blasting helmets
• Respirators

Workers responsible for handling contaminated clothing, including those in laundry

services or subcontractors, must be informed in writing of the potential health hazard of
lead exposure. At no time shall lead be removed from protective clothing or equipment
by brushing, shaking, or blowing. These actions disperse the lead into the work area.

Recordkeeping

The employer must maintain any employee exposure and medical records to document
ongoing employee exposure, medical monitoring, and medical removal of workers. This
data provides a baseline to evaluate properly the employee's health.

More Information

• Equip power tools used to remove lead-based paint with dust collection
shrouds or other attachments.
• For abrasive blasting operations, build a containment structure that is
designed to optimize the flow of clean ventilation air past the workers'
breathing zones.
• Maintain the affected area under negative pressure to reduce the
chances that lead dust will contaminate areas outside the enclosure.
• Equip the containment structure with an adequately sized dust
collector to control emissions of particulate matter into the
environment.
• Choose materials and chemicals that do not contain lead for
construction projects.
• Replace lead-based painted building components such as windows,
doors, and trim with new components free of lead-containing paint.
• When applying lead paints or other lead-containing coatings, use a
brush or roller rather than a sprayer.
• Use non-silica-containing abrasives, such as steel or iron shot/grit
sand, instead of sand in abrasive blasting operations when practical.
• Put all lead-containing debris and contaminated items accumulated for
disposal into sealed, impermeable bags or other closed impermeable
containers.

Employers are required to post these warning signs in each work area where employee
exposure to lead is above the PEL:

• Warning
• Lead work area
• Poison

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 • No smoking or eating

All signs must be well lit and kept clean so that they are easily visible.

Cadmium

Cadmium is a naturally occurring element found in the earth’s crust. This soft, silver-
white metal was first used commercially in paint pigments and as a substitute for tin in
World War I. Today, about three-fourths of cadmium is used as an electrode component
in alkaline batteries, with the remainder used in pigments, coatings, and plating, and as
a stabilizer for plastics.

Workers in many industries face potential exposure to cadmium. The potential for
exposure is highest among workers in electroplating, metal machining, plastics,
ceramics, paint, and welding operations. The main exposure routes are through
inhalation of dust and fumes and the incidental ingestion of dust from contaminated
hands, food, or cigarettes.

Occupational exposure to cadmium can lead to a variety of adverse health effects

including cancer. Acute inhalation exposure (high levels over a short period of time) to
cadmium can result in flu-like symptoms (chills, fever, and muscle pain) and can
damage the lungs. Chronic exposure (low level over an extended period of time) can
result in kidney, bone, and lung disease.

Symptoms of Chronic Overexposure

The onset of symptoms of cadmium overexposure may be delayed for two to four hours
after exposure. Overexposure may cause fatigue, headaches, nausea, vomiting,
abdominal cramps, diarrhea, and fever. In addition, continued exposure can lead to
progressive loss of lung function (emphysema), abnormal buildup of fluid within the
lungs (pulmonary edema), and breathlessness (dyspnea). In some cases, affected
individuals may exhibit increased salivation, yellowing of the teeth, an unusually rapid
heartbeat (tachycardia), or low levels of iron within the red blood cells (anemia).
Individuals with cadmium poisoning may also experience improper kidney function,
abnormally high levels of protein in the urine (proteinuria), minor changes in liver
function, and/or softening of certain bones (osteomalacia).

Worker Protection

There are exposure limits an employer must observe under the OSHA cadmium
standard. The first is the action level, or AL, which is defined as the airborne level of
cadmium that creates a need for airborne exposure monitoring. A medical surveillance
program should be instituted for employees who are at or above the AL for 30 or more
days per year and a respirator should be provided to any employee who requests one.
The action level for workplace exposure to cadmium is 2.5 micrograms per cubic meter
of air (2.5 µg/m3) calculated as an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA) exposure.

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The second limit is the Permissible Exposure Limit, or PEL, which defines the limit to
which an employee may be exposed to cadmium in the workplace. The PEL is a time-
weighted average concentration that must not be exceeded during any 8-hour work shift
of a 40-hour work week. The standard sets a PEL of 5 micrograms of cadmium per
cubic meter of air (5 µg/m3) for all cadmium compounds, dust, and fumes.

There also is an additional limit known as a Separate Engineering Control Air Limit, or
SECAL, which applies to select and defined industries and processes.

Warning Signs

Employees must be made aware of the dangers associated with exposure to cadmium
in the workplace. Warning signs must be displayed in regulated areas and in all
approaches to regulated areas. (A regulated area is defined as the area in which an
employee may face exposure to cadmium at levels above the PEL.) The signs must be
illuminated, cleaned, and maintained so that the legend is readily visible, and they must
include the following words:

• Danger
• Cadmium
• Cancer hazard
• Can cause lung and kidney disease
• Authorized personnel only
• Respirators required in this area

Compliance Program

In any workplace with exposure levels above the PEL or SECAL, a written compliance
program must be established and implemented to reduce employee exposure to or
below the PEL by means of engineering and work practice controls. If engineering and
work practice controls cannot reduce exposure to or below the PEL, the employer must
include the use of appropriate respiratory protection in the written compliance program
to achieve compliance with the PEL.

Employee Training

Employees must receive training prior to or at the time of their initial assignment to a
position that involves potential exposure to cadmium and at least annually thereafter.
Required training elements include:

• Explanation of the health hazards associated with cadmium exposure

• Information about where and how cadmium is used, stored, and
released at the worksite
• Explanation of engineering controls and work practices to control
exposure to cadmium exposure
• Description of measures employees can take to protect themselves
from cadmium exposure, such as modification of smoking, personal
hygiene precautions, and appropriate work practices

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 • Information on the purpose, selection, fitting, use, and limitations of
personal protective equipment used to protect from cadmium exposure
• Explanation of the medical surveillance program and informing
employees of their rights of access to records

Lesson Summary

• Respirable crystalline silica refers to very small particles of silica, often

created during high-energy operations like cutting, sawing, grinding,
and drilling, that are breathable and can cause severe health
problems, including silicosis.
• There are two types of silicosis:
o Acute silicosis develops after a few months or as long as 2
years following exposures to extremely high concentrations of
respirable crystalline silica.
o Chronic silicosis usually occurs when exposed at moderate to
low concentrations of respirable crystalline silica for 15-20
years.
• Asbestos is the generic term for a group of naturally occurring, fibrous
minerals with high tensile strength, flexibility, and resistance to heat,
chemicals, and electricity. In the construction industry, asbestos is
found in installed products such as sprayed-on fireproofing, pipe
insulation, floor tiles, cement pipe and sheet, roofing felts and shingles,
ceiling tiles, fire-resistant drywall, drywall joint compounds, and
acoustical products.
• Asbestos is rarely installed today so most exposure results from
renovation or demolition work. Inhaling asbestos can cause various
kinds of cancer as well as asbestosis, which affects the lungs.
Smoking greatly increases your chance of developing asbestosis.
• Methylenedianiline (MDA) is a light-brown crystalline solid with a faint
odor that is soluble in alcohol and benzene and slightly soluble in
water. It is used for making polyurethane foams, which have a variety
of uses including as insulating materials. It is also used for making
coating materials, epoxy glues, dyes, and rubber.
• Short-term (acute) overexposure to MDA may produce symptoms such
as fever, chills, loss of appetite, vomiting, and/or jaundice. Short-term
contact with MDA may irritate the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes,
and sensitization to MDA may also occur. Long-term (chronic)
overexposure may cause cancer as well as damage to the liver,
kidneys, blood, and spleen. Employers must provide workers with
respiratory protection if they will be working with MDA.
• Lead is a very corrosion-resistant, dense, ductile, and malleable blue-
gray metal that has been used for at least 5,000 years. However,
chronic overexposure to lead may result in severe damage to blood-
forming, nervous, kidney, and reproductive systems.
• In construction, lead is used for roofs, cornices, paints, and tank
linings. In plumbing, soft solder, used chiefly for soldering tinplate and
copper pipe joints, is often an alloy of lead and tin.

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 • The most effective means of protecting workers is to minimize their
exposure through engineering controls, good work practices, proper
training, and the use of personal protective clothing and equipment,
including respirators where required.
• Workers in many industries face potential exposure to cadmium. The
potential for exposure is highest among workers in electroplating,
metal machining, plastics, ceramics, paint, and welding operations.
The main exposure routes are through inhalation of dust and fumes
and the incidental ingestion of dust from contaminated hands, food, or
cigarettes.
• Overexposure to cadmium may cause fatigue, headaches, nausea,
vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, and fever.

Module 6: Stairways and Ladders

Module Description
Stairways and ladders are the major sources of workplace injuries and fatalities for
construction workers. According to Bureau of Labor statistics, 24% of the 645
construction fatalities in 2009 resulted from falls from ladders and on stairs. Additionally,
tens of thousands of workers were injured in these types of accidents with almost half of
these injuries being serious in nature.

This module gives you a basic understanding of OSHA standards and the role they play
in the prevention and elimination of work-related injuries and fatalities due to stairways
and ladders.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

• Discuss OSHA standards related to stairways and ladders

• Discover methods of protection concerning stairways and ladder
hazards
• Explore safety guidelines and requirements of stairways and ladders
used at construction sites
• Explain training and other essential factors associated with stairways
and ladders

Lesson 1: OSHA Standards and Stairways

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe the OSHA standards pertaining to stairways

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 • Describe the OSHA standards pertaining to stair-rails and handrails
• Explain the dangerous conditions arising from stairways

OSHA Standards for Stairways

The OSHA standards are applicable to all stairways and ladders used in alteration,
construction, repair (including painting and decorating), and demolition work sites
covered by OSHA's construction safety and health standards. The OSHA standards are
not applicable to ladders that are purposely manufactured and used for scaffolds
access and egress. These ladders are covered under the Scaffolding standard. It is
mandatory for employers to provide a stairway or ladder at points of access where the
elevation between 2 steps is 19 inches or more.

The following requirements apply to all stairways as indicated:

• Stairways that will not be a permanent part of the structure on which

construction work is being performed should have landings measuring
no less than 30 inches (76 cm) in the direction of travel and extending
at least 22 inches (56 cm) in width, which should be located at every
12 feet (3.7 m) or less of vertical rise.
• Stairs should be installed between 30 degrees and 50 degrees from
horizontal.
• Riser height and tread depth should be uniform within each flight of
stairs, including any foundation structure used as one or more treads
of the stairs. Variations in riser height or tread depth should not be over
1/4-inch (0.6 cm) in any stairway system.
• Where doors or gates open directly on a stairway, a platform should be
provided, and the swing of the door must not reduce the effective width
of the platform to less than 20 inches (51 cm).
• Metal pan landings and metal pan treads, when used, should be
secured in place before filling with concrete or other material.
• All parts of stairways should be free of hazardous projections, such as
protruding nails.
• Slippery conditions on stairways should be eliminated before the
stairways are used to reach other levels.
• Except during stairway construction, foot traffic is prohibited on
stairways with pan stairs where the treads and/or landings are to be
filled in with concrete or other material at a later date, unless the stairs
are temporarily fitted with wood or other solid material at least to the
top edge of each pan. Such temporary treads and landings shall be
replaced when worn below the level of the top edge of the pan.
• Except during stairway construction, foot traffic is prohibited on
skeleton metal stairs where permanent treads and/or landings are to
be installed at a later date, unless the stairs are fitted with secured
temporary treads and landings long enough to cover the entire tread
and/or landing area.

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 • Treads for temporary service should be made of wood or other solid
material and be installed the full width and depth of the stair.

OSHA Standards for Stair-rails and Handrails

•
The following requirements apply to all stair-rails and handrails as indicated:
•
• Stairways having four or more risers, or rising more than 30 inches (76
cm), should be equipped with at least one handrail and one stair-rail
system along each unprotected side or edge.
• Winding and spiral stairways should be equipped with a handrail offset
sufficiently to prevent walking on those portions of the stairways where
the tread width is less than 6 inches (15 cm).
• The height of stair-rails shall be as follows:
o Stair-rails installed after March 15, 1991, must be no less than
36 inches (91.5 cm) from the upper surface of the stair rail
system to the surface of the tread, in line with the face of the
riser at the forward edge of the tread.
o Stair-rails installed before March 15, 1991, should be no less
than 30 inches (76 cm) nor more than 34 inches (86 cm) from
the upper surface of the stair-rail system to the surface of the
tread, in line with the face of the riser at the forward edge of the
tread.
• Midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate vertical members, or equivalent
intermediate structural members should be provided between the top
rail of the stair-rail system and the stairway steps.
• Midrails, when used, should be located at a height midway between
the top edge of the stair-rail system and the stairway steps.
• Screens or mesh, when used, should extend from the top rail to the
stairway step, and along the entire opening between top rail supports.
• When intermediate vertical members, such as balusters, are used
between posts, they should be no more than 19 inches (48 cm) apart.
• Other structural members, when used, should be installed such that
there are no openings in the stair-rail system that are more than 19
inches (48 cm) wide.
• Handrails and the top rails of stair-rail systems should be capable of
withstanding, without failure, a force of at least 200 pounds (890 n)
applied within 2 inches (5 cm) of the top edge, in any downward or
outward direction, at any point along the top edge.
• The height of handrails should be no more than 37 inches (94 cm) nor
less than 30 inches (76 cm) from the upper surface of the handrail to
the surface of the tread, in line with the face of the riser at the forward
edge of the tread.
• When the top edge of a stair-rail system also serves as a handrail, the
height of the top edge should be no more than 37 inches (94 cm) nor
less than 36 inches (91.5 cm) from the upper surface of the stair-rail

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 system to the surface of the tread, in line with the face of the riser at
the forward edge of the tread.
• Stair-rail systems and handrails should be surfaced to prevent injury to
employees from punctures or lacerations, and to prevent snagging of
clothing.
• Handrails should provide an adequate handhold for employees
grasping them to avoid falling.
• The ends of stair-rail systems and handrails should be constructed so
as not to constitute a projection hazard.
• Handrails that will not be a permanent part of the structure being built
should have a minimum clearance of 3 inches (8 cm] between the
handrail and walls, stair-rail systems, and other objects.
• Unprotected sides and edges of stairway landings should be provided
with guardrail systems.

Dangerous Conditions

It is vital to immediately fix or address potentially dangerous conditions (such as slippery

steps or rungs). Otherwise, they could be the cause of an accident. Furthermore, all
stairway parts must be free from dangerous projections such as protruding nails.

Stairways not built to OSHA’s specifications can also create dangerous conditions. For
example, if the angle of the stairway’s pitch is too steep it can lead to unnecessary
strain on workers as well as causing them to trip and fall. Shoddy or improperly built
handrails and stair-rails can also lead to falls or dropped objects. Injuries on stairways
can be severe and both employers and workers must be vigilant when using stairways
at worksites.

Case Study

Victim Fell Due to Grease on Stairways

A worker in a building under construction was wearing a pair of tennis shoes and was
using a stairway to reach the second floor of the building. The victim fell 10 feet from the
stairway directly onto the ground. He was immediately transferred to the hospital where
doctors determined that his spinal cord was severely damaged when he hit the ground.

What went wrong?

• There was some grease or other slippery substance on the stairway at

the time of the incident.
• The victim was wearing tennis shoes at the time of the incident—tennis
shoes may become extremely hazardous with any greasy or slippery
substance.
• No safety measures had been taken (such as a guardrail, stair rail).
• The victim had not received any safety and health education.

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Lesson Summary

• It is mandatory for employers to provide a stairway or ladder at points

of access where the elevation between 2 steps is 19 inches or more.
• Stairs should be installed between 30 degrees and 50 degrees from
horizontal.
• Riser height and tread depth should be uniform within each flight of
stairs, including any foundation structure used as one or more treads
of the stairs
• Stairways having four or more risers, or rising more than 30 inches (76
cm), should be equipped with at least one handrail and one stair-rail
system along each unprotected side or edge.
• Other structural members, when used, should be installed such that
there are no openings in the stair-rail system that are more than 19
inches (48 cm) wide.
• It is vital to immediately fix or address potentially dangerous conditions
(such as slippery steps or rungs). Otherwise, they could be the cause
of an accident. Furthermore, all stairway parts must be free from
dangerous projections such as protruding nails.
•
Lesson 2: Ladders and Training
Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe the proper use of ladders

• Explain how ladder training should be conducted and what it should
include

Using Ladders

The following rules apply to all ladders:

• Maintain ladders free of oil, grease and other slipping hazards.

• Do not load ladders beyond their maximum intended load nor beyond
their manufacturer’s rated capacity.
• Use ladders only for their designed purpose.
• Use ladders only on stable and level surfaces unless secured to
prevent accidental movement.
• Do not use ladders on slippery surfaces unless secured or provided
with slip-resistant feet to prevent accidental movement. Do not use slip
resistant feet as a substitute for exercising care when placing, lashing,
or holding a ladder on slippery surfaces.
• Secure ladders placed in areas such as passageways, doorways,
driveways, or anywhere else they can be displaced by workplace

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 activities or traffic, to prevent accidental movement. Alternatively, use a
barricade to keep traffic or activity away from the ladder.
• Keep areas clear around the top and bottom of ladders.
• Do not move, shift or extend ladders while in use.
• Use ladders equipped with nonconductive side rails if the worker or the
ladder could contact exposed energized electrical equipment.
• Face the ladder when moving up or down.
• Use at least one hand to grasp the ladder when climbing.
• Do not carry objects or loads that could cause loss of balance and
falling.
• Do not use single-rail ladders.

Choosing the Right Ladder

Ladders are built from one of three basic materials: wood, fiberglass, and metal
(aluminum). The environment of your work site is the first factor in choosing the material
from which your ladder is constructed. For example, if you are working near sources of
electricity, a metal ladder should be rejected since aluminum is an electrical conductor.
Your body can complete an electrical circuit between the electrical power source, the
ladder, and then to the ground in the event of a live wire contact incident. An electrical
shock while working from a ladder can trigger a fall or cause your heart to stop leading
to serious injury or death. On the other hand, if there are no electrical power sources in
your work area, the aluminum ladder is the lightest weight when compared to fiberglass
or wood.

There are several kinds of ladders manufactured for a variety of uses. Again, evaluation
of your work environment and knowledge of what ladders are available will allow you to
choose the right ladder for the job. Each of the following considerations addresses
safety issues in your work environment:

• Will the ladder be resting on an uneven surface?

• Is the work area crowded with people and/or materials?
• What obstructions are in the path of the climb?

Next, the proper ladder length must be selected. It is unsafe to use a ladder that is too
long or too short. When using a Step Ladder, for example, standing on the top cap or
the step below the top cap is not permitted due to the increased likelihood of losing your
balance. Likewise, when using an Extension Ladder, the top three rungs are not to be
used for climbing. A Straight Ladder is too long, for example, if ceiling height prohibits
the ladder from being set-up at the proper angle. Likewise, an Extension Ladder is too
long if the ladder extends more than three (3) feet beyond the upper support point. In
this case, the portion of the ladder that extends above the upper support point can act
like a lever and cause the base of the ladder to move or slide out. Safety standards
require a label on the ladder to indicate the highest standing level.

Finally, consider the Duty Rating of the ladder. This is an indication of the maximum
weight capacity the ladder can safely carry. To figure out the total amount of weight your
ladder will be supporting, add:

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 • Your weight, plus
• The weight of your clothing and protective equipment, plus
• The weight of tools and supplies you are carrying, plus
• The weight of tools and supplies stored on the ladder

There are five categories of ladder Duty Ratings:

Type IAA (Extra Heavy Duty) 375 pounds

Type IA (Extra Heavy Duty) 300 pounds
Type I (Heavy Duty) 250 pounds
Type II (Medium Duty) 225 pounds
Type III (Light Duty) 200 pounds

The Duty Rating of your ladder can be found on the specifications label. Safety
standards require a Duty Rating sticker to be placed on the side of every ladder. Do not
assume that a longer ladder has a higher weight capacity. There is no relationship
between ladder length and weight capacity.

Portable Ladders

Portable ladders are those ladders that can be readily moved or carried. Before using
portable ladders always inspect for cracks, dents, and missing rungs.

The minimum clear distance between side rails for all portable ladders must be 11.5
inches (29 cm). In addition, the rungs and steps of portable metal ladders must be
corrugated, knurled, dimpled, coated with skid-resistant material, or treated to minimize
slipping.

Non-self-supporting and self-supporting portable ladders must support at least four

times the maximum intended load; extra heavy-duty type 1A metal or plastic ladders
must sustain 3.3 times the maximum intended load. To determine whether a self-
supporting ladder can sustain a certain load, apply the load to the ladder in a downward
vertical direction with the ladder placed at a horizontal angle of 75.5 degrees.

When portable ladders are used for access to an upper landing surface, the side rails
must extend at least 3 feet (.9 m) above the upper landing surface. When such an
extension is not possible, the ladder must be secured and a grasping device such as a
grab rail must be provided to assist workers in mounting and dismounting the ladder. A
ladder extension must not deflect under a load that would cause the ladder to slip off its
supports.

Stepladders

Some safety rules pertaining specifically to stepladders include the following:

• Do not use the top or top step of a stepladder as a step.

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 • Do not use cross bracing on the rear section of stepladders for
climbing unless the ladders are designed and provided with steps for
climbing on both front and rear sections.
• Metal spreader or locking devices must be provided on stepladders to
hold the front and back sections in an open position when ladders are
being used.

Fixed Ladders

If the total length of the climb on a fixed ladder equals or exceeds 24 feet (7.3 m), the
ladder must be equipped with one of the following:

• Ladder safety devices

• Self-retracting lifelines and rest platforms at intervals not to exceed 150
feet (45.7 m)
• A cage or well and multiple ladder sections with each ladder section
not to exceed 50 feet (15.2 m) in length. These ladder sections must
be offset from adjacent sections and landing platforms must be
provided at maximum intervals of 50 feet (15.2 m).

In addition, fixed ladders must meet the following requirements:

• Fixed ladders must be able to support at least two loads of 250 pounds
(114 kg) each, concentrated between any two consecutive
attachments. Fixed ladders also must support added anticipated loads
caused by ice buildup, winds, rigging, and impact loads resulting from
using ladder safety devices.
• Individual rung/step ladders must extend at least 42 inches (1.1 m)
above an access level or landing platform either by the continuation of
the rung spacings as horizontal grab bars or by providing vertical grab
bars that must have the same lateral spacing as the vertical legs of the
ladder rails.

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 • Each step or rung of a fixed ladder must be able to support a load of at
least 250 pounds (114 kg) applied in the middle of the step or rung.
• Minimum clear distance between the sides of individual rung/step
ladders and between the side rails of other fixed ladders must be 16
inches (41 cm).
• Rungs of individual rung/step ladders must be shaped to prevent
slipping off the end of the rungs.
• Rungs and steps of fixed metal ladders manufactured after March 15,
1991, must be corrugated, knurled, dimpled, coated with skid-resistant
material, or treated to minimize slipping.
• Minimum perpendicular clearance between fixed ladder rungs, cleats,
and steps and any obstruction behind the ladder must be 7 inches (18
cm), except that the clearance for an elevator pit ladder must be 4.5
inches (11 cm).
• Minimum perpendicular clearance between the centerline of fixed
ladder rungs, cleats and steps, and any obstruction on the climbing
side of the ladder must be 30 inches (76 cm). If obstructions are
unavoidable, clearance may be reduced to 24 inches (61 cm), provided
a deflection device is installed to guide workers around the obstruction.
• Step-across distance between the center of the steps or rungs of fixed
ladders and the nearest edge of a landing area must be no less than 7
inches (18 cm) and no more than 12 inches (30 cm). A landing
platform must be provided if the step-across distance exceeds 12
inches (30 cm).
• Fixed ladders without cages or wells must have at least a 15-inch (38
cm) clearance width to the nearest permanent object on each side of
the centerline of the ladder.
• Fixed ladders must be provided with cages, wells, ladder safety
devices or self-retracting lifelines where the length of climb is less than
24 feet (7.3 m) but the top of the ladder is at a distance greater than 24
feet (7.3 m) above lower levels.
• Side rails of through or side-step fixed ladders must extend 42 inches
(1.1 m) above the top level or landing platform served by the ladder.
Parapet ladders must have an access level at the roof if the parapet is
cut to permit passage through it. If the parapet is continuous, the
access level is the top of the parapet.
• Steps or rungs for through-fixed-ladder extensions must be omitted
from the extension; and the extension of side rails must be flared to
provide between 24 inches (61 cm) and 30 inches (76 cm) clearance
between side rails.
• When safety devices are provided, the maximum clearance distance
between side rail extensions must not exceed 36 inches (91 cm).
• Fixed ladders must be used at a pitch no greater than 90 degrees from
the horizontal, measured from the back side of the ladder.

Damaged and Defective Ladders

Ladders needing repairs are subject to the following rules:

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 • Portable ladders with structural defects—such as broken or missing
rungs, cleats or steps, broken or split rails, corroded components or
other faulty or defective components—must immediately be marked
defective or tagged with "Do Not Use" or similar language and
withdrawn from service until repaired.
• Fixed ladders with structural defects—such as broken or missing
rungs, cleats or steps, broken or split rails or corroded components—
must be withdrawn from service until repaired.
• Defective fixed ladders are considered withdrawn from use when they
are immediately tagged with "Do Not Use" or similar language, or
marked in a manner that identifies them as defective or blocked—such
as with a plywood attachment that spans several rungs.
• Ladder repairs must restore the ladder to a condition meeting its
original design criteria before the ladder is returned to use.

Other Information

• Ladders must be constructed with nonconductive side rails if they are

used in places where the employee or the ladder could contact
exposed energized electrical equipment.
• Employees should always face the ladder when going up or down.
They should grab the ladder with at least one hand while mounting or
dismounting, and each employee must never carry any load or object
that could cause the employee to lose balance and fall.
• A double-cleated ladder or two or more single ladders should be
provided when ladders are the only way to enter and exit a working
area with 25 or more employees and when ladders are used for two-
way simultaneous traffic.
• Non-self-supporting ladders must be placed or positioned at an angle
where the horizontal distance from the top support to the foot of the
ladder is 1/4 the working length of the ladder. Working length of a
ladder is the distance along the ladder between foot and top support.

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 • When portable ladders are used to access an upper landing surface,
the side rails must extend at least three feet above the upper landing
surface. When such an extension is not possible, the ladder must be
secured, and a grasping device such as a grab rail must be provided to
assist workers in mounting and dismounting the ladder.
• Fixed ladders must be able to support at least two loads of 250 pounds
each, concentrated between any two consecutive attachments. They
must also support added anticipated loads caused by ice buildup,
winds, rigging and impact loads resulting from using ladder safety
devices.

Training

Employers must train all employees to recognize hazards related to ladders and
stairways and instruct them to minimize these hazards. For example, employers must
ensure that each employee is trained by a competent person in the following areas, as
applicable:

• Nature of fall hazards in the work area

• Correct procedures for erecting, maintaining and disassembling the fall
protection systems to be used
• Proper construction, use, placement and care in handling of all
stairways and ladders
• Maximum intended load-carrying capacities of ladders used

Note: Employers must retrain each employee as necessary to maintain their

understanding and knowledge on the safe use and construction of ladders and stairs.

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Definitions

• Cleat: A ladder crosspiece of rectangular cross section placed on edge

upon which a person may step while ascending or descending a
ladder.
• Double-cleat ladder: A ladder with a center rail to allow simultaneous
two-way traffic for employees ascending or descending.
• Failure: Load refusal, breakage or separation of components.
• Fixed ladder: A ladder that cannot be readily moved or carried because
it is an integral part of a building or structure.
• Handrail: A rail used to provide employees with a handhold for support.
• Job-made ladder: A ladder that is fabricated by employees, typically at
the construction site; noncommercially manufactured.
• Load refusal: The point where the structural members lose their ability
to carry the load.
• Point of access: All areas used by employees for work-related passage
from one area or level to another.
• Portable ladder: A ladder that can be readily moved or carried.
• Riser height: The vertical distance from the top of a tread or
platform/landing to the top of the next higher tread or platform/landing.
• Side-step fixed ladder: A fixed ladder that requires a person to get off
at the top to step to the side of the ladder side rails to reach the
landing.
• Single-cleat ladder: A ladder consisting of a pair of side rails connected
together by cleats, rungs, or steps.
• Stair rail system: A vertical barrier erected along the unprotected sides
and edges of a stairway to prevent employees from falling to lower
levels.
• Temporary service stairway: A stairway where permanent treads
and/or landings are to be filled in at a later date.
• Through fixed ladder: A fixed ladder that requires a person getting off
at the top to step between the side rails of the ladder to reach the
landing.
• Tread depth: The horizontal distance from front to back of a tread,
excluding nosing, if any.

Case Studies

Two Painters Electrocuted

Two workers were painting the light poles outside of a restaurant. The victims were
using an airless spray gun to paint the pole and a 36-foot aluminum extension ladder to
reach the top of the pole. A 12,460-volt power line was located approximately 21 feet
above the ground. The actual length to which the ladder had been extended at the time
of the accident is unknown (no eyewitnesses), but it is known to have at least extended
beyond the crossbar.

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One victim was standing on the ladder painting the crossbar at the top of the light pole.
The second victim was standing on the ground steadying the ladder. The owner of the
restaurant, who had been checking the progress of the two workers, heard a scream as
he was walking back to the restaurant. He turned and saw the painter and the ladder
falling to the ground. The other worker who had been steadying the ladder was lying on
the ground. The owner called the fire department rescue squad and they reached the
place immediately, but after a few minutes of their life saving efforts the painters were
pronounced dead.

What went wrong?

There were no eyewitnesses of the accident, so the following reasons are based on the
investigation conducted immediately after the accident:

• It is assumed that the ladder slid horizontally along the crossbar and
the victim on the ladder contacted the power line.
• The current passed through the victim and the ladder to the ground.
The current also passed through to the second victim (holding the
ladder) to the ground.
There were two factors present that may have contributed to this accident:

• First, the ladder was placed on uneven ground and wooden blocks
were placed under one leg of the ladder in an effort to provide an even
surface. It is possible the blocks may have slid out from under the
ladder.
• Secondly, the top rung of the ladder was damaged. The victim may
have leaned on this damaged rung and lost his balance, causing the
ladder to slide along the crossbar.

The victims had also not received any safety and health training.

Fall Due to Electrocution

An employee was holding a small aluminum ladder beneath energized power lines. As
he climbed to the top of the ladder to access a roof, the small ladder came into contact
with 3600-volt power lines.

A bystander who witnessed the accident said that the victim shook for a few moments,
and then fell backwards from the ladder onto the hard ground below. The worker was
taken to the hospital where he died the next day as a result of injuries sustained from
the fall.

What went wrong?

• The worker moved the aluminum ladder only a few feet and proceeded
to climb the ladder. As the aluminum ladder came in contact with the
high-voltage power lines, the worker was immediately electrocuted and
fell backwards from the ladder.

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 • The worker was not wearing electrical safety gloves.
• His death was directly related to his injuries from the fall and indirectly
related to the electrical shock.

Lesson Summary

• Evaluation of your work environment and knowledge of what ladders

are available will allow you to choose the right ladder for the job. Each
of the following considerations addresses safety issues in your work
environment:
o Will the ladder be resting on an uneven surface?
o Is the work area crowded with people and/or materials?
o What obstructions are in the path of the climb?
• Portable ladders are those ladders that can be readily moved or
carried. Before using portable ladders always inspect for cracks, dents,
and missing rungs.
• Do not use the top or top step of a stepladder as a step.
• Fixed ladders must be able to support at least two loads of 250 pounds
(114 kg) each, concentrated between any two consecutive
attachments. Fixed ladders also must support added anticipated loads
caused by ice buildup, winds, rigging, and impact loads resulting from
using ladder safety devices. If the total length of the climb on a fixed
ladder equals or exceeds 24 feet (7.3 m), the ladder must be equipped
with one of the following:
o Ladder safety devices
o Self-retracting lifelines and rest platforms at intervals not to
exceed 150 feet (45.7 m)
o A cage or well and multiple ladder sections with each ladder
section not to exceed 50 feet (15.2 m) in length. These ladder
sections must be offset from adjacent sections and landing
platforms must be provided at maximum intervals of 50 feet
(15.2 m).
• Ladders should be regularly inspected for defects or damage, and
removed from service until any defects or damaged parts are repaired.
• Employers must train all employees to recognize hazards related to
ladders and stairways and instruct them to minimize these hazards.

Lesson 3: Safety Measures

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe ladder safety requirements

• Explain the factors that go into designing, constructing, maintaining,
and inspecting ladders

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Ladder Safety Requirements

• Training: Employers should ensure that all employees who use

ladders with a working height of six feet (1.82 m) or more receive the
necessary training, such as how to inspect ladders and use such
ladders properly.
• Proper Usage: Ladders should be used only for the purposes for
which they were designed. Non-self-supporting ladders should be used
at an angle such that the horizontal distance from the top support to
the foot of the ladder is approximately one-fourth of the working length
of the ladder (the distance along the ladder between the foot and top
support).
• Rails: When ladders are used for access to an upper landing surface,
the ladder side rails should extend at least three feet (0.9 m) above the
upper landing surface to which the ladder is used to gain access.
When such an extension is not possible because of the ladder's length,
the ladder should be secured at the top and a grasping device, such as
a grab rail, should be provided to assist employees in mounting and
dismounting the ladder.
• Stability: Ladders should be used only on stable and level surfaces
unless secured to prevent their accidental displacement. Non-self-
supporting ladders should not be used on slippery surfaces unless
secured or provided with slip-resistant feet to prevent accidental
displacement. Single-rail ladders shall not be used.
• Safety ladders should not be moved, shifted, or extended while
occupied by employees. Ladders placed in any location where they
can be displaced by other activities or traffic, such as in passageways,
doorways, or driveways, should be secured to prevent accidental
displacement, or a barricade should be used to keep the activities or
traffic away from the ladder.
• Ladder Repairs: All ladder repairs should be made by a qualified
person trained and familiar with the design and the proper procedures
for repairing defective components. Ladders should be inspected for
visible defects prior to the first use each work shift, and after any
occurrence that could affect their safe use.
• Ladder Tops: The top of a non-self-supporting ladder should be
placed with both rails supported, unless it is equipped with a single
support attachment.
• Emergency escape ladders should comply with all applicable OSHA
requirements except those requiring fall protection systems.

Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Inspection

Portable Ladders: Load Capacity

Portable ladders must be capable of supporting, without failure, the following loads:

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 • Each non-self-supporting ladder must support at least four times the
maximum intended load applied or transmitted to the ladder in a
downward and vertical direction when the ladder is placed at a 75 ½
degree angle from the horizontal.
• Each self-supporting ladder must support at least four times the
maximum intended load in a fully opened position on a level surface.

Portable Ladders: Duty Ratings

The working loads corresponding to the duty ratings of portable ladders that pass the
applicable ANSI test requirements must be as follows:

Duty Rating Ladder Type Working Load (lbs) Working Load (kg)
Special Duty IAA 375 170.4
Extra heavy duty IA 300 136.2
Heavy duty I 250 113.5
Medium duty II 225 102.2
Light duty III 200 90.8

Portable Ladders: Maximum Load

The maximum intended load used for the design of portable ladders should be at least
200 pounds (90.6 kg). The combined weight of the employee using the portable ladder
and any tools and supplies carried by the employee should not exceed the maximum
intended load of the ladder.

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Fixed Ladders: Load Capacity

Fixed ladders should be capable of supporting at least two loads of at least 250 pounds
(114 kg) each, concentrated between any two consecutive attachments, plus
anticipated loads caused by ice buildup, winds, rigging, and impact loads resulting from
the use of ladder safety devices.

The number and position of additional concentrated loads of 250 pounds (114 kg) each,
determined from anticipated usage of the ladder, shall also be included in determining
the capabilities of fixed ladders. Each step or rung shall be capable of supporting at
least a single concentrated load of 250 pounds (114 kg) applied in the middle of the
step or rung.

Ladder Rungs

Ladder rungs and steps should be parallel, level, and uniformly spaced when the ladder
is in position for use. They should be spaced no less than 10 inches (25 cm) apart and
no more than 14 inches (36 cm) apart as measured between the centerlines of the
rungs, cleats, or steps. Ladder rungs and steps should have a minimum clear width of
16 inches (41 cm) for individual-rung and fixed ladders, and 11-1/2 inches (29 cm) for all
portable ladders, as measured between the ladder side rails.

The narrow rungs located on the tapered ends of window washers’ ladders, fruit pickers’
ladders, and similar ladders, which are not designed to be stepped on, are exempt from
the minimum rung width requirement.

Other Information

• Wood ladders should not be coated with any opaque covering, except
for identification or warning labels which may be placed on one face
only of a side rail. Metal ladders must be protected against corrosion.
• The minimum toe clearance between the centerline of ladder rungs
and steps and any obstructions behind the ladder should be seven
inches (18 cm).
• The minimum perpendicular clearance between the centerline of fixed
ladder rungs and steps and any obstruction on the climbing side of the
ladder should be 30 inches (76 cm).
• When unavoidable obstructions are encountered, the minimum
perpendicular clearance between the centerline of fixed ladder rungs
and steps and the obstruction on the climbing side of the ladder may
be reduced to 24 inches (61 cm) provided that a deflection device is
installed to guide employees around the obstruction.
• Fixed ladders should be equipped with personal fall protection systems
or with cages, or wells, wherever the length of any climb on any fixed
ladder exceeds 24 feet (7.3 m), or wherever the top of the ladder is at
a distance greater than 24 feet (7.3 m) above lower levels.
• Cages and wells provided for fixed ladders shall be designed to permit
easy access to or egress from the ladder that they enclose. The cages

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 and wells shall be continuous throughout the length of the fixed ladder
except for access, egress, and other transfer points. Cages and wells
shall be designed and constructed to contain employees in the event of
a fall, and to direct them to a lower landing.
• The length of continuous climb for any fixed ladder equipped only with
a cage or a well shall not exceed 50 feet (15.2 m).
• Fixed ladders with continuous lengths of climb greater than 150 feet
(45.7 m) shall be provided with rest platforms and self-retracting
lifelines at least every 150 feet (45.7 m) or a cage or well and multiple
ladder sections with each ladder section not to exceed 50 feet (15.2 m)
in length.
• Except where portable ladders are used to access fixed ladders,
ladders shall be offset with a landing platform between each ladder
when two or more separate ladders are used to reach a work area.
• Ladder surfaces shall be free of puncture or laceration hazards. Fixed
individual rung ladders shall be constructed to prevent the employee's
feet from sliding off the end. A ladder that might contact un-insulated
energized electrical equipment shall have nonconductive side rails.
• Ladders having a pitch in excess of 90 degrees from the horizontal
shall not be permitted. The step-across distance from the centerline of
the steps or rungs of a fixed ladder to the nearest edge of the
structure, building, or equipment accessed shall not exceed 12 inches
(30 cm).
• Ladders and ladder sections, unless so designed, shall not be tied or
fastened together to provide longer length. Ladders and ladder
sections shall not have their length increased by other means unless
specifically designed for the means employed.

Lesson Summary

• Employers should ensure that all employees who use ladders with a
working height of six feet (1.82 m) or more receive the necessary
training, such as how to inspect ladders and use such ladders properly.
• Ladders should be used only for the purposes for which they were
designed. When ladders are used for access to an upper landing
surface, the ladder side rails should extend at least three feet (0.9 m)
above the upper landing surface to which the ladder is used to gain
access.
• Do not load ladders beyond their maximum intended load nor beyond
their manufacturer’s rated capacity. Use ladders only for their designed
purpose. Use ladders only on stable and level surfaces unless secured
to prevent accidental movement.
• Do not use ladders on slippery surfaces unless secured or provided
with slip-resistant feet to prevent accidental movement. Do not use slip
resistant feet as a substitute for exercising care when placing, lashing,
or holding a ladder on slippery surfaces.

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 • Ladders should be used only on stable and level surfaces unless
secured to prevent their accidental displacement. Non-self-supporting
ladders should not be used on slippery surfaces unless secured or
provided with slip-resistant feet to prevent accidental displacement.
Single-rail ladders shall not be used.
• Ladders placed in any location where they can be displaced by other
activities or traffic, such as in passageways, doorways, or driveways,
should be secured to prevent accidental displacement, or a barricade
should be used to keep the activities or traffic away from the ladder.
• All ladder repairs should be made by a qualified person trained and
familiar with the design and the proper procedures for repairing
defective components.
• Portable ladders must be capable of supporting, without failure, at least
four times the maximum intended load applied or transmitted to the
ladder in a downward and vertical direction when the ladder is placed
at a 75 ½ degree angle from the horizontal.
• Fixed ladders should be capable of supporting at least two loads of at
least 250 pounds (114 kg) each, concentrated between any two
consecutive attachments, plus anticipated loads caused by ice buildup,
winds, rigging, and impact loads resulting from the use of ladder safety
devices.
• Ladder rungs and steps should be parallel, level, and uniformly spaced
when the ladder is in position for use.

Module 7: Concrete and Masonry Construction

Module Description
This module is designed for construction workers who want to learn about safely
working with concrete and masonry projects and addresses the requirements necessary
to protect all construction employees from the hazards associated with concrete and
masonry construction operations performed in workplaces covered under applicable
OSHA standards. In addition to the requirements in Subpart Q, other relevant provisions
in Parts 1910 and 1926 apply to concrete and masonry construction operations. Topics
include general requirements for formwork and masonry construction.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

• Describe post-tensioning operations requirements

• Identify the requirements relating to working under loads
• Discuss the requirements concerned with Personal Protective
Equipment
• Identify and defend the lockout/tagout procedures requirements
• Summarize the requirements relating to pre-cast concrete

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Lesson 1: Concrete and Masonry Construction (Part 1)
Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe the general requirements pertaining to the following concrete

tools and operations:
o Post-Tensioning Operations
o Concrete Buckets
o Bulk Concrete Storage
o Concrete Pumping Systems
o Power Concrete Trowels
o Concrete Buckets
o Bull Floats
o Masonry Saws
• Describe the requirements for shoring operations

General Requirements

Employers must not place construction loads on a concrete structure or portion of a

concrete structure unless the employer determines, based on information received from
a qualified person, that the structure or portion of the structure is capable of supporting
the intended loads. All protruding reinforcing steel must be guarded to eliminate the
hazard of impalement.

Post-Tensioning Operations

Employees (except those essential to the post-tensioning operations) must not be

permitted to be behind the jack during tensioning operations. Signs and barriers must
be erected to limit employee access to the post-tensioning area during tensioning
operations. No non-essential employees are allowed access to the work zone.

Concrete Buckets

Employees must not be permitted to ride on or work under concrete buckets while the
buckets are being elevated or lowered into position. To the extent practicable, elevated
concrete buckets must be routed so that no employee, or the fewest employees
possible, are exposed to the hazards associated with falling concrete buckets.

Bulk Concrete Storage

Bulk storage bins, containers, and silos must be equipped with conical or tapered
bottoms, and mechanical or pneumatic means of starting the flow of material.
Employees must not be permitted to enter storage facilities unless the ejection system

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has been shut down, locked out, and tagged to indicate that the ejection system is not
to be operated.

Concrete Mixers

Concrete mixers with lading skips that are one cubic yard, or larger, must be equipped
with a mechanical device to clear the skip of materials and guardrails installed on each
side of the skip.

Concrete Pumping Systems

Concrete pumping systems using discharge pipes must be provided with pipe supports
designed for 100 percent overload. Compressed air hoses used on a concrete pumping
system must be provided with positive fail-safe joint connectors to prevent separation of
sections when pressurized.

Power Concrete Trowels

Powered and rotating type concrete troweling machines that are manually guided must
be equipped with a control switch that will automatically shut off the power whenever the
hands of the operator are removed from the equipment handles.

Concrete Buggy Handles

Concrete buggy handles must not extend beyond the wheels on either side of the
buggy.

Concrete Buckets

Concrete buckets equipped with hydraulic or pneumatic gates must have positive safety
latches or similar safety devices installed to prevent premature or accidental dumping.
Concrete buckets should be designed to prevent concrete from hanging up on top of the
sides.

Tremies

Sections of tremies and similar concrete conveyances must be secured with wire rope
(or equivalent materials) in addition to the regular couplings or connections.

Bull Floats

Bull float handles, used where they might contact energized electrical conductors, must
be constructed of nonconductive material or insulated with a nonconductive sheath
having electrical and mechanical characteristics that provide the equivalent protection of
a handle constructed of nonconductive material.

Masonry Saws

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Masonry saws must be guarded with a semicircular enclosure over the blade. A method
for retaining blade fragments must be incorporated in the design of the semicircular
enclosure.

Shoring

All shoring equipment (including equipment used in reshoring operations) must be

inspected prior to erection to determine that the equipment meets the requirements
specified in the formwork drawings. Damaged shoring equipment must not be used for
shoring. Erected shoring equipment must be inspected immediately prior to, during, and
immediately after concrete placement. Shoring equipment that is found to be damaged
or weakened after erection must be immediately reinforced. The sills for shoring must
be sound, rigid, and capable of carrying the maximum intended load. All base plates,
shore heads, extension devices, and adjustment screws must be in firm contact and
secured, when necessary, with the foundation and the form.

If single-post shores are used one on top of another (tiered), then additional shoring
requirements must be met. The shores must be as follows:

• Designed by a qualified designer and inspected by an engineer

qualified in structural design
• Vertically aligned
• Spliced to prevent misalignment
• Adequately braced in two mutually perpendicular directions at the
splice level
• Diagonally braced in the same two directions

Adjustment of single-post shores to raise formwork must not be made after the
placement of concrete. Reshoring must be erected, as the original forms and shores are
removed, whenever the concrete is required to support loads in excess of its capacity.

Lesson Summary

• Employers must not place construction loads on a concrete structure

or portion of a concrete structure unless the employer determines,
based on information received from a qualified person, that the
structure or portion of the structure is capable of supporting the
intended loads. All protruding reinforcing steel must be guarded to
eliminate the hazard of impalement.
• Employees (except those essential to the post-tensioning operations)
must not be permitted to be behind the jack during tensioning
operations. Signs and barriers must be erected to limit employee
access to the post-tensioning area during tensioning operations. No
non-essential employees are allowed access to the work zone.
• Employees must not be permitted to ride on or work under concrete
buckets while the buckets are being elevated or lowered into position.

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 • Concrete mixers with lading skips that are one cubic yard, or larger,
must be equipped with a mechanical device to clear the skip of
materials and guardrails installed on each side of the skip.
• Powered and rotating type concrete troweling machines that are
manually guided must be equipped with a control switch that will
automatically shut off the power whenever the hands of the operator
are removed from the equipment handles.
• All shoring equipment (including equipment used in reshoring
operations) must be inspected prior to erection to determine that the
equipment meets the requirements specified in the formwork drawings.
Damaged shoring equipment must not be used for shoring.

Lesson 2: Concrete and Masonry Construction (Part 2)

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Explain lockout/tagout procedures

• Describe the general requirements for formwork
• Describe shoring and re-shoring operations
• Describe tiered single-post shores
• Describe vertical slip forms
• Explain requirements pertaining to reinforcing steel, the removal of
form work, and the use of pre-cast concrete
• Describe proper lift-slab operations
• Explain limited access zones for masonry construction

Lockout/Tagout Procedures

No employee should be permitted to perform maintenance or repair activities on

equipment (such as compressors, mixers, and screens or pumps used for concrete and
masonry construction activities) when the inadvertent operation of the equipment or the
inadvertent energization of the equipment could occur and cause injury, unless all
potentially hazardous energy sources have been locked out and tagged. Tags should
read "Do Not Start" or have similar language to indicate the equipment is not to be
operated.

General Requirements for Formwork

Formwork must be designed, fabricated, erected, supported, braced, and maintained so

that it will be capable of supporting, without failure, all vertical and lateral loads that
might be applied to the formwork. Formwork that is in compliance with the non-
mandatory Appendix to 1926.703 is deemed to be in compliance with the provision of
1926.703(a)(1).

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Drawings or plans, including all revisions for the jack layout, formwork (including shoring
equipment), working decks, and scaffolds, must be available at the jobsite.

Shoring and Re-Shoring

All shoring equipment (including equipment used in re-shoring operations) must be

inspected prior to erection to determine that the equipment meets the requirements
specified in the formwork drawings.

Shoring equipment that is damaged such that its strength is reduced to less than that
required by OSHA's general requirements for formwork stated in 1926 703(a)(1), must
not be used for shoring. Erected shoring equipment must be inspected immediately
prior to, during, and immediately after concrete placement. Shoring equipment that is
found to be damaged or weakened after erection must be reinforced immediately.

Sills used for shoring should be sound, rigid, and capable of carrying the maximum
intended load.

All base plates, shore heads, extension devices, and adjustment screws must be in firm
contact, and secured when necessary, with the form and foundation.

Tiered Single-Post Shores

If single-post shores are used one on top of another (tiered), then the employer must
comply with the following specific requirements, in addition to the general requirements
for formwork. The shores must be designed as follows:

• The shores must be designed by a qualified designer, and the erected

shoring must be inspected by an engineer qualified in structural
design.
• Single post shoring must be vertically aligned.
• Single post shores must be spliced to prevent misalignment.
• Single post shores must be adequately braced in two mutually
perpendicular directions at the splice level. Each tier also must be
diagonally braced in the same two directions.

The adjustment of single-post shores to raise formwork must not be made after the
placement of concrete.

Vertical Slip Forms

The steel rods or pipes on which jacks climb or by which the forms are lifted must be:

• Specifically designed for that purpose.

• Adequately braced when not encased in concrete.

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Forms must be designed to prevent excessive distortion of the structure during the
jacking operation. All vertical slip forms must be provided with scaffolds or work
platforms where employees are required to work or pass. Jacks and vertical supports
must be positioned in such a manner that the loads do not exceed the rated capacity of
the jacks.

Reinforcing Steel

Reinforcing steel for walls, piers, columns, and similar vertical structures must be
adequately supported to prevent overturning and collapse.

Employers must take measures to prevent unrolled wire mesh from recoiling. Such
measures may include, but are not limited to, securing each end of the roll or turning
over the roll.

Removal of Form Work

Forms and shores (except those used for slabs on grade and slip forms) must not be
removed until the employer determines that the concrete has gained sufficient strength
to support its weight and superimposed loads. Such a determination must be based on
one of the following:

• The plans and specifications stipulate conditions for the removal of

forms and shores (and such conditions have been followed).
• The concrete has been properly tested with an appropriate ASTM
standard test method designed to indicate the concrete compressive
strength, and the test results indicate that the concrete has gained
sufficient strength to support its weight and superimposed loads.

Pre-Cast Concrete

Pre-cast concrete wall units, structural framing, and tilt-up wall panels must be
adequately supported to prevent overturning and to prevent collapse until permanent
connections are completed.

Lifting inserts that are embedded or otherwise attached to tilt-up wall panels must be
capable of supporting at least two times the maximum intended load applied or
transmitted to them; lifting inserts for other pre-cast members, excluding tilt-up
members, must be capable of supporting four times the load. Lifting hardware members
must be capable of supporting five times the maximum intended load applied to the
lifting hardware.

Lift-Slab Operations

Lift-slab operations must be designed and planned by a registered professional

engineer who has experience in lift-slab construction. Such plans and designs must be
implemented by the employer, and must include detailed instructions and sketches

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indicating the prescribed method of erection. The plans and designs must also include
provisions for ensuring the lateral stability of the building or structure during
construction.

Jacks or lifting units must be marked to indicate their rated capacity and must not be
loaded beyond this capacity.

Jacking equipment must be capable of supporting at least two and one-half times the
load being lifted during jacking operations, and the equipment must not be overloaded.
For the purpose of this provision, jacking equipment includes any load bearing
component that is used to carry out the lifting operation(s). Such equipment includes,
but is not limited to, the following: threaded rods, lifting attachments, lifting nuts, hook-
up collars, T-caps, shear heads, columns, and footings.

No employee, except those essential to the jacking operation, must be permitted in the
building/structure while any jacking operation is taking place, unless the
building/structure has been reinforced sufficiently to ensure its integrity during erection.
"Reinforced sufficiently to ensure its integrity" means that a registered professional
engineer, independent of the engineer who designed and planned the lifting operation,
has determined from the plans that if there is a loss of support at any jack location that
loss will be confined to that location and the structure as a whole will remain stable.

If used, manual leveling controls shall be centrally located and attended by a competent
person while the lifting is in progress. The competent person must be experienced in the
lifting operation and with the lifting equipment being used.

Under no circumstances must any employee who is not essential to the jacking
operation be permitted immediately beneath the slab while it is being lifted.

Limited Access Zone for Masonry Construction

Whenever a masonry wall is being constructed, employers must establish a limited

access zone prior to the start of construction. The limited access zone should meet the
following requirements:

• It should be equal to the height of the wall to be constructed plus four

feet, and run the entire length of the wall.
• It should be located on the side of the wall that will be unscaffolded.
• Entry should be restricted to only those employees actively engaged in
constructing the wall.
• All masonry walls over 8 feet in height should be adequately braced to
prevent overturning and to prevent collapse unless the wall is
adequately supported so that it will not overturn or collapse. The
bracing should remain in place until permanent supporting elements of
the structure are in place.

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Lesson Summary

• Tags should read "Do Not Start" or have similar language to indicate
the equipment is not to be operated.
• Formwork must be designed, fabricated, erected, supported, braced,
and maintained so that it will be capable of supporting, without failure,
all vertical and lateral loads that might be applied to it.
• Shoring equipment should be inspected and maintained properly. If its
strength is not at the level required by the OSHA standard, it should be
removed from use.
• Reinforcing steel for walls, piers, columns, and similar vertical
structures must be adequately supported to prevent overturning and
collapse. Employers must take measures to prevent unrolled wire
mesh from recoiling. Such measures may include, but are not limited
to, securing each end of the roll or turning over the roll.
• Forms and shores (except those used for slabs on grade and slip
forms) must not be removed until the employer determines that the
concrete has gained sufficient strength to support its weight and
superimposed loads.

• Whenever a masonry wall is being constructed, employers must

establish a limited access zone prior to the start of construction.

Module 8: Confined Spaces

Module Description
This module covers the safety regulations for spaces meeting the OSHA definitions of a
"confined space" and/or a "permit-required confined space." It instructs about the
hazards that may occur during work in these spaces.

A confined space is a space whose configuration and/or contents may present special
dangers not found in normal work areas. Confined spaces may be poorly ventilated and,
as a result, contain insufficient oxygen or hazardous levels of toxic gases. Working in a
tight space can prevent a worker from keeping a safe distance from mechanical and
electrical hazards in the space. Fumes from a flammable liquid that is used in a poorly
ventilated area can reach explosive levels. Such hazards endanger both the workers in
the confined space and others who become exposed to the hazards when they attempt
to rescue injured workers.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:
•
• Identify the characteristics of confined spaces
• Discuss atmospheric conditions found in confined spaces

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 • Summarize a prevention program
• Name the duties of employers and employees
• Explain the proper testing protocol

Lesson 1: Overview of Confined Spaces

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe the characteristics of confined spaces

• Describe the atmospheric conditions associated with confined spaces
• Explain how and why a prevention program should be implemented

Introduction

Confined spaces—such as manholes, crawl spaces, and tanks—are not designed for
continuous occupancy and are difficult to exit in the event of an emergency. People
working in confined spaces face life-threatening hazards including exposure to toxic
substances, electrocutions, explosions, and asphyxiation. Construction workers often
perform tasks in confined spaces. These spaces can present physical and atmospheric
hazards that can be prevented if addressed prior to entering the space to perform work.

Confined Spaces

A "confined space" meets all of the following criteria:

• It is large enough and configured such that an employee can bodily

enter it.
• It has an entry/exit that is limited or restricted is some manner.
• It is not designed for continuous occupancy by one or more
employees.

A space may be large enough and configured such that an employee can bodily
enter when there is enough space inside for an employee to enter and work, even if
the portal to the space is very small. A confined space (and a permit-required confined
space) must have an entry port that is large enough to allow full-body entry. If the
entrance is too small for a worker to completely enter, or if the space itself is too small
for a worker to completely enter, then OSHA’s standard does not apply.

A space has a limited or restricted means of exit if a person could not readily escape
from the space in an emergency. Any of the following factors indicate that a workspace
has a limited or restricted means of exit:

• The need to use a ladder or movable stairs, or stairs that are narrow or
twisted

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 • A door that is difficult to open or a doorway that is too small to exit
while walking upright
• Obstructions such as pipes, conduits, ducts, or materials that a worker
would need to crawl over or under or squeeze around
• The need to travel a long distance to a point of safety

A space is not designed for continuous employee occupancy if it is not designed

with features such as ventilation, lighting, and sufficient room to work and move about
that are needed if people are to occupy it continuously.

Permit-Required Confined Space

A permit-required confined space or "permit space" meets ALL of the requirements to

be classified as a "confined space" AND meets ONE OR MORE of the following criteria:

• It contains, or has the potential to contain, a hazardous atmosphere.

• It contains a material that has the potential to engulf an employee who
enters the space.
• The internal configuration is such that an employee entering the space
could be trapped or asphyxiated by inwardly converging walls or by a
floor with a downward slope tapering to a smaller cross section.
• It contains any other recognized safety or health hazard of a serious
nature.

Confined spaces can be found in many industrial settings, from steel mills to paper
mills, from factories to farms, and from public utilities to the construction industry.

Work Activities Covered by OSHA's Confined Spaces Standard

This standard applies to construction work performed in spaces meeting OSHA's

definition of "confined spaces" except for certain activities that are subject to the
confined spaces provisions of other OSHA construction standards, including the
following:

• Diving operations are regulated by 29 CFR 1926 subpart Y.

• Excavation work is regulated by 29 CFR 1926 subpart P.
• Underground Construction, Caissons, Cofferdams and Compressed
Air operations are regulated by 29 CFR 1926, subpart S.

It is important to note that employers engaged in exempted activities are required to

comply with the confined spaces standard if their workers are exposed to confined
space hazards that are not specifically covered by the standards noted above.

Employer Responsibilities

All employers involved in construction activities are responsible for identifying all
confined spaces that their employees may be working in and then determining whether
any of these spaces meet the definition of permit spaces. The employer is then

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responsible for ensuring that any workers in the space are properly protected from the
identified hazards. If an employer has undertaken the necessary steps to identify permit
spaces and has identified these on the worksite, they are responsible for informing their
workers of the location of any such danger(s) presented by the spaces. This is often
accomplished by posting proper warning signs.

OSHA's standard establishes duties for "entry employers," "host employers," and
"controlling contractors." An entry employer is an employer whose employees actually
enter a permit space. Multiple entry employers may be present on any given worksite if
the employees of multiple employers enter the space. Each employer of workers
entering a permit space is responsible for ensuring the safety of their employees and for
complying with all applicable provisions of the confined spaces standard.

A controlling contractor is the employer with overall responsibility for construction at

the worksite. This contractor is responsible for coordinating the entry operations when
more than one employer will have employees in the permit space and when other
activities on the site could result in a hazard in the space. Controlling contractors are
also responsible for providing all information they have about any permit space hazards
and the precautions previously used in the space.

A host employer is the employer that owns or manages the property where the
construction work is taking place. This employer is responsible for sharing with the
controlling contractor any information they might have regarding the hazards of any
permit site. There can never be more than one host employer. In those cases where the
owner of the property has contracted with another employer to manage any relevant
permit space information that it might have, that managing entity becomes the host
employer. In the absence of any such contractual agreement and information exchange,
the owner of the property is the host employer.

Summary of OSHA's New Confined Spaces Standard

Every employer is responsible for taking the following steps to protect their employees
against the hazards associated with confined spaces:

• They must designate a competent person to identify all confined

spaces in which employees may work. OSHA defines a competent
person as "one who is capable of identify and existing and predictable
hazards in the surroundings or working conditions which are
unsanitary, hazardous, or dangerous to employees, and who has the
authority to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate them." It is
not required that the competent person be an employee of any
particular employer, but they must have the required authority.
• Before it begins work at a worksite, each employer must ensure that a
competent person evaluates all confined spaces in which one or more
of the employees it directs may work, and identifies each space that is
a permit space, through consideration and evaluation of the elements
of that space, including testing as necessary.

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 • In those cases where confined spaces are present, the employer is
required to have a competent person determine if any of these spaces
are "permit spaces."
• If a competent person determines one or more permit spaces are
present, the entry employer must protect its employees from the
hazards in that space.
• The employer must inform exposed employees by posting danger
signs, or by any other equally effective means, of the existence and
location of and the danger posed by each permit space
o A sign reading "DANGER-PERMIT-REQUIRED CONFINED
SPACE, DO NOT ENTER" or using other similar language
would satisfy the requirement for a sign.
• The employer must also inform, in a timely manner and in a manner
other than posting, its employees' authorized representatives and the
controlling contractor of the existence and location of, and the danger
posed by, each permit space.
• The entry employer is required to train every worker who must enter
the permit space, as well as others impacted by the presence of the
space and/or related operations.
• The entry employer is required to plan for the safe rescue of all
entrants who are unable to exit the space under their own power.

This is only a summary of the requirements of OSHA's Confined Spaces standard for
construction operations. This new standard requires significant action and attention by
those employers completing work on sites with confined spaces, especially permit
spaces.

Identifying Permit Spaces

The thorough and proper identification of permit spaces is critical in order to determine
whether or not precautions are required to protect employees entering these spaces—
and if hazards exist, what controls are necessary. Failing to take these necessary steps
can result in death or serious injury to the exposed workers. The competent person
must answer four questions to determine if a confined space is a permit space. If the
answer to any of these four questions is "yes," the space is a permit space, with all
necessary controls required.

1. Does the space contain or have the potential to contain a hazardous

atmosphere? This requires the identification of numerous potential hazards and
testing, as necessary, to evaluate whether any of the following hazards are or
may be present. This should be done PRIOR to workers entering the space.
a. Oxygen deficiency or excess concentrations of oxygen; oxygen
concentrations in the space must be between 19.5 and 23.5 percent
b. Concentration of any flammable gas, vapor, or mist in excess of 10% of its
Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
c. Airborne combustible dust at a concentration equal to or in excess of its
Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)

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 d. Atmospheric concentrations of any substance that can cause death,
incapacitation, impairment of the ability to self-rescue, injury or acute
illness
e. The competent person must be familiar with the work to be done in the
space and the potential for that work to introduce atmospheric hazards.
For example, a confined space that is safe when entered can become
deadly if inert gas welding inside the space leads to the inert gas
displacing oxygen in the worker’s breathing zone.
f. Note: Proper procedures for all required testing must be established as
part of the employer's confined spaces entry program.

2. Does the space contain a material with the potential to engulf an entrant?
Engulfment is the surrounding of a person by liquid or fine solid substance that
can be breathed in to cause death by filling or plugging the respiratory system, or
that exert sufficient force on the body to cause strangulation, constriction, or
crushing. The competent person completing the analysis must consider whether
any liquid or flowable solid could enter the space in any manner such as through
a pipe or manhole in an operating water or sewer system.

3. Does the space have an internal configuration such that an employee

entering the space could be trapped or asphyxiated by inwardly converging
walls or by a floor with a downward slope tapering to a smaller cross
section? A confined space with a small cross section can develop a hazardous
atmosphere rapidly in inadequate ventilation is provided. This type of space can
also prevent a worker from escaping the space or render rescue more difficult.

4. Does the space contain any other recognized serious safety or health
hazard that might pose an immediate danger to the worker's life or health
or that might impair their ability to escape from the space if necessary?
Consideration must be given to all potential hazards, including fire and explosion,
mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, and pneumatic energy, temperature extremes,
radiation, chemicals, biological hazards, and much more.

Examples of Confined Spaces

Examples of confined spaces may include, but are not limited to, the following:

• Storage tanks
• Compartments of ships
• Process vessels
• Pits
• Silos
• Vats
• Wells
• Sewers
• Digesters
• Degreasers
• Reaction vessels

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 • Boilers
• Ventilation and exhaust ducts
• Tunnels
• Underground utility vaults
• Pipelines

Characteristics of Confined Spaces

Internal Configuration

• Open Space: There are no obstacles, barriers, or obstructions within

the space. An example of this might be some large, open water tanks
with no internal walls, barriers, or baffles.
• Obstructed Space: The permit space contains some type of obstruction
that a rescuer would need to maneuver around. An example of this
type of space would be a baffle or mixing blade.

Elevation

• Elevated space: A permit space where the entrance portal or opening

is above grade by four feet or more. This type of space usually
requires knowledge of high-angle rescue procedures.
• Non-elevated space: A permit space with the entrance portal located
less than four feet above grade. This type of space will allow the
rescue team to transport an injured employee normally, without special
procedures.

Portal Size

• Restricted Portals: A restricted portal is one of 24 inches or less in its

smallest dimension. Portals of this size are too small to allow a rescuer
to simply enter the space while using a Self-Contained Breathing
Apparatus (SCBA).
• Unrestricted Portals: An unrestricted portal is one greater than 24
inches in its smallest dimension. These portals allow relatively free
movement into and out of the permit space.

Space Access

• Horizontal Portal: This type of portal is located on the side of the permit
space. Use of retrieval lines could be difficult when using this type of
portal to access a confined space.
• Vertical Portal: This type of portal is located either on the top of the
permit space (rescuers must climb down to enter the space) or at the
bottom of the permit space (rescuers must climb up to enter the
space). Vertical portals may require knowledge of rope techniques.

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The hazards associated with confined spaces that can cause serious injury and death to
workers are numerous and potentially complex. Two of the major factors which lead to
fatal injuries in confined spaces are:

• The failure to recognize and control the hazards associated with

confined spaces.
• Inadequate or incorrect emergency response. If the emergency
response is a spontaneous reaction to an emergency situation, as
opposed to an appropriately planned and executed response, this can
lead to multiple fatalities.

Atmospheric Hazards

In those instances when there is reason to believe that unsafe atmospheric conditions
might be encountered, it is critical to test the atmosphere of a confined space prior to
entry by any employees, except in certain circumstances. Testing must take stratified
atmospheres—those with distinct layers created by the differing weights of the gasses—
into account. Methane, for example, is lighter than air and would be found at the top of a
confined space, while hydrogen sulfide (heavier than air) would be found at the bottom.
Pre-entry testing must cover the top, middle, and bottom of the confined space and
should be tested in the direction of travel and to each side.

[source CAL-OSHA]

Depending on the findings of the initial monitoring, the activities taking place in the
space, the history of the space, and other factors, it may be necessary to continue
monitoring the atmosphere throughout entry operations.

Oxygen Deficiency

Oxygen deficiency occurs from chemical or biological reactions which displace or

consume oxygen from within a confined space. Consumption of oxygen takes place
during combustion of flammable substances, as occurs in welding, cutting, or brazing
operations. Oxygen may also be displaced by other gases which may inert, hazardous,
or flammable.

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A more subtle form of oxygen consumption occurs during bacterial action, as in the
fermentation process. Oxygen deficiency can result from bacterial action in excavations
and manholes which are near garbage dumps, landfills, or swampy areas. Oxygen may
also be consumed during slow chemical reactions, as in the formation of rust on the
exposed surface of metal tanks, vats, and ship holds.

Important Facts about Oxygen and Oxygen Deficiency:

• Ambient air has an oxygen content of approximately 21 percent.

• When the oxygen level drops below 17 percent, one of the first signs of
hypoxia is deterioration of night vision, which is usually not noticeable.
• Physiologic effects include increased breathing volume and an
accelerated heartbeat.
• Between the oxygen concentrations of 14 percent and 16 percent, the
physiologic effects consist of:
o Increased breathing volume
o An accelerated heartbeat
o Poor muscular coordination
o Impaired judgment
o Impaired attention
o Impaired coordination
o Rapid fatigue
o Intermittent respiration
• Between the oxygen levels of 6 percent and 10 percent, the
physiological effects are:
o Nausea
o Vomiting
o Inability to perform
o Unconsciousness
• At concentrations of less than 6 percent, there is a rapid loss of
consciousness and death in minutes.

NIOSH FACE Report - FACE 8844

At the time of the incident the victim had been working as a sub-contractor in various
manholes on this system for slightly over 4 hours. He told a co-worker that he was going
to install a plug in the lines leading to the manhole where the incident occurred (to keep
out the ground water) and that he would then meet the worker for lunch. The victim
planned to pump the water out of the manhole after lunch and then construct a baffle in
the manhole. This manhole contained approximately one foot of water and 2-3 Inches of
mud at the bottom. A wooden ladder had been left in the manhole since the time of
construction, but the manhole had not been opened since it was installed six months
prior to the incident. His co-worker arrived on the scene a few minutes later and saw the
victim lying at the bottom of the manhole. The co-worker ran to a nearby home and
telephoned for help. The local fire department responded to the call and four firefighters
were on the scene within four minutes. One firefighter immediately descended the
ladder to check the victim. As he reached the victim, he said he felt as though “someone
had put a piece of cellophane over my face.” The firefighter began climbing the ladder to

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escape from the manhole, but he was extremely dizzy and had to be pulled from the
manhole by two other firefighters. Testing of the manhole on the day following the
incident still showed oxygen levels at various depths within the manhole:

• 5 feet below surface 20.5% oxygen

• 7 feet below surface 20.0% oxygen
• 9 feet below surface 14.0% oxygen
• 11 feet below surface 6.5% oxygen
• 13 feet below surface 4.0% oxygen

Oxygen Displacement: Inert Gases and Simple Asphyxiants

A simple asphyxiating atmosphere contains a gas, or gases, that are physiologically

inert and which do not produce any ill effects on the body. However, in sufficient
quantity, a simple asphyxiant will displace enough oxygen to result in an atmosphere
unable to support life.

The ambient, or normal, atmosphere is composed of approximately 21 percent oxygen,

78 percent nitrogen, and 1 percent argon, with small amounts of various other gases. If
the oxygen content drops below 19.5%, the atmosphere is considered oxygen deficient.
If 100 percent nitrogen, for example—a non-toxic, colorless, odorless gas—is used to
inert (displace oxygen in) a confined space, it would cause immediate collapse and
death to the worker if the confined space is not adequately ventilated before worker
entry. Other examples of simple asphyxiants that have claimed lives in confined spaces
are carbon dioxide, argon, and helium.

Safe Work Practices

• Consider each entry to a confined space to be potentially deadly.

Proper testing and safe entry procedures must be followed for each
entry.
• Identify and label confined spaces in the workplace.
• Provide written safe-work procedures for entering a confined space
and ensure that workers are trained in these procedures.
• Isolate the confined space from adjacent piping by blanking, blinding,
or disconnecting the piping.
• Assess the hazards before entering a confined space, including testing
for oxygen levels if necessary.
• Provide ventilation for spaces with actual or potential hazardous
atmospheres.

Flammable Atmospheres

A flammable atmosphere generally results from vaporization of flammable liquids, by-

products of chemical reaction, enriched oxygen atmospheres, or concentrations of
flammable gases or combustible dusts. Three components are necessary for an
atmosphere to become flammable: fuel and oxygen, the proper mixture of fuel and
oxygen, and a source of ignition.

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The proper mixture of fuel and oxygen will vary from gas to gas within a fixed range.
This range is between the lower flammability limit (LFL) and the upper flammability limit
(UFL). These terms are synonymous with the lower explosive limit (LEL) and the upper
explosive limit (UEL).

Example: The explosive range for methane is between 5% and 15% in air.
Concentrations below 5% methane are below the explosive range, and concentrations
above 15% are too rich to support combustion. If a confined space contains 27%
methane and forced ventilation is started, the introduction of air into the confined space
may dilute the methane in air, taking it into the explosive range. Extreme care must be
taken until the concentration is no greater than 10% of the LEL, in this case .5% or
lower, at which time entry may be permitted if all other conditions are safe and stable.

Toxic Gases

Toxic gases may be present in confined spaces for the following reasons:

• The manufacturing process may use any of a wide variety of toxic

gases. For example, in producing polyvinyl chloride, hydrogen chloride
is used, as well as vinyl chloride monomer.
• There may be biological or chemical processes occurring within the
product stored in the confined space. For example, decomposing
organic material in a tank or sump can liberate hydrogen sulfide.
• The operation performed in the confined space can liberate a toxic
gas. For example, welding can liberate oxides of nitrogen, ozone, and
carbon monoxide.
• Toxic gases may be -involved when acids are used for cleaning the
interior of a confined space.

Solvents

Hydrocarbon solvents are frequently used in industry as degreasing agents. These

agents can cause unconsciousness by depressing the central nervous system. Some
chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents, such as chloroform, have been used as anesthetic
agents. In addition, certain chlorinated or fluorinated hydrocarbon solvents are toxic to
the heart and have been associated with sudden death in confined spaces. The solvent
methylene chloride can be toxic both because of its solvent properties and also because
it is metabolized in the body to form carbon monoxide.

Physical Hazards

In addition to the atmospheric hazards in a confined space, physical hazards also must
be addressed. Physical hazards cover the entire spectrum of hazardous energy and its
control, the physical layout of the environment, and processes underway or previously
underway. These hazards include those associated with:

• Mechanical, electrical, and hydraulic energy

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 • Engulfment
• Communication problems
• Noise
• The size of the openings into the confined space itself

Engulfment

Engulfment in liquids or loose materials is one of the leading causes of death from
physical hazards in confined spaces. Engulfment and suffocation are hazards
associated with storage bins, silos, and hoppers where grain, sand, gravel, or other
loose materials are stored, handled, or transferred, as well as vessels used for liquid
storage. The behavior of such materials can be unpredictable, and entrapment and
burial can occur in a matter of seconds.

In some cases, material being drawn from the bottom of storage bins can cause the
surface to act like quicksand. When a storage bin is emptied from the bottom, the flow
of material may form a funnel-shaped path over the outlet. The rate of material flow
increases toward the center of the funnel. During an unloading operation, the flow rate
can become so great that once a worker is drawn into the flow path, escape is virtually
impossible.

Other Physical Hazards

The nature of confined-space work may make it difficult to separate the worker from
hazardous forms of energy (e.g., isolation) such as powered machinery, electrical
energy, and hydraulic or pneumatic lines.

Examples of physical hazards often encountered in a confined space include the

following:

• Activation of electrical or mechanical equipment can cause injury to

workers in a confined space. Therefore, it is essential to de-energize
and lock out all electrical circuits and physically disconnect mechanical
equipment prior to any work in confined spaces.
• Release of material through lines which are an integral part of the
confined space poses a life-threatening hazard. All lines should be
physically disconnected, blanked off, or should use a double block and
bleed system.
• Falling objects can pose a hazard in confined spaces, particularly in
spaces which have topside openings for entry, through which tools and
other objects may fall and strike a worker.
• Extremely hot or cold temperatures can make work inside a confined
space hazardous. If a confined space has been steam cleaned, for
example, it should be allowed to cool before any entry is made.
• Wet or slick surfaces can cause falls in confined spaces. In addition,
wet surfaces can provide a grounding path and increase the hazard of
electrocution in areas where electrical equipment, circuits, and tools
are used.

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 • Noise within confined spaces can be amplified because of the design
and acoustic properties of the space. Excessive noise is not only
harmful to the worker’s hearing but can affect communication and
cause shouted warnings to go unheard.

Prevention Program

The worker who is required to enter and work in a confined space may be exposed to a
number of hazards, ranging from an oxygen-deficient or toxic atmosphere to the release
of hazardous energy (electrical/mechanical/hydraulic/chemical). Therefore, it is
essential for employers to develop and implement a comprehensive, written confined-
space entry program.

The following elements are recommended as a guide in developing a confined space

program:

• Identification of all confined spaces at the facility/operation

• Posting a warning sign at the entrance of all confined spaces
• Evaluation of hazards associated with each type of confined space
• Performing a job safety analysis for each task to be performed in the
confined space

Confined Space Entry Procedures

Confined space entry procedures should include the following:

• Initial plan for entry

• Assigned standby attendant(s)
• A rescue plan
• Communication between workers inside the confined space and
standby attendants about rescue procedures, conditions, monitoring
information, and more
• Specified work procedures within the confined space

Issuance of Confined Space Entry Permit

Before entry begins, an entry supervisor evaluates the work to be done and the
conditions present in the space and prepares an entry permit to authorize entry.
A confined-space entry permit is an authorized approval in writing that:

• Specifies the location and type of work to be done

• Certifies that the space has been evaluated and tested by a qualified
person, and that all necessary protective measures have been taken to
ensure the safety of the worker
o This must include testing and monitoring the air quality in the
confined space to ensure that the oxygen level is between 19.5
and 23.5 percent by volume and the flammable range is less

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 than 10 percent of the LFL (lower flammable limit) for any
flammable materials.

Before entry begins, the entry supervisor identified on the permit must sign the entry
permit and make the completed permit available to all authorized entrants by posting it
at the entry portal or by any other equally effective means, so that the entrants can
confirm that pre-entry preparations have been completed.

Confined Space Preparation

Confined space preparation activities may include:

• Isolation, lockout/tagout
• Purging and ventilation
• Cleaning processes
• Requirements for special equipment and tools

Safety Equipment and Protective Clothing

Safety equipment and protective clothing including the following may be required for use
in confined space entry operations:

• Head protection
• Hearing protection
• Hand protection
• Foot protection
• Body protection
• Respiratory protection
• Safety belts
• Lifelines, full body harness
• Mechanical-lift device-tripod

Training

Workers and supervisors must be trained in the selection and use of the following:

• Safe entry procedures

• Respiratory protection
• Lifelines and retrieval systems
• Protective clothing

Safety Meetings

Employers must conduct safety meetings prior to the start of work in a permit-required
confined space to discuss confined space safety, including the following:

• The availability and use of proper ventilation equipment

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 • Monitoring the air quality while workers are in the space
• Roles and responsibilities of all persons involved in the entry operation
• Acceptable safe conditions that must be present at the time of entry
and during the time work takes place in the space
• Means of communication used to maintain contact with those working
in the space
• The specific rescue plan developed for entry operation

Lesson Summary

• Confined spaces are large enough for an employee to bodily enter

them, have a restricted entrance and exit, and are not designed for
continuous occupancy.
• Permit-required confined spaces, or permit spaces, meet additional
requirements, including having the potential to contain a hazardous
atmosphere or otherwise lead to asphyxiation for workers.
• All employers present on a worksite, including the entry employer, the
controlling contractor, and the host employer have responsibilities to
keep workers safe in confined spaces.
• Testing and monitoring the air quality is required in a confined space to
ensure that the oxygen level is between 19.5 and 23.5 percent by
volume and the flammable range is less than 10 percent of the LFL
(lower flammable limit) of any flammable materials.
• Oxygen deficiency results from many sources, including chemical or
biological reactions that displace or consume oxygen from within a
confined space. The consumption of oxygen takes place during
combustion of flammable substances, as occurs in welding, cutting, or
brazing operations. A more subtle form of consumption of oxygen
occurs during bacterial action, such as in the fermentation process.
• Engulfment in liquids or loose materials is one of the leading causes of
death from physical hazards in confined spaces. Engulfment and
suffocation are hazards associated with storage bins, silos, and
hoppers where grain, sand, gravel, or other loose materials are stored,
handled, or transferred, as well as vessels used for liquid storage.
• Other possible physical hazards include wet surfaces, hot or cold
temperatures, or falling objects.

Lesson 2: Safety and Training Education

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe the duties of employers and employees related to confined

spaces
• Identify the proper rescue and emergency services
• Explain the testing protocols for confined spaces

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Duties of Employers and Employees

All employees required to enter confined spaces must be instructed as to the nature of
the actual and potential hazards involved, the necessary precautions to be taken, and
the use of protective and emergency equipment required. Employers must ensure that a
qualified entry attendant is present any time workers will be inside the space.

Duties of Attendants

An attendant:

• Knows the hazards that may be faced during entry, including

information on the mode, signs or symptoms, and consequences of
potential exposures
• Is aware of possible behavioral effects of chemical and environmental
hazard exposure on authorized entrants
• Continuously maintains an accurate count of authorized entrants in the
permit space and ensures that the means used to identify authorized
entrants is accurate and effective
• Remains outside the permit space during entry operations until
relieved by another attendant
• Communicates with authorized entrants as necessary to monitor
entrant status
• Monitors activities inside and outside of the space

An entrant must exit the space:

• If the attendant detects a prohibited condition

• If the attendant detects the behavioral effects of hazard exposure on
an authorized entrant
• If the attendant detects a situation outside of the space that could
endanger the authorized entrants

Providing Assistance

An attendant must summon rescue and other emergency services as soon as she or he
determines that authorized entrants may need assistance to escape from permit space
hazards.

The attendant must:

• Warn unauthorized persons that they must stay away from the permit
space
• Inform the authorized entrants and the entry supervisor if unauthorized
persons have entered the permit space

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 • Perform non-entry rescues as specified by the employer’s rescue
procedure
• Perform no duties that might interfere with the attendant’s primary duty
to monitor and protect the authorized entrants

Rescue and Emergency Services

The employer of a designated rescue team is required to ensure that the team members
have received all training required for authorized entrants and have also been trained to
perform their assigned rescue duties. That employer is also responsible for providing all
members of the rescue team with necessary personal protective and rescue equipment,
including respirators, and must train them on how to use it.

It is best that all rescuers are trained in first aid and CPR, but at a minimum one rescue
team member must be certified. Employers must ensure that the team practices or
performs rescue exercises at least annually and that rescue services are provided
access to permit spaces in order to allow for the practicing of rescue operations.

All members of the rescue team must be informed of the hazards of each permit space
before entering a space. All rescue services must agree to notify the employer in the
event the service becomes unavailable. The employer must provide the service with
access to the permit space so the service can develop an appropriate rescue plan and
practice rescue as necessary.

If the entry employer designates an off-site rescue service, including a local fire
department, it must determine that the service has the ability and equipment to carry out
a rescue in the particular permit space or type of permit space in which the entrant is
working.

Whether using their own on-site rescue team (consisting of its own or another
contractor’s employees) or an off-site team, such as a local fire department or other
rescue service, the employer must make certain that the rescue team is able to respond
in time to enable the injured worker to receive whatever medical attention is needed.
This must be done by contacting the rescue team prior to entry and informing them of
the nature of the space and the hazards involved. In some cases, this may require a
standby rescue team, such as when the entrant is working in an atmosphere that is
immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH) and is wearing an airline respirator or a
self-contained breathing apparatus.

Non-entry rescue that is conducted without entry into the confined space is preferred.
This can be conducted by such means as a rope or winch. Non-entry rescue is required
unless the retrieval equipment would increase the overall risk of entry or would not
contribute to the rescue of the entrant. Whenever non-entry rescue is selected, the entry
employer must ensure that retrieval systems or methods are used whenever an
authorized entrant enters a permit space, and must confirm, prior to entry, that
emergency assistance would be available in the event that non-entry rescue fails.

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Employees Designated to Rescue

An employer whose employees have been designated to provide permit space rescue
and emergency services must:

• Provide affected employees with the personal protective equipment

(PPE) needed to conduct permit space rescues safely, and train
affected employees so they are proficient in the use of that PPE, at no
cost to those employees
• Train affected employees to perform assigned rescue duties; the
employer must ensure that such employees successfully complete the
training required to establish proficiency as an authorized entrant
• Train affected employees in basic first aid and cardiopulmonary
resuscitation (CPR); the employer must ensure that at least one
member of the rescue team holds a current certification in first aid and
CPR
• Ensure the employees practice making permit space rescues at least
once every 12 months, by means of simulated rescue operations in
which they remove dummies, mannequins, or actual persons from the
actual permit spaces or from representative permit spaces

Duties of Authorized Entrants

The duties include:

• Knowing the hazards that may be faced during entry, including

information on the mode, signs or symptoms, and consequences of the
exposure
• Properly using equipment as required
• Communicating with the attendant as necessary to enable the
attendant to monitor entrant status and to enable the attendant to alert
entrants of the need to evacuate the space
• Exit the space immediately if acceptable entry conditions cannot be
maintained, if a hazard arises, or if ordered to leave the space by the
designated Attendant

An authorized entrant must alert the attendant whenever:

• The entrant recognizes any warning sign or symptom of exposure to a

dangerous situation
• The entrant detects a prohibited condition

Duties of Entry Supervisors

Duties include:

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 • Knowing the hazards that may be faced during entry, including
information on the mode, signs or symptoms, and consequences of the
exposure
• Verifying, by checking that the appropriate entries have been made on
the permit, that all tests specified by the permit have been conducted
and that all procedures and equipment specified by the permit are in
place before endorsing the permit
• Verifying that rescue services are available and that the means for
summoning them are operable
• Removing unauthorized individuals who enter, or who attempt to enter,
the permit space during entry operations
• Determining whenever responsibility for a permit space entry operation
is transferred and doing so at intervals dictated by the hazards and
operations performed within the space

Rescue and Emergency Services

Each authorized entrant should use a chest or full body harness, with a retrieval line
attached at the center of the entrant’s back, near shoulder level, above the entrant’s
head, or at another point from which the employer can establish the ability to
successfully remove the entrant. Wristlets may be used in lieu of the chest or full body
harness if the employer can demonstrate that the use of a chest or full body harness is
infeasible or creates a greater hazard and that the use of wristlets is the safest and
most effective alternative.

The other end of the retrieval line should be attached to a mechanical device or a fixed
point outside the permit space in such a manner that rescue can begin as soon as the
rescuer becomes aware that rescue is necessary. A mechanical device should be
available to retrieve personnel from vertical-type permit spaces more than five feet
deep.

If an injured entrant is exposed to a substance for which a Safety Data Sheet (SDS) or
other similar written information is required to be kept at the worksite, that SDS or
written information shall be made available to any emergency responders and medical
facility treating the exposed entrant.

Testing Protocol

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Lesson Summary

• Employers should assign attendants to monitor confined spaces.

These attendants must know the relevant hazards, recognize the signs
of exposure, maintain a count of authorized entrants in the space, and
remain outside the space during entry operations.
• An attendant must summon rescue and other emergency services as
soon as she or he determines that authorized entrants may need
assistance to escape from permit space hazards.
• Whether using their own on-site rescue team (consisting of its own or
another contractor’s employees) or an off-site team, such as a local fire
department or other rescue service, the employer must make certain
that the rescue team is able to respond in time to enable the injured
worker to receive whatever medical attention is needed.
• Authorized entrants must know the hazards that may be faced during
entry, properly use equipment as required, communicate with the
attendant as necessary, and exit the space immediately if acceptable
entry conditions cannot be maintained.
• Atmospheric testing of the confined space must be conducted
regularly, and the results must be posted. If the confined space meets
the requirements of a permit space, the necessary additional
precautions must be taken.

Module 9: Cranes, Derricks, Hoists, Elevators and

Conveyors
Module Description
This module is intended for workers who want to learn more about cranes, derricks,
hoists, elevators, and/or conveyors. We will discuss the topics of cranes and derricks,
helicopters, base-mounted drum hoists, overhead hoists, conveyors, and aerial lifts in
detail in this module along with the safety measures required when handling such
machinery. This module will also cover the topics included in OSHA 29 CFR 1926
Subparts N and CC.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

• Distinguish between the different types of cranes

• Name the procedures for proper inspection and maintenance
• Summarize guidelines for proper equipment testing and load rating
capacities
• Discuss the proper procedures for crane operators and co-workers
• Outline regulations for load handling and handling equipment

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Lesson 1: General Standards
Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Define key personnel required for crane operations

• Identify the hazards associated with crane operations
• Describe common accidents resulting from crane operations

Definitions of Key Personnel

• Competent Person: Someone who is capable of identifying working

conditions that are unsanitary, hazardous, or dangerous to employees
and who has the authorization to take prompt corrective measures to
eliminate such hazards. The employer should designate a competent
person to inspect all of the machinery and equipment before and
during use to ensure that they are within safe working parameters. All
deficiencies must be promptly repaired and defective parts replaced
before the machine can be used.
• Qualified Person: This is a person who, by possession of a
recognized degree, certificate, or professional standing, or who by
extensive knowledge, training, and experience, successfully
demonstrated the ability to solve/resolve problems relating to the
subject matter, the work, or the project.
• Assembly/Disassembly Director: The assembly/disassembly
director, or A/D director, oversees and directs all crane assembly and
disassembly operations. The A/D director must be both a “competent
person” and a “qualified person,” or must be a “competent person”
assisted by one or more “qualified persons.”
• Signal Person: A signal person maintains continuous communication
with the crane operator during all crane movements where the point of
operation is not in full view of the operator, or the crane operator’s view
is obstructed in the direction of where the equipment or load is
traveling. The employer must ensure the signal person is qualified for
the task prior to giving any signals.

Hazards Associated with Crane Operations

OSHA's analysis of crane accidents in general industry and construction identified an

average of 71 fatalities per year. A study conducted by OSHA showed that nearly 30
percent of work-related electrocutions involved cranes.

Although mechanical failures represent only 11 percent of the causes of crane

accidents, they may result in major accidents involving injuries, fatalities, substantial
material costs, and negative media coverage. Studies and analyses show that

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mechanical failures are frequently due to the result of a lack of preventive maintenance
or adequate training, and/or experience on the part of the personnel involved.

Cranes and associated rigging equipment must be inspected regularly to identify any
existing or potentially unsafe conditions. Regular inspections should be conducted
before and during use. If there are problems, necessary repairs must be made before
continuing work. Preventive maintenance must also be performed according to the
crane manufacturer and/or the supplier specifications.

Windows in the crane cab must be made of safety glass that prevents distortion, which
could interfere with the safe operation of the crane.

Crane Hazards

The following are some common examples of crane hazards:

• Improper load rating

• Excessive speeds
• No, unclear, or improper hand signals
• Inadequate inspection and maintenance
• Unguarded parts
• Unguarded swing radius
• Working too close to power lines
• Improper exhaust system
• Shattered windows
• No steps/guardrails walkways
• No boom angle indicator
• Not using outriggers

Planning before Start-Up

Adequate ground conditions are essential for safe crane operations because the crane’s
capacity and stability depend on having the proper foundation on which to work. If, for
example, the ground is muddy or otherwise unstable, a crane could overturn even if
operated within the load limits specified by the manufacturer. You must not assemble or
use a crane unless the ground is firm, drained, and graded to a sufficient extent that,
with the use of supporting materials such as blocking, mats, or cribbing, adequate
support is provided.

The proper assembly and disassembly of lattice-boom and tower cranes, and the set-up
of hydraulic-boom cranes, including outriggers, are critical to safe crane operations.
When assembling or disassembling a crane, you must comply with either the
manufacturer’s procedures, or your own procedures, which must be developed by a
qualified person.

Before the operation begins, the A/D director must ensure that the crew members
understand their tasks, any hazards associated with their tasks and any hazardous
positions/locations they need to avoid.

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Follow the listed safety guidelines before initial start-up:

• Level the crane and ensure support surface is firm and able to support
the load.
• Contact power line owners and determine precautions. Know the
location and voltage of overhead power lines. No part of the crane,
load, or load line should get closer than 20 feet to a power line; if so,
additional precautions are required.
• Know the basic crane capacities, limitations, and job site restrictions,
such as the location of power lines, unstable soil, or high winds.
• Ensure outriggers or stabilizers are properly deployed when the load to
be handled and the operating radius require them.
• Make other personnel aware of hoisting activities.
• Barricade areas within the swing radius.
• Ensure proper maintenance and inspections.
• Determine safe areas to store materials and place machinery.

Follow the listed safety guidelines during operation:

• Comply with all manufacturer procedures that apply to the operational

functions of equipment, including its use with attachments.
• Do not engage in any practice or activity that diverts attention while
engaged in operating the equipment.
• Do not leave the controls while the load is suspended, unless all of the
following are met:
o The operator remains adjacent to the equipment and is not
engaged in any other duties.
o The competent person determines that it is safe to do so.
o Barricades or caution lines, and notices, are erected to prevent
all employees from entering the fall zone.
• Comply with the rated capacity. Equipment must not be operated in
excess of its rated capacity.

Maintain continuous contact with the signal person when one is assigned. If
communication is disrupted, stop all crane movements until communication is restored.

Accidents

OSHA has identified the major causes of crane accidents to be:

• Boom or crane contact with energized power lines

• Overturned cranes
• Dropped loads
• Boom collapse
• Crushing by the counterweight
• Outrigger use

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 • Falls
• Rigging failures

How Do Accidents Occur?

Accidents generally occur due to one of the following factors:

• Instability: unsecured load, load capacity exceeded, or ground not level

or too soft
• Lack of communication: the point of operation is at a distance from the
crane operator or not in full view of the operator
• Lack of training: untrained crane operators are likely to have accidents
• Inadequate maintenance or inspection: cranes or other heavy
machinery must not be operated without proper inspection and regular
maintenance

Lesson Summary

• Key personnel who may be needed around crane operations include a

competent person, a qualified person, an assembly/disassembly (A/D)
director, and a signal person.
• Cranes and associated rigging equipment must be inspected regularly
to identify any existing or potentially unsafe conditions. Regular
inspections should be conducted before and during use. If there are
problems, necessary repairs must be completed before continuing
work. Preventive maintenance must also be performed according to
the crane manufacturer and/or the supplier specifications.
• Mechanical failures are frequently due to the result of a lack of
preventive maintenance or adequate training, and/or experience on the
part of the personnel involved.
• Common hazards encountered during crane operation include
excessive speeds, unclear hand signals, unguarded parts or swing
radius, or no boom angle indicator.
• Common accidents that result from crane operation include contact
with power lines, dropped loads, and crushing and falling injuries.

Lesson 2: Cranes
Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• List types of cranes

• Explain the requirements relating to a crane’s load
• Explain proper guarding techniques
• Describe the necessary inspections related to cranes

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Types of Cranes

Among the most commonly used cranes are:

• Truck-mounted cranes, of both the lattice and hydraulic types

• Crawler cranes, of both the lattice and hydraulic types
• Tower cranes

There are several significant differences between these cranes, primarily in boom hoist
and load line controls. The somewhat smooth operation of the boom control
adjustments on hydraulic cranes may falsely suggest that they are simple to operate.
The lattice boom crane's movement, in its boom or in its adjustment in load position,
tends to extend and retract less smoothly and may require additional experience to
operate smoothly.

Other types of cranes

• Mobile
• Hydraulic
• Overhead
• Gantry
• Tower

The differences between cranes are significant enough to require specific training on
each type of crane and with each specific model. It may be unrealistic to expect that
every crane operator has the requisite knowledge and proficiency to safely and
efficiently operate all of the many diverse types of cranes available today. Furthermore,
they cannot be expected to move from one type of crane to another without adequate
education and training on the specifics of each piece of equipment.

Load

All equipment must have the recommended operating speeds, rated load capacities,
and special hazard warnings conspicuously posted. Instructions and/or warnings shall
be posted in such a manner that they are visible to operators when they are at their
control stations.

Load Limits and Indicators

Overloading is responsible for a relatively small portion of mobile crane accidents. Load
and load-moment indicators used properly help to ensure that cranes will not be
overloaded. In practice, however, they must not be relied upon without the requisite
operator skills and experience for these reasons:

• The device can be turned off or malfunction.

• The device may be out of calibration.

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 • Operating conditions (such as wind or operating speeds) may be
beyond the published rating information.

The presence of a load limit device is not adequate to assure safe crane operation.
These devices are not fail-safe devices. They are indicators to advise the crane
operator of load parameters to support logical operating decisions. Crane operators
must know the load limits of the crane and the approximate weight of the load about to
be lifted. Load weights can often be determined by referring to shipping documentation
that accompanies the load. The weight of working gear, such as slings, spreader bars,
and other rigging equipment, should be considered when it may have an impact the
capacity of the equipment. Once the load weight is known, the operator must verify lift
calculations and determine if the load is within the load rating of the crane.

The operator must also take into consideration certain conditions that may limit the load
rating of a crane. The following are some examples:

• The crane is not placed upon a level ground.

• There are adverse wind conditions at the time.
• Side loads may destabilize the crane.
• Lifting over the side, which places the load at an angle to the center of
gravity, may lead to lessened stability.
• Extensions, jibs, or other attachments are in use.
• The weight limits of wire ropes, slings, and other lifting devices.

There are four basic lifting principles that govern a crane's mobility and safety during
lifting operations: center of gravity, leverage, stability, and structural integrity.

Center of Gravity

Generally, the center of gravity refers to the point in an object around which its weight is
evenly distributed. The location of the center of gravity of a mobile crane depends
primarily on the weight and location of its components (boom, carrier, upper-works, and
counterweight).

Leverage

Leverage refers to the use of a lever and a fulcrum to exert force on an object. Cranes
use leverage to lift loads. The rotation of the upper works (cab, boom, counterweight,
and load) changes the location of the center of gravity, known as the leverage point or
fulcrum.

Stability

Stability refers to the relationship between the load weight, the angle of the boom, the
boom’s radius (the distance from the crane's center of rotation to the center of the load),
and the center of gravity of the load. Stability may also be affected by the support on
which the crane is resting. A crane's load rating is generally developed for operations
under ideal conditions, i.e., a level firm surface. Unsteady surfaces or soft ground,

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therefore, must be avoided. In areas where soft ground poses a support problem, mats
and/or blocking should be used to distribute a crane's load and to maintain a level stable
condition.

Structural Integrity

The crane's main frame, crawler track, and/or outrigger supports, boom sections, and
attachments are all considered to contribute to the structural integrity of lifting. In
addition, all wire ropes, including stationary supports or attachment points, help
determine lifting capacity and are part of the overall structural integrity determining a
crane's lifting capacity.

These elements may also affect structural integrity:

• The load chart capacity in relationship to stability

• The boom angle limitations that affect stability and capacity
• The length of boom and radius in determining capacity

Guarding

Rotating and other moving parts such as gears, shafts, pulleys, sprockets, spindles,
drums, fly wheels, and chains must be guarded if they are exposed to employee
contact.

• Swing Radius: It is advised that all employees stay out of the swing
radius, or tailswing, of the crane. A practical method of making sure
that the swing radius is clearly visible is to erect barriers. OSHA
determined that the preferred way to protect employees in these
situations is to completely barricade the entire swing radius of the
equipment and prevent employee access to the area.
• Guardrails: Runways and steps need to have guardrails, handholds,
and slip-resistant surfaces.
• Boom Angle Indicator: A boom angle indicator must be located on
the crane in a position where it will be clearly visible to the operator.
• Supporting Surface: The crane must be uniformly level within one
percent of level grade and located on firm footing or operated within
the manufacturer's guidelines.

Sheaves

Sheaves are wheels with open grooves that ropes or cables fit around. It should be
smooth and free from surface defects which could cause rope damage. All sheave
bearings shall be provided with means for lubrication. Permanently lubricated bearings
are acceptable. The boom hoisting sheave must have pitch diameters of no less than 18
times the nominal diameter of the rope used.

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Inspections

Annual Inspections

A thoroughly documented inspection of hoisting machinery must be carried out by a

competent person on at least an annual basis. In addition to the annual documented
inspection, the OSHA standards require a visual inspection before and during each shift
and an additional inspection at least once a month. The employer must maintain a
record of these inspections and their results.

The following must be inspected/identified on a regular basis:

• Air pressure
• Possible leaks
• Tire pressure
• Clearance for rotating superstructure
• Wear on wire rope
• Any physical damage to the crane
• Loose or missing hardware, nuts, or bolts
• Fluid leaks

Wire rope used as a load line must be inspected as part of the shift, monthly, and
annual inspections. During shift and monthly inspections all rope that is visible must be
inspected. During the annual inspection, the entire length of the rope must be inspected.

Remove from Use

Immediately remove damaged or defective wire rope from use. Wire ropes should not
be used if any of the following conditions are observed:

• In running ropes, six randomly distributed broken wires in one lay or

three broken wires in one strand in one lay
• Wear of one-third the original diameter of outside individual wires with
kinking, crushing, bird caging, or any other damage resulting in
distortion of the rope structure
• Evidence of any heat damage from any cause
• In standing ropes, more than two broken wires in one lay in sections
beyond end connections or more than one broken wire at an end
connection

Lesson Summary

• Operators must always account for the four basic lifting principles that
govern a crane's mobility and safety during lifting operations: center of
gravity, leverage, stability, and structural integrity.

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 • Rotating and other moving parts of cranes, such as gears, shafts,
pulleys, sprockets, spindles, drums, fly wheels, and chains, must be
guarded if they are otherwise exposed to employee contact.
• All employees should stay out of the swing radius of a crane. A
practical method of making sure that the swing radius is clearly visible
is to erect barriers.
• Crane operators must know the load limits of the crane and the
approximate weight of the load to be lifted. Load weights can often be
determined by referring to shipping documentation that accompanies
the load, and once the load weight is known, the operator must verify
lift calculations to determine if the load is within the load rating of the
crane.
• While load and load-moment indicators can be helpful for crane
operators, they are not always reliable. The device can be turned off or
malfunction or be out of calibration. Operating conditions might be so
far from ideal that the published rating is insufficient to prevent failure.
• Cranes must be inspected annually and removed from use if any
deficiencies are found.

The somewhat smooth operation of the boom control adjustments on hydraulic cranes
may falsely suggest that they are simple to operate.

Lesson 3: Cranes and Rigging

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe safety requirements pertaining to floating cranes and derricks

• Describe the safe use of personnel platforms, including platform
specifications and rigging procedures
• Describe platform-related work practices

Floating Cranes and Derricks

Always make sure that the rated load of the crane does not exceed the original capacity
specified by the crane's manufacturer. To avoid accidents, a load rating chart with
clearly visible letters and figures should be provided with each crane, and it should be
fixed at a location where the chart can easily be read by the operator of the crane. In
addition, on barges, always secure mobile cranes positively.

Note: Do not forget to provide the load rating charts to the operators.

When installing cranes and derricks permanently on a barge, make sure their capacity
and limitations of use are in compliance with current design criteria.

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Cranes and derricks that have variable angle booms should be equipped with a boom
angle indicator. The indicators must be placed where they can be easily seen by the
operators. Cranes having telescoping booms must be equipped with an indicator. The
indicator should be visible to the operator.

The maximum allowable list and trim while operating a floating crane or derrick are
specified in the following table. List refers to how far a vessel leans to one side or the
other. Trim refers to how much one end or the other (aft and stern, or front and back)
sits more deeply in the water.

Personnel Platforms

Employers and employees should know that using a derrick or crane to hoist workers on
a personnel platform is prohibited in most circumstances. The primary exception is
when the conventional means of reaching a worksite, such as a ladder, stairway,
personnel hoist, scaffold, aerial lift, or elevating platform would be more dangerous, or
the design of the structure does not allow employees to access the area. In such
exceptions, a personnel platform may be used. This restriction varies for work
completed under OSHA 1926, Subpart R, Steel Erection. Also, specific exemptions
exist for some work related to drill shafts, pile driving, marine worksites, storage tanks,
and chimney operations.

It is important that the suspension system and the personnel platform are designed by a
qualified engineer or by a competent person qualified in structural design. A suspension
system should be designed to minimize tipping the platform due to the movement of
workers on it. Moreover, the personnel platform should be capable of supporting its own
weight and at least five times the maximum intended load without any failure.

The activity of hoisting a personnel platform should be performed in a controlled, slow,

and cautious manner. Personnel platforms, wire rope, shackles, and other rigging
hardware must not exceed 50 percent of the rated capacity for the radius and
configuration of the equipment. Locking devices (pawls or dogs), load and boom hoist
drum brakes, and swing brakes must be engaged when the occupied worker's platform
is in a stationary position.

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The following manufacturer's specifications should be met when cranes are used for
lifting personnel:

• Always make sure that the total weight of the loaded personnel
platform and related rigging does not exceed 50 percent of the
manufacturer's rated capacity for the configuration and radius of the
crane or derrick.
• The load line hoist drum must have a system, other than the load line
hoist brake, which regulates the lowering rate of speed of the hoist
mechanism. This system or device must be used when hoisting
personnel.

Guardrail and Grab-Rail Systems

A guardrail system must be placed on each personnel platform. The guardrail system
should meet the requirements of Subpart M. In addition, the guardrail system must be
enclosed from the toe-board to mid-rail with expanded metal having openings no
greater than 0.5 inch. The installation of a grab rail inside the entire perimeter of the
personnel platform is very important, as it provides something to hold onto should the
platform shift unexpectedly.

Access Gates

If access gates are installed in the area, make sure that they do not swing outward
during hoisting. In addition, to prevent accidents, the gates must be equipped with a
restraining device.

Headroom on the Platforms

In order to stand upright on the platform, headroom should be provided for the
employees. Furthermore, hard hats must be provided to the employees working on the
personnel platform to protect their heads from falling objects.

Rough Edges, Welding and Markings

Always make sure that all rough edges are smoothed or surfaced as they could injure
employees who come into contact with them. Only a qualified welder who is familiar with
the weld types, material, and grades is allowed to perform all welding of the personnel
platform. The personnel platforms should have a plate or other permanent markings that
indicate the platform's rated load capacity or maximum intended load and the weight of
the platform.

Occupancy of the Platform

Only necessary employees (employees required to perform the work) can occupy the
personnel platform. The platform can only be used for employee tools and materials
necessary to perform the work. When employees are not being hoisted, the personnel
platform should not be used for hoisting tools and materials.

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Rigging Platforms

If you are using a wire rope bridle to connect the personnel platform to the load line,
always make sure that each bridle leg is connected to the shackle or master link and
that the load is equally divided among the bridle legs. Master links, shackles, wire rope,
and all other rigging hardware must be capable of supporting at least five times the
maximum intended load without failure. Furthermore, when using rotation resistant rope,
the slings must be capable of supporting at least ten times the maximum intended load
without failure. Bridles and associated rigging for attaching the personnel platform to the
hoist line can only be used for the platform, necessary employees, their tools, and the
materials necessary for work. When bridles and associated rigging are not hoisting
personnel, they should not be used for other purposes.

Personnel Platform-Related Work Practices

When a platform is being raised, lowered, and positioned, it is vital that employees keep
all parts of the body inside, as doing otherwise could lead to an accident. When
possible, ensure that the platform is secured to the structure where the work is to be
performed. If a hoisted platform is not secured, employees should not leave or enter the
platform. In addition, when the crane engine is running and the platform is occupied, the
crane or derrick operator should remain at the controls at all times.

Dangerous Conditions

Do not hoist employees if weather conditions are bad, or if any other indication of
impending danger exists. If employees are hoisted and a dangerous situation arises,
they should be grounded immediately and safely. Always remember, when employees
are suspended on a platform, not to lift anything on another of the crane's or derrick's
load lines as it could lead to an emergency situation.

Rigging Equipment for Material Handling

It is important that workers involved with hoisting and rigging activities are trained in
both safety and operating procedures. Hoisting and rigging equipment should be
operated only by trained personnel. Training and experience enable riggers to
recognize hazards that can have an impact on a hoisting and rigging operation. Riggers
must be familiar with the proper inspection and use of slings and other rigging
hardware. Most rigging accidents can be prevented by field personnel following basic
safe hoisting and rigging practices.

Employers must ensure that rigging equipment used for material handling has
permanently affixed and legible identification markings as prescribed by the
manufacturer that indicate the recommended safe working load. Equipment should not
be used without affixed, legible identification markings. Rigging equipment must not be
loaded in excess of its safe working load limit identified by the manufacturer.

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Slings and all fastenings and attachments shall be inspected for damage or defects by a
competent person before being used. Damaged or defective slings or other rigging
equipment shall be immediately removed from service.

Rigging equipment must be removed from the immediate work area when not in use so
it does not pose a hazard to employees.

Lesson Summary
•
• Floating cranes and derricks should never exceed the original capacity
specified by the manufacturer. List and trim should be kept within
acceptable limits when using a floating crane.
• Only necessary employees should occupy a personnel platform, and
the platform must only be used for employee tools and materials
necessary to perform the work. When employees are not being
hoisted, the personnel platform should not be used for hoisting tools
and materials.
• A suspension system should be designed to minimize tipping the
platform due to the movement of workers. Moreover, the personnel
platform should be capable of supporting its own weight and at least
five times the maximum intended load without any failure. The activity
of hoisting a personnel platform should be performed in a controlled,
slow, and cautious manner.
• Personnel platforms should be equipped with guardrails and grab-rails
with no rough edges.
• When the crane engine is running and the platform is occupied, the
crane or derrick operator should remain at the controls at all times.
When a platform is being raised, lowered, and positioned, it is vital that
employees keep all parts of the body inside, as doing otherwise could
lead to an accident.
• Employers and employees should know that using a derrick or crane to
hoist workers on a personnel platform is normally prohibited. The
primary exception is when the conventional means of reaching a
worksite such as a ladder, stairway, personnel hoist, scaffold, aerial lift,
or elevating platform would be more dangerous, or the design of the
structure does not allow employees to access the area. In such
exceptions, a personnel platform may be used. Additional exceptions
related to specific operations also exist.
• Never hoist employees if the weather is bad or other adverse
conditions exist at the worksite.

Module 10: Ergonomics

Module Description

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Employees who work in non-office environments are routinely required to carry out
tasks that involve movement and physical exertion. These forceful exertions associated
with such tasks may lead to fatigue, musculoskeletal disorders, and other serious
injuries. This module is designed to help employees identify work-related problems and
learn to apply the principles of ergonomics in order to make their jobs less physically
demanding, thereby increasing their overall efficiency.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

• Discuss what is meant by ergonomics

• Name the factors that may contribute to problems in a non-office work
environment
• Identify the causes of musculoskeletal disorders
• Apply effective ergonomic principles at your workplace

Lesson 1: Ergonomics in the Workplace

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to

• Define ergonomics
• Describe the effects of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) and how
they are caused
• Identify the risk factors for MSDs

Introduction

The science of ergonomics looks for the best “fit” between the worker and the job
conditions. Ergonomics partly involves developing and implementing solutions that
make workers safer, more comfortable, and more productive. It also often involves
changing tools, equipment, materials, work methods, or the workplace itself. There is a
strong case for making ergonomic improvements, both to reduce workers’ risk of injury
and to improve their productivity.

The principles of ergonomics are geared towards adapting the design and engineering
of products and workplaces to people's sizes and shapes, physical strengths and
limitations, biological needs, ability to handle information and make decisions, as well as
their capacities for dealing with such psychological factors as isolation and stress.

Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs)

Injuries arising from ergonomic hazards generally fall into the category
musculoskeletal disorders or MSDs. Examples of musculoskeletal injuries include
carpal tunnel syndrome, tendinitis, and lower back pain. Most musculoskeletal injuries

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among construction workers are sprains and strains of the muscles, but injuries to the
joints, bones, and nerves are also possible. These injuries often result from constant
wear and tear on the body, overexertion, fatigue, and repetitive motions.

As a result of the numerous risk factors, construction is one of the most hazardous
industries in the United States when it comes to MSDs. In addition to backaches, the
most reported areas of pain were in the shoulders, neck, arms, and hands. The Bureau
of Labor Statistics (BLS) typically reports that approximately 25% of all workplace
injuries in construction are musculoskeletal disorders caused by ergonomic issues like
overexertion, fatigue, and repetitive motion. These work-related injuries are among the
most frequently reported causes of lost or restricted work time. In 2018, the average
time away from work due to such cases was 12 days. In order to reduce the costs
associated with MSDs and avoid the problem of work-related injuries, employers must
implement the principles of ergonomics in their workplaces.

Because musculoskeletal disorders have been associated with non-work activities (e.g.,
sports) and medical conditions (e.g., renal disease, rheumatoid arthritis), it is difficult to
determine the proportion due solely to occupation. For example, in the general
population, non-occupational causes of low back pain may be more common than
workplace causes [Liira et al., 1996]. However, even in these cases, musculoskeletal
disorders may be aggravated by workplace factors.

Medical Conditions Associated with Musculoskeletal Symptoms

Conditions associated with MSDs include:

• Muscle strain or fatigue

• Tendonitis
• Epicondylitis or "tennis elbow"
• Carpal tunnel syndrome
• Other "pinched" nerve entrapment syndrome
• Nerve injury/irritation from external compression
• Arthritis and other rheumatological disorders

Physical Risk Factors

There are certain aspects of tasks that can increase the risk of fatigue, musculoskeletal
disorder (MSD) symptoms, and other injuries. These risk factors can be found in a
variety of tasks that an employee is required to carry out and can be divided into two
categories: physical factors and environmental factors.

Physical factors are fundamentally the interactions between the work area and the
worker, and include:

• Awkward postures
• Forceful exertions
• Repetitive tasks or motions

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 • Pressure points
• Recovery time
• Vibration

Awkward Postures

The position of the body while performing a task is known as posture. The muscle
groups used while performing a task are affected by the worker's posture. An awkward
position can make the task more physically demanding by overexerting small muscle
groups and not using larger muscle groups. This can increase the likelihood of poor
blood-flow, which can lead to fatigue and injury.

Some examples of awkward postures include repeated or prolonged reaching, bending,

twisting, kneeling, holding fixed positions, or squatting. Several areas of the body can
be affected due to these postures, including shoulders, arms, wrists, hands, knees,
neck, and back. Awkward postures are often caused by poorly designed work areas,
equipment, and tools, as well as poor work practices.

Postures to Avoid:

• Prolonged or repetitive flexion or extension of the wrist

• Prolonged or repetitive bending at the waist
• Prolonged standing or sitting without shifting your position
• Suspending an outstretched arm for extended periods of time
• Holding or turning your head consistently to one side
• Any posture that is held repeatedly or for a prolonged time

Motions to Avoid:

• Repeated motion without periods of rest

• Repeated motion with little or no variation
• Repeated motions done with force
• Resting or compressing a body part on or against a surface
• Lifting heavy objects away from the body
• Frequent reaching or working above shoulder height

The following types of employee behavior may indicate the presence of ergonomics-
related problems:

• Employees shaking arms and hands or rolling shoulders due to

discomfort
• Employees voluntarily modifying workstations and equipment to
increase comfort
• Employees bringing in ergonomic products to the worksite (such as
wrist braces)

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Forceful Exertions

The amount of muscular effort required to perform a task is called force. Exerting more
force than a body can sustain can cause severe damage to muscles and ligaments. The
amount of force required for tools or machinery depends upon various factors, including:

• Load weight, shape, and bulkiness

• Grip type
• Amount of pressure required to accelerate, or decelerate, the load

The degree of risk generally increases with increasing force. Various parts of the body
can be affected due to high force, including shoulders, neck, lower back, forearm, wrist,
and hands. The risk of injury due to forceful exertions may increase if other risk factors
such as awkward posture, repetitive tasks, and extended duration are also present.

Repetitive Tasks or Motions

Repetitive tasks require workers to perform the same task over and over again, using
the same muscles, ligaments, and tendons. Repetitive motion may cause severe
damage, injury, and discomfort to the worker. The risk of injury increases if the worker
fails to take any breaks to relax his or her muscles.

Pressure Points

Exerting pressure on different parts of the body by pressing them against hard or sharp
surfaces may cause injury. Some body parts are at a greater risk as nerves, blood
vessels, and tendons are present just under the skin in certain areas. Fingers, wrists,
palms, elbows, forearms, and knees are examples of such body parts.

Recovery Time

Recovery time is the amount of time allocated to rest the muscles and tendons in any
strained part of the body. It is very important for workers to take pauses between tasks
that require forceful exertions. These breaks not only provide relief to workers but also
enhance their performance. Employers must assess the duration of breaks according to
the workload along with the risk factors present.

Vibration

Continuous or high intensity vibration from sitting on, standing on, or holding equipment
can increase the risk of injury. Vibration transmitted through the hand that disperses as
it travels up the arm and through the body is called segmental vibration. This type of
vibration is commonly caused by power tools such as grinders, sanders, or impact
wrenches, and can damage nerves and cause blood vessels to constrict. Whole body
vibration is commonly experienced by truck or heavy equipment operators and causes
repeated small traumas to the body that can eventually lead to permanent damage to
the spine. While damage generally occurs over a long period of time, sudden or jarring
impacts, like hitting a pothole, can also cause immediate damage.

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Environmental Risk Factors

Environmental risk factors are conditions in the environment surrounding a work area
that may contribute to stresses or hazards. The following are some examples.

Heat Stress

Heat stress is the amount of heat that a body is exposed to while performing a task.
Heat stress can be attributed to the worker's environment and also his or her own
internal metabolism. Exposure to excessive heat can cause various disorders, including
heat exhaustion, heat cramps, and heat stroke. The symptoms of heat stress may
include headaches, thirst, nausea, muscle cramps, dizziness, and weakness. Due to the
severity of the consequences of heat stress, employees must regularly monitor the
workplace and take appropriate preventive measures.

Cold Stress

Cold stress occurs when a worker is exposed to cold temperatures. Cold stress results
in the decrease of the worker's body temperature and may cause shivering,
unconsciousness, pain, and inadequate circulation of the blood. Cold stress may also
cause the worker to lose the ability to grasp due to the decrease in body strength. Cold
temperatures combined with the risk factors above may increase the risk of
musculoskeletal disorders.

Noise

Continuous sound at levels above 80-85 dB in the workplace can cause severe damage
to a worker's hearing. Continued exposure to high noise levels may also result in
impaired hearing or permanent deafness, tinnitus, or speech misperception.
Furthermore, high levels of noise may also affect the worker's ability to concentrate on
his or her work.

Lighting

Improper lighting in the workplace may cause eye fatigue and may result in headaches
and a loss of focus. A worker's ability to perform tasks efficiently depends greatly on the
proper lighting of the work area.

Lesson Summary

• Ergonomics refers to the science of fitting the task to the worker to

avoid injuries. A common category of ergonomic injuries is
musculoskeletal disorders, or MSDs.
• Repetitive tasks require workers to perform the same task over and
over again, using the same muscles, ligaments, and tendons. MSDs
are commonly the result of repetitive motions, which may cause severe

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 damage, injury, and discomfort to the worker. The risk of injury
increases if the worker fails to take breaks to relax his or her muscles.
• Recovery time is the amount of time allocated to rest the muscles and
tendons in any strained body part. It is very important for workers to
take adequate pauses between tasks that require exertions. These
breaks not only provide relief to workers but also enhance their
performance.
• High or continuous vibrations can cause fatigue, numbness, and pain
in the exposed area. It may also cause decreased sensitivity to touch
and increased sensitivity to cold.
• To prevent the consequences of heat stress, employers must regularly
monitor the workplace and take the appropriate measures to ensure
that all employees are adequately protected.
• In order to reduce the costs associated with musculoskeletal disorders
and to avoid the problem of work-related injuries, employers must
implement principles of ergonomics in their workplaces.
• Physical risk factors for MSDs include awkward postures, forceful
exertions, repetitive motions, pressure points, and a lack of recovery
time between exertions.
• Environmental risk factors include heat stress, cold stress, excessive
noise, and improper lighting.

Lesson 2: Improving the Workplace

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe engineering controls that can be used to improve ergonomics

• Describe administrative controls that can be used to improve
ergonomics
• Explain the proper use of PPE to avoid ergonomic hazards
• Describe the proper ergonomic training for workers

Introduction

Construction is a physically demanding but vital occupation. Workers who must often
lift, stoop, kneel, twist, grip, stretch, reach overhead, or work in other awkward positions
to do a job are at risk of developing strain and sprain injuries called musculoskeletal
disorders (MSDs). These can include back problems, carpal tunnel syndrome, tendinitis,
rotator cuff tears, sprains, and strains.

Employers can adopt various ergonomic improvements in their workplaces in order to

improve the working environment for their employees. Ergonomic improvements can be
divided into three categories:

• Engineering Controls

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 • Administrative Controls
• Protective Equipment

Engineering Controls

Employers can institute engineering controls in their workplaces by redesigning,

rearranging, modifying, or replacing tools, equipment, workstations, products, or actions
that increase the risks of injury. Implementing effective engineering controls can greatly
reduce the risk factors. The engineering controls that follow are some commonly
recommended measures.

• Install worktables with work surfaces that can be raised or lowered

according to the employee's body size and position. This can reduce
bending, reaching, and awkward postures that can contribute to body
damage.
• Cutout work surfaces may be appropriate to allow employees to adjust
their distance from the worktable. This can help reduce awkward
postures.
• By allowing employees to reposition their work, their bending and
reaching efforts can be reduced.
• Modifying the work surface according to the task can reduce the effort
needed to complete the task. For example, to deliver packages from
one area to another, workers can slide and roll the packages on the
surface rather than lifting and carrying them manually.
• Ladders, scaffolds, steps or work platforms must be provided to
employees who are required to reach a surface high off the ground to
retrieve packages or containers.
• If employees are required to place packages and containers on
surfaces high off the ground, certain mechanical lifting devices can be
used to lift them. This can reduce stress to shoulders, neck, back, and
other body parts. This can also reduce force, repetition, and awkward
postures in tasks related to lifting or handling heavy objects.
• Certain jobs, such as loading and unloading packages from delivery
trucks, may require workers to bend their torsos repeatedly. This can
again increase the risk of damage to a variety of body parts. This type
of operation can be improved significantly by implementing lifting
devices, altering the work site, and adopting a wide range of
ergonomic solutions.
• Employers should provide adjustable equipment that allows employees
to accomplish tasks in a comfortable, upright working posture.
• All materials, products, and tools that have to be used frequently must
be stored in a place that can be accessed easily without requiring the
worker to reach high or adopt awkward postures.
• Materials should be transported around the workplace using
mechanical aids when possible and appropriate. This may reduce the
force required, repetition of motions, and awkward postures, while
increasing workers' efficiency.

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 • Unnecessary repetitive reaching, twisting, bending, and forceful
exertions can be avoided by properly organizing the equipment and
materials stored by grouping stored items by container size or shape.
• Installing proper lighting systems in the workplace, including all storage
facilities, can help reduce eye strains and headaches.

By utilizing good design and carrying out proper maintenance of all machinery and
equipment, employees can ensure pressure points on the hands and wrists, awkward
postures, and forceful exertions are minimized or avoided.
Exposure to vibration may be reduced by routine maintenance of vibrating equipment,
covering handles with vibration-dampening wraps, operating the tool from a distance
when possible, using vibration-dampening gloves, using alternate tools that produce
less vibration, utilizing vibration isolators for workers who are seated, employing
cushioned floor mats for tasks that have to be carried out while standing, or using
vibrating tools at low speeds.

For example, workers may use a tool that automatically ties rebar with the pull of a
trigger. The extended handle lets a worker perform this task while standing upright. No
leaning, kneeling, stooping, or hand twisting are necessary.

Construction workers also often use screw guns and other fastening tools that require
stooping, bending, kneeling or squatting for long periods of time. Working repeatedly in
these positions can result in fatigue, pain, and injury. Using an auto-feed screw gun with
an extension that allows you to stand upright while working. Standing while you work
keeps your spine and knees in a neutral position, minimizing strain and muscle fatigue.

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Another example of a task that puts strain on workers involves using a drill or screw gun
for overhead work, which forces you to keep your arms and neck in a fixed, awkward,
hard to hold position. You have to push upward with a heavy tool above your shoulders,
using your shoulder muscles instead of your biceps. Using a bit extension shaft for the
drill or screw gun, lets you hold the tool below your shoulder and closer to your waist.
You strain your arms, neck, shoulders, and back less because you don’t have to hold
the tool above your shoulders or work in an awkward position.

Administrative Controls

Administrative controls involve developing work practices and methods that best protect
the worker. These are often focused towards devising and implementing new practices
and policies in order to allow employees to carry out their jobs effectively and efficiently
and avoid any on-the-job injuries, illnesses, and accidents. Administrative controls rely
on communication and training, as well as feedback from management and employees
on the effectiveness of the controls. Administrative controls may include:

• Job Rotation
• Adjusting Work Schedules and Work Pace
• Allowing More Frequent Breaks
• Modifying Work Practices
• Regular Housekeeping and Maintenance
• Encouraging Regular Exercise

Job Rotation

Adopting a job rotation system is one effective measure to reduce damage caused to
employees by using the same muscle groups every day. With a properly designed and
implemented system, employees are rotated through different jobs, thus increasing job
and muscle-use variety. Another system through which employees can increase job
variety is through job enlargement. Through this system, employers combine two or
more jobs or add different tasks to an existing job.

These systems aim to prevent overuse and overexertion of muscles and body parts, by
reducing the amount of repetition, altering the pace of work, reducing the physical
exertion required, and controlling visual and mental demands.

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Adjusting Work Schedules and Work Pace

Employers must be careful not to assign too heavy of a workload to employees. They
also must limit the amount of time that an employee spends performing a particularly
challenging job in awkward positions even when physical improvements have been
incorporated.

Allowing More Frequent Breaks

Breaking work into smaller tasks allows employees to take adequate breaks between
them. These breaks may help employees relax their muscles, thus preventing fatigue
and injury.

Modifying Work Practices

Supervisors and managers should regularly observe how workers perform their jobs.
When employees perform all jobs while in a neutral posture, the body is less susceptible
to injury. Employees may be able to adopt this posture by sitting or standing upright and
not bending any joints into extreme positions; they should keep their necks, backs,
arms, and wrists in a neutral position. Supervisors should encourage employees to work
in a comfortable position and shift their positions or stretch often.

Other modifications to work practices include:

• Minimizing distances for carrying, pushing, and pulling

• Managing an equal amount of weight in each hand
• Avoiding unnecessarily twisting of the body
• Using smooth and even motions, avoiding jerking
• Utilizing the legs to accomplish tasks rather than using the upper body
or back
• Ensuring that all paths are free from obstacles and even
• Organizing tasks to provide a gradual increase in the amount of force
required
• Ensuring shoes are slip-resistant.

Regular Housekeeping and Maintenance

Employers must devise a system to carry out regular housekeeping and maintenance of
workspaces, equipment, machinery, and tools. There should be no cluttering in the
workspace, as clutter can force employees to reach, bend, or twist their bodies while
handling different objects. Additionally, employers must ensure that workspaces comply
with the following points:

• All floor surfaces must be kept dry and free of any obstacles when
possible. This can minimize hazards associated with slipping or
tripping in the work area. Problems related to overexertion can often be
minimized by carrying out regular maintenance of all tools and
equipment.

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 • Ensure that handles and padding on vibrating tools are well maintained
to help reduce vibration and awkward postures while tasks are being
performed.
• All moving or mechanical parts on carts and pulleys must be properly
lubricated and maintained so as to reduce the amount of force required
to move them.

Encouraging Regular Exercise

Regular exercise is very important to one’s well-being. It not only keeps the body fit, but
it also reduces the risk of injury. Individuals who are in good physical condition are more
productive and sustain fewer injuries. Employers may encourage their workers to
increase their energy levels, coordination, and alertness by exercising regularly.
Regular exercise can also increase the efficiency of their joints and improve blood
circulation. Some organizations allow and encourage employees to warm up and
engage in proper stretching before beginning work and while taking a break from work.

Protective Equipment

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) includes all protective equipment, such as gloves,
footwear, knee and elbow pads, eye protection and other equipment that employees
wear according to the type of task they are involved in.

• Gloves: Properly selected gloves help to protect hands from

sustaining injuries, improve grip, and avoid contact with chemicals.
However, if gloves do not fit properly or are not made of the proper
materials, they can restrict hand movement and make it harder for
employees to grip things.
• Footwear: Choosing the proper footwear according to the nature of
the job can greatly reduce the risk of slipping. Some soles are
designed to reduce fatigue for employees who are required to stand for
long hours while performing a task.
• Knee and Elbow Pads: Knee and elbow pads can protect body parts
that are pressed against hard or sharp surfaces. These aim to
minimize the risk of negatively affecting pressure points until proper
engineering improvements can be made.
• Back Belts: OSHA does not recognize back belts as effective
engineering controls to prevent back injury. While they may be
accepted by individual workers because they feel that the belts provide
additional support, the effectiveness of back belts in the prevention of
low back injuries has not been proven in the work environment.
OSHA’s preferred approach to prevention of injuries and illnesses,
including back injuries, is to eliminate the hazardous conditions in the
workplace, primarily through engineering controls.

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Training

Training is also an important element of ergonomics. Proper training ensures that

employees are informed about ergonomic concerns in the workplace and ways to
minimize the risk of injury. It is best provided by individuals who have experience with
ergonomic issues in their workplace, and it should be provided annually in a manner
and language that all employees can understand.

Training prepares employees for active participation in the ergonomics process,

including identifying potential problems, implementing solutions, and evaluating the
process. Effective training includes:

• Proper use of equipment, tools, and machine controls

• Good work practices, including proper lifting techniques
• Awareness of work tasks that may lead to pain or injury
• Recognition of MSDs and their early indications
• Addressing early indications of MSDs before serious injury develops
• Procedures for reporting work-related injuries and illnesses

Employees will benefit from orientation and hands-on training before starting tasks with
potential ergonomic risk factors. Employees should also be notified of workplace
changes, instructed on using new equipment, and notified of new work procedures.

An effective training program includes a mix of theoretical and practical ways in which
employees can develop their skills to work safely. It must be provided to aAll employees
who are exposed to different risk factors, including supervisors, managers, and
appropriate engineers and maintenance personnel. All supervisors who have to
administer an ergonomics program should be provided with special training focusing on
how to effectively incorporate sound ergonomic principles and practices into the
workplace.

Qualified persons who have a thorough knowledge about the principles of ergonomics
greatly improve the quality of training. Additionally, trainers must thoroughly familiarize
themselves with the workplace before devising a program. Trainers should consider
communication levels before devising the training program. They should adopt a
language and style that is easy for all employees to understand and relate to.

Apart from ergonomic principles, the training must also cover the risk potential of
damage to the body and injuries that can result from the failure to adopt sound
ergonomic principles and practices. Employee training must consist of both general and
specific job-related skill sets.

General Training

Employers must provide formal training to all employees who could be exposed to
ergonomic hazards to inform them about the hazards associated with their jobs and the
tools, machinery, and equipment they use. Information that must be included in the

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training includes specific risk factors, their causes, recognizing and reporting symptoms,
and the prevention of these occurrences.

Job Specific Training

All new employees and those assigned new tasks must be made aware of the specific
risks associated with a particular job before they start their work. A practical
demonstration should be arranged in order to show the employees how to use all the
tools and equipment properly and how to carry out all procedures efficiently. The initial
training program should incorporate the following:

• How to use, handle, and maintain all tools, machinery, and equipment
that have to be used as a part of the job
• How to use the special tools, if any, associated with a particular job
• How to use safety equipment and guards along with personal
protective equipment to ensure safety
• How to properly lift and the proper procedures to follow when an object
is too heavy to lift safely without assistance

Training for Supervisors

It is the responsibility of supervisors to ensure that all employees are properly trained to
follow safe work practices and that these practices are followed on a consistent basis. In
addition to the training received by employees, supervisors should receive additional
training that enables them to recognize early risk signs and symptoms, hazardous work
practices, how to correct those practices, and how to reinforce the ergonomic program.

Training for Managers

Apart from employees and supervisors, managers must also be made aware of their
responsibilities to implement ergonomic principles that ensure the safety and health of
all employees. They must also be familiar with the problems and risks associated with
all tasks.

Training for Engineers and Maintenance Personnel

On-site engineers and maintenance personnel must also be trained so that they can
recommend and implement the best possible machinery, equipment, designs, work
practices, and tools to reduce the risk of injury and bodily damage to employees.

Lesson Summary

All supervisors required to administer an ergonomics program should be provided with

special training focusing on how to effectively make the workplace safe by adopting
sound ergonomic principles and practices. Apart from ergonomic principles, the training
must also include the risk potential of damage to the body and injuries that can result
from the failure to adopt proper ergonomic practices.

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Employers must provide formal training to all employees who could be exposed to
hazards to inform them about the hazards associated with their jobs and the tools,
machinery, and equipment they use. New employees and those assigned new tasks
must be made aware of the specific risks associated with a particular job before they
start their work.
An ergonomics training program must include:

• All employees who are exposed to different risk factors

• Supervisors
• Managers
• All engineers and maintenance personnel

An effective training program includes a mix of both theoretical and practical ways in
which employees can develop their skills to work safely. They must manage the amount
of time that an employee spends performing a particularly challenging job

Module 11: Excavations

Module Description
This module gives you a basic understanding of how to work safely in excavations and
what important points and requirements must be considered when working in an
excavation. Lessons will cover topics like the various standards that OSHA has
implemented to protect workers during excavation, the elements of an excavation that
must be included to avoid hazards, and how to identify and understand the hazards of
different soil types.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

• Identify factors that pose a hazard to employees working in excavations

• Explain how to protect employees from cave-ins
• Describe the role of a competent person at an excavation site

Lesson 1: Standards and Protection

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe OSHA standards pertaining to excavations

• Describe general excavation safety
• Identify the dangers of excavations
• Explain how to protect workers doing excavation work

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 • Understand how to choose the correct protective system
• Explain how to install and remove protective systems
• Recognize the warning system for mobile equipment

OSHA Standards

Unless specifically exempted, the OSHA standards are applicable to all man-made,
open excavations in the earth's surface. Excavations by definition include trenches.

OSHA Standards Exemptions

House foundation/basement excavations (including those that become trenches by

definition when formwork, foundations, or walls are constructed) are exempt from the
OSHA requirements for protective systems if they meet the following conditions:

• The house foundation/basement excavation is less than 7.5 feet in depth or is

benched for at least 2 feet horizontally for every 5 feet or less of vertical height.
• The minimum horizontal width (excavation face to formwork/wall) at the bottom of
the excavation is as wide as practicable but not less than 2 feet.
• There is no water, surface tension cracks, or other environmental conditions
present that reduce the stability of the excavation.
• There is no heavy equipment operating in the vicinity that causes vibration to the
excavation while employees are in the excavation.
• All soil, equipment, and material surcharge loads are no closer to the top edge of
the excavation than the excavation is deep; however, when front-end loaders are
used to dig the excavations, the soil surcharge load should be placed as far back
from the edge of the excavation as possible, but never closer than 2 feet.
• Work crews in the excavation consist of the minimum number of workers needed
to perform the work.
• The work has been planned and is carried out in a manner to minimize the time
employees are in the excavation.

Note: While some residential construction operations may be exempt from the OSHA
standards, this does not imply that no related hazards exist! Employers and employees
should remain vigilant in ensuring the safety of all workers exposed to the associated
dangers.

Excavations

An excavation is any man-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression in the earth's surface
formed by earth removal.

Excavations must be immediately filled back to their normal state after completing the
work. Once the excavation has been cleared, workers should carefully remove the
protective system, starting from the bottom up, while taking care in releasing all
supporting members.

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Excavations under sidewalks and pavement are prohibited unless you provide an
appropriately designed support system or another effective means of support. The
standard requires you to take the following steps to protect employees when installing
support systems:

• Connect members of support systems securely

• Install support systems safely
• Avoid overloading members of support systems
• Install other structural members to carry loads imposed on the support system
when you need to remove individual members temporarily

The Dangers of Excavations

Excavating is considered one of the most hazardous operations in the field of

construction.

The dangers of excavations come from the possibility of cave-ins, in addition to the
possibility of the following:

• Lack of oxygen/asphyxiation
• Fire
• Accidental break of underground utility (such as gas, electricity) lines
• Collapse due to moving machinery or continuous traffic (which can produce
vibrations) near the edge of the excavations
• Inhalation of toxic materials
• Water accumulation

Adjacent Structures

Any structure in the surrounding area of an excavation is called an adjacent structure.

The main concern when excavations are created near an adjacent structure is the
structure's stability. Excavations near adjacent structures may create surcharges,
changes in soil conditions, or other disruptions that could lead to an excavation
accident.

Collapses

A number of stresses and deformations can occur in an open cut or trench. For
example, increases or decreases in moisture content can adversely affect the stability of
a trench or excavation. The following diagrams show some of the more frequently
identified causes of trench failure.

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Tension Crack

This figure illustrates how tension cracks usually form at a horizontal distance of 0.5 to
0.75 times the depth of the trench, measured from the top of the vertical face of the
trench.

Sliding

This figure illustrates how sliding or sluffing may occur as a result of tension cracks.

Toppling

In addition to sliding, tension cracks can cause toppling, which occurs when the trench’s
vertical face shears along the tension crack line and topples into the excavation.

Subsidence and Bulging

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An unsupported excavation can create an unbalanced stress in the soil, which, in turn,
causes subsidence at the surface and bulging of the vertical face of the trench. If left
uncorrected, this can cause failure in the face of the trench and trap workers.

Heaving or Squeezing

Bottom heaving or squeezing is caused by the downward pressure created by the

weight of adjoining soil. This pressure causes a bulge in the bottom of the cut, as
illustrated in the drawing above. Heaving and squeezing can occur even when shoring
or shielding has been properly installed.

Boiling

Boiling refers to an upward water flow into the bottom of an excavation. A high water
table is one of the causes of boiling, which produces a “quick” condition (similar to
quicksand).

Protection of Employees

OSHA's primary purpose is to protect employees from hazards present in the

workplace. Employers must protect employees from accidents related to cave-ins by
designing, implementing, and enforcing the use of excavation protective systems.

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Exceptions to the requirement for excavation protective systems include circumstances
in which:

• Excavations are made entirely in stable rock

• Excavations are less than 5 feet (1.52 m) in depth, and examination of the
ground by a competent person provides no indication of a potential cave-in

Protective systems should have the capacity to resist without failure all loads that are
intended or could reasonably be expected to be applied or transmitted to the system.
A well-designed protective system is one that works for the type of soil, depth of cut,
and the type of construction being performed in the trench. Protective systems include
sloping and benching systems, shield systems, and support systems. Correct design of
sloping, support, shield, benching, and other protective systems is crucial.

Sloping, Benching, and Shoring

Sloping refers to the practice of creating a slope on either side of an excavation to help
prevent cave-ins and prevent caught-in-between and falling object hazards.

Benching refers to the formation of one or a series of horizontal levels or steps along
the side walls of an excavation, often with vertical or near-vertical surfaces between
levels. Shoring involves adding structural members to provide support to excavation
walls. It is often used where the location or depth of the cut makes sloping back to the
maximum allowable slope impractical.

Trench Boxes or Shields

Both trench boxes and shoring serve to protect workers from cave-ins. Trench boxes
differ from shoring, however, in that trench boxes are shields that provide continuous,
equal protection on two sides of an excavation for the entire length of the box.

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Here are some important factors related to the proper installation of trench boxes:

• The excavated area between the outside of the trench box and the face of the
trench should be as small as possible.
• The space between the trench box and the excavation side may be backfilled (or
other means may be used) to prevent lateral movement of the box.
• Shields may not be subjected to loads exceeding those which the system was
designed to withstand.

Trench boxes are usually made of aluminum or steel and may be used in combination
with sloping and benching. In addition, trench boxes must be inspected regularly,
properly maintained, and used under the supervision of a competent person.

Aluminum Hydraulic Shoring

Hydraulic trench support systems can be directly dropped into an excavation. By

increasing hydraulic pressure, the qualified operator can prevent the forms from moving
or shifting while workers are in the trench. In addition, trench pins are installed in case
of hydraulic system failure.

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Choosing a Protective System

The following factors should be considered when designing an effective excavation

protective system:

• Soil classification
• Depth of cut
• Water content of soil
• Changes due to weather and climate
• Other operations in the vicinity
• Availability of various protective equipment

Excavations 20 feet and greater in depth must have a protective system that is planned
and designed by a professional engineer. The plan must be stamped by the registered
professional engineer and kept on the project site.

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Installation and Removal of Protective Systems

When installing support systems, the following requirements are vital for proper
employee protection:

• Securely connect members of support systems

• Safely install support systems
• Never overload members of support systems
• Install other structural members to carry loads imposed on the support system
when temporary removal of individual members is necessary
• Backfilling should progress together with the removal of support systems from
excavations

Warning System for Mobile Equipment

If mobile equipment is operated adjacent to or near an excavation, or when such

equipment is required to approach the edge of an excavation, and the operator does not
have a clear and direct view of the edge of the excavation, some type of warning
system must be implemented. Types of warning systems include:

• Barricades
• Hand or mechanical signals
• Stop logs

Likewise, the grade should slope away from the excavation, if possible.

Case Study

An Excavation Collapsed

This accident occurred when earth that fell into an excavation at an agricultural channel
was being removed.

The original project called for a trench to be excavated so that two drainage pipes could
be installed. On the day of the accident, a water pipe that was already buried in the
trench at a depth of 28 inches was broken by a landslide. This caused earth to fall into
the trench.

There were three workers on this project. Soon after the project began, a worker outside
of the trench noticed a crack in the earth near the edge of the excavation. That worker
immediately warned the other workers inside the excavation. All three workers
attempted to exit the trench, but not all could get out before the slope of the trench
collapsed. One worker who was working at the bottom of the trench was buried by the
fallen earth and later died.

Some causes of this accident:

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 • Lack of appropriate operations plans
• Sufficient measures were not taken to protect against collapse of the ground
• The work was being performed without proper supervision
• Protective systems were not in place

Lesson Summary

• Unless specifically exempted, the OSHA standards are applicable to all man-
made, open excavations in the earth's surface. An excavation is any man-made
cut, cavity, trench, or depression in the earth's surface formed by earth removal.
• Excavations must be immediately filled back to their normal state after
completing the work. Once the excavation has been cleared, workers should
carefully remove the protective system, starting from the bottom up, while taking
care in releasing all supporting members.
• Dangers arising from excavations include a lack of oxygen, fire, breaking an
underground utility, inhalation of toxic materials, and water accumulation.
• Collapse is also always a hazard when conducting excavation work. Tension
cracks can cause toppling or sliding, while other hazards can cause heaving,
boiling, and bulging of trenches.
• Employees required to work in excavations deeper than 5 feet must be protected
by systems like sloping, benching, and shoring, or by trench boxes or shields.
• If mobile equipment will be operated near an excavation, some kind of warning
system must be implemented, such as barricades, signals, or stop logs.

Lesson 2: Essentials of Excavations

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe hazardous conditions associated with excavations

• Explain proper methods of access and egress
• Identify hazards that can arise from falls and equipment
• Describe proper site evaluation and planning
• Explain how inspections of excavations should be conducted

Hazardous Conditions

Materials and Equipment

Employers are responsible for ensuring that materials and equipment are in good
working condition, since damaged and defective materials and equipment could cause
excavation accidents.

To prevent accidents and hazards, the employer must ensure that:

• Equipment and materials are not damaged or defective

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 • Manufactured equipment is stored according to the directions of the
manufacturer and in such a way that will prevent employees' exposure to any
related hazards
• Any damaged equipment or defective material is removed from service and not
used until it is evaluated and approved by a registered professional engineer or
competent person, as appropriate.

Spoils

Employees must be protected from material or equipment that could fall or roll into
excavations. Adequate retaining devices must be installed to protect exposed
excavation workers from spoils (removed soil), which must be placed in such a way that
water (rain, ruptured pipes, etc.) is diverted away from the excavation. Never place
spoils within two feet of an excavation's edge.

Water

OSHA standards prohibit excessive water accumulations—or any water accumulation

where properly monitored water removal equipment is not in place—when workers are
in the trench. Employees should not work in excavations in which there is accumulated
water, or in excavations in which water is accumulating, unless adequate precautions
have been taken to protect employees against the hazards posed by water
accumulation.

The precautions necessary to protect employees adequately vary with each situation
but could include special support or shield systems to protect them from cave-ins, water
removal to control the level of accumulating water, or the use of safety harnesses and
lifelines. A competent person must monitor any excavation project until it is completed
when workers are in the trench, and water removal equipment is being used.

Surface water can also be a problem, potentially by running into an excavation.

Diversion ditches, dikes, or any other suitable method can be used to prevent surface
water from entering into an excavation. Furthermore, a competent person must inspect
excavations after heavy rains.

Remember, water in an excavation is potentially lethal!

Hazardous Atmospheres

Where oxygen deficiency (atmospheres containing less than 19.5 percent oxygen) or a
hazardous atmosphere exists or could reasonably be expected to exist, such as in
excavations in landfill areas or excavations in areas where hazardous substances are
stored nearby, the atmosphere in an excavation greater than 4 feet must be tested
before employees can enter.

If a hazardous condition is present or likely to be present in an excavation, controls such

as ventilation or proper respirators must be provided. Atmospheric contaminants must
be tested regularly while performing work in a hazardous atmosphere/environment.

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Emergency Rescue Equipment

Easily accessible emergency rescue equipment must be provided by the employer in

the event that dangerous atmospheric conditions exist or may reasonably be expected
to develop during work in an excavation. Types of emergency rescue equipment
include:

• Safety harnesses and lines

• Breathing apparatus
• Basket stretchers

This equipment must be attended when in use.

Do-Not-Work Conditions

Employees must not be allowed to work in the following hazardous or toxic

atmospheres:

• Atmospheres where oxygen is less than 19.5% or higher than 23.5%

• Atmospheres where combustible gas concentrations are greater than 20% of the
lower flammable limit
• Atmospheres where threshold limit values for airborne contaminants exceed the
American Conference of Industrial Hygienists' (ACGIH) specified limit unless
appropriate controls are in place, such as the use of proper respiratory protection

Access and Egress

Access to and egress from an excavation are two important issues that must be
addressed when working in excavations. It is essential that a stairway, ladder, or ramp
be provided in trench excavations 4 feet or more in depth, in such a way to require no
more than 25 feet of lateral travel for employees.

Ramps and runways constructed of two or more structural members must have the
structural members connected together to prevent displacement. Structural members
used for ramps and runways must be of uniform thickness.

Surface Crossing

Surface crossings over trenches are not allowed unless conditions dictate that such
crossings are necessary. If surface crossings are necessary, such crossings should be
constructed under the supervision of a registered professional engineer. Crossings must
have a minimum width of 20 inches and be equipped with standard rails. They must
also extend a minimum of 24 inches past the surface edge of the trench.

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Falls and Equipment

In addition to cave-in hazards, other hazards that may exist in excavations include
falling loads, movement of mobile equipment, and worker falls.

To reduce the dangers from these hazards, employers must:

• Keep materials or equipment that might fall or roll into an excavation at a

minimum distance of two feet from the edge of the excavation, and/or have
retaining devices in place to keep materials or equipment out of the excavation
site.
• Provide warning systems for mobile equipment such as barricades, hand or
mechanical signals, or stop logs to alert the equipment operators when they are
approaching the edge of an excavation. In addition to these warning systems, the
grade should slope away from the excavation when possible.
• Remove loose rock or soil, or install protective barricades and equivalent
protection, to protect employees against falling rock, soil, or materials.
• Prohibit employees from working on faces of sloped or benched excavations at
levels above other employees, unless employees at lower levels are adequately
protected from the hazard of falling, rolling, or sliding material or equipment.
• Prohibit employees from being underneath loads that are being handled by lifting
or digging equipment.
• Require employees to stand away from vehicles that are being loaded or
unloaded to avoid being struck by any spillage or falling materials. Operators
may remain in the cabs of such vehicles if the cabs provide adequate protection
from falling loads during loading and unloading operations.

Planning

Before any excavation work begins, site evaluation and planning must be completed.
During the planning stage, the following must be done:

• Soil conditions must be evaluated.

• Protective systems must be designed and put in place.
• Approved safety equipment must be on site and readily accessible.
• Potentially dangerous contact points with utilities such as gas or electric services
must be identified.
• Oxygen levels must be tested when conditions exist that indicate that dangerous
levels could be present.
• Potentially hazardous fumes or gases must be tested for when conditions exist
that indicate the potential presence of these.
• Safe entry and exit points must be determined.

Inspections of Excavations

A competent person must make daily inspections of excavations, adjacent areas, and
protective systems for evidence of a situation that could result in possible cave-ins,

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indications of failure of protective systems, hazardous atmospheres, or other hazardous
conditions to ensure safe operations.

Inspections must take place:

• Before work starts and as needed throughout shifts.

• After rainstorms, high winds, or other occurrences that may increase hazards.
• When employees are exposed to potential hazards.

Employees must be immediately evacuated from any excavation under the following
circumstances:

• A possible cave-in is identified.

• Hazardous atmospheres are detected.
• Protective systems fail.
• When any other potentially dangerous situation arises.

Employees must not be allowed to return to the excavation until the necessary
precautions have been taken to ensure their safety. For example, the hazardous
condition has been corrected and the corrective system has been returned to its fully
operational condition.

Lesson Summary

• Employers are responsible for ensuring that materials and equipment are in good
working condition, since damaged and defective materials and equipment could
cause excavation accidents.
• Spoils refers to the soil removed from an excavation. It must be placed so as not
to cause any hazards in the excavation, including being at least two feet away
from its edge.
• OSHA standards prohibit excessive water accumulations when workers are in
the trench. Employees should not work in excavations in which there is
accumulated water, or in excavations in which water is accumulating, unless
adequate precautions have been taken.
• Where oxygen or a hazardous atmosphere might exist, such as in excavations in
landfill areas, the atmosphere in an excavation greater than 4 feet must be tested
before employees can enter.
• A stairway, ladder, or ramp must be provided in excavations 4 feet or more in
depth, in such a way to require no more than 25 feet of lateral travel for
employees.
• Before any excavation work begins, site evaluation and planning must take into
account factors like soil conditions, necessary safety equipment, and oxygen
levels.
• A competent person must make daily inspections of excavations, adjacent areas,
and protective systems for evidence of a situation that could result in possible
cave-ins, indications of failure of protective systems, hazardous atmospheres, or
other hazardous conditions to ensure safe operations.

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Lesson 3: Soil Classification Systems
Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe different types of soil and rock classifications

• Explain how soil classification can affect safety at an excavation site
• Explain how soil classification tests are performed

Soil Classification

A competent person must decide when to install a protective system when trenches are
less than five feet deep. Soil classification is one of the factors that influences a decision
like that, as different soils behave in different ways when excavated and thus create
different hazards. The following are some of the types of soil commonly encountered
when excavating.

Cohesive Soil

Cohesive soil has high clay content and is very durable and strong. It doesn't break up
or decay easily and can often be excavated using vertical side slopes. When cohesive
soil is moist, it is said to be in plastic form. Cohesive soil doesn't disintegrate when dry
and is solid and perseverant when submerged.

Fissured

Fissured soil is soil that tends to break up. Lines of fracture, which may further develop
into open cracks, can form along the surface of fissured soil due to tension in the soil.

Granular

Granular soil is gravel, sand, or silt (coarse grained soil), with little or no clay content.
These types of soils do not hold any form and are not pliable or flexible when wet.
Granular soils easily disintegrate when dry.

Type A

Type A soil is a type of cohesive soil with an unconfined compression strength value of
1.5 tons per square foot (tsf) or greater.

Type A soils can be readily indented by the thumb; however, they can be penetrated by
the thumb only with very great effort. This test should be conducted on an undisturbed
soil sample, such as a large clump of spoil, as soon as practicable after excavation to
keep drying to a minimum.

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If the excavation is later exposed to wetting influences (rain, flooding), the classification
of the soil must be changed accordingly.

Examples of Type A soil include:

• Clay
• Silty clay
• Sandy clay
• Clay loam
• Cemented soils, such as caliche and hardpan

In some cases, silty clay loam and sandy clay loam also are considered Type A soils.

Soils which have the following characteristics, however, are not considered Type A soils
because they do not behave in the same way:

• The soil is fissured.

• The soil is subject to vibration from heavy traffic, pile driving, or similar effects.
• The soil has been previously disturbed.
• The soil is part of a sloped, layered system where the layers dip into the
excavation on a slope of four horizontal to one vertical (4H:1V) or greater.
• The material is subject to other factors that would require it to be classified as a
less stable material.

Type B

Type B soil is cohesive soil with an unconfined compressive strength of more than 0.5
tsf, but less than 1.5 tsf. Granular soils lacking cohesion, including angular gravel, silt,
silt loam, sandy loam—and in some cases, silty clay loam and sandy clay loam—are all
examples of Type B soil. Previously disturbed soil (except those types that fall under the
category of Type C) can also be classified as Type B.

Type C

Cohesive soils with an unconfined compressive strength of 0.5 tsf or less fall under the
category of Type C soils. These can be easily penetrated several inches by the thumb
and can be molded by light finger pressure. Gravel, sand, and loamy sand are
examples of Type C soils. Submerged soil, soil from which water is freely oozing, and
submerged rock that is not stable may also be classified as Type C soils.

Classification of Soil and Rock Deposits

Classification requires at least one visual and at least one manual test carried out by a
competent person. In a layered soil system, the weakest layer is used to categorize the
system. However, each layer may be classified individually where a more stable layer
lies under a less stable layer.

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Visual Tests

Visual analysis can reveal qualitative information regarding the excavation site in
general, the soil adjacent to the excavation, the soil forming the sides of the open
excavation, and the soil taken as samples from excavated material.

Visual inspections include an examination of soil samples that have been dug up and
also soil at the sides of the excavation. The inspector roughly calculates the array and
approximate amounts of particle sizes. The inspector should understand that cohesive
soil is chiefly composed of fine-grained material, whereas coarse-grained sand or gravel
is granular material.

Observe soil as it is dug up. Cohesive soil stays in clumps when excavated, whereas
soil that disintegrates quickly and does not form clumps is considered granular.

Inspect the sides of the opened excavation and the surface area adjacent to the
digging. Crack-like openings such as tension cracks could point toward fissured
material. If clods of soil spall (spalling refers to flaking or otherwise breaking off from the
main portion) off a vertical side, the soil could be fissured. Small spalls may indicate
moving ground and can pose potentially dangerous situations.

Examine the area next to the dig to identify previously disturbed soil (proof of existing
utility and other underground structures). Observe the opened side of the digging to
identify layered systems. Examine layered systems to identify whether the layers slope
upwards towards the dig. Estimate the degree of slope of the layers.

Water and Vibrations

Inspect the area next to the excavation and the sides of the opened excavation for
traces of surface water, water seeping from the sides, or signs of the water table level.

Observe the area adjacent to the excavation and the area within the digging for sources
of vibration that may affect the strength of the excavation face.

Manual Tests

Manual tests involve inspecting soil with fingers or otherwise feeling it to determine its
composition and other factors. There are a variety of manual tests that can be
performed, as outlined here:

Plasticity and Pat Test

Shape a moist or wet sample of soil into a ball and try to roll it into threads as thin as 1/8
inch in diameter. Cohesive soil will usually roll into threads without disintegrating. If at
least a 2-inch length of 1/8-inch thread can be held by one end without tearing, the soil
is cohesive.

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On the palm of the hand, spread out a 1/8 or 1/4-inch-thick sample of wet soil. Wipe the
surface of the sample with a finger to clear away visible water. Face the surface of the
palm upwards and slap the back of the hand moderately 5 to 10 times. If water oozes
out to the surface of the sample (surface will appear shiny), the soil is mostly cohesion
lacking silt or sand. If no water shows up, then the soil is mostly cohesive clay.

Dry Strength

Granular soil disintegrates on its own, or with controlled pressure, into individual grains
or powder when dry. Soils with clay content will break into clumps when dry, and
crumble into smaller clumps that can only be broken with considerable pressure. If the
dry soil breaks into clumps that cannot be further broken into smaller pieces, then the
soil may be classified as un-fissured.

Thumb Penetration

The thumb penetration test can be used to evaluate the compressive strength of
cohesive soils. This test should be carried out on an undisturbed soil sample as soon as
is practical after digging up to reduce the chance of air drying the sample. If, at a later
time, the trench is flooded or exposed to rain, etcetera, the soil classification must also
be changed.

Type A soils can be indented by the thumb but require greater thumb pressure to
penetrate the soil.

Type C soils can be penetrated several inches by the thumb and can be shaped by
applying relatively light finger pressure.

Other Strength Tests

Estimates of unconfined compressive strength of soils can also be made by using a

pocket penetrometer or a hand-operated shear vane. Other tests include drying and
sedimentation.

Lesson Summary

• A competent person must decide when to install a protective system when

trenches are less than five feet deep. Soil classification is one of the factors that
influences a decision like that, as different soils behave in different ways when
excavated and thus create different hazards.
• Soil types fall into three overall categories: cohesive (durable and strong),
fissured (tends to crack or break up), and granular (weak and flows easily when
dry). Cohesive soil can be type A (compression strength value of 1.5 tons per
square foot or greater), type B (compressive strength of more than 0.5 tsf, but
less than 1.5 tsf), and type C (compressive strength of 0.5 tsf or less)
• Soil classification requires at least one visual and at least one manual test carried
out by a competent person. In a layered soil system, the weakest layer is used to

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 categorize the system. However, each layer may be classified individually where
a more stable layer lies under a less stable layer.

Module 12: Fire Protection and Prevention

Module Description
This module has been designed to deliver firsthand information about fires and fire
protection measures. After completing this module, you will be able to identify different
types of fires and define the safety measures that can be taken to avoid a disastrous
situation. We will also discuss the different types of fire extinguishers in use and
discover how careful planning and precautionary measures can be taken to save lives
and property.

This module is intended for a general audience. For more information, please contact
your local fire department and consult your fire safety and security maintenance
supervisor.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

• Identify different types of fires and fire extinguishers

• Discuss fire related-injuries and their immediate remedies
• Discuss fire protection systems and evacuation during a fire
• Create evacuation plans and prepare for emergencies

Lesson 1: Fire Safety Essentials

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Explain how fires burn

• Describe types of fire prevention and protection
• Understand how to use fire extinguishers, as well as their different types
• Describe fire safety alarms
• Describe proper rescue and evacuation plans
• Describe the injuries associated with fire and their proper first aid
• Identify different types of burns

Fires

The event of something burning (often destructive) is called a fire. Fires occur when the
following elements are present:

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 • Oxygen (e.g., air, compressed oxygen)
• Burning medium (e.g., wood, combustible materials, paper, gasoline)
• Heat source (e.g., flames, sparking elements, heaters)

The following are the different types of fires:

Class A: Ordinary Combustible

Class A fires involve ordinary combustible materials, such as paper, trash, some
plastics, wood, and cloth. A rule of thumb is if it leaves an ash behind, it is a class A fire.

Class B: Combustible/Flammable Liquids

Class B fires involve flammable gases or liquids, such as propane, oil, and gasoline, as
well as paint thinner, hydraulic fluids, flammable cleaning solvents, and other
hydrocarbon fuels.

Class C: Electrical Fires

Class C fires involve energized electrical equipment such as power outlets, circuit
breakers, defective wiring, and overloaded circuits.

Class D: Flammable/Combustible Metal Fires

Class D fires involve combustible metals such as magnesium, aluminum powder, and
alkali metals. Many automobiles have magnesium parts, making many auto fires Class
D fires. Auto fires should never be countered with water, which will react violently with
any magnesium that might be present. In the picture (D) below, the reaction was caused
by spraying water onto a magnesium part on the steering column.

Class K: Oils or Fats

Class K fires involve vegetable or animal cooking oils or fats. These types of fire are
common commercial kitchens that use deep fat fryers.

Fire Prevention and Protection

Employers are responsible for preventing fires in the workplace and protecting workers
from fire-related hazards. To do this effectively, employers must

• Create and implement a fire protection plan

• Train employees on fire prevention and safety
• Promote strong fire prevention practices and methods
• Perform regular inspections to identify and address fire hazards

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Fire Protection Plan

OSHA standards require employers to develop a fire protection plan to be followed

throughout all phases of construction and demolition work. This plan focuses on
preventing fires and protecting all employees from fire hazards. Employers must
immediately provide necessary firefighting equipment as specified by OSHA.

A fire protection plan includes the following details:

• Names of employees responsible for controlling fire hazards from fuel sources
• Names of employees responsible for fire prevention equipment or equipment to
control fires
• Safeguarding controls and maintenance of safeguards to prevent accidental fires
caused by heat causing machinery, equipment, and materials
• Handling and storage of combustible or flammable materials
• A temporary or permanent water supply, of sufficient volume, duration, and
pressure to operate the firefighting equipment must be made available as soon
as combustible materials accumulate
• Names of specific fire sources and locations and available equipment for fighting
fires

A fire can start because of:

• Malfunctioning electrical equipment

• Cigarettes and tobacco related products
• Overheated wiring and equipment
• Welding arcs
• Heating equipment

Fire Prevention and Safety Training

Fire safety becomes everyone's job at a worksite. Employers should train workers about
fire hazards in the workplace and about what to do in a fire emergency. This plan should
outline the assignments of key personnel in the event of a fire and provide an
evacuation plan for workers on the site. In the construction industry, a "fire plan" should
be set up prior to beginning any demolition job.

Some “common sense” rules in fire prevention planning include:

• All potential sources of ignition should be evaluated and the necessary corrective
measures taken.
• Electrical wiring and equipment for providing light, heat, or power should be
installed by a competent person and inspected regularly.
• Equipment powered by an internal combustion engine should be located so that
the exhausts discharge well away from combustible materials and away from
workers.

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 • When the exhausts are piped outside the building, a clearance of at least six
inches should be maintained between such piping and combustible material.
• All internal combustion equipment should be shut down prior to refueling. Fuel for
this equipment should be stored in a safe location.
• Sufficient firefighting equipment should be located near any flammable or
combustible liquid storage area.
• Only approved containers and portable tanks should be used for the storage and
handling of flammable and combustible liquids.

The following references provide additional information to aid in recognizing and

evaluating hazards and possible solutions in the workplace.

• Carbon Monoxide Explosion Hazards in Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking

Operations. OSHA Safety and Health Information Bulletin (SHIB), (December 4,
2015).
• Combustible Dust in Industry: Preventing and Mitigating the Effects of Fire and
Explosions. OSHA Safety and Health Information Bulletin (SHIB), (July 31,
2005). Highlights hazards associated with combustible dusts; work practices and
guidelines that reduce the potential for a combustible dust explosion, or that
reduce the danger to employees if such an explosion occurs; and training to
protect employees from these hazards.
• Star ME-1 Dry Fire Sprinklers. OSHA Safety and Health Information Bulletin,
(January 7, 2004).
• Total Flooding Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Fire Extinguishing System. OSHA
Technical Information Bulletin, (December 22, 2001).
• Fire Hazard of Polyurethane and Other Organic Foam Insulation Aboard Ships
and in Construction. OSHA Hazard Information Bulletin, (May 10, 1989).
• OSHA Technical Manual (OTM). OSHA Directive TED 01-00-015 [TED 1-0.15A],
(January 20, 1999). Includes information on fire safety.
• Fire and Explosions. Electronic Library of Construction Occupational Safety &
Health (elcosh). Provides a list of construction-related fire safety resources.
• For additional information on hazards and possible solutions, see OSHA's Safety
and Health Topics Pages on:
o Demolition
o Construction Industry

Fire Extinguishers

A fire extinguisher is a device used for putting out fires. There are four different types of
fire extinguishers, which are classified according to the types of fire they extinguish.
Each of the four types—classes A, B, C, and D—is rated for extinguishing a different
kind of fire. Older fire extinguishers used geometric shapes to identify their type, but
more current extinguishers use a labeling system that incorporates both words and
pictures to distinguish the type of fire they are best suited for.

The following are the types of fire extinguishers and the method or ingredients they
employ:

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 • Class A: Pressurized water cans, clean agent/halogen, and wet chemical for
specific applications
• Class B: Carbon dioxide, dry chemical, wet chemical, clean agent/halogen
• Class C: Dry chemical, carbon dioxide, clean agent/halogen
• Class D: Dry powder
• Multi-class extinguishers: carbon dioxide/dry chemical

Extinguishers must be placed in an easily accessible location and should be in good

operating condition. Extinguishers should be placed adjacent to a normal path of travel
to make them as visible and readily available as possible. At a minimum, fire
extinguishers must be placed at all points of egress on construction projects and in
close proximity to any combustible/flammable materials stored on the site. The proper
class must be marked on the extinguisher so that it can be used according to the class
of fire.

Class A Extinguishers

Class A extinguishers are water-based or wet chemical solutions that are used on
paper, cloth, wood, trash, and other common combustible fires. These extinguishers
utilize a cooling and soaking stream that is effective on Class A fires. The numerical
rating for this class of fire extinguisher refers to the amount of water the fire extinguisher
holds and to the amount of fire it will extinguish.

Class B Extinguishers

Class B extinguishers are pressurized with non-flammable carbon dioxide gas, dry
chemical, wet chemical, or clean agent/halogen. Carbon dioxide reduces, or smothers,
the oxygen content to a point where combustion cannot continue. Carbon dioxide is a
clean, non-contaminating, odorless gas and can safely be applied to clothing,
equipment, and valuable documents without causing extreme damage.

Class B extinguishers are used on fires involving flammable liquids including grease,
gasoline, oil, paint thinner, hydraulic fluids, flammable cleaning solvents, and other
hydrocarbon fuels. Carbon dioxide is extremely cold when disbursed from the
extinguisher.

The numerical rating for this class of fire extinguisher denotes the area in square feet of
a flammable liquid fire that a person can expect to extinguish.

Class C Extinguishers

Class C fire extinguishers are used on fires involving energized electrical equipment.
Such fires must be extinguished using a non-conductive extinguishing agent such as
carbon dioxide or a dry chemical or a clean agent/halogen. Carbon dioxide is most
effective in extinguishing electrical fires, as it does not leave a residue that can harm
sensitive electronics.

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This class of fire extinguishers does not have a numerical rating. Class C extinguishers
have only a letter rating because there is no readily measurable quantity for Class C
fires. The presence of the letter "C" indicates that the extinguishing agent is non-
conductive.

Class D Extinguishers

Class D extinguishers are designed for use on flammable metals and are often specific
to the metal in question. Metals such as magnesium, potassium, titanium, and sodium
burn at high temperatures and give off sufficient oxygen to support combustion. These
metals react violently with water or other chemicals and must be handled with great
care. The most common extinguishers for Class D fires use a dry powder designed
specifically for this purpose. A common method of extinguishing small flammable metals
fires is to cover the fire in dry sand.

No picture designator is used on Class D extinguishers and this type of extinguisher

generally has no rating.

Multi-Class Fire Extinguishers

Many fire extinguishers can be used on more than one class of fire and are called
multipurpose extinguishers. Multi-class fire extinguishers are labeled with more than
one class designator, such as A-B, B-C, or A-B-C. Multi-class fire extinguishers typically
contain dry chemicals and an extinguishing agent that uses a compressed, non-
flammable gas as a propellant.

Fire Safety Alarms

Smoke Alarms

In case of a building fire, the first step is to warn the occupants and to evacuate the
building as soon as possible. Early fire warnings can be given by means of active
smoke and fire alarms installed in strategic locations throughout a building.

The two primary types of smoke alarms in use are ionization and photoelectric alarms.
Ionization smoke detectors activate more quickly in fast, flaming fires that consume
combustible materials rapidly and spread quickly.

The photoelectric type of smoke detector will respond more immediately to slow,
smoldering fires. These types of detectors provide early detection of smoke. When
installed correctly, they provide accurate and dependable smoke detection.

A combination of both types of detectors provides the greatest protection against both
fast moving fires and smoldering fires.

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Fire Sprinklers

Fire sprinklers are designed to provide 24-hour protection by detecting and controlling
fires before they become a threat to lives or property. They react quickly and
independently of one another so that only those detectors in the affected area activate.
Most fires are controlled by one or two sprinklers disbursing a minimal amount of water,
which reduces the fire and water damage significantly.

Rescue and Evacuation

Comprehensive evacuation plans are designed to assist employers in meeting or

exceeding workplace safety standards. These plans must be a cooperative effort
between the employers and the employees. Copies should be posted near all exits,
stairways, fire extinguishing equipment, and at any other location suitable for maximum
exposure. These plans must contain pre-assessed escape and exit routes, designated
assembly points, emergency call points, and the locations of fire extinguishing
equipment.

Injuries and First Aid

The majority of fire-related deaths (as much as 80 percent) are caused by smoke
inhalation. Burns and other injuries that result from direct contact with flames are
actually second to smoke inhalation as a cause of death. Between 1992 and 2003, the
construction industry saw a total of 361 fire or explosion deaths involving 313 incidents,
or an average of 30 per year.

Smoke Inhalation

Smoke inhalation is the number one cause of fire-related deaths. Smoke from a fire may
contain poisonous gases or may be hot enough to burn a victim's throat and lungs,
resulting in serious breathing problems. Symptoms of heavy smoke inhalation include
breathing trouble, coughing, drowsiness, an upset stomach, vomiting, unconsciousness,
and death.

It is important to evacuate from a smoky room as quickly as possible. If available, use a

piece of wet cloth to cover your mouth and nostrils as you crawl as close to ground level
as possible to safety. Once you're in fresh air, rest while taking deep breaths, and do
not enter the smoky area until the fire is completely extinguished, all smoke has been
removed, and fire officials have cleared the area.

Chest x-rays and blood tests are sometimes required to determine the extent of the
damage caused by smoke inhalation. Providing a victim with oxygen through a nose
tube or mask is the most important treatment. In severe cases, such as carbon
monoxide poisoning, a victim may require oxygen administered in a compression
chamber. Follow-up care is important for anyone recovering from smoke inhalation.

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Burns

Although smoke inhalation is the primary cause of fire-related deaths, burns actually
cause more nonfatal injuries.

For all burns beyond mild first-degree burns, seek medical attention immediately.
Improper treatment can exacerbate damage. Minor first-degree burns can be treated by
flushing the area with cold running water. Apply a clean, water-cooled cloth over the
area to relieve pain. Do not apply ointment. Seek medical attention if the pain persists or
if the burn appears worse.

Until emergency help arrives to treat a major burn, do the following:

• Protect the burned person from further harm. If you can do so safely, make
sure the person you're helping is not in contact with the source of the burn. For
electrical burns, make sure the power source is off before you approach the
burned person.
• Make certain that the burned person is breathing. If needed, begin rescue
breathing if you know how.
• Remove jewelry, belts and other restrictive items, especially from around
burned areas and the neck. Burned areas swell rapidly.
• Cover the area of the burn. Use a cool, moist bandage or a clean cloth.
• Don't immerse large severe burns in water. Doing so could cause a serious
loss of body heat (hypothermia).
• Elevate the burned area. Raise the wound above heart level, if possible.
• Watch for signs of shock. Signs and symptoms include fainting, pale
complexion or breathing in a notably shallow fashion.

For minor burns:

• Cool the burn. Hold the burned area under cool (not cold) running water or
apply a cool, wet compress until the pain eases.
• Remove rings or other tight items from the burned area. Try to do this quickly
and gently, before the area swells.
• Don't break blisters. Fluid-filled blisters protect against infection. If a blister
breaks, clean the area with water (mild soap is optional). Apply an antibiotic
ointment. But if a rash appears, stop using the ointment.
• Apply lotion. Once a burn is completely cooled, apply a lotion, such as one that
contains aloe vera or a moisturizer. This helps prevent drying and provides relief.
• Bandage the burn. Cover the burn with a sterile gauze bandage (not fluffy
cotton). Wrap it loosely to avoid putting pressure on burned skin. Bandaging
keeps air off the area, reduces pain and protects blistered skin.
• If needed, take an over-the-counter pain reliever, such as ibuprofen (Advil,
Motrin IB, others), naproxen sodium (Aleve) or acetaminophen (Tylenol, others).

(https://www.mayoclinic.org/first-aid/first-aid-burns/basics/art-20056649)

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Electrical Burns

Even if there is no visible evidence on the surface of the skin, electrical burns can cause
deep tissue damage. Commence CPR/EAR if pulse and breathing are absent and
immediately seek medical attention. Try to prevent the person from becoming chilled.
Cover any burned areas with a sterile gauze bandage, if available, or a clean cloth. Do
not use a towel or blanket, as these have loose fibers that might stick to the burns.

Lesson Summary

• Fires require the presence of oxygen, a medium to burn (such as wood, paper, or
another combustible material), and a heat source.
• Fires fall into different classes based on their sources and proper control
measures:
o Class A fires involve ordinary combustible materials
o Class B fires involve combustible or flammable liquids
o Class C fires involve electricity
o Class D fires involve flammable or combustible metals
o Class K fires involve cooking oils and fats
• Employers are responsible for preventing fires in the workplace and protecting
workers from fire-related hazards. To do this effectively, employers must
o Create and implement a fire protection plan
o Train employees on fire prevention and safety
o Promote strong fire prevention practices and methods
o Perform regular inspections to identify and address fire hazards
• There are four different types of fire extinguishers, which are classified according
to the types of fire they extinguish. Each of the four types—classes A, B, C, and
D—is rated for extinguishing a different kind of fire.
• The two primary types of smoke alarms in use are ionization and photoelectric
alarms. Ionization smoke detectors activate more quickly in fast, flaming fires that
consume combustible materials rapidly and spread quickly. The photoelectric
type of smoke detector will respond more immediately to slow, smoldering fires.
These types of detectors provide early detection of smoke. When installed
correctly, they provide accurate and dependable smoke detection.
• Fire sprinklers are designed to provide 24-hour protection by detecting and
controlling fires before they become a threat to lives or property. They react
quickly and independently of one another so that only those detectors in the
affected area activate.
• The majority of fire-related deaths (as much as 80 percent) are caused by smoke
inhalation. Burns and other injuries that result from direct contact with flames are
actually second to smoke inhalation as a cause of death. Between 1992 and
2003, the construction industry saw a total of 361 fire or explosion deaths
involving 313 incidents, or an average of 30 per year.

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Lesson 2: Fire Prevention and Safety Measures
Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Identify ignition hazards

• Understand safety needs related to temporary buildings, open-yard storage, and
indoor storage
• Conduct fire emergency planning
• Identify and explain types of portable firefighting equipment
• Identify and explain types of fixed firefighting equipment

Ignition Hazards

Electrical wiring and equipment should be installed by an experienced electrical

professional in compliance with the requirements of applicable safety and building
standards.

Smoking should be strictly prohibited in any area that could pose a potential fire hazard.
Such areas should be clearly marked with "No Smoking" signs.

Pipe joints to tanks or vessels that carry flammable gases or liquids must be liquid and
vapor tight. Above-ground piping must be secured to prevent disengagement at the
fitting or at the piping system. This design is mandatory to ensure that any spill resulting
from any disengagement could not unduly expose persons, buildings, or structures.

Combustible Dust

Combustible dusts are fine particles that present an explosion hazard when suspended
in air in certain conditions. A dust explosion can be catastrophic and cause employee
deaths, injuries, and destruction of entire buildings. In many combustible dust incidents,
employers and employees were unaware that a hazard even existed. It is important to
determine if your company has this hazard, and if you do, you must take action now to
prevent tragic consequences.

In addition to the familiar fire triangle of oxygen, heat, and fuel (the dust), dispersion
of dust particles in sufficient quantity and concentration can cause rapid combustion
known as deflagration. If the event is confined by an enclosure such as a building,
room, vessel, or process equipment, the resulting pressure rise may cause an
explosion. These five factors (oxygen, heat, fuel, dispersion, and confinement) are
known as the “Dust Explosion Pentagon”. If one element of the pentagon is missing, an
explosion cannot occur.

An initial (primary) explosion in processing equipment or in an area where fugitive dust

has accumulated may dislodge more accumulated dust into the air, or damage a
containment system (such as a duct, vessel, or collector). As a result, if ignited, the

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additional dust dispersed into the air may cause one or more secondary explosions.
These can be far more destructive than a primary explosion due to the increased
quantity and concentration of dispersed combustible dust. Many deaths in past
incidents, as well as other damage, have been caused by secondary explosions.

Dust Control Recommendations

• Implement a hazardous dust inspection, testing, housekeeping, and control

program.
• Use proper dust collection systems and filters.
• Minimize the escape of dust from process equipment or ventilation systems.
• Use surfaces that minimize dust accumulation and facilitate cleaning.
• Provide access to all hidden areas to permit inspection.
• Inspect for dust residues in open and hidden areas at regular intervals.
• If ignition sources are present, use cleaning methods that do not generate dust
clouds.
• Use only vacuum cleaners approved for dust collection.
• Locate relief valves away from dust deposits.

Ignition Control Recommendations

• Use appropriate electrical equipment and wiring methods

• Control static electricity, including bonding of equipment to ground.
• Control smoking, open flames, and sparks.
• Control mechanical sparks and friction.
• Use separator devices to remove foreign materials capable of igniting
combustibles from process materials.
• Separate heated surfaces from dusts.
• Separate heating systems from dusts.
• Select and use industrial trucks properly.
• Use cartridge-activated tools properly.
• Use an equipment preventive maintenance program.

Injury and Damage Control Methods

• Separation of the hazard (isolate with distance)

• Segregation of the hazard (isolate with a barrier)
• Deflagration isolation/venting
• Pressure relief venting for equipment
• Direct vents away from work areas
• Specialized fire suppression systems
• Explosion protection systems
• Spark/ember detection for suppression activation
• Develop an emergency action plan
• Maintain emergency exit route

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Temporary Buildings

Temporary buildings should not be constructed in any location where the means of exit
could be adversely affected. If a temporary structure is constructed within a building, it
should be made of non-combustible material.

Temporary combustible structures, covering a maximum area of 2,000 square feet,

should be constructed at least 10 feet away from any other building and should never
be used for storage and handling of flammable or combustible liquids, gases,
explosives, or blasting agents or similar hazardous materials.

Open Yard Storage

The following guidelines should be followed whenever storing materials in an open yard:

• Combustible materials should be stored in a stable condition and should not be

stacked or piled higher than 20 feet.
• Driveways between combustible storage spaces should be at least 15 feet wide
and should be properly maintained for easy access.
• The storage site should be kept free from the accumulation of unnecessary
combustible materials. Weeds and grass should be properly maintained and
regular checks should be made to ensure cleanup of the storage areas.
• No combustible material should be stored outdoors within 10 feet of a building or
structure.
• Portable fire extinguishing equipment, clearly labeled for the type of fire, should
be provided at convenient and conspicuously accessible locations.
• The maximum travel distance to the nearest fire extinguishing unit should not
exceed 100 feet.

Indoor Storage

The following guidelines should be followed whenever storing materials indoors:

• Storage should not obstruct exits, no matter how secure the fire evacuation plan
may seem. Material should not be stored within 36 inches of a fire door opening.
• All materials should be stored, handled, and piled with due regard to their fire or
ignition characteristics.
• Material should be stacked to minimize the spread of fire internally and to permit
convenient access for firefighting.
• The distance from the top of the storage pile to the nearest sprinkler should be at
least 18 inches.
• Lighting and heating units should be properly installed and regularly checked to
prevent accidental ignition.
• A clearance of 24 inches should be maintained for the path of travel, unless a
barricade is provided, in which case no clearance is needed.
Emergency Planning

In the event of a fire, a safe and speedy response depends on how well employees and
employers are prepared for emergencies. The response requires proper planning and
cooperation among workers, including the planning of escape routes, prevention of fires
spreading, and safe evacuation procedures. These well-executed plans can ensure that
every worker will safely evacuate in the event of a fire. Emergency plans should be
reviewed at least annually and modified as required. All workers must be provided
access to the fire safety plan.

Proper planning includes regularly scheduled safety inspections, and methods of

informing fire and rescue personnel if and when fires are discovered.

General Requirements

The following are some general requirements for a fire protection plan:

• It is the employer's responsibility to develop a fire protection plan that can be

implemented and enforced throughout a company or workforce.
• The employer is also responsible for providing any and all required firefighting
equipment and for providing immediate access to such equipment at all times.
• Firefighting equipment must be conspicuously located and maintained in good
operating condition at all times. Any defective equipment must be immediately
replaced. Employees should either be instructed in the use of this equipment or
instructed to not use the equipment.
• The employer should consult with a professional fire protection organization
should assistance be needed in implementing an effective fire protection plan.

Water Supply

These are the requirements for maintaining a water supply:

• A temporary or permanent water supply that can provide a sufficient volume,

duration, and pressure should be available for the proper operation of firefighting
equipment.
• The water supply must be installed and tested as soon as possible.

Portable Firefighting Equipment

Fire Extinguishers and Small Hose Lines

The following are guidelines for fire extinguishers and small hose lines:

• If employees are expected to use fire extinguishers, they must be selected and
placed based on the potential type and size of fire that can occur. The employer

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 should distribute portable fire extinguishers for use by employees on Class A
fires so that the travel distance for employees to any extinguisher is 75 feet (22.9
m) or less.
• At least one fire extinguisher should be located adjacent to a stairway.
• Extinguishers and water drums which are subject to freezing should be protected
from cold conditions.
• Carbon tetrachloride and other toxic vaporizing liquid fire extinguishers are
prohibited.
• Portable fire extinguishers should be inspected periodically and maintained in
accordance with safety standards.

Fire Hose and Connections

The following are guidelines for fire hoses and connections:

• Uniformly spaced standpipe systems or hose stations and 1 ½" or smaller hose
connected to a sprinkler system installed for emergency use by employees are
acceptable as long as they provide total coverage and the employees are trained
at least annually in their use.
• If fire connections are not compatible with local firefighting equipment, the
contractor should provide adapters, or the equivalent, to permit connections.

Fixed Firefighting Equipment

Sprinkler Protection

Automatic sprinkler protection should be installed, if possible, and should be placed in

service as soon as possible. During demolition or alterations, existing automatic
sprinkler installations should be retained in service as long as is reasonable.

Fire Alarm Devices

The following information applies to fire alarm devices:

• An alarm system, telephone system, siren, etc., should be established by the

employer so that the employees on the site, as well as the local fire department,
can be alerted during an emergency.
• The alarm code and reporting instructions should be posted at or near phones
and employee entrances.
• Fire walls and exit stairways, which are required for completed buildings, should
be given construction priority.
• Fire cutoffs must be retained in buildings undergoing alterations or demolition
until operations necessitate their removal.

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Lesson Summary

• Ignition hazards often include electrical wiring and equipment, individuals

smoking, pipes or tanks that carry flammable material, and combustible dust.
• Temporary buildings should not be constructed in any location where the means
of exit could be adversely affected. If a temporary structure is constructed within
a building, it should be made of non-combustible material.
• Combustible materials should be stored in a stable condition and should not be
stacked or piled higher than 20 feet.
• Proper planning includes regularly scheduled safety inspections, and methods of
informing fire and rescue personnel if and when fires are discovered.
• A temporary or permanent water supply must be available and be able to provide
a sufficient volume, duration, and pressure for the proper operation of firefighting
equipment.
• Automatic sprinkler protection should be installed, if possible, and should be
placed in service as soon as possible. During demolition or alterations, existing
automatic sprinkler installations should be retained in service as long as is
reasonable.

Module 13: Materials Handling, Use and Disposal

Module Description
This module introduces the hazards that are involved in the handling and storage of
materials. Different methods of handling and storage are discussed, as well as the
hazards they pose to workers and the methods by which these hazards can be reduced
or eliminated from the workplace.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

• State the major causes of injury suffered from handling and storing materials
• Identify the various methods that can be used to prevent injuries during materials
handling
• Discuss the safety measures necessary when operating mechanical handling
devices
• Discuss the various safety and health principles that can be adopted in the
workplace

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Lesson 1: The Hazards and Methods of Prevention (Manual
Handling)
Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Explain how proper body movement can prevent injuries while handling materials
• Identify tools workers can use to handle materials more safely

Introduction

Every industry needs a continuous inflow and outflow of resources and materials.
However, improper handling and storage of materials can be hazardous if precautions
are not taken.

Bulkiness and Weight of Materials

Two of the major hazards involved in handling and storing materials include their
bulkiness and weight. Handling heavy and bulky objects often results in back and spinal
injuries. Workers that lift these objects may suffer from acute and chronic back pains.

Body Movement

Bending, twisting, and turning are some of the common body movements that lead to
back and spinal injuries. Another common factor that can potentially cause severe
injuries is falling objects, such as materials that have been improperly stacked.

When workers move materials, they must be aware of the following:

• Improper lifting may cause strains and sprains.

• Falling materials may cause bruises, fractures, or even death.

It is very important that efforts be made by both the employer and worker to ensure that
dangers from improper material handling are minimized, if not eliminated, from the
workplace. Inspections of the workplace must be carried out on a periodic basis to
ensure that they are free from any related hazards.

Methods of Prevention

When a worker has to manually handle an object, he or she must ask for assistance if a
load is:

• Bulky to the extent that it cannot be grasped or lifted properly

• Bulky to the extent that it cannot be seen around or over

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 • One that cannot be handled safely

Safe Lifting

Before performing a lifting task, here are some questions to ask:

• Does the object really need to be lifted? If so, can a lift assist be used?
• Can a cart, dolly, or hand truck be used to help with the move?
• Is the entire load really needed?
• Does the entire load need to be lifted?
• Can the load be broken into smaller quantities?

The proper technique for lifting an object depends largely on its weight, size, and shape.
Here are some guidelines for proper lifting:

• Plan ahead before lifting. Know what you’re doing and where you’re going to help
prevent you from making awkward movements or turning awkwardly while
holding heavy objects. Try to gauge the object’s weight and balance and
determine the best way to position, grasp and support the load. Clear a path, and
if lifting something with another person make sure both of you agree on the plan.
• Stand close to the load with your feet spread about shoulder-width apart. Place
one foot slightly in front of the other for balance. Avoid “reaching out” in an
attempt to pick up objects. If you are picking up a number of small objects,
reposition your feet as necessary to avoid reaching and twisting.
• Bend your knees, not your back. Squat down and maintain the curve in the spine.
Tuck your chin while keeping your back as vertical as possible.
• Control the load. Get a firm grasp of the object before beginning the lift. Grasp
the load by handles or good handholds whenever possible.
• Lift with your legs. Begin slowly lifting with your LEGS (not your back) by
straightening them. Never twist your body during this step.
• Keep the load close to your body. Once the lift is complete, keep the object as
close to your body as possible. As the load’s center of gravity moves away from
the body, there is a dramatic increase in stress to the lumbar region of the back.
Do not twist your body while you are carrying an object. Move and reposition
your feet rather than twisting your torso. To put the load down when you reach
your destination, reverse the procedure. Bend your knees... not your back, as
you set the load down.

Blocks

When placing blocks under raised loads, workers must make sure that the raised loads
are kept in a raised position until their hands have been removed from beneath them.
The blocks must be large and sturdy enough to be able to support the load. Block
materials with cracks, splintered pieces, and rot must not be used.

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Handles, Holders, and Protective Equipment

All loads should be moved via mechanical means when possible. When loads are to be
moved manually, the use of handles and holders may minimize chances of injuries to
the fingers and hands. In the case of loads with sharp or rough edges, workers must
wear gloves. It also may be advisable for a worker to be fitted with steel-toed shoes
when carrying heavy or bulky loads, so as to minimize the risk of foot injuries in the
case of accidentally dropping the load.

Load Weight and Mechanical Moving Equipment

Workers must never overload mechanical moving equipment. All types of material
handling equipment have maximum weight specifications which must be adhered to. As
such, the type of equipment used to move a load from one point to another must be
dictated by the specifications of the load itself.

Stored Materials

Workers must ensure that stored materials do not create hazards. For example, workers
must ensure that storage spaces are not left to accumulate flammable materials, cause
explosions or tripping hazards, or easily harbor rats and other pests. Additionally,
storage containers must have adequate capacity to handle the height and weight of
stored items and be accessible and in good condition.

Bound Material

All materials stored in tiers should be stacked, racked, blocked, interlocked, or

otherwise secured to prevent sliding, falling, or collapse.

Furthermore, maximum safe load limits that have been specified by building inspectors
must not be exceeded or otherwise violated, and signs displaying load limits must be
posted in all storage areas except for slab on grade.

Height Limitations

Always adhere to height limitations when stacking materials.

Lumber that is manually handled must not be stacked at a height of more than 16 feet,
or 20 feet if a forklift is being used. Painting stripes on poles and walls is a good way to
indicate the maximum height allowed.

Stacking Lumber, Bricks, and Masonry Blocks

If used lumber is being stacked, workers must ensure that all nails have been removed
before stacking lumber. Furthermore, workers must ensure that the lumber stacks are

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on level and solidly supported bracing. Lumber must be stacked such that it is stable
and self-supporting.

Loose bricks must not be stacked to heights of more than seven feet. When a stack of
loose bricks exceeds four feet, they must be tapered back two inches for every foot of
height over and above the four-foot level.

When masonry blocks are stacked to a height of six feet or higher, the stacks must be
tapered back one-half block for each tier over the six-foot level.

Bags and Bundles

When bags and bundles are stacked, interlocking rows should be used. Bagged
materials must be stacked by stepping back the layers and cross keying the bags at
least every ten bags high. When workers remove bags from the stack, they must start
with the topmost layer working their way down.

Non-compatible materials should be segregated in storage. Baled paper and rags must
be kept at a minimum of 18 inches from walls, sprinklers, and partitions. Finally, it is
advised that boxed materials be banded, or at least held in place using crossties or
shrink-plastic fiber.

Drums, Barrels, and Kegs

Drums, barrels, and kegs must be stored symmetrically. If they are stored on their sides,
the bottom tiers must be blocked accordingly to prevent them from rolling. When barrels
are stacked on end, planks must be placed between each tier to make a firm, flat
stacking surface. If the stack reaches two or more tiers, the lowest tier must be secured
on either side to prevent the barrels from shifting.

Availability of the Material

When employees stack materials, they must consider the need for availability of the
material. Some materials cannot be stacked due to shape, size, or fragility constraints.
In most cases these can be safely stored on shelves or in bins.

Poles, structural steel, and other cylindrical materials can be stored in racks. If they are
stacked, they must be blocked to prevent them from spreading and/or tilting. Pipes and
bars must not be stored in racks that face the main aisle, as this could be hazardous to
passers-by, especially while moving materials.

Lesson Summary

• Some materials cannot be stacked due to shape, size, or fragility constraints. In

most cases, these can be safely stored on shelves or in bins.

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 • All materials stored in tiers must be stacked, racked, blocked, interlocked, or
otherwise secured to prevent sliding, falling, or collapse.
• Storage containers must also have adequate capacity to handle the height and
weight of stored items, as well as be accessible and in good condition. Fitting
loads with handles and holders may minimize the chances of injuries to the
fingers and hands.
• Bending, twisting, and turning are some of the common body movements that
can lead to back and spinal injuries. Frequent handling of heavy and bulky
objects often results in such injuries. Workers that lift these types of objects may
suffer from acute and chronic back pains.

Lesson 2: Materials Handling Equipment

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Explain how conveyors, cranes, slings, and powered industrial trucks are used to
move materials
• Identify the risks associated with using conveyors, cranes, slings, and powered
industrial trucks are used to move materials
• Explain how to mitigate those risks to workers

Conveyors

Risks

The following risks are associated with using conveyors:

• Workers' hands can get caught at points where the conveyor runs over support
members.
• If the conveyor passes over a work area, workers can be struck by falling
materials.
• A worker can become caught and drawn into the conveyor.

Safety Measures

There are a number of methods an employer can use to reduce the frequency and
severity of conveyor-related injuries.

• Emergency buttons or pull cords designed to stop the conveyor must be

installed, preferably near worker stations.
• Conveyor systems should be equipped with an audible warning signal to be
sounded immediately before starting up the conveyor.

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 • Conveyor belts that are continuously accessible (such as those used in assembly
lines) must have emergency stop cables that run along the entire length of the
belt.
• Emergency stop systems must be designed in such a manner that they have to
be reset before the conveyor can start again. This ensures that the conveyor can
run only after an employee has been removed from danger.
• Employees are strictly prohibited from riding on the conveyor.
• When a conveyor passes over a work area, guards must be fitted along the sides
of the belt to ensure that materials do not fall on employees.
• In cases where the crossover is low, a warning sign must be displayed or the
area must be painted in a bright color that is easily noticeable.

Case Study 1

An older belt conveyor was being operated without a totally enclosed tail pulley
guard as required by current ANSI standards (ANSI B20). A worker cleaning in the area
was accidentally caught in the tail pulley and lost an arm. This unit was originally sold as
an individual conveyor to a third party, then purchased by a used equipment company.
In turn, that firm sold the conveyor to its present owner, who had installed the
unit once, then re-installed the unit in its current location.

Case Study 2

Transfer points between older conveyors used as part of a single system were not
viewable from the operator’s station. The unit did not have proper guarding, an
emergency shutoff switch and/or a start-up warning device, which are required under
current ANSI standards (ANSI B20). A worker inspecting the system was caught and
injured in a conveyor transfer. In this case, an outside engineering firm had designed
the manufacturing operation using existing equipment—including conveyors—that had
been moved from an abandoned facility.

Cranes

Operators

It is very important to note that only qualified, competent persons must be allowed to
operate cranes. Operators must know the specifications of all loads they lift, such as
what is actually being lifted and its weight. Each crane has a rated capacity that is
determined by the length of its boom and the boom radius.

Note: Cranes that have telescopic booms may be capable of lifting a heavier load when
the boom length and radius are small. If the boom is extended, the weight of the object
can overload the crane.

The employer must ensure that each operator is trained, certified/ licensed, and
evaluated before operating any equipment. Each operator must be provided with

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sufficient training, through a combination of formal and practical instruction, to ensure
the operator-in-training develops the skills, knowledge, and ability to recognize and
avert risk necessary to operate the equipment safely for assigned work.

Movable/Mobile Cranes

When using movable cranes, the operator must ensure that a boom angle indicator has
been fitted. In cases where the crane has a telescopic boom, a means of determining
the boom's length also must be present. Load rating charts that are specific to the crane
must be placed in the operator's cabin.

Outriggers

Mobile cranes that require the use of outriggers must be placed on firm, level ground.
The outriggers must be placed on timbers or cribbed so as to spread the weight of the
crane and the load over a large enough area. This helps to ensure that the crane
remains stable and does not tip while in operation.

Loads

Operators must ensure that hoisting chains and ropes are properly attached in
reference to the load. This can be achieved by ensuring that loads are connected to the
load hooks by slings or fixtures. All sharp edges of loads must be padded to prevent
them from cutting into slings.

Safety Inspections

Cranes must be inspected as directed by the manufacturer and OSHA standards by

competent persons who are familiar with them. Critical parts such as the operating
mechanisms, hooks, and load-carrying components must be checked on at least a daily
basis to ensure that no deterioration, damage, or improper adjustments have occurred.

Slings

Employers must ensure that slings are visually inspected before and during all
operations. A damaged or defective sling must be removed from service immediately.
Some other guidelines for slings include the following:

• Slings must not be shortened with knots, bolts, or by any other means unless
they are specifically designed by the manufacturer to do so. The rated capacity of
a sling must be noted and strictly adhered to.
• Slings must not be loaded beyond their rated capacity.
• Shock loading is strictly prohibited.
• Jerking the load rather than slowly picking it up causes the force to be multiplied
and can exceed the rated capacity of the sling or chain even though the load
weight is a fraction of the capacity.

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 • Hands or fingers should not be placed between the sling and its load while the
sling is being tightened around the load.
• A sling should not be pulled from under a load when the load is resting on the
sling.

Powered Industrial Trucks

New powered industrial trucks (e.g., tow motors, forklifts, fork trucks, cherry-pickers,
etc.) must meet the design and construction requirements of the American National
Standard for Powered Industrial Trucks, Part II (ANSI b56.1-1969). Powered industrial
trucks (PITs) manufactured since 1969 must have identifying marks indicating that they
have been inspected and accepted by a nationally approved testing laboratory.

PIT owners and operators must not make any modifications or additions to the truck
without the approval of the manufacturer. If any modifications are made, capacity,
operation, and maintenance instruction tags, and signs must be changed to reflect the
new requirements.

There are 11 different types of industrial trucks or tractors, each having its own safety
levels, constraints, and load capabilities. They all operate under different conditions and
environments. In some cases, certain trucks cannot be used, and in other cases they
can be used only if approved by a nationally accepted testing laboratory.

Under normal circumstances, PITs must not be used in atmospheres containing high
concentrations of metal dust, carbon black, coal, or coke dust.

In cases of existing high concentrations of magnesium, aluminum, or aluminum bronze

dust, the circuit breakers, fuses, switches, and motor controllers of PITs must be
protected or enclosed.

Some powered industrial trucks have been constructed specifically for use in areas that
contain flammable vapors or dusts. Additions, such as safeguards to the exhaust, fuel,
and electrical systems, have to be made to the trucks in such cases. Due to the
flammability and volatility of the atmosphere, such trucks will have to be equipped with
non-electrical ignitions, temperature limitation features, and electrical engines, and
many other safety devices.

There are some safety precautions that must be followed when operating and
maintaining a powered industrial truck. These include:

• High lift trucks must be fitted with overhead guards.

• Forklifts must be equipped with vertical load backrest extensions that comply with
the manufacturer's specifications.
• Battery charging installations must be placed only in areas that have been
specified for that purpose.

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 • A conveyor, overhead hoist or equivalent handling equipment must be used
when handling batteries.
• Trucks that have a general lighting of less than two lumens per square foot must
be provided with auxiliary directional lighting.
• Arms and legs must not be placed between uprights of the mast or outside the
running lines of the truck.
• Overhead installations such as lights, pipes, and sprinkler systems must be
adequately protected.
• Personnel working on a properly designed loading platform must have means to
shut off power to the truck if needed.
• All trucks that are to undergo repairs to their electrical systems must have their
batteries disconnected prior to the repairs.
• Any replacement part for the trucks must have the equivalent safety levels as the
original parts.
• Only stable and safely arranged loads are to be handled. Caution must be
exercised at all times when handling loads.
• When using trucks to load or unload materials onto train boxcars, trucks, trailers,
or railroad cars, the trucks must be secured using brakes and wheel blocks to
prevent their movement.

Training

Employers must ensure each powered industrial truck operator is competent to operate
the truck safely. Prior to permitting an employee to operate a powered industrial truck
(except for training purposes), the employer should ensure that each operator has
successfully completed training.
Training must consist of a combination of formal instruction (e.g., lecture, discussion,
interactive computer learning, video tape, written material), practical training
(demonstrations performed by the trainer and practical exercises performed by the
trainee), and evaluation of the operator's performance in the workplace.

All operator training and evaluation should be conducted by persons who have the
knowledge, training, and experience to train powered industrial truck operators and
evaluate their competence.

Lesson Summary

• Conveyors present a variety of safety hazards, such as workers catching their

hands in the mechanism or falling in it, or objects falling off of it and striking
workers below.
• Conveyor systems should be equipped with an audible warning system as well
as emergency stop buttons or pull-cords.
• Employers must ensure anyone operating a crane is properly trained to do so.
• When using movable cranes, the operator must ensure that a boom angle
indicator has been fitted. Mobile cranes that require the use of outriggers must be
placed on firm, level ground.

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 • Cranes must be inspected as directed by the manufacturer and OSHA standards
by competent persons who are familiar with them. Critical parts such as the
operating mechanisms, hooks, and load-carrying components must be checked
on at least a daily basis to ensure that no deterioration, damage, or improper
adjustments have occurred.
• Employers must ensure that slings are visually inspected before and during all
operations. A damaged or defective sling must be removed from service
immediately.
• Forklifts must be equipped with vertical load backrest extensions that comply with
the manufacturer's specifications.
• Personnel working on a properly designed loading platform must have means to
shut off power to the truck if needed.
• Only stable and safely arranged loads are to be handled. Caution must be
exercised at all times when handling loads.
• When using trucks to load or unload materials onto train boxcars, trucks, trailers,
or railroad cars, the trucks must be secured using brakes and wheel blocks to
prevent their movement.

Lesson 3: Ergonomics, Training, and Education

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Explain ergonomic safety and health principles

• Identify the correct fire safety precautions
• Training and education
• Safety and health program management guidelines

Ergonomics Safety and Health Principles

Ergonomics is a principle that states that jobs should be adapted to fit the person, rather
than the person being forced to fit the job. As such, the study of ergonomics attempts to
provide the best possible environment for the employee's needs, leading to the greatest
possible productivity.

Ergonomics includes changing workplace conditions to minimize the physical demands

of a job as much as possible, and to reduce the stressors that can lead to trauma or
injuries from repetitive actions. In the case of material storage and handling, this may
include reducing the size or weight of objects lifted, making use of mechanical lifting
aids, or changing the height of pallets and shelves to make them more accessible.

There are numerous methods by which lifting injuries can be prevented, including the
implementation of ergonomically designed systems and the proper training and
supervision of employees.

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In addition to the use of ergonomic principles, there are a number of basic safety
precautions that can be employed to reduce the incidence and severity of lifting injuries.
These include the use of general fire safety precaution techniques and keeping aisles
and passages clear.

Fire Safety Precautions

Employees must always keep in mind that flammable and combustible materials must
be stored in accordance with their fire characteristics. For example, when storing
flammable liquids, employees must ensure that they are separated from other materials
by using fire walls or other appropriate storage facilities and equipment.

Combustibles must be stored in areas where smoking, open flames, and sparks are
prohibited. Some materials are only dangerous when they come together. Employees
must be aware of the reactive qualities of different materials and keep potentially
reactive materials properly separated from each other.

Aisles and Passageways

Sufficient clearance must be allowed in passageways and aisles for the movement of
materials mechanically, particularly at loading docks, through doorways, and wherever
turns must be made. Providing sufficient clearance will minimize the possibility that
workers will get pinned down. Also, sufficient clearance will reduce the risk that a load
will strike an obstruction and fall on an employee. As such, all passageways and aisles
must be kept clear of obstructions and tripping hazards. Materials should never be
stored in aisles.

Training and Education

OSHA requires that all employees participate in training programs related to handling
and storage hazards. These programs must contain material that will be helpful to
employees in reducing material handling and storage hazards. The training program
must include:

• Informing employees about the dangers of handling heavy and bulky materials
without proper training
• Illustrating how to avoid unnecessary physical stress and strain
• Teaching employees to determine what they are able to comfortably handle
without having to undergo physical strain
• Instructing employees about the proper use of equipment
• Teaching employees how to recognize potential hazards and how to prevent or
correct them

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Due to the high incidence of back and spinal injuries that results from manual lifting,
safe lifting techniques must be demonstrated to all employees. As such, a training
program that is designed to instruct on proper lifting techniques must include:

• The health risks of improper lifting

• Knowledge of the basic anatomy of the spine, muscles, and joints
• Awareness of individual body weaknesses and strengths
• Recognizing the physical factors that may lead to an accident
• Use of safe lifting postures and timings and how to minimize load-moment effects
• Use of handling aids such as steps, platforms, handles, etc.
• The warning signals the body may send if you lift something you should not

Safety and Health Program Management Guidelines

It is imperative that your company's management play an active role in the effective
implementation of a safety and health program designed for handling and storage.
When management is closely involved with such a program, line supervisors and (by
extension) employees can be persuaded of its importance and motivated to take it
seriously.

Material Storage

Material stored inside buildings under construction should be placed neither within 6
feet of any hoist way or inside floor openings, nor within 10 feet of an exterior wall which
does not extend above the top of the material stored.

Each employee required to work on stored material in silos, hoppers, tanks, and similar
storage areas should be equipped with personal fall arrest equipment meeting the
requirements of Subpart M.

Non-compatible materials should be segregated in storage.

Materials Stored on Tiers

All materials stored in tiers should be stacked, racked, blocked, interlocked, or

otherwise secured to prevent sliding, falling, or collapse.

Maximum safe load limits of floors within buildings and structures, in pounds per square
foot, should be conspicuously posted in all storage areas, except for floor or slab on
grade. Maximum safe loads should not be exceeded.

Aisles and passageways should be kept clear to provide for the free and safe
movement of material handling equipment or employees. Such areas should be kept in
good repair.

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When a difference in road or working levels exists, means such as ramps, blocking, or
grading should be used to ensure the safe movement of vehicles between the two
levels.

OSHA's recommended Safety and Health Program Management Guidelines, issued in

1989, can provide a blueprint for employers who are seeking guidance about how to
effectively manage and protect worker safety and health. The four main elements of an
effective occupational safety and health program are:

• Management commitment and employee involvement

• Worksite analysis
• Hazard prevention and control
• Safety and health training

These elements require such steps as:

•
• Establishing and communicating clear safety and health management program
goals
• Conducting worksite audits to identify existing hazards and eliminate them
• Effectively designing the job site or job to prevent hazards
• Providing essential training to address the safety and health responsibilities of
both management and employees

Dock boards (Bridge Plates)

• Portable and powered dock boards should be strong enough to carry the load
imposed on them.
• Portable dock boards should be secured in position, either by being anchored or
equipped with devices that will prevent their slipping.
• Handholds, or other effective means, should be provided on portable dock
boards to permit safe handling.
• Positive protection should be provided to prevent railroad cars from being moved
while dock boards or bridge plates are in position.

Lesson Summary

• Ergonomics holds that jobs should be adjusted to fit the person, rather than the
person to fit the job. It includes changing workplace conditions to minimize the
physical demands of a job as much as possible.
• Employees must always keep in mind that flammable and combustible materials
must be stored in accordance with their fire characteristics. Combustibles must
be stored in areas where smoking, open flames, and sparks are prohibited.
Some materials are only dangerous when they come together.

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 • OSHA requires that all employees participate in training programs related to
handling and storage hazards. These programs must contain material that will be
helpful to employees in reducing material handling and storage hazards.
• Due to the high incidence of back and spinal injuries that results from manual
lifting, safe lifting techniques must be demonstrated to all employees.
• It is imperative that your company's management play an active role in the
effective implementation of a safety and health program designed for handling
and storage. When management is closely involved with such a program, line
supervisors and (by extension) employees can be persuaded of its importance
and motivated to take it seriously.

Module 14: Motor Vehicles, Mechanized Equipment

and Marine Operations; Rollover Protective Structures
and Overhead Protection; and Signs, Signals and
Barricades
Module Description
This module is intended for workers who need to know about motor vehicles,
mechanized equipment, rollover protective structures, overhead protection, signs,
signals, and barricades.

We will be discussing motor vehicles, mechanized equipment, marine operations,

rollover protective structures, overhead protection, signs, signals, and barricades in
detail. This course will also cover the topics included in OSHA 29 CFR 1926 Subparts
O-Motor Vehicles; W-Rollover Protection; and G-Signs, Signals, and Barricades.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

• Identify OSHA standards for Motor Vehicle Safety

• Demonstrate machine and equipment handling according to OSHA standards
• Describe how industrial tractors are regulated by OSHA
• Discuss the purpose of signs and barricades

Lesson 1: Motor Vehicles (Subpart O)

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe the general requirements for the use of motor vehicles in construction

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 • Describe safety measures for operating material handling equipment
• Identify proper access roadways and grades
• Explain when and why audible alarms are necessary
• Describe safety precautions that prevent struck-by and caught-in-between
hazards

General Requirements

Introduction

Motor vehicles covered by Subpart O of the OSHA regulations are those vehicles that
operate within an off-highway jobsite that is not open to public traffic. A majority of
fatalities that occur in road construction work zones involve a worker being struck by a
piece of construction equipment or another vehicle. If vehicle safety practices are not
properly implemented, workers risk being pinned between construction vehicles and
walls, struck by swinging backhoes, crushed beneath overturned vehicles, or struck by
trucks or cars.

Braking Systems

All vehicles must have a service brake system, an emergency brake system, and a
parking brake system. These systems can utilize common components and they must
always be maintained in operable condition. Whenever the equipment is parked, the
parking brake should be set. Equipment parked on inclines should have the wheels
chocked and the parking brake set. All equipment left unattended at night, adjacent to a
highway in normal use, or adjacent to construction areas where work is in progress,
should have appropriate lights or reflectors to identify its location, or barricades
equipped with appropriate lights or reflectors should be set up.

Seat Belts

Scrapers, loaders, crawler or wheel tractors, bulldozers, off-highway trucks, graders,

agricultural and industrial tractors, and similar equipment must be equipped with seat
belts, except in the following cases:

• Seat belts need not be provided for equipment which is designed only for
standup operation.
• Seat belts need not be provided for equipment which does not have rollover
protective structure (ROPS) or adequate canopy protection.

Headlights, Taillights, and Brake Lights

Whenever visibility conditions warrant additional light, all vehicles in use must be
equipped with at least two operable headlights and taillights.
All vehicles must also have brake lights in operable condition regardless of light
conditions.

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Audible Warning Devices

All vehicles must be equipped with adequate audible warning devices at the operator's
station. These devices must be kept operational.

Obstructed View to the Rear

No employer should use any motor vehicle equipment having an obstructed view to the
rear unless:

• The vehicle has a reverse signal alarm audible above the surrounding noise
levels.
• The vehicle is backed up only when an observer signals that it is safe to do so.

Windshields

All vehicles with cabs must be equipped with windshields and powered wipers. Cracked
and broken glass must be replaced. Vehicles operating in areas or under conditions that
cause windshields to fog or frost must be equipped with operable defogging and
defrosting devices.

Cab Shield

All haulage vehicles with payloads loaded by cranes, power shovels, loaders, or similar
equipment, must have a cab shield and/or canopy adequate to protect the operator from
shifting or falling materials.

Transporting Tools and Materials

Tools and materials must be secured to prevent movement when transported in the
same compartment with employees.

Transporting Employees

Vehicles used to transport employees must have seats firmly secured and adequate for
the number of employees to be carried.

Trucks with Dump Bodies

Trucks with dump bodies must be equipped with positive means of support. The
supports must be permanently attached and capable of being locked into position to
prevent accidentally lowering a worker during maintenance or inspection work.

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Operating Levers

Operating levers controlling hoisting or dumping devices on haulage units must be

equipped with latches or other devices that will prevent accidental startup or tripping of
the mechanism.

Dump Truck Trip Handles

Trip handles for dump truck tailgates must be installed so the operator can stay clear
during dumping.

Mud Flaps

Mud flaps may be used in lieu of fenders whenever motor vehicle equipment is not
designed for fenders.

Vehicle Inspection

All vehicles must be checked at the start of each shift to ensure that parts, equipment,
and accessories are in safe operating condition and are free of apparent damage that
could cause failure while in use. These components include:

• Service brakes, including trailer brake connections

• Parking system (hand brakes)
• Emergency stopping system (brakes)
• Tires
• Horn
• Steering mechanism
• Coupling devices
• Seat belts
• Operating controls
• Safety devices

All defects must be corrected before the vehicles are placed in service.

Note: These requirements also apply to equipment such as the following, where the
equipment is necessary:

• Lights
• Reflectors
• Windshield wipers
• Defrosters
• Fire extinguishers

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Access Roadways and Grades

No employer may move or cause construction equipment or vehicles to be moved on

any access roadway or grade unless it is constructed and maintained to safely
accommodate such movement. Every emergency access ramp and beam used by an
employer must be constructed to restrain and control runaway vehicles.

Audible Alarms

All bidirectional machines, such as rollers, compacters, front-end loaders, bulldozers,

and similar equipment, must be equipped with horns that can be heard over the
surrounding noise levels. These horns must be operated as needed when machines are
moved in either direction. They always must be kept operational.

No employer should permit earthmoving or compacting equipment that is limited by an

obstructed rear view to be used in reverse gear unless the equipment has a reverse
signal alarm in operation that is distinguishable from the surrounding noise levels, or an
employee signals that it is safe to do so.

Struck-by and Caught-in-Between Hazards

Being struck by an object is one of the leading causes of construction-related deaths.

Workers are most often struck by:

• Heavy equipment and vehicles, likes trucks and cranes

• Falling or flying objects, like tools and flying particles
• Concrete or masonry walls that are being constructed

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To prevent injury or death from being struck by a vehicle:

• Wear a seat belt! Seat belts save lives, both on the roadways and on
construction sites. (Note: Don’t wear one if the vehicle is only designed for
standing up or if it has no rollover protective structure, like a roller used on paving
jobs.)
• Make sure that all vehicles are inspected before each shift – everything should
be in good working condition, including the brakes, before you begin work. Use
your parking brake when the vehicle is not in use and chock the wheels if you are
parked on an incline. And never lift or load more than the vehicle can hold.
• If you are driving a vehicle in reverse and you can’t see behind you, be sure to
have a reverse alarm that people can hear AND have another worker signal to
you that all is safe. Ensure that no one is in the way when you are using lifting
and dumping devices. Get out and look for people and hazards.
• Don’t drive vehicles in areas that are not safely constructed or maintained. When
using lifting or dumping devices, make sure to clear all personnel and lower or
block all blades.
• All forklift operators must be trained and certified. Equipment must be inspected,
and all safe operating procedures must be followed. Drive slowly, and don’t travel

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 with elevated loads. Make sure all signal alarms work and watch for hazardous
conditions (involving both workers and objects).
• If you are working in traffic, use traffic signs and barricades. Use flaggers if
needed. Be sure to stay out of blind spots. Workers must wear warning clothing,
like orange vests. If they are working at night, these must be of a reflective
material. Use proper lighting when working at night. Use traffic barricades
whenever possible. If you can’t barricade the traffic, use heavy equipment with
impact attenuators (crash cushions) within the work zone, to protect you from
moving traffic. Be alert for pedestrians in urban areas.

To prevent injury or death from falling or flying objects:

• Inspect tools, cranes, hoists to see that all are in good condition.
• Use toe boards, screens, debris nets, and guardrails on scaffolds to prevent
tools/other items from falling from overhead work areas.
• If you are working underneath cranes, hoists, or scaffolds, never work under a
suspended load. Barricade hazard areas and post warning signs. Don’t exceed
capacity, and don’t assume the operator has seen you. Watch out for power
lines, unstable soil, and high winds.
• Materials stored shall not be placed within 6 feet of hoist way/floor openings, nor
within 10 feet or an exterior wall which doesn’t extend above material.
• Don’t use hand tools with loose, cracked, or splintered handles, or use impact
tools with mushroomed heads; the head could fly off, striking you or others.
Operators of powder-actuated tools (gunpowder) must be trained and licensed.
Train all workers on safe operation of tools and inspect all tools before use.
• Train workers on safe operation of power tools, such as saws, drills, and
grinders. Inspect all tools before use and wear protective gear. Guard rotating
and moving parts – all guards must be in place when tools are in use.
• Secure tools and other items to prevent them from falling on the people below;
stack and secure materials (even from wind gusts) to prevent sliding, falling or
collapse. And always keep areas clear of clutter.
• Use personal protective equipment to prevent being hit by falling or flying objects.
Wear a hard hat, safety glasses, goggles, and face shields. Wear hearing
protection when needed.
• Reduce compressed air used for cleaning to 30 psi, and only use it with the
proper guards and other protective equipment. And never clean your clothing
with compressed air: you could be injured by a particle driven into your eyes or
skin by the force.

Workers can be killed or seriously injured when they are building concrete or masonry
walls. They can be struck by materials when the lifting equipment is putting the slabs in
position, or when materials are not shored properly and are not yet stable. To prevent
these kinds of accidents:

• Don’t place loads on concrete structures until someone who is qualified says that
it’s safe to do.

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 • Shore structures until permanent supporting elements are secured; concrete
should be
• tested to make sure it has enough support strength.
• Don’t overload lifting devices and use automatic devices to support the forms in
case the lifting mechanism fails.
• Use a personal fall arrest system, with full-body harness, to protect you from falls
if other fall protection is not available.

In all of these situations, be sure that you are properly trained to do this work, and
you are trained on all of the equipment you use.

Make sure that you and all other personnel are in the clear before using dumping or
lifting devices. Wear high visibility clothing, such as red or orange vests, and reflective
material if worn for night work.

Case Study: NIOSH FACE Report 2002-03

A 54-year-old male construction laborer was fatally injured when he was run over and
crushed by a motor grader. At the time of the incident, the grader operator was driving
the grader in reverse on a road under construction in a housing development. The
victim and a coworker were standing in the road at the rear of their parked pickup truck
discussing the next stage of their work when the grader operator began backing in their
direction. The coworker saw the grader backing toward them and yelled to the operator
to stop. The operator did not hear the warning. The back tire of the grader struck the
victim, knocking him down. The operator stopped the grader when it struck the rear of
the parked pickup truck. The victim was under the rear tire of the grader.

Lesson Summary

• A majority of fatalities that occur in road construction work zones involve a

worker being struck by a piece of construction equipment or another vehicle.
• All vehicles must have a service brake system, an emergency brake system, and
a parking brake system. These systems can utilize common components and
they must always be maintained in operable condition.
• Scrapers, loaders, crawler or wheel tractors, bulldozers, off-highway trucks,
graders, agricultural and industrial tractors, and similar equipment must be
equipped with seat belts, except in the following cases:
o Seat belts need not be provided for equipment which is designed only for
standup operation.
o Seat belts need not be provided for equipment which does not have
rollover protective structure (ROPS) or adequate canopy protection.
• Other standards that must be followed lay out requirements for the use of
headlights, warning devices, windshields, and mudflaps, as well as the
requirements for transporting employees.

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 • All bidirectional machines, such as rollers, compacters, front-end loaders,
bulldozers, and similar equipment, must be equipped with horns that can be
heard over the surrounding noise levels.
• Struck-by and caught-in-between injuries often result from vehicles.

Lesson 2: Rollover Protective Structures for Material Handling

(Subpart W)

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Explain how rollover protective structures (ROPs) work

• Describe conditions when ROPs are required
• Recognize proper labeling of ROPs

Introduction

Rollover protective structures (ROPs) are required for the following:

• Rubber-tired, self-propelled scrapers

• Rubber-tired front-end loaders
• Rubber-tired dozers
• Wheel-type agricultural and industrial tractors
• Crawler tractors
• Crawler type loaders
• Motor graders, with or without the attachments that are used in construction work

Note: This requirement does not apply to side-boom pipe laying tractors.

Case Studies

Between 2000 and 2006, OSHA investigated over 50 rollover incidents that involved a
variety of roller/compactor makes and models. Of the rollover accidents investigated:

• Five involved roller/compactors with rollover protective structures (ROPS) where

operators used the seatbelts provided. None of these accidents resulted in a
fatality.
• Nineteen involved roller/compactors with ROPS, but seatbelts were not used. In
some cases, seatbelts were not provided. In other cases, the seatbelts provided
were not used by the operators. Fourteen of these accidents resulted in fatalities.
In a number of these cases, the operator was either ejected or jumped from the
equipment and was pinned under or crushed by the ROPS.

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 • One case involved a pneumatic rubber-tired roller/compactor where the ROPS
and seatbelt had been removed prior to the accident. The operator involved was
fatally injured in the accident

Case Study 1

In May 2005, an employee was fatally injured while operating a pneumatic rubber- tired
roller/compactor on a roadway during asphalt compacting. The roller/compactor ran off
the road and traveled down a 22-degree sloping embankment. It rolled over 1½ times,
coming to a stop on its top. The operator was thrown from the machine and was fatally
crushed between the machine and the ground. Although the roller/compactor was
originally equipped and sold with a ROPS and a seatbelt, the ROPS and seatbelt had
been removed prior to the accident.

Case Study 2

In August 2005, an employee was operating a pneumatic rubber-tired roller/compactor

on a gravel road, rolling magnesium chloride into the gravel. The roller/compactor ran
off the road and traveled down a 28-degree sloping embankment. It rolled onto its side
and came to a stop. As the machine traveled down the embankment, the operator was
thrown from the machine and fatally crushed. The roller/compactor was not provided
with a ROPS and the operator was not wearing a seatbelt.

Design of ROPS

Strength

Rollover protective structures and supporting attachments must be designed, fabricated,

and installed in a manner that supports at least two times the weight of the prime mover
applied at the point of impact, based on the ultimate strength of the metal.

Overturn

ROPs should be designed to minimize the likelihood of a complete overturn and thereby
minimize the possibility of the operator being crushed as a result of a rollover or upset.

The design must provide a vertical clearance of at least 52 inches from the work deck to
the ROPS, at the point of ingress or egress.

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(https://www.spartaengineering.com/frequently-asked-questions-on-roll-over-protective-
structures-rops/)

Labeling

Each ROPS must have the following information permanently affixed to the structure:

• Manufacturer's or fabricator's name and address

• ROPS model number, if any
• Machine make, model, or series number that the structure is designed to fit

Lesson Summary

The design objective of scrapers, loaders, dozers, tractors, crawlers, and graders
discussed, must be to minimize the likelihood of a complete overturn and, thereby,
minimize the possibility of the operator being crushed as a result of a rollover or upset.
For this reason, rollover protective structures and supporting attachments must be
designed, fabricated, and installed in a manner that supports, based on the ultimate
strength of the metal, and at least two times the weight of the prime mover applied at
the point of impact.

Lesson 3: Signs, Signals, and Barricades (Subpart G)

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Recognize accident prevention signs and tags, including:

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 o Danger signs
o Caution signs
o Exit signs
o Safety instruction signs
o Directional signs
o Accident prevention tags

Accident Prevention Signs and Tags

Safety signs, labels, tags, and markings play a key role in effectively communicating
important safety information. They use visual cues to:

• Remind people of potential hazards and how to avoid them

• Point people to the location of emergency equipment
• Direct people’s path to safety in an emergency situation
• Reinforce safety training programs

Signs are commonly used to warn about potential injury hazards. Signs and symbols
should be visible at all times when work is being performed and must be removed or
covered promptly when the hazards no longer exist. General-policy safety signs inform
and remind people of a company’s expectations for safe behavior. Fire safety signs
inform employees and firefighters about fire lanes and the location of firefighting
equipment, emergency phones, risers, valve shutoffs, and disconnects.

http://www.hsewebsite.com/osha-danger-signs/

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Danger Signs

A danger sign must be used only where an immediate hazard exists. “DANGER”
indicates a hazardous situation which, if not avoided, will result in serious injury or
death. Its use should be limited to the most extreme situations. Each danger sign must
have red as the dominant color for the upper panel, a black outline on the borders, and
a white lower panel for additional sign wording.

Caution Signs

Caution signs are used to warn against potential hazards or to caution against unsafe
practices. “CAUTION” indicates a hazardous situation which, if not avoided, could result
in minor or moderate injury.

Every caution sign must have yellow as the dominant color, a black upper panel and
borders, the word "caution" in yellow on the black panel, and a lower yellow panel for
additional sign wording (black lettering should be used for any additional wording).

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Exit Signs

Exit signs guide people to a building’s exits and to safety and assist rescue personnel in
locating handicapped people in emergency situations. Exit signs must be lettered in
legible red letters, not less than six inches high, on white fields with principal letter
strokes of at least three-fourths of an inch in width.

Safety Instruction Signs

Safety instruction signs define specific rules or procedures to follow to avoid causing a
hazardous situation. Safety instruction signs, when used, must be white with green
upper panels, using white letters for the primary message. Any additional wording on
the signs must be in black letters on white backgrounds.

Directional Signs

Directional signs, other than automotive traffic signs, should be white with a black panel
and a white directional symbol. Any additional wording on the sign must be in black
letters on the white background.

Traffic Signs

Construction areas must be posted with legible traffic signs at points of hazard. Signs
can convey both general and specific information by means of words or symbols, and
have the same three categories as all road signs: regulatory, warning, and guide. All
signs used at night must be either reflective or illuminated. Signs should be covered or
removed when work is not in progress.

Signs should not be located on sidewalks, bicycle facilities, or areas designated for
pedestrian or bicycle traffic. Ground-mounted signs installed at the side of the road in
rural areas must be mounted at a height of at least 7 feet from the bottom of the sign to
the ground.

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Accident Prevention Tags

Accident prevention tags must be used as a temporary means of warning employees of

an existing hazard, such as defective tools, equipment, etc. They must not be used in
place of, or as a substitute for, accident prevention signs. These use some of the same
colors and designs as danger and caution signs, and may warn against such hazards
as radiation and high-voltage electricity.

Lesson Summary

• A danger sign must be used only where an immediate hazard exists. “DANGER”
indicates a hazardous situation which, if not avoided, will result in serious injury
or death.
• Caution signs are used to warn against potential hazards or to caution against
unsafe practices. “CAUTION” indicates a hazardous situation which, if not
avoided, could result in minor or moderate injury.
• Safety instruction signs define specific rules or procedures to follow to avoid
causing a hazardous situation.
• Construction areas must be posted with legible traffic signs at points of hazard.
Signs can convey both general and specific information by means of words or
symbols, and have the same three categories as all road signs: regulatory,
warning, and guide.

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 • Accident prevention tags must be used as a temporary means of warning
employees of an existing hazard, such as defective tools, equipment, etc. They
must not be used in place of, or as a substitute for, accident prevention signs.

Module 15: Safety and Health Programs

Module Description
Have you ever been injured on the job? Do you know what steps to take in the event of
sickness, injury, or death due to your workplace environment? More importantly, do you
know how to protect yourself, as well as others, and help promote healthy working
conditions? Every year, more than 50,000 workers die from exposure to various
hazards in the workplace. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
is committed to saving lives, preventing injuries, and protecting the health of workers all
across America. This module will show you how to identify workplace hazards and
become involved with ensuring healthy and safe working environments.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

• Describe the importance of effective safety and health programs

• Summarize the common characteristics of exemplary workplaces
• Explain the General Guidelines of an effective safety and health program
• Discuss the major elements of an effective safety and health program
• Name the state programs
• List consultation services
• Describe the Voluntary Protection Program (VPP)
• Discuss the Safety Health Achievement Recognition Program (SHARP)
• Describe the Strategic Partnership Program
• Apply training and education
• Utilize electronic information

Lesson 1: Effective Program Elements

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Explain the importance of having an effective safety and health programs

• Identify common characteristics of exemplary workplaces
• Describe OSHA’s general guidelines for safety and health programs
• Identify the major elements of an effective safety and health program, which
include:

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 o Management leadership
o Worker participation
o Hazard identification and assessment
o Hazard prevention and control
o Safety and health training

General Guidelines

An effective program includes provisions for systematic identification, evaluation, and

prevention or control of hazards. It should go beyond specific requirements of the law to
address any and all hazards that might be present. As the size and complexity of the
worksite or process increases, so does the need for written guidance. Some individual
OSHA standards require a written program to be created. Taken as a whole, these
individual written programs will often form the basis of the facility safety program.

Effective management of worker safety and health programs:

• Reduces the extent and severity of work-related injuries and illnesses

• Improves employee morale and productivity
• Reduces workers' compensation costs

Organized and systematic methods are used to:

• Assign responsibility to managers, supervisors, and employees.

• Regularly inspect for hazards and control the hazards.
• Regularly re-evaluate the effectiveness of existing programs.
• Orient and train all employees to eliminate or avoid hazards.

Major Elements

An effective occupational safety and health program will include the following elements:

Management Leadership

Management provides the leadership, vision, and resources needed to implement an

effective safety and health program. Management leadership means that business
owners, managers, and supervisors:

• Make worker safety and health a core organizational value

• Are fully committed to eliminating hazards, protecting workers, and continuously
improving workplace safety and health
• Provide sufficient resources to implement and maintain the safety and health
program
• Visibly demonstrate and communicate their safety and health commitment to
workers and others

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 • Set an example through their own actions

The following are actions employers can take to demonstrate their leadership on health
and safety:

Action 1: Communicate your commitment to a safety and health program

A clear, written policy helps you communicate that safety and health is a primary
organizational value –as important as productivity, profitability, product or service
quality, and customer satisfaction.

Establish a written policy signed by top management describing the organization's

commitment to safety and health and pledging to establish and maintain a safety and
health program for all workers.

• Communicate the policy to all workers and, at appropriate times and places, to
relevant parties, including:
o Contractors, subcontractors, staffing agencies, and temporary workers at
your worksite(s)
o Suppliers and vendors
o Other businesses in a multi-tenant building
o Visitors
o Customers
• Reinforce management commitment by considering safety and health in all
business decisions, including contractor and vendor selection, purchasing, and
facility design and modification.
• Be visible in operations and set an example by following the same safety
procedures you expect workers to follow. Begin work meetings with a discussion
or review of safety and health indicators and any outstanding safety items on a
"to do" list.

Action 2: Define program goals

By establishing specific goals and objectives, management sets expectations for

managers, supervisors, and workers and for the program overall. The goals and
objectives should focus on specific actions that will improve workplace safety and
health.

• Establish realistic, measurable goals for improving safety and health. Goals
emphasizing injury and illness prevention should be included rather than focusing
on injury and illness rates.
• Develop plans to achieve the goals by assigning tasks and responsibilities to
particular people, setting timeframes, and determining resource needs.

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Action 3: Allocate resources

Management provides the resources needed to implement the safety and health
program, pursue program goals, and address program shortcomings when they are
identified.

• Estimate the resources needed to establish and implement the program.

• Allow time in workers' schedules for them to fully participate in the program.
• Integrate safety and health into planning and budgeting processes and align
budgets with program needs.
• Provide and direct resources to operate and maintain the program, meet safety
and health commitments, and pursue program goals.

Note: Resource needs will vary depending on your organization's size, complexity,
hazard types, and program maturity and development. Resource needs may include:
capital equipment and supplies; staff time; training; access to information and tools
(e.g., vendor information, Safety Data Sheets, injury/illness data, checklists, online
databases); and access to safety and health experts, including OSHA's free and
confidential On-site Consultation Program.

Action 4: Expect performance

Management leads the program effort by establishing roles and responsibilities and
providing an open, positive environment that encourages communication about safety
and health.

• Identify a front line person or persons to lead the safety program effort, make
plans, coordinate activities, and track progress. Define and regularly
communicate responsibilities and authorities for implementing and maintaining
the program and hold people accountable for performance.
• Provide positive recognition for meeting or exceeding safety and health goals
aimed at preventing injury and illness (e.g., reporting close calls/near misses,
attending training, conducting inspections).
• Establish ways for management and all workers to communicate freely and often
about safety and health issues without fear of retaliation.

Note: Maintaining a positive and encouraging tone is important. Successful programs

reward, rather than discipline, workers who identify problems or concerns, much like
successful quality programs. Disciplinary measures should be reserved for situations in
which an individual manager or worker is uncooperative or becomes an impediment to
progress.

Worker Participation

To be effective, any safety and health program needs the meaningful participation of
workers and their representatives. Workers have much to gain from a successful

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program and the most to lose if the program fails. They also often know the most about
potential hazards associated with their jobs. Successful programs tap into this
knowledge base.

Worker participation means that workers are involved in establishing, operating,

evaluating, and improving the safety and health program. All workers at a worksite
should participate, including those employed by contractors, subcontractors, and
temporary staffing agencies (see "Communication and Coordination for Host
Employers, Contractors, and Staffing Agencies").

In an effective safety and health program, all workers:

• Are encouraged to participate in the program and feel comfortable providing input
and reporting safety or health concerns
• Have access to information they need to participate effectively in the program
• Have opportunities to participate in all phases of program design and
implementation
• Do not experience retaliation when they raise safety and health concerns; report
injuries, illnesses, and hazards; participate in the program; or exercise safety and
health rights

Note: Worker participation is vital to the success of safety and health programs. Where
workers are represented by a union, it is important that worker representatives also
participate in the program, consistent with the rights provided to worker representatives
under the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 and the National Labor Relations
Act.

The following are actions employers can take to ensure workers’ buy-in to a health and
safety program:

Action 1: Encourage workers to participate in the program

By encouraging workers to participate in the program, management signals that it

values their input into safety and health decisions.

• Give workers the necessary time and resources to participate in the program.
• Acknowledge and provide positive reinforcement to those who participate in the
program.
• Maintain an open-door policy that invites workers to talk to managers about
safety and health and to make suggestions.

Action 2: Encourage workers to report safety and health concerns

Workers are often best positioned to identify safety and health concerns and program
shortcomings, such as emerging workplace hazards, unsafe conditions, close calls/near

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misses, and actual incidents. By encouraging reporting and following up promptly on all
reports, employers can address issues before someone gets hurt or becomes ill.

• Establish a process for workers to report injuries, illnesses, close calls/near

misses, hazards, and other safety and health concerns, and respond to reports
promptly; include an option for anonymous reporting to reduce fear of reprisal
• Report back to workers routinely and frequently about action taken in response to
their concerns and suggestions
• Emphasize that management will use reported information only to improve
workplace safety and health and that no worker will experience retaliation for
bringing such information to management's attention
• Empower all workers to initiate or request a temporary suspension or shut down
of any work activity or operation they believe to be unsafe
• Involve workers in finding solutions to reported issues

Action 3: Give workers access to safety and health information

Sharing relevant safety and health information with workers fosters trust and helps
organizations make more informed safety and health decisions.

• Give workers the information they need to understand safety and health hazards
and control measures in the workplace. Some OSHA standards require
employers to make specific types of information available to workers, such as:
o Safety Data Sheets (SDS)
o Injury and illness data (may need to be redacted and aggregated to
eliminate personal identifiers)
o Results of environmental exposure monitoring conducted in the workplace
(prevent disclosure of sensitive and personal information as required)
• Other useful information for workers to review can include:
o Chemical and equipment manufacturer safety recommendations
o Workplace inspection reports
o Incident investigation reports (prevent disclosure of sensitive and personal
information as required)
o Workplace job hazard analyses

Action 4: Involve workers in all aspects of the program

Including worker input at every step of program design and implementation improves
your ability to identify the presence and causes of workplace hazards, creates a sense
of program ownership among workers, enhances their understanding of how the
program works, and helps sustain the program over time. Provide opportunities for
workers to participate in all aspects of the program, including but not limited to helping:

• Develop the program and set goals.

• Report hazards and develop solutions that improve safety and health.

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 • Analyze hazards in each step of routine and non-routine jobs, tasks, and
processes.
• Define and document safe work practices.
• Conduct site inspections.
• Develop and revise safety procedures.
• Participate in incident and close call/near miss investigations.
• Train current coworkers and new hires.
• Develop, implement, and evaluate training programs.
• Evaluate program performance and identify ways to improve it.
• Take part in exposure monitoring and medical surveillance associated with health
hazards.

Action 5: Remove barriers to participation

To participate meaningfully in the program, workers must feel that their input is
welcome, their voices will be heard, and they can access reporting mechanisms.
Participation will be suppressed if language, education, or skill levels in the workplace
are not considered, or if workers fear retaliation or discrimination for speaking up (for
example, if investigations focus on blaming individuals rather than the underlying
conditions that led to the incident or if reporting an incident or concern could jeopardize
the award of incentive-based prizes, rewards, or bonuses).

• Ensure that workers from all levels of the organization can participate regardless
of their skill level, education, or language.
• Provide frequent and regular feedback to show employees that their safety and
health concerns are being heard and addressed.
• Authorize sufficient time and resources to facilitate worker participation; for
example, hold safety and health meetings during regular working hours.
• Ensure that the program protects workers from being retaliated against for
reporting injuries, illnesses, and hazards; participating in the program; or
exercising their safety and health rights. Ensure that other policies and programs
do not discourage worker participation.
• Post the 11(c) Fact Sheet (found at www.whistleblowers.gov) in the workplace or
otherwise make it available for easy access by workers.

Note: Incentive programs (such as point systems, awards, and prizes) should be
designed in a manner that does not discourage injury and illness reporting; otherwise,
hazards may remain undetected. Although sometimes required by law or insurance
providers, mandatory drug testing following injuries can also suppress reporting.
Effective safety and health programs recognize positive safety and health activities,
such as reporting hazardous conditions or suggesting safer work procedures. (See
OSHA's "Employer Safety Incentive and Disincentive Policies and Practices"
memorandum, dated March 12, 2012,
at www.osha.gov/as/opa/whistleblowermemo.html.)

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Hazard Identification and Assessment

One of the "root causes" of workplace injuries, illnesses, and incidents is the failure to
identify or recognize hazards that are present, or that could have been anticipated. A
critical element of any effective safety and health program is a proactive, ongoing
process to identify and assess such hazards.

To identify and assess hazards, employers and workers should:

• Collect and review information about the hazards present or likely to be present
in the workplace
• Conduct initial and periodic workplace inspections of the workplace to identify
new or recurring hazards
• Investigate injuries, illnesses, incidents, and close calls/near misses to determine
the underlying hazards, their causes, and safety and health program
shortcomings
• Group similar incidents and identify trends in injuries, illnesses, and hazards
reported
• Consider hazards associated with emergency or nonroutine situations
• Determine the severity and likelihood of incidents that could result for each
hazard identified and use this information to prioritize corrective actions

Some hazards, such as housekeeping and tripping hazards, can and should be fixed as
they are found. Fixing hazards on the spot emphasizes the importance of safety and
health and takes advantage of a safety leadership opportunity. The following actions
can be taken to identify hazards at a worksite:

Action 1: Collect existing information about workplace hazards

Information on workplace hazards may already be available to employers and workers,

from both internal and external sources. Collect, organize, and review information with
workers to determine what types of hazards may be present and which workers may be
exposed or potentially exposed. Information available in the workplace may include:

• Equipment and machinery operating manuals

• Safety Data Sheets (SDS) provided by chemical manufacturers
• Self-inspection reports and inspection reports from insurance carriers,
government agencies, and consultants
• Records of previous injuries and illnesses, such as OSHA 300 and 301 logs and
reports of incident investigations
• Workers' compensation records and reports
• Patterns of frequently occurring injuries and illnesses
• Exposure monitoring results, industrial hygiene assessments, and medical
records (appropriately redacted to ensure patient/worker privacy)
• Existing safety and health programs (lockout/tagout, confined spaces, process
safety management, personal protective equipment, etc.)

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 • Input from workers, including surveys or minutes from safety and health
committee meetings
• Results of job hazard analyses, also known as job safety analyses

Information about hazards may be available from outside sources, such as:

• OSHA, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) websites, publications, and
alerts
• Trade associations
• Labor unions, state and local occupational safety and health
committees/coalitions ("COSH groups"), and worker advocacy groups
• Safety and health consultants

Action 2: Inspect the workplace for safety hazards

Hazards can be introduced over time as workstations and processes change,

equipment or tools become worn, maintenance is neglected, or housekeeping practices
decline. Setting aside time to regularly inspect the workplace for hazards can help
identify shortcomings so that they can be addressed before an incident occurs.

• Conduct regular inspections of all operations, equipment, work areas and

facilities. Have workers participate on the inspection team and talk to them about
hazards that they see or report.
• Be sure to document inspections so you can later verify that hazardous
conditions are corrected. Take photos or video of problem areas to facilitate later
discussion and brainstorming about how to control them, and for use as learning
aids.
• Include all areas and activities in these inspections, such as storage and
warehousing, facility and equipment maintenance, purchasing and office
functions, and the activities of on-site contractors, subcontractors, and temporary
employees.
• Regularly inspect both plant vehicles (e.g., forklifts, powered industrial trucks)
and transportation vehicles (e.g., cars, trucks).
• Use checklists that highlight things to look for. Typical hazards fall into several
major categories, such as those listed below; each workplace will have its own
list:
o General housekeeping
o Slip, trip, and fall hazards
o Electrical hazards
o Equipment operation
o Equipment maintenance
o Fire protection
o Work organization and process flow (including staffing and scheduling)
o Work practices
o Workplace violence

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 o Ergonomic problems
o Lack of emergency procedures
• Before changing operations, workstations, or workflow; making major
organizational changes; or introducing new equipment, materials, or processes,
seek the input of workers and evaluate the planned changes for potential
hazards and related risks.

Note: Many hazards can be identified using common knowledge and available tools.
For example, you can easily identify and correct hazards associated with broken stair
rails and frayed electrical cords. Workers can be a very useful internal resource,
especially if they are trained in how to identify and assess risks.

Action 3: Identify health hazards

Identifying workers' exposure to health hazards is typically more complex than

identifying physical safety hazards. For example, gases and vapors may be invisible,
often have no odor, and may not have an immediately noticeable harmful health effect.
Health hazards include chemical hazards (solvents, adhesives, paints, toxic dusts, etc.),
physical hazards (noise, radiation, heat, etc.), biological hazards (infectious diseases),
and ergonomic risk factors (heavy lifting, repetitive motions, vibration). Reviewing
workers' medical records (appropriately redacted to ensure patient/worker privacy) can
be useful in identifying health hazards associated with workplace exposures.

• Identify chemical hazards –review SDS and product labels to identify chemicals
in your workplace that have low exposure limits, are highly volatile, or are used in
large quantities or in unventilated spaces. Identify activities that may result in skin
exposure to chemicals.
• Identify physical hazards –identify any exposures to excessive noise (areas
where you must raise your voice to be heard by others), elevated heat (indoor
and outdoor), or sources of radiation (radioactive materials, X-rays, or
radiofrequency radiation).
• Identify biological hazards –determine whether workers may be exposed to
sources of infectious diseases, molds, toxic or poisonous plants, or animal
materials (fur or scat) capable of causing allergic reactions or occupational
asthma.
• Identify ergonomic risk factors –examine work activities that require heavy lifting,
work above shoulder height, repetitive motions, or tasks with significant vibration.
• Conduct quantitative exposure assessments –when possible, using air sampling
or direct reading instruments.
• Review medical records –to identify cases of musculoskeletal injuries, skin
irritation or dermatitis, hearing loss, or lung disease that may be related to
workplace exposures.

Note: Identifying and assessing health hazards may require specialized knowledge.
Small businesses can obtain free and confidential occupational safety and health advice

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services, including help identifying and assessing workplace hazards, through
OSHA's On-site Consultation Program.

Action 4: Conduct incident investigations

Workplace incidents –including injuries, illnesses, close calls/near misses, and reports
of other concerns– provide a clear indication of where hazards exist. By thoroughly
investigating incidents and reports, you will identify hazards that are likely to cause
future harm. The purpose of an investigation must always be to identify the root causes
(and there are often more than one) of the incident or concern, in order to prevent future
occurrences.

• Develop a clear plan and procedure for conducting incident investigations, so

that an investigation can begin immediately when an incident occurs. The plan
should cover items such as:
o Who will be involved
o Lines of communication
o Materials, equipment, and supplies needed
o Reporting forms and templates
• Train investigative teams on incident investigation techniques, emphasizing
objectivity and open-mindedness throughout the investigation process.
• Conduct investigations with a trained team that includes representatives of both
management and workers.
• Investigate close calls/near misses.
• Identify and analyze root causes to address underlying program shortcomings
that allowed the incidents to happen.
• Communicate the results of the investigation to managers, supervisors, and
workers to prevent recurrence.

Effective incident investigations do not stop at identifying a single factor that triggered
an incident. They ask the questions "Why?" and "What led to the failure?" For example,
if a piece of equipment fails, a good investigation asks: "Why did it fail?" "Was it
maintained properly?" "Was it beyond its service life?" and "How could this failure have
been prevented?" Similarly, a good incident investigation does not stop when it
concludes that a worker made an error. It asks such questions as: "Was the worker
provided with appropriate tools and time to do the work?" "Was the worker adequately
trained?" and "Was the worker properly supervised?"

Note: OSHA has special reporting requirements for work-related incidents that lead to
serious injury or a fatality (29 CFR 1904.39). OSHA must be notified within 8 hours of a
work-related fatality, and within 24 hours of an amputation, loss of an eye, or inpatient
hospitalization.

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Action 5: Identify hazards associated with emergency and nonroutine situations

Emergencies present hazards that need to be recognized and understood. Nonroutine

or infrequent tasks, including maintenance and startup/shutdown activities, also present
potential hazards. Plans and procedures need to be developed for responding
appropriately and safely to hazards associated with foreseeable emergency scenarios
and non-routine situations.

• Identify foreseeable emergency scenarios and non-routine tasks, taking into

account the types of material and equipment in use and the location within the
facility. Scenarios such as the following may be foreseeable:
o Fires and explosions
o Chemical releases
o Hazardous material spills
o Startups after planned or unplanned equipment shutdowns
o Nonroutine tasks, such as infrequently performed maintenance activities
o Structural collapse
o Disease outbreaks
o Weather emergencies and natural disasters
o Medical emergencies
o Workplace violence

Action 6: Characterize the nature of identified hazards, identify interim control

measures, and prioritize the hazards for control

The next step is to assess and understand the hazards identified and the types of
incidents that could result from worker exposure to those hazards. This information can
be used to develop interim controls and to prioritize hazards for permanent control.

• Evaluate each hazard by considering the severity of potential outcomes, the

likelihood that an event or exposure will occur, and the number of workers who
might be exposed.
• Use interim control measures to protect workers until more permanent solutions
can be implemented.
• Prioritize the hazards so that those presenting the greatest risk are addressed
first. Note, however, that employers have an ongoing obligation to control all
serious recognized hazards and to protect workers.

Note: "Risk" is the product of hazard and exposure. Thus, risk can be reduced by
controlling or eliminating the hazard or by reducing workers' exposure to hazards. An
assessment of risk helps employers understand hazards in the context of their own
workplace and prioritize hazards for permanent control.

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Hazard Prevention and Control

Effective controls protect workers from workplace hazards; help avoid injuries, illnesses,
and incidents; minimize or eliminate safety and health risks; and help employers provide
workers with safe and healthful working conditions. The processes described in this
section will help employers prevent and control hazards identified in the previous
section.

To effectively control and prevent hazards, employers should take the following actions:

Action 1: Identify control options

A wealth of information exists to help employers investigate options for controlling

identified hazards. Before selecting any control options, it is essential to solicit workers'
input on their feasibility and effectiveness. Collect, organize, and review information with
workers to determine what types of hazards may be present and which workers may be
exposed or potentially exposed. Information available in the workplace may include:

• Review sources such as OSHA standards and guidance, industry consensus

standards, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
publications, manufacturers' literature, and engineering reports to identify
potential control measures. Keep current on relevant information from trade or
professional associations.
• Investigate control measures used in other workplaces and determine whether
they would be effective at your workplace.
• Get input from workers who may be able to suggest and evaluate solutions
based on their knowledge of the facility, equipment, and work processes.
• For complex hazards, consult with safety and health experts, including
OSHA's On-site Consultation Program.

Action 2: Select controls

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Employers should select the controls that are the most feasible, effective, and
permanent.

• Eliminate or control all serious hazards (hazards that are causing or are likely to
cause death or serious physical harm) immediately.
• Use interim controls while you develop and implement longer-term solutions.
• Select controls according to a hierarchy that emphasizes engineering solutions
(including elimination or substitution) first, followed by safe work practices,
administrative controls, and finally personal protective equipment.
• Avoid selecting controls that may directly or indirectly introduce new hazards.
Examples include exhausting contaminated air into occupied work spaces or
using hearing protection that makes it difficult to hear backup alarms.
• Review and discuss control options with workers to ensure that controls are
feasible and effective.
• Use a combination of control options when no single method fully protects
workers.

Note: Whenever possible, select equipment, machinery, and materials that are
inherently safer based on the application of "Prevention through Design" (PtD)
principles. Apply PtD when making your own facility, equipment, or product design
decisions. For more information, see the link to the NIOSH PtD initiative in Additional
Resources.

Action 3: Develop and update a hazard control plan

A hazard control plan describes how the selected controls will be implemented. An
effective plan will address serious hazards first. Interim controls may be necessary, but
the overall goal is to ensure effective long-term control of hazards. It is important to
track progress toward completing the control plan and periodically (at least annually and
when conditions, processes or equipment change) verify that controls remain effective.

• List the hazards needing controls in order of priority.

• Assign responsibility for installing or implementing the controls to a specific
person or persons with the power or ability to implement the controls.
• Establish a target completion date.
• Plan how you will track progress toward completion.
• Plan how you will verify the effectiveness of controls after they are installed or
implemented.

Action 4: Select controls to protect workers during nonroutine operations and

emergencies

The hazard control plan should include provisions to protect workers during nonroutine
operations and foreseeable emergencies. Depending on your workplace, these could
include fires and explosions; chemical releases; hazardous material spills; unplanned

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equipment shutdowns; infrequent maintenance activities; natural and weather disasters;
workplace violence; terrorist or criminal attacks; disease outbreaks (e.g., pandemic
influenza); or medical emergencies. Nonroutine tasks, or tasks workers don't normally
do, should be approached with particular caution. Prior to initiating such work, review
job hazard analyses and job safety analyses with any workers involved and notify others
about the nature of the work, work schedule, and any necessary precautions.

• Develop procedures to control hazards that may arise during nonroutine

operations (e.g., removing machine guarding during maintenance and repair).
• Develop or modify plans to control hazards that may arise in emergency
situations.
• Procure any equipment needed to control emergency-related hazards.
• Assign responsibilities for implementing the emergency plan.
• Conduct emergency drills to ensure that procedures and equipment provide
adequate protection during emergency situations.

Note: Depending on your location, type of business, and materials stored or used on
site, authorities including local fire and emergency response departments, state
agencies, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the Department of Homeland
Security, and OSHA may have additional requirements for emergency plans. Ensure
that your procedures comply with these requirements.

Action 5: Implement selected controls in the workplace

Once hazard prevention and control measures have been identified, they should be
implemented according to the hazard control plan.

• Implement hazard control measures according to the priorities established in the

hazard control plan.
• When resources are limited, implement measures on a "worst-first" basis,
according to the hazard ranking priorities (risk) established during hazard
identification and assessment. (Note, however, that regardless of limited
resources, employers have an obligation to protect workers from recognized,
serious hazards.)
• Promptly implement any measures that are easy and inexpensive—e.g., general
housekeeping, removal of obvious tripping hazards such as electrical cords,
basic lighting—regardless of the level of hazard they involve.

Action item 6: Follow up to confirm that controls are effective

To ensure that control measures are and remain effective, employers should track
progress in implementing controls, inspect and evaluate controls once they are
installed, and follow routine preventive maintenance practices.

• Track progress and verify implementation by asking the following questions:

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 o Have all control measures been implemented according to the hazard
control plan?
o Have engineering controls been properly installed and tested?
o Have workers been appropriately trained so that they understand the
controls, including how to operate engineering controls, safe work
practices, and PPE use requirements?
o Are controls being used correctly and consistently?
• Conduct regular inspections (and industrial hygiene monitoring, if indicated) to
confirm that engineering controls are operating as designed.
• Evaluate control measures to determine if they are effective or need to be
modified. Involve workers in the evaluation of the controls. If controls are not
effective, identify, select, and implement further control measures that will
provide adequate protection.
• Confirm that work practices, administrative controls, and personal protective
equipment use policies are being followed.
• Conduct routine preventive maintenance of equipment, facilities, and controls to
help prevent incidents due to equipment failure.

Safety and Health Education and Training

Education and training are important tools for informing workers and managers about
workplace hazards and controls so they can work more safely and be more productive.
Another role of education and training, however, is to provide workers and managers
with a greater understanding of the safety and health program itself, so that they can
contribute to its development and implementation.

Education and training provide employers, managers, supervisors, and workers with:

• Knowledge and skills needed to do their work safely and avoid creating hazards
that could place themselves or others at risk.
• Awareness and understanding of workplace hazards and how to identify, report,
and control them.
• Specialized training, when their work involves unique hazards.

Additional training may be needed depending on the roles assigned to employers or

individual managers, supervisors, and workers. For example, employers, managers,
and supervisors may need specific training to ensure that they can fulfill their roles in
providing leadership, direction, and resources for the safety and health program.
Workers assigned specific roles in the program (e.g., incident investigation team
members) may need training to ensure their full participation in those functions.
Effective training and education can be provided outside a formal classroom setting.
Peer-to-peer training, on-the-job training, and worksite demonstrations can be effective
in conveying safety concepts, ensuring understanding of hazards and their controls, and
promoting good work practices.

The following actions ensure an effective safety and health training program:

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Action 1: Provide program awareness training

Managers, supervisors, and workers all need to understand the program's structure,
plans, and procedures. Having this knowledge ensures that everyone can fully
participate in developing, implementing, and improving the program.

• Provide training to all managers, supervisors, workers, and contractor,

subcontractor, and temporary agency workers on:
o Safety and health policies, goals, and procedures
o Functions of the safety and health program
o Whom to contact with questions or concerns about the program (including
contact information)
o How to report hazards, injuries, illnesses, and close calls/near misses
o What to do in an emergency
o The employer's responsibilities under the program
o Workers' rights under the Occupational Safety and Health Act
• Provide information on the safety and health hazards of the workplace and the
controls for those hazards.
• Ensure that training is provided in the language(s) and at a literacy level that all
workers can understand.
• Emphasize that the program can only work when everyone is involved and feels
comfortable discussing concerns; making suggestions; and reporting injuries,
incidents, and hazards.
• Confirm, as part of the training, that all workers have the right to report injuries,
incidents, hazards, and concerns and to fully participate in the program without
fear of retaliation.

Action 2: Train employers, managers, and supervisors on their roles in the

program

Employers, managers, and supervisors are responsible for workers' safety, yet
sometimes have little training on safety-related concepts and techniques. They may
benefit from specific training that allows them to fulfill their leadership roles in the
program.

• Reinforce employers, managers, and supervisors' knowledge of their

responsibilities under the Occupational Safety and Health Act and the workers'
rights guaranteed by the Act.
• Train employers, managers, and supervisors on procedures for responding to
workers' reports of injuries, illnesses, and incidents, including ways to avoid
discouraging reporting.
• Instruct employers, managers, and supervisors on fundamental concepts and
techniques for recognizing hazards and methods of controlling them, including
the hierarchy of controls (see "Hazard Prevention and Control").

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 • Instruct employers, managers, and supervisors on incident investigation
techniques, including root cause analysis.

Action 3: Train workers on their specific roles in the safety and health program

Additional training may be needed to ensure that workers can incorporate any assigned
safety and health responsibilities into their daily routines and activities.

• Instruct workers on how to report injuries, illnesses, incidents, and concerns. If a

computerized reporting system is used, ensure that all employees have the basic
computer skills and computer access sufficient to submit an effective report.
• Instruct workers assigned specific roles within the safety and health program on
how they should carry out those responsibilities, including:
o Hazard recognition and controls
o Participation in incident investigations
o Program evaluation and improvement
• Provide opportunities for workers to ask questions and provide feedback during
and after the training.
• As the program evolves, institute a more formal process for determining the
training needs of workers responsible for developing, implementing, and
maintaining the program.

Action 4: Train workers on hazard identification and controls

Providing workers with an understanding of hazard recognition and control and actively
involving them in the process can help to eliminate hazards before an incident occurs.

• Train workers on techniques for identifying hazards, such as job hazard analysis
(see OSHA Publication 3071).
• Train workers so they understand and can recognize the hazards they may
encounter in their own jobs, as well as more general work-related hazards.
• Instruct workers on concepts and techniques for controlling hazards, including
the hierarchy of controls and its importance.
• Train workers on the proper use of work practice and administrative controls.
• Train workers on when and how to wear required personal protective equipment.
• Provide additional training, as necessary, when a change in facilities, equipment,
processes, materials, or work organization could increase hazards, and
whenever a worker is assigned a new task.

Lesson Summary

• Effective management of worker safety and health programs:

o Reduces the extent and severity of work-related injuries and illnesses
o Improves employee morale and productivity
o Reduces workers' compensation costs
• Organized and systematic methods are used to:

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 o Assign responsibility to managers, supervisors, and employees.
o Regularly inspect for hazards and control the hazards.
o Regularly re-evaluate the effectiveness of existing programs.
o Orient and train all employees to eliminate or avoid hazards.
• Major elements of a safety and health program include the following:
o Management provides the leadership, vision, and resources needed to
implement an effective safety and health program. Management
leadership means that business owners, managers, and supervisors:
▪ Make worker safety and health a core organizational value
▪ Are fully committed to eliminating hazards, protecting workers, and
continuously improving workplace safety and health
▪ Provide sufficient resources to implement and maintain the safety
and health program
▪ Visibly demonstrate and communicate their safety and health
commitment to workers and others
▪ Set an example through their own actions
o All workers are encouraged to participate in the program and feel
comfortable providing input and reporting safety or health concerns. They
should also have access to information they need to participate effectively
in the program.
o To identify and assess hazards, employers and workers should:
▪ Collect and review information about the hazards present or likely
to be present in the workplace
▪ Conduct initial and periodic workplace inspections of the workplace
to identify new or recurring hazards
▪ Investigate injuries, illnesses, incidents, and close calls/near misses
to determine the underlying hazards, their causes, and safety and
health program shortcomings
▪ Group similar incidents and identify trends in injuries, illnesses, and
hazards reported
▪ Consider hazards associated with emergency or nonroutine
situations
▪ Determine the severity and likelihood of incidents that could result
for each hazard identified and use this information to prioritize
corrective actions
o Effective controls protect workers from workplace hazards; help avoid
injuries, illnesses, and incidents; minimize or eliminate safety and health
risks; and help employers provide workers with safe and healthful working
conditions.
o Education and training are important tools for informing workers and
managers about workplace hazards and controls so they can work more
safely and be more productive. Another role of education and training,
however, is to provide workers and managers with a greater
understanding of the safety and health program itself, so that they can
contribute to its development and implementation.

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Lesson 2: OSHA Safety and Health Programs
Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe how and why state programs operate

• Describe the consultation services available from OSHA
• Explain the Voluntary Protection Programs (VPPs)
• Explain the Strategic Partnership Program
• Identify key elements of training and education
• Locate necessary electronic information

State Programs

The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSH Act) encourages states to
develop and operate their own job safety and health plans, which OSHA then approves
and monitors. There are currently 28 state/territory plans: 22 cover both private and
public (state and local government) employment; 6 states/territories—Connecticut,
Illinois, Maine, New Jersey, New York, and the Virgin Islands—have plans that cover
the public sector only, and use federal OSHA regulations for private industry. There are
28 states/territories that use only federal OSHA regulations.

More Information: Full details and a current map of state/territory plans.

States and territories with their own OSHA-approved occupational safety and health
plans must adopt and enforce standards identical to, or at least as effective as, the
federal standards, and provide extensive programs of voluntary compliance and
technical assistance, including consultation services.

Consultation Services

Consultation assistance is available upon request to employers who want help in

establishing and maintaining a safe and healthful workplace. Funded equally by OSHA
and each state, consultation services are provided at no cost to the employer. Each
state, whether it uses the federal plan or its own state plan, operates the consultation
program for that state. Primarily developed for smaller employers with more hazardous
operations, the consultation service is delivered by state governments employing
professional safety and health consultants.

Comprehensive assistance includes a hazard survey of the worksite and appraisal of all
aspects of the employer's existing safety and health management system. In addition,
the service assists employers in developing and implementing an effective safety and
health management system. No penalties or citations issued for hazards identified by
the consultant. The employer's only obligation is to correct all serious hazards identified
by the consultant within the agreed upon correction timeframe. OSHA provides

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consultation assistance to the employer with the assurance that his or her name, firm,
and any information about the workplace will not be reported to OSHA enforcement
staff.

Under the consultation program, certain exemplary employers may request participation
in OSHA's Safety and Health Achievement Recognition Program (SHARP). Eligibility for
participation in SHARP includes, but is not limited to, receiving a full-service,
comprehensive consultation visit, correcting all identified hazards, and developing an
effective safety and health program management system. Employers accepted into
SHARP may receive an exemption from programmed inspections (not complaint or
accident investigation inspections) for a period of two years initially, or up to three years
upon renewal.

Voluntary Protection Programs (VPPs)

Voluntary Protection Programs (VPPs) recognize employers and workers in the private
industry who have implemented effective safety and health management systems and
maintain injury and illness rates below national Bureau of Labor Statistics averages for
their respective industries. To participate, employers must submit an application to
OSHA and undergo a rigorous onsite evaluation by a team of safety and health
professionals.

In VPPs, management, labor, and OSHA work cooperatively and proactively to prevent
fatalities, injuries, and illnesses through a system focused on hazard prevention and
control, worksite analysis, training, effective management, and worker involvement.
VPP participants are exempt from OSHA programmed inspections while they maintain
their VPP status.

Voluntary Protection Program and onsite consultation services, when coupled with an
effective enforcement program, expand worker protection to help meet the goals of the
OSH Act. The three levels of VPP—Star, Merit, and Demonstration—are designed to
recognize outstanding achievements by companies that have developed and
implemented effective safety and health management systems. The VPPs motivate
others to achieve excellent safety and health results in the same outstanding way as
they establish a cooperative relationship between employers, employees, and OSHA.

Case Study – VPP

Major League Baseball's Chicago Cubs have undertaken an extensive renovation

project at the Cubs' historic baseball park, Wrigley Field. Some of the construction
activities in phase one include: structural steel and concrete work throughout the facility,
bleacher expansion, and restoration in left and right field.

Wrigley Field Management and Pepper Construction stated from the onset of the project
that the number one priority was safety. The Voluntary Protection Program was integral

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to the project and achieving the level of safety desired by Wrigley field and Pepper
Construction, the general contractor.

Brandenburg Industrial Service Company was hired by Pepper Construction to demolish

and remove the outfield wall and bleachers. Using an all-union labor from Operating
Engineers Local 150 and 225, as well as one manager, for a total staff of 8,
Brandenburg held daily safety meetings and Pepper's safety manager addressed
potential work hazards, as well as the adjacent contractor's activities, all of which made
for excellent communication for the workers and the overall project. Additionally,
Brandenburg's safety manager conducted weekly safety meetings addressing the
upcoming work activities, as well as several weekly safety audits. As part of
Brandenburg’s VPP best practices, each of their workers completes a Daily "Safety
Task Analysis Card", which is a trifold form that serves as a reminder of the associated
hazards, preventative actions, and PPE requirements. This commitment to safety
resulted in zero injuries or illnesses during the project, which lasted approximately 1400
total man hours

Strategic Partnership Program

OSHA's Strategic Partnership Program, the newest of OSHA's cooperative programs,

helps encourage, assist, and recognize the efforts of partners to eliminate serious
workplace hazards and achieve a high level of worker safety and health. Whereas
OSHA's Consultation Program and VPP entail one-on-one relationships between OSHA
and individual worksites, most strategic partnerships seek to have a broader impact by
building cooperative relationships with groups of employers and employees. These
partnerships are voluntary, cooperative relationships between OSHA, employers,
employee representatives, and others such as trade unions, trade and professional
associations, universities, and government agencies.

Strategic Partnerships

National Electrical Contractors Association Central Ohio Chapter and

International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers Local Unions 638 and 1105 #773

As part of continuing efforts to improve safety and health for electrical workers, the U.S.
Department of Labor's Occupational Safety and Health Administration has renewed a
strategic partnership with the Central Ohio Chapter of the National Electrical
Contractors Association, the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers Local
Union 683 of Columbus, and Union 1105 of Newark.
(https://www.osha.gov/news/newsreleases/region5/12032012-1)

Associated Builders and Contractors, Inc. (ABC) Central Texas

The Texas Chapters of Associated Builders and Contractors (ABC) and its member
companies and the Texas Offices of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
of the United States Department of Labor (OSHA), all mutually recognize the

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importance of ensuring a safe and healthful work environment in the construction
industry.
(https://www.osha.gov/dcsp/partnerships/regional/region6/abc_renewal2017.html)

Training and Education

OSHA's area offices offer a variety of information services, such as compliance

assistance, technical advice, publications, audiovisual aids, and speakers for special
engagements. OSHA's Training Institute in Arlington Heights, IL, provides basic and
advanced courses in safety and health for federal and state compliance officers, state
consultants, federal agency personnel, and private sector employers, employees, and
their representatives.

The OSHA Training Institute has also established OSHA Training Institute Education
Centers to address the increased demand for its courses from the private sector and
from other federal agencies. These centers are nonprofit colleges, universities, and
other organizations that have been selected after a competition for participation in the
program. There is a Federal Education Center in each of the 10 Federal Regions.
OSHA awards grants to nonprofit organizations through its Susan Harwood Training
Grant Program in order to provide safety and health training and education to employers
and workers in the workplace.

Susan Harwood Training Grants

OSHA awards grants to nonprofit organizations on a competitive basis through its

Susan Harwood Training Grant Program. Grants are awarded to provide training and
education programs for employers and workers on the recognition, avoidance, and
prevention of safety and health hazards in their workplaces and to inform workers of
their rights and employers of their responsibilities under the Occupational Safety and
Health (OSH) Act. Solicitation for the Susan Harwood Grant Program is a function of
Congressional budgetary approval and appropriation by the Department of Labor.

OSHA established its discretionary grant program in 1978 entitled New Directions.
Grantees were awarded for up to five years, with grantees increasing its share of
support with the goal to become self-sufficient. Many of the grantee organizations
continue to offer occupational safety and health training to this day. In 1990 the grants
were restructured, due to reductions in funding. In 1997, the program was re-named in
honor of the late Susan Harwood, a former director of the Office of Risk Assessment in
OSHA's Health Standards Directorate, who died in 1996. During her 17-year tenure with
the agency, Harwood helped develop OSHA standards to protect workers exposed to
bloodborne pathogens, cotton dust, benzene, formaldehyde, asbestos, and lead in
construction.

The types of grants solicited each year vary. Grants solicited in the past include
Capacity Building grants, Targeted Topic, and Training Materials Development:

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 • Capacity building grants focus on developing and/or expanding the capacity of an
organization to provide safety and health training, education and related
assistance to the targeted audiences. The organization must provide financial
plans to continue capacity beyond the grant period. Two types of capacity
building grants have been awarded: developmental and pilot.
o Developmental grants support and assist organizations who through their
past activities have established a capability to provide occupational safety
and health training, education, or related assistance, but where the
organization wants to expand their training capacity into a new safety
and/or health topic area.
o Pilot grants are intended to assist organizations able to demonstrate a
potential for meeting the objectives of this program, but that need to
assess capabilities, needs and priorities; and formulate objectives before
moving forward into developing a full-scale program.
• Target topic grants focus on training of workers and/or multiple employers on
occupational safety and health hazards associated with one of the OSHA
selected training topics.
• Training materials development grantees are expected to develop, evaluate, and
validate classroom quality training materials on one of the OSHA selected
training topics.

OSHA selected topics vary from year to year and are selected based on fatal statistics,
national emphasis programs, and pending regulations. Topics are separated into
general industry, construction, and other. Other topics may include safety and health
issues from other industries (maritime, oil and gas) or emerging topics, such as
nanotechnology and green jobs.

Training materials produced through the Susan Harwood Grant Program can be found
here.

Electronic Information

OSHA has a variety of materials and tools available on its website. These include e-
Tools, Expert Advisors, Electronic Compliance Assistance Tools (e-CATs), technical
links, regulations, directives, publications, videos, and other information for employers
and employees. OSHA's software programs and compliance assistance tools walk you
through challenging safety and health issues and common problems to find the best
solutions for your workplace.

Lesson Summary

• The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSH Act) encourages states to
develop and operate their own job safety and health plans, which OSHA then
approves and monitors. There are currently 28 state/territory plans: 22 cover both
private and public (state and local government) employment; 6
states/territories—Connecticut, Illinois, Maine, New Jersey, New York, and the

30 Hour Construction Industry Outreach — Study Guide 373

 Virgin Islands—have plans that cover the public sector only, and use federal
OSHA regulations for private industry. There are 28 states/territories that use
only federal OSHA regulations.
• Consultation assistance is available upon request to employers who want help in
establishing and maintaining a safe and healthful workplace. Funded equally by
OSHA and each state, consultation services are provided at no cost to the
employer.
• Voluntary Protection Programs (VPPs) recognize employers and workers in the
private industry who have implemented effective safety and health management
systems and maintain injury and illness rates below national Bureau of Labor
Statistics averages for their respective industries. To participate, employers must
submit an application to OSHA and undergo a rigorous onsite evaluation by a
team of safety and health professionals.
• OSHA's Strategic Partnership Program, the newest of OSHA's cooperative
programs, helps encourage, assist, and recognize the efforts of partners to
eliminate serious workplace hazards and achieve a high level of worker safety
and health.
• OSHA's area offices offer a variety of information services, such as compliance
assistance, technical advice, publications, audiovisual aids, and speakers for
special engagements. OSHA's Training Institute in Arlington Heights, IL, provides
basic and advanced courses in safety and health for federal and state
compliance officers, state consultants, federal agency personnel, and private
sector employers, employees, and their representatives.

Module 16: Scaffolds

Module Description
This module provides a general overview of the safety measures that are required when
working on a scaffold. The module begins with an introduction into the various types of
scaffolds and goes on to outline the OSHA safety requirements and safety measures
that can be taken to ensure that employees working on scaffolds are safe.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

• Describe the various classifications of scaffolds

• Discuss the basic OSHA safety requirements
• Describe the measures that can be taken to ensure safe working conditions on a
scaffold

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Lesson 1: Introduction to Scaffolds
Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Explain what a scaffold is and how it works

• Describe the types of scaffolds

An estimated 2.3 million construction workers, or 65 percent of the construction

industry, work on scaffolds. Protecting these workers from scaffold-related accidents
may prevent some of the 4,500 injuries and over 60 deaths every year, at a savings for
American employers of $90 million in workdays not lost.

What is a Scaffold?

A scaffold is a term that describes any sort of temporary elevated platform that is used
to support workers, materials, or both. They are commonly used in the construction field
(usually in the construction of buildings); however, they are also used in other fields
such as ship construction and by cleaning services (to clean the outer windows of high
rises).

Workers who use scaffolds can be divided into three groups:

Erectors and dismantlers: Whose principal activity involves assembling and

disassembling scaffolding before other work can begin, and after that work, or a portion
of it, has been completed.

Scaffold users: Workers whose work requires them to be supported by scaffolding to

access the area of a structure where that work is performed.

Scaffold designers: workers who are qualified to design scaffolds.

Types of Scaffolds

There are two basic types of scaffolds:

• Supported scaffolds, which consist of one or more platforms supported by rigid,

load-bearing members, such as poles, legs, frames, outriggers, etc.
• Suspended scaffolds, which are one or more platforms suspended by ropes or
other non-rigid, overhead support

Other types of equipment, principally scissor lifts and aerial lifts, can also be regarded
as supported scaffolds.

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Suspended Scaffolds

These are types of scaffolds that are suspended from a fixed overhead position (often
placed at the top of a building, but it can be any fixed elevated structure). They are
suspended by ropes or other non-rigid means. The various types of suspended
scaffolds are discussed next.

Two-Point (Swing Stage)

These are one of the most common types of suspended scaffolds. You see them
frequently on construction sites as well as on skyscrapers and other high-rises where
they are used by window washers and exterior building workers. The scaffold is hung
from the top of a building by two ropes that are secured at either end of the platform,
usually with stirrups to provide for vertical movement. The safe use of a suspended
scaffold begins with secure anchorage. The weight of the scaffold and its occupants
must be supported by both the structure to which it is attached and by each of the
scaffold components that make up the anchorage system.

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Single-Point Adjustable (Spider Scaffolds)

This scaffold is smaller than the two-point, as it usually accommodates only one person
at a time. It is secured to the top of the building using one rope from a fixed overhead
support. As with the two-point, it has a mechanism to allow for vertical movement (up
and down). It is often used by window washers to clean the outside of a skyscraper and
is also known a boatswain's chair.

Suspended Scaffold Platform

These consist of at least one platform (they may be more, but they rarely exceed a
single platform) that is supported by more than two ropes (usually four ropes are used,
one secured at each corner of the platform) from an overhead structure and fitted with a
mechanism to allow for vertical movement. They are commonly used as chimney hoists
in the cleaning and repair of chimney and/or other ventilation shafts.

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Interior Hung

This scaffold consists of two parallel, horizontal beams upon which a board or plank is
placed. It is then suspended by ropes (sometimes up to four, one at each corner of the
platform) from a roof or ceiling structures. Roof structures must be inspected before
scaffolds are erected to ensure they can support the load. Suspension ropes or cables
must be connected to overhead supports by shackles, clips, thimbles, or equivalent
means. This type of scaffold is primarily used indoors because it must be hung from roof
structures.

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Needle Beam

In this case, the platform (usually a simple wooden board) is supported by two needle
beams hung from ropes. Usually, one end of the platform is supported on the edge of a
permanent structure, to which the scaffold support beams must be installed.

Multi-Level

A multi-level scaffold is a series of platforms that are arranged vertically, one on top of
the other. Visually, it looks like two or more two-point scaffolds (or multi-point scaffolds)
on top of one another. The platforms are placed within the same framework, secured by
a single stirrup from the same fixed overhead.

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Float (Ship)

The float (or ship) scaffold consists of a platform supported by two bearers and is hung
from a fixed overhead support with ropes.

Supported Scaffolds

These are scaffolds that consist of one or more platforms elevated on poles and beams,
which are placed upon a solid ground. The various types of supported scaffolds are
discussed next.

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Frame or Fabricated

This is one of the most common types of scaffolds used. They are easy to build,
economical, and practical. They range in size from small set-ups used for one- or two-
story residential houses to large set-ups used on commercial projects; however, it is
possible to make them stand several stories high if the need arises. They consist of a
single or multiple platforms elevated on tubes.

Mobile

Mobile scaffolds are visually similar to frame scaffolds, but with one main difference:
they are mounted on wheels or casters. They are commonly used by painters,

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plasterers, electricians, plumbers, and others who need to change position frequently,
hence the wheels.

Pump Jack Scaffold

This scaffold consists of a platform that is elevated on a pair of vertical poles and fitted
with moveable brackets. The brackets allow the platform to be moved up and down
using a jack (similar to those used to change a car tire). They are attractive because of
their ability to be raised and lowered somewhat quickly and easily and because they are
relatively inexpensive.

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Ladder Jack

This is a very simple scaffold. In this case, the platform is placed in brackets that are
attached to a pair of ladders. They are mostly used for light applications. They are
popular mostly due to their practicality, ease, and economy.

Tube and Coupler

In this case, tubes (which look like pipes) are placed together in a lattice-like framework
using couplers (joints) to hold them together. The lattice-like pattern into which they are
arranged adds balance and strength to the framework. Platforms can be placed at the
top of the framework and at multiple levels. Tube and coupler scaffolds are often used
to carry heavy weights, and they can be built to a height of multiple stories while being
able to be erected to conform to the shape of a building. A prime advantage lies in that
they can be built in several directions and combinations that cater to any structure.

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Poles

This type of scaffold is also known as Wood Pole, because every part of the scaffold,
from the platform on down, is built using wooden poles and boards. There are two
types: single pole, which are supported on one side (the interior side) by a fixed
structure, such as a building; and two-pole, which are supported by two sets of wooden
poles on either side of the platform. They are not commonly used due to the fact that
they must be built from scratch, cannot be reused, and are difficult to erect and use in a
safe and compliant manner.

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Specialty

There are a large number of scaffolds that are not widely used but rather are employed
only in specific jobs. Some of the more common ones include the following:

• Plasterers’, Decorators’, and Large-Area Scaffolds

• Bricklayers’ Square Scaffolds
• Horse Scaffolds
• Form Scaffolds and Carpenters’ Bracket Scaffolds
• Roof Bracket Scaffolds
• Outrigger Scaffolds
• Window Jack Scaffolds
• Crawling Boards (Chicken Ladders)
• Step, Platform, and Trestle Ladder Scaffolds

Lesson Summary

A scaffold refers to a temporary, elevated platform that is used to support workers

and/or materials. There are several types of scaffolds:

1. Suspended scaffolds: the type that are suspended by a wire rope from a fixed
overhead position (usually placed at the top of a building). They can be broken
down further into the subcategories that include: Two-point (or swing stage)
scaffolds; single-point adjustable (spider) scaffolds; catenary (using horizontal
and parallel wire ropes); multi-point adjustable; interior-hung; float (ship); and
more.
5. Supported scaffolds: the type that consist of one or more platforms elevated on
poles and beams, which are placed upon a solid ground. They can be broken

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 down into the following subcategories: Frame or fabricated; mobile; pump jack;
and more.
6. Specialty scaffolds: includes decorators', plasterers', and large-area scaffolds,
among others.

Lesson 2: Overview of OSHA Directives for the Construction of

Scaffolds
Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe how suspension scaffolds may be safely constructed

• Describe how supported scaffolds may be safely constructed

Suspension Scaffolds

The regulations presented for the two-point (swing stage) scaffold are applicable to all
other types of suspension scaffolds, unless stated otherwise.

Two-Point (Swing Stage) Anchorage

The anchorage is a key component contributing to the safety of a suspension scaffold.

Because a suspension scaffold is, in effect, hanging from a structure, its weight must be
sufficiently supported and balanced to ensure that it doesn’t plummet to the ground. The
anchorage that the tieback is secured to must be capable of withstanding four times the
intended load of the scaffold. The tiebacks should therefore not be secured to objects
such as vents or piping but rather to structural members (foundation beams, for
example).

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Support: Suspension scaffolds are designed for vertical motion (that is, they move up
and down); as such, the scaffold must be capable of supporting its own weight as well
as that of the personnel and materials on it both while it is stationary and while it is in
motion. The scaffold and its anchorage must be capable of handling up to four times the
maximum intended load, and the support ropes must be capable of handling up to six
times the intended maximum weight of the scaffold and its load. Scaffold components
that have been manufactured by different manufacturers should not be mixed, unless
specified. In addition, no modifications should be made to the scaffold components for
any reason without approval from the manufacturer.

Access: Though it is possible for suspension scaffolds to be accessed using ladders, it

is a preferred practice to access the scaffold from the roof. Safe access methods are
discussed in more detail in the next lesson.

Fall Protection: Personnel working from suspension scaffolds may be a great distance
above the ground; as such, a common accident is falls by workers from elevated
positions. Both fall arrest systems and guardrails should be provided on any scaffold
that is expected to be elevated to more than ten feet above the ground. This will be
discussed in more detail in the next lesson.

Platform: The platform is the part of the scaffold where the personnel work and the
materials are placed. Each scaffold platform must be at least 18 inches wide and should
be able to support its own weight in addition to four times the maximum allowed weight.
For a two-point scaffold. The platform should be no more than 36 inches wide unless
designed by a qualified person to prevent unstable conditions. The platform must be
checked regularly to ensure that it meets the applicable safety standards.

Stability: The scaffold must be designed in such a manner that it does not sway while it
is being raised or lowered. In addition to the engineering methods that are employed to
minimize horizontal movement of the scaffold, the employees working on the scaffold
must exercise caution at all times.

Electrical Hazards: Due to the fact that scaffolds are typically constructed primarily of
metal, it is important that they remain clear of any electrical power sources, as this
would increase the risk of electrocution. A minimum clearance to maintain from all
electrical lines up to 50 kV is 10 feet. Unless the line is insulated and carrying less than
300 volts, in which case the minimum clearance to maintain is 3 feet. Lines carrying
more than 50 kV require greater clearance distances as determined by OSHA
1926.451(f)(6).

Personnel Training: One of the most important OSHA requirements relating to

scaffolds is proper training by competent persons of the scaffold builders and those who
are expected to work on the scaffold.

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Single-Point Adjustable

On a single-point adjustable scaffold, the support rope (the rope that is between the
scaffold and the suspension device) must be maintained in a vertical position unless all
of the following conditions are met:

• The rigging has been designed by a qualified person.

• The scaffold is accessible to rescuers.
• The supporting rope is protected to ensure that it will not chafe at any point
where a change in direction occurs.
• The scaffold is positioned so that swinging cannot bring the scaffold into contact
with another surface.

Catenary

Catenary scaffolds should not have more than two interconnected platforms at any one
time. Furthermore, because catenary scaffolds do not usually have guardrails, all
employees on a scaffold must be protected with personal fall arrest systems if operated
at a height in excess of ten feet.

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Multi-Point Adjustable

On a multi-point adjustable scaffold, if bridges are not used, passage from one platform
to another is only allowed when the platforms abut and are at the same height. These
scaffolds should be suspended from metal outriggers, brackets, wire rope slings, hooks,
or other means that meet the equivalent criteria for strength and durability. Furthermore,
multiple multi-point scaffolds must not be bridged together unless the design of the
scaffolds allows them to, the bridge connections are articulated, and the hoists are
properly sized.

Interior Hung

Because interior hung scaffolds can only be suspended from the roof structure or other
structural members, these structures must be inspected to ensure that they possess
sufficient strength.

Needle Beam

Ropes or hangers must be used to support one end of a needle beam scaffold. The
other end may be supported by ropes, hangers, or a permanent structural member.
Needle beams need to be properly secured to ensure that they do not roll or are
displaced. In addition, the platform needs to be securely attached to the needle beams
with bolts or equivalent means.

Float (Ship)

Platforms for a float or ship scaffold must be secured to a minimum of two bearers (such
as wooden beams) that extend to at least six inches beyond the platform on each side.

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Rope connections must be secure so that the platform does not shift or slip. Each
employee on a float scaffold must be protected by a personal fall arrest system if
working at an elevation above ten feet.

Supported Scaffolds

The regulations presented for the frame or fabricated scaffold are applicable to all other
types of supported scaffolds, unless stated otherwise.

Fabricated Frame or Tubular Welded Frame

Base Section: Supported scaffolds must be set on base plates or mud sills to ensure
the stability of the structure. The footings of the scaffold must be capable of
withstanding the load weight that is set upon it without movement or displacement.
Frames and panels must be braced by cross, horizontal, or diagonal braces, or a
combination of these. These frames and panels secure vertical members together
laterally. The cross braces should be of the proper length to ensure that vertical
members are square and aligned. With this system properly used, the completed
scaffold is always plumb, level, and square. All brace connections should also be
secured.

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Support Structure: Two important factors in ensuring that the scaffold is stable and is
not prone to swaying are its strength and the structural integrity of its supports. The
supports of the scaffold must be capable of withstanding up to four times their intended
maximum weight load as well as the weight of the structure.

Access: Personnel are subject to accidents while they are climbing on or off a scaffold.
The mode of accessing the scaffold must therefore be designed to ensure that
employees are not needlessly being endangered, either while accessing the scaffold or
by putting undue pressure on the structure. Employees are prohibited from climbing the
cross-braces as a means of accessing the scaffold. This is extremely dangerous and
may undermine the structural integrity of the structure.

Fall Protection: Falls are a common hazard to the employees on scaffolds. The
installation of proper fall protection minimizes the risk of such an occurrence. This may
include the installation of guardrails on the platform or the use of personal fall arrest
systems. Employees on scaffold platforms that are higher than 10 feet above the next
level must be adequately protected from falling through the use of proper protective
systems and practices.

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Platform: The platform is the work area of the scaffold. It supports both the employees
and the equipment and materials that they use. It is essential that the platform conform
to safety measures to ensure that the employees are not endangered in the course of
their work. The platform should be fully planked, and the gaps between the planks
should not exceed 1 inch. The platform should not be more than 14 inches from the
structure being worked on unless guardrail systems are erected along the front edge
and/or personal fall arrest systems are in use for all exposed employees. The maximum
distance from the structure for plastering and lathing operations is 18 inches.

Keeping Upright: Scaffolds that exceed a height four times their minimum base
dimension must be restrained from tipping with ties, braces, guys, or equivalent means.
Unless they have been designed for the specific purpose, scaffolds should not be
moved horizontally while employees are on them.

Electrical Hazards: As with suspension scaffolds, the height of supported scaffolds

often means that they may be built within close proximity of power lines. In addition, the
fact that scaffolds are often built using metal parts makes the risk of electrocution
particularly high. As a result, specific measures must be taken to minimize the risk to
employees.

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Personnel Training: One of the most important OSHA requirements is the proper
training, by qualified experts, of both the scaffold builders and those that are expected
to work on the scaffold.

Mobile

While in motion, mobile scaffolds must be stabilized to prevent tipping over. When the
scaffold is being moved manually, the force must be applied to an area that is as close
to the base as possible and no more than five feet above the ground. If the scaffold is
moved using a powered system, the system must be designed for that purpose.

Scaffolds should not be moved horizontally while employees are on them, unless all of
the following conditions are met:

• The surface on which the scaffold is being moved is within 3 degrees of level and
free of pits, holes, and obstructions.
• The height to base-width ratio of the scaffold is two to one or less, unless the
scaffold is designed and constructed to meet or exceed nationally recognized
stability test requirements.
• Required outrigger frames are installed on both sides of the scaffold.
• When power systems are used, the force is applied directly to the wheels and
generates a speed less than 1 foot per second.
• No employee is present on any part of the scaffold that extends outward beyond
the wheels, casters, or other supports.

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Pump Jack

The bracket and braces of the pump jack must be made from metal plates and angles to
ensure strength. Each bracket must be fitted with two positive gripping mechanisms to
prevent slippage. Poles must be secured to the structure by rigid triangular bracing at
the bottom, top, and other points as needed.

If the pump jack has to pass bracing that is already installed, an additional brace must
be installed approximately four feet above the brace to be passed and must be left in
place until the pump jack has been moved and the original brace reinstalled. If wood is
used for poles, it must be straight-grained and free of shakes, dead knots, and other
defects.

Ladder Jack

Support: Ladders that are used to support ladder jack scaffolds must be placed,
fastened, or otherwise equipped with devices in such a manner so as to prevent the
scaffold from slipping. They should also be appropriately fastened to ensure overall
stability.

Platforms: The maximum height at which a platform can be placed is 20 feet.

Lesson Summary

• There are safety requirements applicable to all scaffolds and additional standards
applicable to specific types of scaffolds. Unless otherwise stated, the safety
regulations for the two-point scaffold apply to all other types of suspension

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 scaffolds. With suspended scaffolding, a primary factor to consider in terms of
safety is the anchorage of the scaffold from the building (or other structure).
• Additional requirements focus on how the scaffold is supported, how it can be
accessed (preferably from the roof, rather than a ladder); fall protections, such as
arrest systems and guardrails, which are required for any scaffold higher than ten
feet in the air; and the platform, which must be at least 18" wide and able to
support at least its own weight plus four times the maximum allowed weight.
Many of these (not suspension-specific) requirements apply to supported
scaffolds, as well.
• Further safety requirements (which apply to both supported and suspended
scaffolds) address stability (so the scaffold does not sway during its raising or
lowering); control of electrical hazards (meeting the minimum 10-foot clearance
from all electrical lines up to 50 kV, and other controls); and of vital importance to
OSHA and worker safety, proper training to those building and working on
scaffolds.

Lesson 3: Scaffold Safety Measures

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Explain how to minimize the risks associated with scaffolds

• Describe how and why guardrails should be installed on scaffolds
• Describe how and why a personal fall arrest system should be used
• Describe the personnel requirements for scaffolding safety

Introduction

One out of every three deaths in construction results from a fatal fall. This high fatality
rate indicates the importance of ensuring that scaffold workers are well protected
against accidental falls. Generally, precautions must be taken for employees expected
to work at heights above six feet. Fall protection is not required (but may be an excellent
practice) for employees working on scaffolding at a height of ten feet or less.

There is often very little space on a scaffold for a person to maneuver, especially when
space is also taken up by the various materials that the employee needs to complete his
or her job. This lack of space can be hazardous to anyone not taking the appropriate
safety precautions.

All employees must be trained by a qualified person to recognize the hazards

associated with the type of scaffold being used and how to control or minimize those
hazards. The training must cover fall hazards, falling object hazards, electrical
hazards, the proper use of the scaffold, and the proper handling of materials.

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How Do You Minimize the Risks?

There are various strategies employers can use to minimize the risks to their employees
of working on scaffolds.

Uniformity

• Ensure that the scaffold has been erected in accordance with the instructions of
the manufacturer.
• Do not alter or modify any of the components of the scaffold. If you are faced with
a problem, contact the manufacturer.
• If you have scaffolding components from two or more manufacturers, do not
under any circumstances mix the components.
• Do not use incompatible metals for the components of the scaffold.

Guardrails

All open and exposed sides of the scaffold at levels above ten feet should be fitted with
guardrails to prevent falls or all exposed employees should be provided with proper fall
arrest systems. The guardrails should consist of at least a top-rail, a mid-rail, and when
necessary, a toe-board.

Prohibit Climbing

Prohibit climbing on the cross-braces of the scaffold because it is extremely dangerous

and against OSHA regulations to use the cross-braces as a means of accessing the
scaffold. Climbing the cross-brace can destabilize the scaffold and cause it to tip over.
In addition, employees climbing up or down will not be protected by a personal fall
arrest system and would be at an increased risk of falling.

Provide safe ways to access the scaffold

Provide the employees with personal fall arrest systems when appropriate (this will be
discussed in more detail later in the lesson).

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Guardrails

If an employee is expected to work on scaffolding at heights that exceed ten feet, the
employer must ensure that the scaffold is fitted with guardrails or that proper personal
fall arrest systems are in use. If using guardrails, they should be installed along all open
sides and ends before releasing the scaffold for use by employees, other than the
erection and dismantling crews. However, guardrails are not required on the front end in
the following instances:

• When the front end of all platforms are less than 14 inches from the face of the
work
• When outrigger scaffolds are 3 inches or less from the front edge
• When employees are plastering and lathing 18 inches or less from the front edge

The following provisions must be met when installing guardrails.

Top- and Mid-Rails

The top-rail (the topmost part of the guardrail) must be between 39 and 45 inches above
the platform or walking level of the scaffold.

A mid-rail is the portion of the guardrail between the top-rail and the work platform. The
mid-rail must be halfway between the top-rail and the surface of the platform. In case
other structural panels must be installed (such as additional mid-rails), they should be
installed so as not to leave openings that are wider than 19 inches.

Toe-boards or mesh screening may also be installed, especially if there is any concern
of accidentally falling objects striking workers below.

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Strength of Guardrails

Guardrails must be capable of withstanding up to 200 pounds of force applied to the

top-rail at any point and from any direction. Mid-rails must be capable of withstanding up
to 150 pounds of force applied at any point and from any direction.

Smoothness

The guardrails must not have any jagged or protruding surfaces that could cause
punctures (either in clothing or in skin). In addition, the top-rail and mid-rails must be
constructed in such a manner so as not to overhang the scaffold, thereby causing a
projection hazard.

Personal Fall Arrest Systems

Personal fall arrest systems are one of the options that can be used to minimize the
risks of injuries related to falls from an elevation. They should be used in the absence
of, or instead of, a guardrail system if the employee is expected to work at heights
exceeding ten feet. The following are some of the types and components of a personal
fall arrest system.

Body Harness

Full body harnesses are designed to minimize the stress on the body that is induced by
a fall. Employees must be trained by a competent person in fall protection systems prior
to using a full body harness. Harnesses should be inspected prior to each use for
mildew, wear, damage, and other deterioration. Defective harnesses should be
removed from service.

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Note: Due to high incidences of internal injuries suffered during falls, OSHA has
concluded that body belts used for fall protection present a danger to workers and are
no longer allowed.

Lanyards/Vertical Lifelines

Vertical lifelines consist of a line made of a strong material that is attached to an

appropriate anchorage at one end and attached to the full body harness at the other
end. Advances in synthetic materials have led to the creation of shock-absorbing
lanyards with increased strength.

Self-Retracting Lifelines (SRLs)

SRLs are commonly used as an attractive alternative to fixed-length lanyards. The line
is encased in a protective housing that extends and retracts automatically, which
increases mobility and may reduce the risk of tripping. SRLs can be anchored to an
appropriate anchorage point above an employee's head for increased safety and
mobility. These devices are also commonly called "yo-yos."

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Horizontal Lifelines

Horizontal lifelines may be practical in areas where the possible anchorage points are
otherwise limited or difficult to access. They are easy to transport and relatively quick to
set up. The idea is pretty simple: Two anchorage points are connected to both ends of
an extended cable that is run between them.

PFAS Use Requirements

The following are requirements for using a personal fall arrest system:

• When stopping a fall, personal fall arrest systems should limit the maximum
arresting force to no more than 900 pounds.
• The line should be rigged to ensure that a worker does not freefall for more than
6 feet and does not come into contact with any surface.
• The fall arrest system must have sufficient strength to withstand twice the
potential impact energy of a worker freefalling for six feet.
• Any systems that have been involved in a fall impact (that is, have been involved
in arresting a falling worker) should be removed immediately and not used again
until they have been inspected by a competent person to ensure that they are
undamaged.
• Workers who have been involved in a fall must be assisted immediately, or at
least be in a position to rescue themselves—otherwise suspension trauma or
other harm may result. This is a condition where pooling of the blood in the
extremities may cause loss of consciousness or even death. To avoid this, when
suspended, the worker must limit restriction points and move their arms and legs
to maintain circulation. If the worker is unconscious when rescued, proper
treatment and medical attention should be provided immediately.

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 • Ensure that regular checks are conducted on the systems for wear and tear and
that any defective items are immediately replaced.
• Do not, under any circumstances, attach a fall arrest system to guardrails. They
are not designed for that purpose and are unlikely to withstand a fall impact.

Case Studies

There are numerous cases of severe injuries and death occurring when personnel
working on scaffolds did not take the necessary safety measures or were not equipped
properly. Here are some examples:

• An employee was taking measurements from a scaffold not fitted with guardrails.
He tripped and fell 14 feet to the ground. He died instantly.
• A worker was working on a snow- and ice-covered scaffold with no guardrails or
fall arrest system. He slipped and fell approximately 20 feet. He died instantly.
• An employee was working on a scaffold during stormy weather. It is suspected
he lost balance due to a strong gust of wind. He was not wearing a personal fall
arrest system and fell 15 feet to his death.

Personnel Requirements for Scaffolding Safety

When is a competent person required for scaffolding?

The OSHA standard pertaining to scaffolding requires a competent person to perform

the following duties:

• Select and direct employees who erect, dismantle, move, or alter scaffolds
• Determine if it is safe for employees to work on or from a scaffold during storms
or high winds and to ensure that a personal fall arrest system or wind screens
protect these employees
• Train employees involved in erecting, disassembling, moving, operating,
repairing, maintaining, or inspecting scaffolds to recognize associated work
hazards
• Inspect scaffolds and scaffold components for visible defects before each work
shift and after any occurrence which could affect the structural integrity and to
authorize prompt corrective actions
• Determine the feasibility and safety of providing fall protection and access for
scaffold erectors and dismantlers

When is a qualified person required for scaffolding?

A qualified person must perform the following duties:

• Design scaffolds and load them in accordance with that design

• Train employees working on the scaffolds to recognize the associated hazards
and understand procedures to control or minimize those hazards

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 • Design the rigging for single-point adjustable suspension scaffolds
• Design platforms on two-point adjustable suspension types that are less than 36
inches wide to prevent instability
• Make swaged attachments or spliced eyes on wire suspension ropes
• Design scaffold components construction in accordance with the design

When is an engineer required for scaffolding?

The OSHA standard requires a registered professional engineer to perform the following
duties:

• Design the direct connections of masons’ multi-point adjustable suspension

scaffolds
• Design scaffolds that are to be moved when employees are on them
• Design pole scaffolds over 60 feet in height
• Design tube and coupler scaffolds over 125 feet in height
• Design fabricated frame scaffolds over 125 feet in height above their base plates
• Design brackets on fabricated frame scaffolds used to support cantilevered loads
in addition to workers
• Design outrigger scaffolds and scaffold components

Lesson Summary

• A scaffold must not just be anchored properly and be strong and stable; the
workers themselves must be trained in how to safely use and maneuver
(themselves and their equipment) in the often small space.
• Employers can minimize the risk to employees by making sure all scaffolding
construction, materials, and other elements are compatible. Scaffolds must
contain safe, well-constructed guardrails that consist of three rails: top, mid, and,
when necessary, a toe board or employees must be provided with appropriate
personal fall arrest systems; guardrails must be sufficiently strong and smooth
according to OSHA guidelines.
• If an employee is expected to work on scaffolding at heights that exceed ten feet,
the employer must ensure that the scaffold is fitted with guardrails or that proper
personal fall arrest systems are in use. If using guardrails, they should be
installed along all open sides and ends before releasing the scaffold for use by
employees, other than the erection and dismantling crews.
• Employers must also prohibit climbing on a scaffold's cross braces, and if there
are no guardrails, provide personal fall arrest systems for workers. These
systems may include body harnesses, vertical lifelines, self-retracting lifelines
and horizontal lifelines, and must meet other OSHA requirements.
• Personal fall arrest systems are one of the options that can be used to minimize
the risks of injuries related to falls from an elevation. They should be used in the
absence of, or instead of, a guardrail system if the employee is expected to work
at heights exceeding ten feet.

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Module 17: Tools - Hand and Power
Module Description
This module gives you a basic understanding about OSHA's role in the prevention and
elimination of work-related illnesses and injuries. Hand and power tools are a part of our
everyday lives and help us to perform tasks that otherwise would be difficult or
impossible. However, these simple tools can be hazardous and have the potential for
causing severe injuries when used or maintained improperly. Special attention to hand
and power tool safety is necessary to reduce or eliminate these hazards.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

• Discuss OSHA standards and rules associated with hand and power tools
• Explore guarding techniques or principles that apply to hand and power tools
• Identify the precautions that are essential for safe use of hand and power tools

Lesson 1: Safe Use of Hand and Power Tools

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe the general requirements for safely using hand and power tools
• Describe the common hazards associated with hand and power tools
• Describe the different kinds of switches and know which is appropriate

Introduction

Hand and power tools help us perform tasks that otherwise would be difficult or
impossible. These tasks range from hanging a picture on your living room wall to cutting
through slabs of concrete at a construction site. One thing that all tools—from hammers
and handheld drills to hydraulic jacks and walk-behind saws—have in common is that
they present hazards. Using them improperly or failing to properly maintain them can
have dangerous consequences, both for you and for those around you.

Some common hazards employees might encounter when using hand and power tools
include falling, flying, abrasive, and splashing objects, as well as harmful dusts, fumes,
mists, vapors, or gases. Employees who might encounter these hazards must be
provided with the proper personal protective equipment (PPE) to keep them safe.

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All employees should receive training on the proper use of any tools they will be using.
This training should cover both how to properly use the tools and what safety
precautions should be taken while using them.

General Requirements

The following are some basic tool safety rules that all employees should follow:

• Inspect tools before use, perform maintenance regularly, and keep all tools in
good working order
• Use the right tool for the job. It should:
o Fit the workspace available
o Reduce the force you need to apply
o Be ergonomic and fit comfortably in your hand
o Be used in a comfortable work position
• Only use a tool for the task it was designed to perform
• Operate tools according to manufacturers’ instructions
• Use the correct guards when necessary and ensure tools are safeguarded when
not in use
• Wear/use the correct PPE when necessary
• Keep cutting tools sharp
• Keep the floor and other worksurfaces free of debris or other tripping hazards

If you observe any problems with tools, either during your inspection of the tool or while
using it, bring it to the attention of the proper individual(s) immediately.

Working with Tools at Height

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), more than 50,000 occupational
injuries occur each year as a result of falling objects—frequently, falling tools. As a
result, working with tools at height requires additional precautions.

Tool tethering refers to the practice of securing a tool to a worker or another anchor
point in order to prevent it from falling and potentially injuring someone or causing
damage below. Anyone working four feet or higher above the ground or above other
coworkers should use tethered tools. Tools should also be tethered if they could
damage other equipment or materials should they fall.

If employees will be working with tools at height, employers must:

• Secure tools and other materials to prevent them from falling

• Erect barricades where necessary around hazard areas and post warning signs
• Use toe boards and guardrails to prevent tools from falling from scaffolding
• Use nets and canopies to catch or deflect falling objects

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Additionally, when working at height, employees must NOT:

• Prop or stand tools against the structure

• Throw tools or objects up or down to other workers

Tool tethers are the lanyards that connect tools to anchor points. If a tool does not
already have a place to connect the tether, then a tool attachment should be installed in
the field before the tool is used at height. The tool attachment should be positioned on
the tool so that it does not interfere with its proper ergonomic use. In other words,
ensure the tool functions the same as if the attachment was not there.

Anchor attachments are designed to be field installed on structures, scaffolding,

equipment, and even workers. They provide anchor points for the tool tethers.
Containers and bags may also be used to safely transport tools to and from heights.

Keep tool tethers as short as possible without impeding your work. This helps prevent
tangling or catching the tether on something. Retractable tethers are often a good
option. When a tool tether is anchored to a worker’s body, try to limit the tool’s weight to
six pounds. Dropping a heavy tool and having it catch on the tether could throw off your
balance and lead to a fall.

Hand Tools

Hand tools are powered manually rather than with electricity or liquid fuel. Examples
include hammers, axes, handsaws, wrenches, and screwdrivers. The most significant
hazards commonly encountered while using hand tools result from misuse and improper
maintenance. For instance:

• If a chisel is used as a screwdriver, the tip of the chisel may break and fly off,
hitting the user or another employee.
• If the wooden handle on an axe or hammer is loose, splintered, or cracked, the
head of the tool may fly off, hitting the user or another employee.
• If the jaws of a wrench are sprung, the wrench might slip.
• If impact tools like chisels, wedges, or drift pins have mushroomed heads, the
heads might shatter on impact, sending sharp fragments flying toward the user or
another employee.

The employer is responsible for the safe condition of tools and equipment used by
employees. Employers shall not issue or permit the use of unsafe hand tools and shall
ensure employees have the proper training to use the necessary tools.

When using sharp tools like saws, knives, and scissors, employees should direct the
tools away from walkways, other workstations, and anywhere other employees might be
working. Dull tools cause more injuries than sharp ones, so blades should be kept
sharp. Cracked or otherwise damaged blades must be removed from use.

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Iron and steel hand tools may produce sparks that can be an ignition source when near
flammable substances. If work will be conducted near flammable gasses, highly volatile
liquids, or explosive materials, employees should use spark-resistant tools, which are
made of non-ferrous materials that will not spark when struck.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Personal protective equipment or PPE refers to clothing and other equipment worn by
workers to protect them from hazards. OSHA requires that PPE:

• Is of safe design and construction

• Is maintained in a clean and reliable fashion
• Is selected to account for workers’ fit and comfort (this encourages use)
• Meets standards developed by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

Employers are responsible for:

• Performing a Job Hazard Analysis (JHA) of the workplace to identify and control
physical and health hazards
o During the JHA, the employer should consider possible dangers arising
from impact, penetration, compression, heat or cold, harmful dust,
radiation, and chemical and biological sources.
• Identifying and providing appropriate PPE for employees
• Training employees in the use and care of the PPE
• Maintaining the PPE, including replacing it when it becomes worn or damaged
• Periodically reviewing, evaluating, and updating the PPE program

Employees are responsible for:

• Properly wearing and using PPE

• Attending training sessions on PPE
• Caring for, cleaning, and maintaining PPE
• Informing supervisors of the need to repair or replace PPE

Eye and Face Protection

OSHA suggests that eye protection be routinely considered for use by carpenters,
electricians, machinists, mechanics, millwrights, plumbers, and pipefitters, sheet
metal workers and tinsmiths, assemblers, sanders, grinding machine operators and
handlers, and timber cutting and logging workers. In many cases, the hazards that
require eye and face protection are caused by using tools. For example, chipping,
grinding, sawing, or hammering might send metal or wood chips into your eyes.

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 The right eye protection should:

• Protect against specific workplace hazards

• Fit properly and be reasonably comfortable to wear
• Provide unrestricted vision and movement
• Be durable and cleanable
• Allow unrestricted functioning of any other required PPE

These are some common types of eye and face protection:

• Safety spectacles have safety frames constructed of metal or plastic and

impact-resistant lenses.
• Goggles are tight-fitting eye protection that completely covers the eyes, eye
sockets, and facial area immediately surrounding the eyes. They provide
protection from impact, dust, and splashes, and sometimes fit over corrective
lenses.
• Face shields are transparent sheets of plastic that extend from the eyebrows
to below the chin and across the entire width of the head and protect from
nuisance dust or splashes but will not provide adequate protection against
impact hazards.

Head Protection

Employers must ensure that their employees wear head protection if objects like
tools might fall from above, or if they might bump their heads against fixed objects
like exposed pipes or beams. Head protection is also required if there is a possibility
of head contact with electrical hazards. Hard hats are a common type of head
protection that is required PPE for anyone working under a scaffold or other raised
area where tools are being used. Hard hats should:

• Resist penetration by objects

• Absorb the shock of a blow
• Be water-resistant and slow burning
• Have clear instructions for proper adjustment and replacement of the
suspension and headband
• Have a hard outer shell and a shock-absorbing lining
• Allow sufficient ventilation for the wearer’s head
• Fit the wearer comfortably
• Be cleaned and inspected daily

Foot and Leg Protection

Employees who face possible foot or leg injuries from falling or rolling objects or
from crushing or penetrating materials should wear protective footwear. Examples of
such situations include:

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 • When heavy objects such as barrels or tools might roll onto or fall on your feet
• Working with sharp objects such as nails or spikes that could pierce the soles
or uppers of ordinary shoes
• Exposure to molten metal that might splash onto feet or legs
• Working on or around hot, wet, or slippery surfaces
• Working when electrical hazards are present

Hand and Arm Protection

If a workplace Job Hazard Analysis (JHA) reveals that employees face potential
injury to hands and arms that cannot be eliminated through engineering and work
practice controls, employers must ensure that employees wear appropriate
protection. Potential hazards include skin absorption of harmful substances,
chemical or thermal burns, electrical dangers, bruises, abrasions, cuts, punctures,
fractures, and amputations. Protective equipment includes gloves, finger guards,
and arm coverings.

Body Protection

Body protection should prevent or mitigate the effects of temperature extremes,

splashes of molten metals or other hot or hazardous liquids, and potential impacts
from tools, machinery, and materials. Examples of body protection include laboratory
coats, coveralls, vests, jackets, aprons, surgical gowns, and full-body suits. Duck, a
closely woven cotton fabric, can protect against cuts and bruises when handling
sharp or heavy objects, including certain hand and power tools.

Hearing Protection

Determining whether hearing protection is needed can be challenging. Exposure to

excessive noise depends on many factors, including the loudness of the noise as
measured in decibels (dB), the duration of each employee’s exposure to the noise,
whether employees move between work areas with different noise levels, and
whether noise is generated from one or multiple sources. Generally, the louder the
noise, the shorter the exposure time before hearing protection would be required.

If engineering and work practice controls do not lower employee exposure to

workplace noise to acceptable levels, employees must wear appropriate hearing
protection. It is important to understand that hearing protectors reduce only the
amount of noise that gets through to the ears. The amount of this reduction is
referred to as attenuation, which differs according to the type of hearing protection
used and how well it fits. Hearing protectors worn by employees must reduce an
employee’s noise exposure to within the acceptable limits noted in the table below.

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 These are some types of hearing protection:

• Single use earplugs are made of waxed cotton, foam, silicone rubber, or
fiberglass wool. They are self-forming and, when properly inserted, they work as
well as most molded earplugs.
• Pre-formed or molded earplugs must be individually fitted by a professional
and can be disposable or reusable. If reusable, the earplugs should be cleaned
after each use.
• Earmuffs require a perfect seal around the ear. Glasses, facial hair, long hair, or
facial movements such as chewing may reduce the protective value of earmuffs.

Hazards of Hand and Power Tools

Hand Tools

The employer is responsible for the safe condition of tools and equipment used by
employees. Employers should not issue or permit the use of unsafe hand tools.
Employees should be trained in the proper use and handling of tools and equipment.

Hand tool hazards are often caused by misuse and improper maintenance. Some
examples include the following:

• If a chisel is used as a screwdriver, the tip of the chisel may break and fly off,
hitting the user or other employees.
• If a wooden handle on a tool, such as a hammer or an axe, is loose, splintered,
or cracked, the head of the tool may fly off and strike the user or other
employees.
• If the jaws of a wrench are sprung, the wrench might slip.

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 • If impact tools such as chisels, wedges, or drift pins have mushroomed heads,
the heads might shatter on impact, sending sharp fragments flying toward the
user or other employees.

Do not use:

• Wrenches when jaws are sprung

• Impact tools (chisels and wedges) when heads have mushroomed
• Tools with loose, cracked, or splintered handles
• A screwdriver as a chisel
• Tools with taped handles (they may be hiding cracks)

Power Tools

In addition to the general rules for tool safety, power tools require some additional
consideration. This is because they present additional hazards, such as those related to
working with electricity or those arising from the speed and force that power tools can
generate. Some important rules for power tool safety include the following:

• Do not lift or carry power tools by the cord

• Keep electric power cords out of the path of the tool
• Keep electric cords and hoses away from heat, oil, and sharp edges
• Do not leave power tools unattended
• Do not stand in water or on wet surfaces when running an electric power tool
• Only use electric power tools with an adequate power supply
• Do not use power tools or extension cords with a missing prong
• Use only double insulated electrical tools
• Use ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs) on all 120-volt, 15- and 20-amp
branch circuits
• Do not wear loose clothing, dangling objects or jewelry, or any appendage that
could be snagged by a tool
• Keep workplace floors clean and dry to prevent accidental slips
• Keep all people not involved with the work at a safe distance
• Avoid accidental starting; do not hold your fingers on the switch while carrying a
plugged-in tool
• Keep good footing and maintain good balance when using power tools
• Remove damaged tools and tag them “do not use”

Power tools must be fitted with guards and safety switches. The exposed moving parts
such as belts, gears, shafts, pulleys, sprockets, spindles, drums, flywheels, chains, or
other reciprocating, rotating, or moving arts must be guarded. Guards should also
protect from flying chips and sparks. Safety guards should never be removed when a
tool is in use. Portable circular saws with blades greater than 2 inches in diameter must
be fitted with proper upper and lower guards.

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Electric Cords

• Don’t carry portable tools by the cord

• Don’t use electric cords to hoist or lower tools
• Don’t yank cord or hose to disconnect it
• Keep cords and hoses away from heat, oil, and sharp edges

Switches

Hand-held power tools must be equipped with one of the following:

• Constant Pressure Switch

• Positive On/Off Switch
• Momentary On/Off Switch

Constant Pressure Switch

Circular saws, chainsaws, and percussion tools without positive accessory holding
means must be equipped with a constant pressure switch that will shut off when the
pressure is released.

Positive On/Off Switch

This switch is used with many hand-held tools, including powered platen sanders,
grinders with wheels two inches in diameter or less, routers, laminate trimmers,
nibblers, shears, scroll saws, and jigsaws with blade shanks one-fourth of an inch wide
or less.

Momentary On/Off Switch

Hand-held powered drills, tappers, fastener drivers, horizontal, vertical, and angle
grinders with wheels greater than two inches in diameter, disc sanders, belt sanders,
reciprocating saws, and saber saws must be equipped with a momentary contact "off"
switch and may have a lock-on provided that they can be turned off by a single motion
of the same finger that turned them on.

Lesson Summary

• The following are some basic tool safety rules that all employees should follow:
o Inspect tools before use, perform maintenance regularly, and keep all
tools in good working order
o Use the right tool for the job. It should:
▪ Fit the workspace available
▪ Reduce the force you need to apply
▪ Be ergonomic and fit comfortably in your hand
▪ Be used in a comfortable work position

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 o Only use a tool for the task it was designed to perform
o Operate tools according to manufacturers’ instructions
o Use the correct guards when necessary and ensure tools are safeguarded
when not in use
o Wear/use the correct PPE when necessary
o Keep cutting tools sharp
o Keep the floor and other worksurfaces free of debris or other tripping
hazards
• Anyone working four feet or higher above the ground or above other coworkers
should use tethered tools. Tools should also be tethered if they could damage
other equipment or materials should they fall.
• Hand tools are powered manually rather than with electricity or liquid fuel.
Examples include hammers, axes, handsaws, wrenches, and screwdrivers. The
most significant hazards commonly encountered while using hand tools result
from misuse and improper maintenance.
• In addition to the general rules for tool safety, power tools require some
additional consideration. This is because they present additional hazards, such
as those related to working with electricity or those arising from the speed and
force that power tools can generate.
• Hand-held power tools must be equipped with one of the following:
o Constant Pressure Switch
o Positive On/Off Switch
o Momentary On/Off Switch

Lesson 2: Classification of Tools

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe the safety precautions necessary when operating the following kinds of
tools:
o Electric Power Tools
o Pneumatic Tools
o Liquid Fuel Tools
o Powder Actuated Tools
o Jacks

General Safety Precautions

Employees who use hand and power tools and are exposed to the hazards of falling,
flying, abrasive, and/or splashing objects or harmful dusts, fumes, mists, vapors, and/or
gases must be provided with the PPE necessary to protect them from those hazards.

All hazards involved in the use of power tools can be prevented by following five basic
safety rules:

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 1. Keep all tools in good condition with regular maintenance
2. Use the right tool for the job
3. Examine each tool for damage before use
4. Operate the tool according to the manufacturer's instructions
5. Provide and use the appropriate PPE.

More Information: Employees and employers have a responsibility to work together to

establish safe working procedures. If a hazardous situation is encountered, it should be
brought to the attention of the proper individual(s) immediately.

Electric Power Tools

Good practices for the use of electric tools include the following:

• Operate within design limits

• Use gloves and safety shoes (Care must be exercised when using gloves with
rotating power tools. In some cases, using gloves can become more dangerous
as they may possibly come into contact with the rotating parts, thereby drawing
the hand into the tool.)
• Store in a dry place
• Keep work areas well lit
• Ensure that cords don’t present a tripping hazard

Circular and Table Saws

Injuries caused by circular and table saws are often severe, requiring stiches, surgery,
and even physical therapy for recovery. Be especially careful when working with these
types of power tools. Some things to keep in mind include:

• Ensure the blade is appropriate for the saw by checking the size and speed
rating.
• Check the power cords for damage before using the saw.
• Do not remove manufacturer’s guards! Holding the guard open exposes the
spinning blade and greatly increases the chance of injury.
• If using a table saw, adjust the base plate to keep as little of the blade as
possible exposed below the material being cut. If using a circular saw, be careful
to keep the exposed blade well above and away from hazards.
• Wear the appropriate PPE, including eye protection. If cutting stone, masonry, or
other materials that could throw off dangerous fragments, a face shield should be
worn.
• Power controls should be within easy reach of the operator.
• Always make sure the material you are cutting is properly secured with clamps or
other devices.

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Chop Saws

Chop saws are one of the most common power tools encountered in construction.
When using, keep the following safety guidelines in mind:

• Use protective guards properly and do not remove when the saw is in use.
• Keep the saw clean of shavings and scraps.
• Bring the blade up to speed before cutting.
• Keep the material firmly against the blade and fence before cutting.
• Do not leave the machine until the blade has come to a complete stop.
• Keep your body and arms at a safe distance from the blade while operating it.
• Use a clamp or vice to keep the saw secured to the work surface.

Chainsaws

Chainsaws are efficient, portable cutting tools, but they can be dangerous if not used
correctly and carefully. Before using a chainsaw, always:

• Ensure the area is marked and there are no unauthorized people nearby. If
felling a tree, workers should be at least twice as far away as the height of the
tree.
• Identify and clear obstacles.
• Identify electrical lines that might become hazards.
• Ensure the chainsaw is the right size and type for the job, and check the controls,
chain tension, and all bolts and handles for proper functioning.
• Fuel the saw at least ten feet away from an ignition source.

While using a chainsaw, always:

• Start the saw on the ground or another firm support with the brake engaged.
• Keep both hands on the handles and maintain secure footing.
• Plan the cut; watch for objects under tension and use extreme care to bring
objects safely to the ground.
• Be prepared for kickback.
• Never cut directly overhead yourself or others.
• Operate only within your skill level, as accidents often result when operators
perform tasks beyond their capabilities.
• Wear proper PPE, including gloves, head protection, hearing protection, and eye
and face protection such as safety glasses or goggles. Body protection should
include heavy work pants.

Grinders and Abrasive-Wheel Tools

Abrasive wheels and tools may throw off flying fragments. Equip abrasive wheels with
guards that:

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 • Cover the spindle end, nut, and flange projections.
• Maintain proper alignment with the wheel.
• Do not exceed the strength of the fastening.
• Guard so that a minimal amount of the wheel is exposed.

Before mounting, inspect abrasive wheels closely for damage and perform a sound or
ring test to ensure that the wheel is free from cracks or defects. This test consists of
gently tapping the wheel with a light, non-metallic instrument. If the wheel sounds dull or
dead, it is likely cracked. DO NOT use it, as it could fly apart. Be sure to suspend rather
than directly hold the wheel when performing the test (holding it could alter the sound a
produce a false indication of defects).

To prevent an abrasive wheel from cracking, fit it on the spindle freely, then tighten the
spindle nut enough to hold the wheel in place without distorting the flange. Always let
the tool come up to speed prior to grinding or cutting. Do not stand in front of the wheel
as it comes up to speed and be sure to always use proper eye and/or face protection.

Be sure to keep work rests not more than 1/8th inch from the abrasive wheel surface,
and tongue guards at the top of the wheel not more than 1/4 inch from wheel surface.
This prevents jamming the work between the wheel and the rest, which may cause the
wheel to break. Do not adjust the wheel while it is rotating.

Guarding

Never remove guards or use a power tool without proper guarding in place. The
removal of guards on moving parts may cause severe injury or even death to an
employee or other persons near them.
When using a powered grinder:

• Always use eye or face protection.

• Turn off the power when not in use.
• Never clamp a hand-held grinder in a vise.

The following information applies to guarding:

• Guard exposed moving parts of power tools

• Guard belts, gears, shafts, pulleys, sprockets, spindles, flywheels, chains, and
other moving parts
• Never remove a guard when a tool is in use

Guarding—Point of Operation

The point of operation is where the work is actually performed on the materials. The
point of operation must be guarded or otherwise protected. Machine guards must
protect the operator and others from:

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 • Point of operation
• In-running nip points
• Rotating parts
• Flying chips and sparks

You should never stand in the plane of rotation of the abrasive wheel as it accelerates
to full operating speed. Portable grinding tools need to be equipped with safety guards
to protect workers not only from the moving wheel surface, but also from flying
fragments in case of wheel breakage.

Radial Arm Saw Guarding

The lower blade guard on a radial arm saw is designed to prevent the operator from
coming into contact with the rotating blade. This guard must automatically return to the
covering position when withdrawn from the work.

Guarding Portable Circular Saws

Guard these saws above and below the base plate or shoe. The upper and lower
guards must cover the saw to the depth of the teeth. When withdrawn from the work,
the lower guard must automatically return to the covering position.

Table Saw Guarding

Use a hood for guarding against contact with the upper blade. Table saws should be
equipped with a spreader to prevent material from squeezing the saw or kicking back
during ripping. It should also be equipped with anti-kickback fingers (or “dogs”) to hold
the stock down in the event that the saw kicks back the material. Properly support all
pieces of stock, including the cut and uncut ends, scrap, and finished product.
Additionally, use a push stick for small pieces of wood and for pushing stock past the
blade.

Pneumatic Tools

Pneumatic tools are powered by compressed air. Like tools powered by fuel or powder,
pneumatic tools come with special safety considerations and additional rules. In
particular, in a pneumatic tool the power source (the air) may not be delivered to the tool
at a constant rate. If the pressure exceeds the manufacturer’s recommendation, the tool
could break and injure the user or others nearby. Pneumatic tools can also cause noise
hazards (discharged air can be very loud if not muffled) and temperature hazards (the
discharged air is sometimes cold enough to cause frostbite on unprotected skin).
Additionally, a severed air hose can whip around violently, causing injury.

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When using pneumatic power tools, remember the following safety guidelines:

• Hoses should be secured in such a way that they cannot become accidentally
disconnected.
• Safety clips should be securely installed and maintained to prevent attachments
from accidentally disconnecting.
• Nailers, staplers, and other similar pneumatic equipment with an automatic
fastener feed should have a safety device to prevent the tool from ejecting
fasteners.
• Compressed air should not be used for cleaning purposes unless reduced to less
than 30 pounds per square inch (PSI).
• Do not exceed the manufacturer’s safe operating pressure.
• Do not use hoses to hoist tools or other materials.
• All hoses more than ½ inch in diameter (interior) should have a safety device
installed at the source of the supply line to reduce pressure in case of hose
failure.
• Spray guns should have automatic or visible manual safety devices to prevent
accidentally pulling the trigger.
• Ensure tool is fastened securely to the air hose to prevent a disconnection. Use a
proper wire or positive locking device that attaches the air hose to the tool.

Jacks

Jacks are a type of hydraulic tool that uses fluid to create pressure and lift heavy
loads. When using a jack, ensure that:

• The base of the jack is on a firm, level surface

• The jack is centered
• The jack head is placed against a level surface
• You apply the lift force evenly to the jack
• The jack is lubricated and inspected regularly

The manufacturer's rated capacity must be marked on all jacks and must not be
exceeded. All jacks must have a stop indicator that must not be exceeded. Immediately
block the load after it is lifted. Put a block under the base of the jack when the
foundation is not firm and place a block between the jack-cap and load if the cap might
slip.

Proper maintenance of jacks is essential for safety. All jacks should be lubricated and
inspected regularly.

Pneumatic Tool Safety

• All pneumatic driven nail guns, staplers, and other similar equipment with
automatic fastener feeds, should have a safety device on the muzzle to prevent

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 the tool from ejecting fasteners, unless the muzzle is in contact with the work
surface.
• The manufacturer's safe operating pressure for hoses, pipes, valves, filters, and
other fittings should not be exceeded. Eye protection must be worn while
operating pneumatic tools.
• Hearing protection is typically required while operating jackhammers due to the
high noise levels generated.
• Compressed air hoses with an inside diameter (ID) greater than one half (1/2)
inch must have a safety device in place to reduce pressure in case of hose
failure.

Compressed Air Cleaning

Do not use compressed air for cleaning. The only exception allows compressed air to
be used for cleaning where it is reduced to less than 30 P.S.I. with effective chip
guarding and PPE, and where appropriate controls are in place to prevent injuries and
damage.

Liquid Fuel Tools

Like electric power tools, fuel-powered tools present specific additional hazards that
workers and employers must consider. Most fuel-powered tools use gasoline and the
main hazards arise from fuel vapors and exhaust. As a result, they should not be used
in enclosed and confined spaces. Use only approved flammable liquid containers to
transport fuel, and always shut down the engine and allow it to cool before refilling a
fuel-powered tool tank.

When a fuel-powered tool is used inside a closed area, effective ventilation and/or
proper respirators must be utilized to avoid breathing carbon monoxide. Fire
extinguishers must also be available in the area.

Powder-Actuated Tools

Powder-actuated tools use the expanding air generated by an explosion to drive a

fastener into materials like concrete and masonry. This makes them especially
hazardous—in many ways, a powder-actuated tool is like a loaded gun and should be
treated like one. Here are some rules for using a powder-actuated tool:

• The user must be trained to operate it!

• It must be inspected and tested each day before loading to ensure the safety
devices are working properly.
• The user must wear proper ear, eye, and face protection.
• Select a powder level that will do the work without using excessive force.
• Do not use powder-actuated tools in explosive or flammable environments.
• Ensure the tool is clean, its moving parts operate freely, and its barrel is free of
obstructions.

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 • Ensure the tool has the proper shielding and guarding attachments.
• Do not load a tool unless it will be immediately used.
• Do not leave a loaded tool unattended.
• Keep your hands clear of the barrel-end of the tool and never point it at anyone.
• Store unloaded tools in a locked box.

Easily Penetrated Material

Avoid driving into materials easily penetrated unless materials are backed by a
substance that will prevent the pin or fastener from passing through. Also, don't drive
fasteners into very hard or brittle material that might chip or splatter, or make the
fasteners ricochet.

Powder-Actuated Tool Safety Tips

The following safety tips apply to the use of powder-actuated tools:

• Do not use powder-actuated tools in explosive or flammable environments.

• Inspect powder-actuated tools before use to ensure:
o The tool is clean
o That moving parts of the tool operate freely
o The barrel of the tool is free from obstructions and has the proper shield,
guard, and attachments
• Do not load the tool unless it will be immediately used.
• Do not leave a loaded tool unattended.
• Keep hands clear of the barrel end of the tool.
• Never point the tool at anyone.
• Store unloaded tools in a secured box.

If a powder-actuated tool misfires, the user must hold the tool in the operating position
for at least 30 seconds before trying to fire it again. If it still will not fire, the user must
hold the tool in the operating position for another 30 seconds and then carefully remove
the load in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. This procedure will make
the faulty cartridge less likely to explode. The bad cartridge should then be put in water
immediately after removal.

Case Study

What Happened?
An employee was killed when he was struck in the head by a nail fired from a powder
actuated tool. The tool operator was attempting to anchor a plywood form in preparation
for pouring a concrete wall.

Description of the incident:

A 22-year-old carpenter’s apprentice was killed when he was struck in the head by a
nail fired from a powder-actuated nail gun. The nail gun operator fired the gun while

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attempting to anchor a plywood concrete form causing the nail to pass through the
hollow form. The nail traveled 27 feet before striking the victim. The nail gun operator
had never received training on how to use the tool, and none of the employees in the
area were wearing PPE.

In another situation, two workers were building a wall while remodeling a house. One of
the workers was killed when he was struck by a nail fired from a powder-actuated nail
gun. The tool operator who fired the nail was trying to attach a piece of plywood to a
wooden stud. But, the nail shot through the plywood and stud, striking the victim.

Below are some OSHA regulations that should have been followed.
• Powder-actuated nail guns should not be used to drive nails into easily
penetrated materials unless the material is backed by a substance that will
prevent the nail from passing through.
• Employees who operate powder or pressure-actuated tools must be trained to
avoid firing into easily penetrated materials (like plywood).
• In areas where workers could be exposed to flying nails, appropriate PPE must
be used.

Lesson Summary

• Electric power tools must be double insulated and have a three-wire cord
plugged into a grounded receptacle. When using power tools, you should use
gloves and safety shoes, keep work areas well lit, and ensure that cords don't
present a tripping hazard. Don't use power tools in wet locations unless approved
for those conditions.
• Abrasive wheels and tools may throw off flying fragments and should have
guards and be inspected before use. Never remove guards or use a power tool
without proper guarding in place. The point of operation must be guarded or
otherwise protected.
• The lower blade guard on a radial arm saw is designed to prevent the operator
from coming into contact with the rotating blade. This guard must automatically
return to the covering position when withdrawn from the work.
• Pneumatic tools are powered by compressed air, and they include nail guns,
staplers, chippers, drills, and sanders. Hazards include getting hit by a tool
attachment or by a fastener that worker is using with the tool. They should have a
safety device on the muzzle to prevent the tool from ejecting fasteners, unless
the muzzle is in contact with the work surface.
• Powder-actuated tools use the expanding air generated by an explosion to drive
a fastener into materials like concrete and masonry. This makes them especially
hazardous—in many ways, a powder-actuated tool is like a loaded gun and
should be treated like one.
• Avoid driving into materials easily penetrated unless materials are backed by a
substance that will prevent the pin or fastener from passing through. Do not use
powder-actuated tools in explosive or flammable environments.

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 • Most fuel-powered tools use gasoline and the main hazards arise from fuel
vapors and exhaust. As a result, they should not be used in enclosed and
confined spaces if it can be avoided. Use only approved flammable liquid
containers to transport fuel, and always shut down the engine and allow it to cool
before refilling a fuel-powered tool tank.

Module 18: Welding and Cutting

Module Description
Safety is a critical consideration for any welding project. Welding is a safe occupation
when proper precautions are taken, but if safety measures are ignored or not in place,
welders face an array of hazards that can be potentially dangerous, including electric
shock, fumes and gases, fire, explosions, and more.

This module is intended to provide an overview of the hazards associated with welding,
cutting, and brazing and the protective measures necessary to assure the work is
performed safely. The module is specifically designed to help workers meet OSHA
compliance regarding welding, cutting, and brazing.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

• Discuss OSHA's general requirements concerning welding, cutting, and brazing

• Identify the general safety requirements for all types of welding
• Describe the general characteristics for various types of welding
• Name the specific safety requirements for oxygen-fuel gas welding and cutting,
arc welding and cutting, and resistance welding

Lesson 1: General Requirements

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

•
• Describe the necessary fire prevention and protection methods for welding
operations
• Explain how to properly protect workers while they perform welding operations
• Describe the necessary health protection measures necessary, including
ventilation

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Introduction

Welding, cutting, and brazing are some of the most common industrial processes.
However, if proper preventive measures are not taken, these processes can be
extremely hazardous. The use of compressed gases to create extremely hot flames can
expose workers to highly dangerous conditions. Fires, burns to the skin, and flash burns
to the eyes are some of the more immediate and serious hazards associated with
welding, cutting, and brazing.

There are many welding techniques that have different types of hazards associated with
them, including the risk associated with fire, explosion, gas, and fumes. The OSHA
standard mandates all employers adopt and follow good work practices in all welding,
cutting, and brazing techniques to prevent injuries, fires, and explosions.

Supervisor's Responsibility

The supervisor's duties include:

• Safe handling of the cutting or welding equipment, and the safe use of the cutting
or welding process
• Identifying any combustible materials and hazardous areas present or likely to be
present in the work location
• Have the work moved to a location free from dangerous combustibles
o If the work cannot be moved, have the combustibles moved to a safe
distance from the work or have the combustibles properly shielded against
ignition
• See that cutting and welding are so scheduled that plant operations that might
expose combustibles to ignition are not started during cutting or welding
• Secure authorization for the cutting or welding operations from the designated
management representative
• Determine that the cutter or welder secures approval that conditions are safe
before going ahead
• Determine that fire protection and extinguishing equipment are properly located
at the site

Fire Prevention and Protection

In order to protect workers from fire-related hazards, OSHA has specified a variety of
basic preventive measures, as well as certain special preventive measures for
exceptionally dangerous tasks, like welding and cutting containers and welding in
confined spaces.

The OSHA standard's basic preventive measures for fire in welding, cutting, and brazing
use the following strategies to eliminate fire hazards:

• Before an object is welded or cut, it must be moved to a safe place.

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 • If the object to be welded or cut cannot be moved, then the area must be cleared
of all moveable fire hazards.
• If certain fire hazards cannot be removed from the area, then workers are
required to use guards to protect the immovable fire hazards from heat, sparks,
and slag.
• If, however, the requirements mentioned above cannot be met, then employees
must not perform any welding and cutting tasks.

Apart from these basic preventive measures for fires in welding and cutting, OSHA
requires all workers to take certain special precautions. The OSHA standard requires
workers to have proper fire extinguishing equipment available. All fire extinguishing
equipment must be in proper working condition and must be kept close by for instant
use. Preventive equipment may consist of buckets of sand, pails of water, fire
extinguishers, or hoses. However, these may vary according to the nature of the work
and the quantity of combustible material present in the vicinity.

Where there is a considerable amount of combustible material present closer than 35

feet from the work location, OSHA requires employers to station fire watchers whenever
welding or cutting is performed. OSHA also requires employers to station fire watchers if
considerable amounts of combustible materials are present that can be easily ignited by
sparks, even if they are more than 35 feet away. The OSHA standard requires the fire
watch to be maintained for at least a half hour after the welding or cutting task has been
completed, and for a longer period of time if necessary.

When Welding is Prohibited

The OSHA standard has specified certain situations in which welding, cutting, or brazing
is not allowed. Cutting or welding is not allowed in:

• Buildings that have damaged sprinkler systems

• Areas that are not authorized by management
• Locations that have explosive atmospheres due to the presence of mixtures of
flammable gases, liquids, or dusts in the air
• Areas where there is a risk of explosive atmospheres, including areas inside
unclean or improperly prepared tanks and areas with an accumulation of
flammable gasses, vapors, liquids, or combustible dusts

There are many containers that require additional safety precautions apart from the
basic preventive measures. The OSHA standard specifies that welding, cutting, or other
hot work should not be performed on barrels, used drums, tanks, or other containers
until they are properly cleaned. Cleaning should remove all materials or substances like
tars, acids, greases, or other flammable or toxic materials. It is also important to remove
or blank any pipeline or connections to the container being welded or cut.

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Welding in Confined Spaces

Personnel who are required to work in confined spaces must follow additional safety
guidelines. OSHA defines a confined space as a relatively restricted space that has
limited means of entry or exit. Examples of confined spaces include tanks, boilers, and
pressure vessels. Before working in a confined space, all appropriate safety measures
must be in place. The space must be ventilated thoroughly to be rid of any flammable or
toxic gasses.

It is important for all employees who are assigned the task of welding or cutting inside a
confined space to leave their gas cylinders and welding machines outside the space. If
arc welding is suspended for a long period of time, such as during lunch or overnight, all
electrodes must be removed from the holders. The holders must be placed carefully so
that accidental contact does not occur. Also, the machine must be disconnected from
the power source when not in use.

When an operation is suspended, all torch valves must be closed so that no gas
escapes through the nozzle. Whenever the torch is not to be used for a long period of
time, the gas supply to the torch must be properly shut off at a point outside the
confined area. If possible, the hose and torch must also be removed from the confined
space.

If a welder is to enter a confined space, employers must station an attendant outside the
space to monitor the welder at all times. The attendant must be capable of putting
rescue operations into effect.

Case Study: Welding Hazards

In a refinery, two newly recruited workers were required to weld pipes near some
storage tanks. These tanks contained highly flammable hydrocarbons. Sometime after
work commenced, the combustible material caught fire and resulted in a large
explosion. Three workers who were working in the area died on the spot and seven
were seriously wounded, three of whom died later as a result of their injuries. This
accident occurred because no preventive measures were taken before welding
operations were started. No one made sure that there were no hazardous materials
present in the vicinity of the work area, as required by the OSHA standard. Also, the
workers were new and had not received any safety training and education regarding
hazards associated with tasks like welding, cutting and brazing.

Personnel Protection

In addition to fire protection, OSHA has specified guidelines requiring personnel

involved in welding and cutting operations to take protective measures against other
hazards too. These guidelines for personnel cover fall protection, eye protection, and
protective clothing. If welders are required to work at a height, for example on a

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platform, a runway, or a scaffold, OSHA mandates the use of railings, lifelines, or some
equally effective safeguards.

Performing operations like welding, cutting, or brazing without proper eye protection
may cause serious eye injuries. OSHA requires all personnel to wear helmets and hand
shields during all arc welding or arc cutting operations in order to protect themselves
from direct radiant energy from the arc. However, OSHA does not require personnel to
wear helmets and hand shields while involved in submerged arc welding. OSHA also
mandates that all helpers and attendants have proper eye protection. The material that
is used to make the helmets and hand shields must be an insulator for heat and
electricity. It is very important to ensure that the helmets, goggles, and shields are not
readily flammable, and they must be strong enough to withstand sterilization.

If the work permits, welding should be performed behind a non-combustible screen with
a low reflectivity surface, such as zinc oxide. This helps in absorbing ultra-violet
radiation that may harm a welder; however, all booths and screens used must allow the
circulation of air at floor level. People in the vicinity of the area where welding or cutting
operations are being carried out must be provided with non-combustible screens,
shields, or goggles if necessary.

All personnel involved in welding, cutting, or brazing operations must be provided with
personal protective equipment to protect themselves from burns and fires.
The type of protective clothing may vary according to the nature of the welding
operation and the location where work has to be performed. Employers must provide
personal protective equipment materials that are designed to provide maximum
protection from hot metal and sparks.

Protective Clothing

Welders should wear appropriate PPE to cover all exposed skin, including safety
glasses or goggles, a welding helmet, hearing protection, welding gloves, and leather
high-top shoes. Protective clothing should cover all parts of the body that could be
injured by weld spatter and ultraviolet and infrared ray flash burn. It should be made of
suitable fire-resistant materials to minimize skin burns caused by sparks, spatter, or
radiation.

Always avoid clothing with tears, snags, rips, or worn spots as these are easily ignited
by sparks. The sleeves and collars should be kept buttoned. The hands should be
protected with leather gauntlet gloves. A pair of high-top leather shoes, preferably safety
shoes, is good protection for the feet. If low shoes are worn, the ankles should be
protected by fire resistant leggings.

Health Protection and Ventilation

Some materials that are used in welding operations can be extremely hazardous even if
precautionary measures have been taken. These materials must be removed by proper

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ventilation. The materials that are considered extremely hazardous include fluorine
compounds, zinc, lead, beryllium, cadmium, mercury, certain cleaning compounds, and
stainless steel (nitrogen dioxide is a harmful gas released from the processing of
stainless steel). When working with the materials stated above, workers must protect
themselves with proper PPE.

Lesson Summary

• The use of compressed gases to create extremely hot flames can expose
workers to highly dangerous conditions. Fires, burns to the skin, and flash burns
to the eyes are some of the more immediate and serious hazards associated with
welding, cutting, and brazing.
• Before an object is welded or cut, it must be moved to a safe place. If the object
to be welded or cut cannot be moved, then the area must be cleared of all
moveable fire hazards. If certain fire hazards cannot be removed from the area,
then workers are required to use guards to protect the immovable fire hazards
from heat, sparks, and slag.
• In addition to fire protection, OSHA has specified guidelines requiring personnel
involved in welding and cutting operations to take protective measures against
other hazards too. These guidelines for personnel cover fall protection, eye
protection, and protective clothing. If welders are required to work at a height, for
example on a platform, a runway, or a scaffold, OSHA mandates the use of
railings, lifelines, or some equally effective safeguards.
• Some materials that are used in welding operations can be extremely hazardous
even if precautionary measures have been taken. These materials must be
removed by proper ventilation.

Lesson 2: Oxygen-fuel Gas Welding and Cutting

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe the safety precautions necessary for cylinders and containers that may
contain fuel gas
• Describe the safety guidelines for manifolding cylinders
• Explain the safety requirements for service pipe systems

Introduction

In this lesson, we will discuss the hazards associated with oxygen-fuel gas welding and
cutting, and the measures necessary to protect workers. Welders must guard against
mixtures of fuel gasses and air or oxygen, as such mixtures may be explosive. No
devices are to be used that mix air or oxygen with flammable gasses before they have
to be consumed unless they have been approved by an authorized person.

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The OSHA standard requires all welders to take special care when dealing with
acetylene. Acetylene should never be generated or stored except in approved cylinders.
It should not be utilized at a pressure exceeding 15 pounds per square inch gauge
(PSIG) or 30 pounds per square inch absolute (PSIA). Using acetylene at pressures
exceeding 15 PSIG (30 PSIA) can be extremely hazardous because at those pressures
gaseous acetylene is highly unstable and may decompose, resulting in an explosion.
The decomposition of acetylene must be avoided by storing it in cylinders that have
been specially designed for storing such gasses.

Cylinders and Containers

The OSHA standard requires all portable cylinders that are used for storage and
shipment of compressed gasses to be constructed and maintained according to the
regulations set out by the U.S. Department of Transportation (49 CFR Parts 171-179).
OSHA has also provided specific guidelines for using and handling cylinders and
containers containing compressed gasses. All personnel must know how cylinders are
marked and stored, as well as their operating procedures.

Approval and Marking

OSHA mandates that all compressed gas distributors clearly mark all compressed gas
cylinders. Markings must include either the chemical or trade name of the gas stored in
the cylinder. It is very important to ensure that all stamping, stenciling, or labeling used
for marking the cylinder is not easily removable. The cylinder must be marked on the
shoulder where it does not come into contact with other surfaces. Marking cylinders not
only ensures proper use but also helps personnel to store them properly. No employer
or employee should attempt to use the contents of an unmarked cylinder.

Storage of Cylinders

The OSHA standard also emphasizes the importance of properly storing cylinders. All
cylinders must be stored away from radiators and other devices that produce heat. If
cylinders are stored inside buildings, steps must be taken to protect and ventilate the
location thoroughly. The storage area must be dry and at least 20 feet (6.1 m) away
from highly combustible materials. It is additionally important to store cylinders away
from stairs, elevators, exit routes, or other areas where they can be toppled or damaged
by people or falling objects, or where they could otherwise be tampered with. Personnel
responsible for storing cylinders must make sure to close valves of all empty cylinders.
Some cylinders are designed with valve protection caps—when the cylinders are not in
use, these protection caps must be placed on the valves and appropriately tightened.
The purpose of the valve protection cap is to protect the valve and to buffer the shock
received if the cylinder falls.

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Fuel Gas Cylinders

All fuel gas cylinders stored inside a building must be limited to a total gas capacity of
2,000 cubic feet (56 m3) or 300 pounds (135.9 kg) of liquefied petroleum gas. All fuel
gas cylinders with a gas capacity greater than 2,000 cubic feet (56 m3) or 300 pounds
of liquefied petroleum gas must be stored in a separate room or a special building.
These buildings or rooms must not have any heating or lighting and should be kept
properly ventilated at all times. However, this limitation does not apply to cylinders that
are being used or are ready to be used.

Acetylene cylinders are required to be stored with the valve end up. If these cylinders
are stored on their side, acetone may leak out and create a hazardous condition.

Oxygen Cylinders

Oxygen cylinders must be stored away from fuel-gas cylinders or other combustible
materials, such as oil or grease. These cylinders must be stored at a minimum distance
of 20 feet (6.1 m) from highly combustible material.

Oxygen cylinders outside generator houses are required to be separated from the
generator by using a partition that has a fire-resistance rating of at least one hour. The
partition must not have any openings and must not allow any gasses to accumulate.
OSHA has specified this preventive measure in order to protect personnel from fire
hazards.

Operating Procedures

Due to the potential hazards associated with cylinders containing compressed gasses,
OSHA requires all personnel to store and operate these cylinders properly. Care must
be taken to eliminate all traces of oil and grease from cylinders, cylinder valves,
regulators, couplings, hoses, and other apparatus when welding operations are being
carried out. Welders must not operate or handle cylinders with oily hands or gloves and
must ensure that no oily surface or greasy clothing is exposed to a jet of oxygen.

Compressed gas cylinders have two critical components that must be handled carefully:
the valve outlet and the regulator. Valve protection caps are used to protect valves from
getting damaged or coming into contact with oil or grease. The OSHA regulation
specifies that workers should never use valve protection caps for lifting the cylinders as
the caps may accidentally come loose and fall, possibly causing a sudden release of
pressure. Regulators must be removed and valve-protection caps placed properly
before cylinders are moved.

A regulator must always be attached to a compressed gas cylinder before it is used,

except when connected to a manifold. It is important to ensure that the regulator being
used is compatible with the gas in the cylinder and its service pressure. The regulator

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must be cleaned with a clean filter installed. All manifolds and headers should be
capped when not in use to prevent injuries. Before a regulator is attached, the protective
cap must be removed from the cylinder and the valve opened slightly for an instant, and
then closed immediately. This practice ensures that the cylinder valve is cleared of any
dust or dirt that may have accumulated during storage. Dirt can damage vital parts of a
regulator and may cause a fire or an explosion.

Cylinders that are not equipped with fixed hand wheels must have keys, handles, or
non-adjustable wrenches on valve stems while they are being used. The valve of a
cylinder containing acetylene should not be opened more than one and a half turns of
the spindle and preferably no more than three-fourths of a turn. This allows adequate
flow of the gas and permits the welder to close the valve quickly in an emergency
situation.

While the welding or cutting operations are being carried out, all cylinders must be kept
far away from the work location so that no sparks, hot slag, or flame can reach them. If
they cannot be removed, they must be protected with fire-resistant shields. The OSHA
standard also specifies that cylinders must not be placed in an area where they can
become a part of an electric circuit.

Manifolding of Cylinders

Welders do not always use portable cylinders as a source of gas. Sometimes a service
pipe system is used to provide a manifolding effect. Manifolding is the process of using
multiple-line fluid inputs into a single intake chamber for the purpose of combining
gasses when they are needed for welding.

Portable outlet headers are used in order to control the flow of a particular gas. Each
portable outlet header consists of a nozzle and a hose that can be connected to a
portable cylinder or a service pipe. The OSHA standard specifies that, except for
temporary service where conditions preclude a direct supply, portable outlet headers
must never be used indoors.

All service piping outlets used to withdraw and supply oxygen or fuel gas to a portable
outlet header must consist of a shut-off valve that is easily accessible. The service
outlet on the portable outlet header must be equipped with a valve assembly that must
consist of a detachable outlet seal cap attached to the body of the valve. The use of a
seal cap ensures that the outlet pipe thread will remain free from oil or grease and not
be damaged. Damaged pipe threads can result in leaky connections.

Because gas cylinders have not been scattered throughout the work area but instead
have been kept centrally,

• The possibility of accidents is reduced

• More space is available at each workplace
• In case of fire, one can easily reach the cylinders

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 • There is more efficient use of the gases
• Cylinders are transported by less distance
• There is no replacement of cylinders inside the workshop

Service Piping Requirements

All service piping systems being utilized must be designed and installed according to
the safety requirements specified by OSHA. The pipes should be at least Schedule 40,
and all fittings must be of standard weight in sizes up to and including 6-inch nominal.
Schedule 40 pipe has a working pressure of up to 125PSI, and it should always be
tested before use.

A close inspection is also required because problems may arise if line extensions are
made with a pipe type other than Schedule 40. OSHA has specified some special
requirements when personnel are using service pipe systems with oxygen or acetylene.
The piping system is required to have a minimum pressure of 250 PSIG if oxygen is
supplied to a service piping system from a low-pressure oxygen manifold without any
pressure-regulating device. When the connected equipment is used at pressures less
than 250PSIG, a pressure-regulating device must be used for each station outlet.

For acetylene or acetylenic compounds, the piping must be made of steel or wrought
iron. Under certain conditions, acetylene forms explosive compounds with copper,
silver, and mercury; therefore, employers must ensure that unalloyed copper is not used
for acetylene or acetylenic compounds except when using certain listed equipment.
All piping must be installed in a way that it runs as directly as possible. Some space
should be allowed for expansion, contraction, jarring, and vibration. This will help protect
the pipes from damage. Pipes that have to be laid underground must be located below
the frost line, and protective measures must be taken to prevent or protect against
corrosion.

After installation, the piping has to be blown out with air, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide to
remove any foreign materials. For oxygen piping, the air, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide
that is used must be completely oil-free. When air or gas is released from combustible
gas lines, care must be taken to ensure that no source of ignition is allowed near
uncapped openings.

Underground piping must be protected against corrosion by covering or painting it with a

suitable material that would allow maximum protection against corrosion. After installing
piping systems, they must be tested to ensure that they are gas-tight at 1.5 times the
maximum operating pressure. Oxygen must be tested by only using oil-free and non-
combustible materials. Under no circumstances are personnel allowed to use flames to
detect leaks.

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Protection of Service Pipe Systems

The OSHA standard requires employers to ensure that the service pipe system is
always protected against the build-up of excessive pressure and leaks. Protection may
be provided using pressure relief devices, protective equipment, regulators, and hoses.

Pressure Relief Devices

Pressure relief devices are used to protect service piping from excessive pressure build-
up. They must be set to activate at no more than the pressure specified for the system.
The pressure relief device must be made to discharge upwards to a safe location.
OSHA mandates the use of pressure relief valves for preventing excessive build-up in
fuel-gas piping systems.

Piping Protective Equipment

The OSHA standard mandates the use of approved protective equipment for fuel-gas
piping in order to prevent:

• The backflow of oxygen into the fuel-gas system

• The passage of a flash-back into the fuel-gas supply system
• Excessive backpressure of oxygen in the fuel-gas supply system

Personnel can use one device that performs all three functions of the protective
equipment or separate devices to achieve each task separately. In a fuel-gas piping
system, the protective equipment is required either at the main supply line, at the head
of each branch line, or at each location where fuel-gas is withdrawn. However, it is
preferable to place the protective equipment at the main supply as this would provide
the best protection.

Regulators

Pressure-reducing regulators can be used to control pressure in piping systems. OSHA

has specified that pressure-reducing regulators should only be used for the gas and
pressures for which they are made. If any part of these regulators is out of order and
needs repair, only skilled mechanics that have had proper training should fix it. The
regulators for oxygen piping systems must be labeled with a warning advising the user
to: "USE NO OIL."

Hoses

Apart from using release devices, the piping system must be designed using proper
hoses to protect against leaks. The OSHA standard specifies that the hose and hose
connections must be clamped or securely fastened so that they can withstand twice the
pressure to which they are normally subjected. This pressure cannot be less than
300PSI. To test the hoses, oil-free air or oil-free inert gas must be used.

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The oxygen hose is green and has a right-hand threaded nut for connecting to the torch.
The acetylene fuel-gas hose is usually red (sometimes black) and has a left-hand
threaded nut for connecting to the torch. Hoses that are burnt, worn, or have other
defects must be replaced or repaired before any operations are performed. OSHA also
prohibits personnel from using leaky hoses. When inspecting hoses, look for charred
sections close to the torch. These may have been caused by flash-back. Also check
that hoses are not taped up to cover leaks.

Safe Practices

Always make sure a regulator is in the closed position to prevent unregulated gas flow
before attaching it to a cylinder. Stand to the side of a regulator, not in front of it, when
opening cylinder valves. Other measure to ensure safety include:

• Do not leave regulators attached to the cylinders when not in use

• Do not use sealants or other materials on fitting and connections
• Do not use a regulator for more than one type of gas
• Inspect hoses for defects/deterioration before use
• Use a bubble solution (never a flame!) to check hoses for leaks before use
• Protect hoses from damage, foreign materials and sharp objects or physical
abrasion
• Make sure there a check valve and flame arrestor in the system
• Disconnect hoses after use- do not leave residual gases in the hoses

Lesson Summary

• The OSHA standard requires all portable cylinders that are used for storage and
shipment of compressed gasses to be constructed and maintained according to
the regulations set out by the U.S. Department of Transportation (49 CFR Parts
171-179).
• The OSHA standard also emphasizes the importance of properly storing
cylinders. All cylinders must be stored away from radiators and other devices that
produce heat. If cylinders are stored inside buildings, steps must be taken to
protect and ventilate the location thoroughly.
• Manifolding is the process of using multiple-line fluid inputs into a single intake
chamber for the purpose of combining gasses when they are needed for welding.
• All service piping systems being utilized must be designed and installed
according to the safety requirements specified by OSHA. The pipes should be at
least Schedule 40, and all fittings must be of standard weight in sizes up to and
including 6-inch nominal. Schedule 40 pipe has a working pressure of up to
125PSI, and it should always be tested before use.
• Pressure relief devices are used to protect service piping from excessive
pressure build-up. They must be set to activate at no more than the pressure
specified for the system.

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Lesson 3: ARC Welding and Resistance Welding
Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe the safety requirements for arc welding and cutting

• Describe the safety requirements for resistance welding and cutting

ARC Welding and Cutting

In the arc welding process, an electric current is passed through the welding rod and is
forced to jump—or arc—across a gap. The heat produced through this process is
intense enough to perform welding and cutting operations. Most of the precautions and
safe practices specified by OSHA are common to oxy-fuel gas welding, but there are
certain requirements that are unique to arc welding.

Electric shock is one of the most serious and immediate risks facing a worker while arc
welding. Electric shock can lead to severe injury or death, either from the shock itself or
from a fall caused by the reaction to a shock. One of the other unique requirements of
arc welding is shielding. If air is kept away from the weld puddle, the welds produced
have better physical and chemical properties. Some gasses like oxygen, hydrogen, and
nitrogen, when mixed with moisture, can reduce the quality of the weld. Therefore,
shielding is used to preserve the integrity of the weld joint. The primary health hazard
with these gases is the potential for displacement of breathing air if significant quantities
are released into a poorly ventilated area. However, these gases are also supplied in
high pressure compressed gas cylinders that can present physical hazards, such as
rupture if exposed to intense heat.

Application

The OSHA standards pertaining to arc welding require standard arc welding tools to
have certain design and other features. For example, they must be designed to carry
their rated load with rated temperature rises. The maximum temperature of the cooling
air should be 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit), and the maximum altitude
is 3,300 feet (1,005.8 m). The machines should be suitable for operation in
atmospheres containing gases, dust, and light rays produced by the welding arc.

To carry out the arc welding process, a welder can either use an alternating current
(AC) or a direct current (DC). For alternating current machines, the voltage should not
exceed the limit of 80 volts for manual and 100 volts for automatic arc welding and
cutting. For direct current machines, the voltage must not exceed the limit of 100 volts
for both manual and automatic arc welding and cutting.

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If certain special welding and cutting processes are carried out that require values of the
voltages higher than the specified limits, OSHA mandates that employers provide all
personnel with adequate insulation or other means that would ensure their safety.
If arc welding and cutting operations are being carried out at a location where the
surroundings are warm and humid, or where perspiration is a factor, OSHA
recommends the use of reliable automatic controls for reducing no-load voltage to
reduce the shock hazard. Some of the older AC machines do not have an automatic
control and are on load all the time.

Design

The OSHA standard requires all types of arc welding machines and control apparatus to
be enclosed except for the operating wheels, levers, and handles. It is also very
important to enclose input power terminals, tap change devices, and live metal parts so
that they can only be accessed by means of tools.

While carrying out welding operations, all personnel are required to protect the terminals
for welding leads from accidental contact by workers or by metal objects such as hooks,
vehicles, cranes, etc. To achieve this, OSHA specifies the use of:

• Dead-front receptacles for plug connections.

• Recessed openings with non-removable hinged covers.
• Heavy insulating sleeving or taping.

The connections for portable control devices must never be connected to an AC circuit
of higher than 120 volts. On circuits above 50 volts, all exposed metal parts of portable
control devices should be grounded by a grounding conductor in the control cable.
Personnel must never use AC reactors or auto transformers to obtain welding current
directly from an AC power source with a voltage exceeding 80 volts.

Installation

Proper installation of equipment is very important to ensure safety during arc welding
and cutting operations. One of the most critical requirements is proper grounding.
OSHA requires personnel to ensure that the frame or case of the welding machine
(except with engine-driven machines) is properly grounded before it is used.
The OSHA standard specifies that conduits that contain electrical conductors must
never be used for completing a work-lead circuit. Pipelines must not be used as a
permanent part of a work-lead circuit. However, they may be used during extension,
construction, or repair, but only when current is not being carried through threaded
joints, flanged bolted joints, or caulked joints. Special precautions must be taken to
avoid sparking at the connection of the work-lead cable.

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Supply Connections and Conductors

If a welding machine does not have a disconnecting switch or a controller as an integral

part, one must be provided at or near the machine. A disconnect switch with overload
protection is required for each outlet that has to be connected to a portable welding
machine.

The rated current-carrying capacity of the supply conductors for individual welding
machines must not be less than the rated primary current of the welding machines.
Operations that involve many welders working on one structure may require both
polarities in the DC welding process. Supply circuit limitations for AC welding may
require allocation of machines among the phases of the supply circuit. In a situation like
that, no-load voltages between electrode holders should be twice as normal on DC
machines, or 1, 1.41, 1.73, or twice as normal on AC machines.

Operation and Maintenance

OSHA requires personnel to check all connections of the machines before initiating the
operations to ensure that all requirements have been fulfilled. Work clamps that are
magnetic must be cleared of all metal particles that might be sticking to them. Welders
must spread out all coiled welding cables before use to prevent overheating and
damage to insulation.

While the welding operations are being carried out, cables with splices within 10 feet (3
meters) of the holder must not be used. It is important that the welding electrode cables
are never coiled around parts of the welders' bodies. OSHA mandates the replacement
of all cables that have damaged insulation or exposed bare conductors. Work and
electrode cables must only be joined by using means that are particularly designed for
that purpose.

Resistance Welding

The third type of welding process is resistance welding. Resistance welding utilizes
pressure and heat that is generated in the pieces to be welded using resistance to an
electric current.

All personnel who are required to perform resistance welding must be properly trained
and judged to be competent before they perform any tasks. While resistance welding,
workers should ensure that all equipment is installed by a qualified electrician. All
machines must have disconnecting switches or circuit breakers that are located at or
near the machine. Thermal protection switches must also be provided for all ignitron
tubes used in resistance welding equipment.

For all non-portable spot and seam welding machines, all external circuits must not
operate on a voltage higher than 120 volts. All resistance welding equipment and
control panels that involve voltages of over 550 volts must be properly insulated and

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shielded. OSHA requires all doors and access panels for the resistance welding
machines and control panels to be kept locked and interlocked in order to prevent
unauthorized persons from coming in contact with the live portions of the equipment.

Where there is a possibility of the operator's fingers getting under the point of operation,
all press welding machine operations must be effectively guarded by the use of a device
such as an electronic eye safety circuit, two-hand controls, or protection similar to that
prescribed for punch press operation. In all press welding operations, if the operator is
required to have his or her fingers under the point of operation, he or she must be
provided with effective protective equipment.

Wherever practical, a shield guard of safety glass or suitable fire-resistant plastic must
be installed at the point of operation to avoid the hazard of flying sparks. Also, protective
shields should be installed to prevent flying sparks from harming passing persons.
All foot switches that may be present on the machine must be guarded so that the
machine does not get started accidentally. On special multi-spot welding machines,
including 2-post and 4-post weld presses, there must be at least two safety emergency
stop buttons.

OSHA requires all portable welding guns, transformers, and related equipment
suspended from overhead structures to be outfitted with safety chains or cables. In case
of failure of any component of the supporting system, these safety chains and cables
must be capable of enduring the shock load.

All initiating switches, including retraction and dual schedule switches, located on the
portable welding gun should be equipped with suitable guards capable of preventing
accidental initiation. The outer casing of all portable welding transformers must be
grounded. The OSHA standard requires all flash welding machines to comprise a
protective hood to control flying flash.

Safe Practices

While welding, remember never to touch the electrode, or the metal parts of the
electrode holder, with skin or welding clothing! Insulate yourself from the work and
ground. To avoid secondary voltage shock, welding operators should wear dry gloves in
good conditions, and be sure to insulate themselves from the work and ground, keeping
dry insulation between their body and the metal being welded or ground (such as a
metal floor or wet surface). Welding operators also should inspect the electrode holder
for damage before beginning to weld and keep the welding cable and electrode holder
insulation in good condition.

Case Study

An Arc Welder Washer operator was putting on his leather protective clothing preparing
for work as he conversed with the worker in the adjoining Weld Booth. After a brief
conversation with his co-worker, he walked into Booth #1 to power up the Miller 1500

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arc wash machine. As he leaned over the metal cross bar to turn the handle of the
circuit breaker switch of the side electrical panel, the co-worker in the next booth heard
a scream. The co-worker ran for assistance, finding a supervisor who called for help.
The Coroner’s findings verified severe burns on both hands, indicating the flow of
current through the chest area of the body. For approximately three to four months
before the fatality occurred, the main power switch (toggle switch) of the Miller 1500
was not working properly. Two weeks prior to the incident, an operator at Booth #1
received a serious shock when trying to turn on the machine. He was reaching over the
angle iron cross bar to turn the machine on when he received a “whole body shock.” In
addition, the operator reported that there was a spark between the frame which the part
rested in and a hoist. The fatality was caused by contact with voltage current that was
able to travel through the victim, from the disconnect switch handle on the machine to
the metal crossbar behind the machine. The handle was “hot” with voltage current due
to an electrical fault in the machine. The fault would usually cause an electrical circuit
interruption (circuit breaker or fuse), but the ground wires not being connected
prevented this safety device from working.

Lesson Summary

• In the arc welding process, an electric current is passed through the welding rod
and is forced to jump—or arc—across a gap. The heat produced through this
process is intense enough to perform welding and cutting operations. Most of the
precautions and safe practices specified by OSHA are common to oxy-fuel gas
welding, but there are certain requirements that are unique to arc welding.
Electric shock is one of the most serious and immediate risks facing a worker
while arc welding.
• Resistance welding utilizes pressure and heat that is generated in the pieces to
be welded using resistance to an electric current. All personnel who are required
to perform resistance welding must be properly trained and judged to be
competent before they perform any tasks. While resistance welding, workers
should ensure that all equipment is installed by a qualified electrician. All
machines must have disconnecting switches or circuit breakers that are located
at or near the machine. Thermal protection switches must also be provided for all
ignitron tubes used in resistance welding equipment.

Module 19: Silica Exposure

Module Description
OSHA estimates 2.3 million American workers are exposed to respirable crystalline
silica within their job site or manufacturing plant. Over 80% of the workers that are
exposed to silica dust are in the construction industry. Crystalline Silica has been linked
to several medical conditions and even death to workers exposed to the deadly dust.
Exposure to respirable crystalline silica is a health concern for exposed workers. The

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Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) recently updated the silica
standard to increase the protection of workers through:

• Exposure identification sampling

• Medical evaluations
• Continued medical surveillance
• Lower Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL)
• Specific guideline for common construction tasks
• Requiring a silica exposure control program
• Addressing appropriate hazard exposure control

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

• Identify materials which contain silica

• Understand the health hazards of respirable crystalline silica
• Explain the OSHA regulation on respirable crystalline silica for construction
• Be informed of the key provisions of the OSHA Construction standard 29 CFR
1926.1153
• Describe the federal guidance for medical surveillance
• Analyze exposure control techniques to protecting general industry workers from
silica exposure
• Recognize the health hazards related to over exposure to respirable crystalline
silica
• Identify the cause of lung tissue damage
• Understand the three major development stages of silicosis
• Explain the basic symptoms of silicosis

Lesson 1: The Issue

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe silica and its hazards

• Explain silica exposure limits
• Identify the tasks that create respirable crystalline silica
• Describe the available exposure assessment options
• Describe the available exposure control options
• Explain proper hazard communication
• Describe the necessary housekeeping when silica is exposed

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Silica

A molecule of silica is made up of two of the most abundant elements on the earth: it
contains two oxygen atoms and one silicon atom. The bonded molecules, when lined up
in a repeatable pattern, are referred to as “crystalline silica”. There are 3 identified forms
of silica in the OSHA standard:

• Quartz
• Cristobalite
• Tridymite

Respirable crystalline silica refers to a very small, breathable particle of hazardous

crystalline silica in the air that is linked to lung cancer, silicosis, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease, and kidney disease. It could consist of any of the three forms of
silica listed above (quartz, cristobalite, and tridymite). The International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) has published a regulation called Air Quality-Particle Size
Fraction Definitions for Health-Related Sampling (ISO 7708:1995). These very small
particles are at least 100 times smaller than ordinary sand you might find on beaches
and playgrounds.

The source of the silica dust is commonly drilling, crushing, cutting, or grinding rocks
such as quartz (the most common surface material by volume to make up the earth’s
crust). However, silica can be found in brick, mortar, concrete, slate, granite, tile, sand-
blasting sand, and filter media as well. Activities such as abrasive blasting with sand;
sawing brick or concrete; sanding or drilling into concrete walls; grinding mortar;
manufacturing brick, concrete blocks, stone countertops, or ceramic products; and
cutting or crushing stone can result in worker exposures to respirable crystalline silica
dust.

Over-Exposure to Silica

Over-exposure to respirable crystalline silica has been linked to several health diseases
and conditions, such as, but not limited to:

• Lung Cancer
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
• Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)
• Silicosis

Lung Cancer

When silica is inhaled, especially when accompanied by smoking, there is a higher risk
for workers to develop lung cancer than either factor alone. The American Cancer
Society reports that over 100 studies conducted have shown there is “strong consistent
evidence that silica exposure increases lung cancer risks (American Cancer Society,
2013).

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Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

COPD is a progressive and mostly irreversible airflow obstruction condition that mostly
afflicts cigarette smokers. However, a report done in the United Kingdom identifies the
relationship of increased cases of COPD in non-smoking individuals that are exposed to
silica at work (British Medical Bulletin, 2012).

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

Though the sample size was small, the US National Library of Medicine National
Institutes of Health noted in a 2011 report that there is “a positive relationship between
occupational silica exposure and CKD” (NCBI, 2011). Additionally, the report states
exposure to silica may also be associated with earlier stages of kidney disease.

Silicosis

Silicosis is a lung disease that is related to chronic exposure or even acute exposures at
a very high level of silica. Workers who develop silicosis have such severe lung damage
that they experience fever, coughing, shortness of breath, occasional bluish skin at the
ear lobes or lips, chronic fatigue, and loss of appetite.

Silicosis causes these symptoms by generating a chronic inflammatory reaction in the

lungs. This disease is known to indirectly kill lung tissue: when the body’s immune
response cells, called macrophages, try to dissolve the silica dust, they instead become
weighted down with the respirable crystalline silica and sink into the lung tissue where
they die. The alveoli (air sacs) in the lungs are damaged or scarred as a result of this
process. Workers can eventually become sick and die as a result of these symptoms.

There are 3 major stages in the development of silicosis:

1. Chronic (> 10 years of mild over-exposure of respirable crystalline silica)

2. Accelerated (5-10 years of moderate over-exposure of respirable crystalline
silica)
3. Acute (up to 3 years of heavy over-exposure of respirable crystalline silica)

Workers that have silica exposure and exhibit signs for silicosis should seek medical
attention.

Silica Exposure Limits

Exposure Limits and Specific Construction Task Identified in Task 1 of the

Standard

OSHA has revised its Silica standard to reflect the current research which showed the
previous standard wasn’t protective enough for workers. The new regulation is

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expressed in the amount of silica that a worker can be exposed over an 8-hour time
weighted average (TWA). This limit is called the Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) and
it has been lowered to 50 micrograms of respirable crystalline silica per cubic meter of
air (μg/m3). At the action level of 25 μg/m3 averaged over an 8-hour day, the employer
must act to reduce the exposure to the worker.

To calculate the TWA for exposure, the employer must use the following calculation:

TWA= ((T1 x C1) + (T2 x C2) + …… (Tn x Cn))/8

In this equation, C is the concentration of silica for any period of time (T1, T2, etc.)
during which the concentration of the silica is constant.

Here is a sample breakdown of concentrations for an 8-hour shift:

• 3 hours at 100 μg/m3

• 2 hours at 10 μg/m3
• 5 hours at 50 μg/m3

The calculation would go as follows:

TWA= ((3 x 100) + (2 x 10) + (5 x 50))/8 = 71.25 μg/m3

This would be above the PEL, so the employer must take steps to lower the exposure.

Stationary masonry saws

• Use a saw that is equipped with an integrated water delivery system with
constant feed
• Operate per the operations and maintenance (O&M) manual to minimize dust
emissions
• If the above precautions are taken, no respiratory protection needed

Handheld power saw (any diameter)

• Use a saw that is equipped with an integrated water delivery system with
constant feed
• Operate per the Operations and Maintenance (O&M) manual to minimize dust
emissions.
• When used outdoors for:
o Less than 4 hours/shift, no respirator is needed
o More than 4 hours/shift, a respirator with a minimum assigned protection
factor (APF) of 10 should be worn
• When used indoors or in enclosed areas for:
o Less than 4 hours/shift, a respirator with APF 10 should be worn

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 o More than 4 hours/shift, a respirator with APF 10 should be worn

Handheld power saws for cutting fiber-cement board (with blade diameter of 8” or
less)

• Use saw equipped with commercially available dust collection system

• Use as outlined in O&M
• Ensure 99% or greater dust collection efficiency
• If the above precautions are taken, no respiratory protection needed

Walk-behind saws

• Use a saw that is equipped with an integrated water delivery system with
constant feed
• Operate as outlined in O&M to minimize dust emissions
• When used outdoors, no respirator is needed
• When used indoors or enclosed areas, a respirator with APF 10 should be worn.

Drivable saws

o Use a saw that is equipped with an integrated water delivery system with
constant feed
o Operate per O&M to minimize dust emissions
o If the above precautions are taken, no respiratory protection needed

Rig-mounted core saws or drills

• Use a saw that is equipped with an integrated water delivery system with
constant feed
• Operate per O&M to minimize dust emissions
• If the above precautions are taken, no respiratory protection needed

Handheld and stand-mounted drills (including impact and rotary hammer drills)

o Use a saw that is equipped with a shroud or cowling with dust collection
capabilities
o Operate per O&M to minimize dust emissions
o Use a HEPA-filtered vacuum when cleaning holes
o A dust collector must be provided with a filter with 99% or greater
efficiency and a filter-cleaning mechanism
o If the above precautions are taken, no respiratory protection needed

Dowel drilling for concrete

• Use a shroud around the drill bit with a dust collection system

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 • The dust collector must have a filter with 99% or greater efficiency and a filter-
cleaning mechanism
• Use a HEPA-filtered vacuum when cleaning holes
• Wear a respirator with APF 10

Vehicle-mounted drilling rigs for rock and concrete

• Use a dust collection system with a close capture hood or shroud around drill bit
that employs a low-flow water spray to wet the dust at the discharge point form
the dust collector, OR
• Operate from within an enclosed cab and use water for dust suppression on the
drill bit
• If the above precautions are taken, no respiratory protection needed

Jackhammers and handheld powered chipping tools

• Use a tool with a continuous stream or spray of water at the point of impact, OR
• Use a tool with a commercially available shroud and dust collection system
• Operate per O&M to minimize dust emissions
• The dust collector must be provided with a filter with 99% or greater efficiency
and a filter-cleaning mechanism
• When used outdoors for:
o Less than 4 hours/shift, no respirator is needed
o More than 4 hours/shift, respirator with APF 10 must be worn
• When used indoors or in enclosed areas, a respirator with APF 10 must be worn

Handheld grinders for mortar removal (i.e., tuckpointing)

• Use a grinder equipped with a commercially available shroud and dust collection
system
• Operate per O&M to minimize dust emissions
• The dust collector must provide 25 cubic feet per minute (cfm) or greater of
airflow per inch of wheel diameter
• A filter with 99% or greater efficiency and a cyclonic pre-separator or filter-
cleaning mechanism should be used
• For work less than 4 hours/shift, use a respirator with APF 10
• For work more than 4 hours/shift, use respirator with an APF 25

Handheld grinders for uses other than mortar removal

• Use grinder equipped with commercially available shroud and dust collection
system
• Operate per O&M to minimize dust emissions
• The dust collector must provide 25 cubic feet per minute (cfm) or greater of
airflow per inch of wheel diameter

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 • Use a filter with 99% or greater efficiency and a cyclonic pre-separator or filter-
cleaning mechanism
• When used outdoors, no respirator is needed
• When used indoors or in enclosed areas:
o For less than 4 hours/shift, no respirator is needed
o For more than 4 hours/shift, use a respirator with APF 10

Walk-behind milling machines and floor grinders

• Operate per O&M to minimize dust emissions

• Use a Hepa-filtered vacuum when used indoors or enclosed areas to remove
loose dust in between passes
• A dust collector must be provided with a filter with 99% or greater efficiency and
a filter-cleaning mechanism
• If the above precautions are taken, no respiratory protection needed

Small drivable milling machines (less than half-lane)

• Operate per O&M to minimize dust emissions

• Use a machine equipped with supplemental water sprays designed to suppress
dust. Water must be combined with a surfactant.
• When the above precautions are taken, no respiratory protection needed

Large drivable milling machine (half-lane and lager)

• For cutting less than 4 inches in depth on any substrate:

o Use a machine equipped with supplemental water sprays designed to
suppress dust; you may additionally use exhaust ventilation on the drum
enclosure
o If only using the supplemental water spray, it must be combined with a
surfactant
• For cutting more than 4 inches in depth (for asphalt only):
o Use machine with exhaust ventilation on drum enclosure and
supplemental water sprays designed to suppress dust
o Operate and maintain machine to minimize dust emissions

Crushing machines

• Use equipment that is designed to spray or mist for dust suppression at crusher
and other points where dust is generated
• Operate per O&M to minimize dust emissions
• Use a ventilated booth that provides fresh, climate-controlled air to the operator,
or a remote-control station
• If the above precautions are taken, no respiratory protection needed

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Heavy equipment and utility vehicles used to abrade or fracture silica-containing
materials

• Operate equipment from within an enclosed cab

• When employees outside of the cab are engaged in the task, apply water and/or
dust suppressants as necessary to minimize dust emissions

Heavy equipment and utility vehicles for tasks such as grading and excavating

• Apply water and/or dust suppression as necessary to minimize dust emissions

• When the equipment operator is the only employee engaged in the task, operate
equipment from within an enclosed cab

Abrasive Blasting

Blasting substrates containing silica is regulated as an extremely high hazard task.

Common Silica-Producing Tools and their Controls

Handheld Grinders for Mortar Removal (Tuckpointing) and Other Tasks

Using a grinder to remove mortar while tuckpointing can generate respirable crystalline
silica dust, which can irreversibly damage the lungs. The most effective engineering
control method to protect workers is to use a vacuum dust collection system (VDCS)
which sucks the dust out of the air at the point of work. The grinder and VDCS must be
operated and maintained in accordance with the manufacturers’ instructions. A VDCS
works best when employees are properly trained and use good work practices, including:

• Keeping the vacuum hose clear and free of debris, kinks, and tight bends.
• Following the equipment manufacturer’s direction on how to reduce dust buildup
on the filter.
• Changing vacuum-collection bags as needed.
• Setting a regular schedule for maintenance and filter cleaning of the grinder and
VDCS.
• Avoiding exposure to dust when changing vacuum bags and cleaning or
replacing air filters.

Unless there is a ventilation system that effectively captures the dust cloud, do not use
compressed air or blowers to clean dust from surfaces or clothing. This can increase the
risk of exposure to silica. Instead, use a HEPA filter-equipped vacuum or by wet
methods.

In addition to using a VDCS, workers should use respiratory protection with a minimum
assigned protection factor (APF) of 10 when using the grinder for four hours or less per
shift, and an APF of 25 when using it for more than four hours per shift.

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Grinders equipped with an integrated water delivery system can be used to control dust
when cutting, grinding, or polishing granite, concrete, or other materials containing
crystalline silica. Note that where wet methods are employed, electrical hazards are of
particular concern.

Handheld, Stationary, and Drivable Power Saws

Similar to grinders, power saws used to cut stone, concrete, and masonry can generate
respirable crystalline silica dust. The most effective control method for avoiding the
hazards posed by silica when using power saws is the wet cutting method, in which
water is applied continuously to the saw blade. A vacuum dust collection system
(VDCS) may also be used.

Many handheld power saws come equipped with an integrated water delivery system
designed to cool the blade by directing a continuous stream of water onto the blade
where it wets the material being cut and reduces the amount of dust generated. The
water can be supplied either by a pressurized container or by a constant water supply
such as a hose. Water flow rates must be sufficient to minimize the release of visible
dust.

When employing the wet cutting method, the saw must be operated and maintained in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. In particular, be sure to:

• Check that hoses are securely connected and are not cracked or broken.
• Adjust nozzles so that water goes to the blade and wets the cutting area.
• Inspect the saw blade before use to be sure it is in good condition and does not
show excessive wear.
• Clean up any slurry produced to prevent it from drying and releasing silica dust
into the air.

Stationary masonry saws may come equipped with a water basin that holds several
gallons of water and recirculates it through a nozzle that directs a continuous stream
onto the blade. In addition to the maintenance and safety checks listed above, for a
stationary masonry saw be sure to also replace the basin water when it gets gritty or
begins to silt up with dust. Instead of a basin, a drivable saw will have a built-in water
tank or will be supplied by a hose.

If the wet cutting method is not sufficient to reduce silica exposure from stationary
masonry saws, extra ventilation or a means of exhaust may be needed. This can be
supplied by exhaust trunks, portable exhaust fans, air ducts, or other mechanical means
of ventilation.

Note that countertops, whether of natural or engineered stone, often contain high levels
of silica. Because countertops undergo both cutting and grinding, they can easily
release this silica into the air, which can be dangerous to workers. Special care should

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be taken when working with countertops to prevent this hazard. Here are some possible
controls:

• Use water spraying systems and remote-controlled tools at the impact site where
a saw or grinder generates dust.
• Large bridge or gantry-like saws usually use water sprays and can be remote-
controlled for dust control and cooling.
• Hand-held angle grinders can be modified to deliver water to the point of contact
with the stone.
• Wet-edge milling machines or stone routers can replace dry grinders in shops.
They provide a clean edge profile with a diamond wheel.
• Use hand tools (e.g., drills, masonry saws, grinders) equipped with a shroud and
a vacuum with a high efficiency particulate air (HEPA)-filter when wet methods
are not practicable.
• Install LEV systems at fixed locations to capture dust at its point of origin.
• Use a combination of both water and ventilation controls, if necessary.

Jackhammers

The use of a jackhammer or handheld power chipping tool to break or demolish

concrete, stone, masonry, or other silica-containing materials can generate dangerous
silica dust. When jackhammering, wetting must occur with a continuous stream or spray
of water at the point where the jackhammer’s tip strikes the surface material. Employers
may use manual spraying or water- spray systems. Under either approach, water must
be applied at a flow rate sufficient to minimize the release of visible dust. Only wetting
the surface is not sufficient. Continuous water application either streamed or sprayed at
the point where the jackhammer or handheld powered chipping tool breaks the surface
is necessary because as the tool breaks through the surface, dry materials below are
disturbed, which can produce dust.

One option for applying water when jackhammering is to have one worker direct a
stream or spray of water at the impact point while another worker operates the
jackhammer or powered chipping tool. A portable sprayer with a nozzle can be used for
this job. Spray nozzles aimed at the tip of the tool on jackhammers and handheld
powered chipping tools can also lower silica exposures. Existing equipment can be
retrofitted with such nozzles.

Drills

The use of handheld and stand-mounted drills, impact and rotary hammer drills, and
similar tools used to drill holes in concrete, masonry, or other silica-containing materials
can generate respirable crystalline silica dust. The best engineering control for avoiding
this hazard is the vacuum dust collection system (VDCS), similar to that used for
grinding machines and saws. A VDCS encloses a drill in a commercially available
shroud or cowling with a vacuum attached to capture the silica dust as it is generated
around the drill bit.

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When using a VDCS with a drill, be sure to:

• Keep the vacuum hose clear and free of debris, kinks, and tight bends.
• Activate any non-automatic filter-cleaning mechanism as needed to reduce dust
buildup on the filter.
• Change vacuum-collection bags as needed.
• Set a schedule for filter cleaning and maintenance.
• Avoid exposure to dust when changing vacuum bags and cleaning or replacing
air filters.

Crushing Machines

Using crushing machines at construction sites to reduce the size of large rocks,
concrete, or construction rubble can generate respirable crystalline silica dust. The use
of water sprays or mists for dust suppression at the points where dust is generated (for
example, hoppers, conveyers, sieves, vibrating components, and discharge points) can
control dust exposures when operating crushers. In addition, operator isolation through
the use of a remote-control station or ventilated booth that provides fresh, climate-
controlled air to the operator must also be used to control exposure when operating
crushers at construction sites.

Wet spray methods can greatly reduce the silica exposure levels of operators and
laborers who work near crushers, tending the equipment, removing jammed material
from hoppers, picking debris out of the material stream, and performing other tasks.
The crusher must be operated and maintained in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions to minimize dust emissions. Make sure to:

• Locate nozzles upstream of dust generation points.

• Position nozzles to thoroughly wet the material.
• Ensure the volume and size of droplets is adequate to sufficiently wet the
material (optimal droplet size is between 10 and 150 μm).
• Ensure nozzles provide complete water coverage but are not so far that the
water is carried away by wind.

Operator isolation for crushing machines includes using either an enclosed booth or a
remote-control station. Operators using crushing machines with enclosed cabs can limit
their silica exposure by staying inside the cab during crushing operations. The enclosed
cab must:

• Be well-sealed and well-ventilated using positive pressure.

• Have door jambs, window grooves, power-line entries and other joints that work
properly and are tightly sealed.
• Have heating and air conditioning so that operators can keep windows and doors
closed.

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 • Use an intake air filter with a minimum MERV-16 rating (at least 95 percent in the
0.3-10.0 µm range).
• Be kept free from settled dust by regular cleaning and maintenance to prevent
dust from becoming airborne inside the enclosed booth.

An alternative method for operator isolation is to use a remote-control station located a

sufficient distance upwind to limit exposure to silica containing dust.

Exposure Assessment Options

Employers that either do not perform the tasks listed in the previous section or choose
to use another form of exposure control must evaluate the worksite for silica exposure.
For the employer to know the actual employee exposure level to respirable crystalline
silica, they will have to do worksite assessment. There are two options of assessments
allowed under the silica standard: the performance option or the scheduled monitoring
option.

Performance Option

The performance option is the more flexible of the two accepted assessment methods.
Objective air monitoring data collected from an employer, a manufacturer, an industry-
wide survey, or various professional associations is utilized to profile the work
environment. This data must be an accurate depiction of the working conditions of the
worksite in terms of the concentration, duration, types of materials, environmental
conditions, etc. Below are some examples OSHA provides of acceptable sources for
objective data (OSHA, 2018):

• Calculations based on substance composition

• Area sampling exposure mapping based on results
• Historical data for air monitoring by the employer
• Air monitoring data that reflects the workplace from industry-wide surveys
•
Air monitoring must be done in accordance with Appendix A of the OSHA standard,
which lists laboratory procedures for measuring the quality of air. A statement from the
approved laboratory detailing the level of silica at the most representative location of the
worker’s environment will be acceptable to OSHA.

If the employer chooses to use the performance option, then the following must occur:

• Exposure assessment must be done prior to the commencement or assignment

of work
• Reassessment of exposure must be done if there is a change in the process,
product, or hazard control equipment that is expected to increase the exposure
• The employer must prove that the assessment was accurate
• The employer must ensure that the exposure assessment reflects the exposure
for each job classification and every shift.

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Scheduled Monitoring Option

The scheduled monitoring option involves testing employees for exposure levels and
should commence as soon as the work begins. Exposed employees are given air-
sampling devices to wear at their breathing zones for a full shift. Another technique is to
use a stationary air sampling meter, which is positioned in a place that represents the
highest concentrations of silica exposure for several employees in a regulated area.

The employer can discontinue monitoring if the initial employee monitoring is below the
action level. If the most recent sampling event is at or above the action level, but below
the PEL, then the sampling must be repeated within a 6-month period. However, if the
most recent sampling reveals exposure above the PEL, then it must be repeated within
3 months.

Once an employer has taken a sampling that is below the action level (not counting the
initial sampling), then 2 more consecutive samples should be taken 7 or more days
apart from each other. If one of the 2 follow up samples exceed the action level, then
the employer must follow the procedures as outlined in the Reassessment of Exposures
section of the standard.
Employees must be notified, in writing or by a posting in a location where everyone can
see, of the results of the silica exposure test results within 5 working days after the
completion of either exposure assessment. The 5-day notification begins when:

• An employer receives the laboratory results of the scheduling monitoring test, or

• Following the completion of the performance option exposure assessment

Employees or the designated representative must be allowed to observe the air

monitoring if requested. Anyone observing a scheduled monitoring assessment must be
protected from silica exposure by engineering controls or personal protective
equipment.

Exposure Control Options

Regardless of which exposure control method is used, all construction employers

covered by the standard are required to:

• Establish and implement a written exposure control plan that identifies tasks that
involve exposure and methods used to protect workers, including procedures to
restrict access to work areas where high exposure may occur
• Designate a competent person to implement the written exposure control plan
• Restrict housekeeping practices that expose workers to silica, such as use of
compressed air without a ventilation system to capture the dust and dry
sweeping
• Offer medical exams—including chest X-rays and lung function tests—every
three years for workers as required by the standard to some operations

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Engineering controls are the most effective way to protect a worker from any hazard
that cannot be completely eliminated. An engineering control is a physical device or
mechanism that will protect workers from a hazard. The second-best way to protect a
worker from a hazard is to define administrative controls (work rules). Finally, Personal
Protective Equipment (PPE) is utilized when engineering and administrative controls are
not sufficient to completely negate the hazard’s effects. The following are examples of
these three types of controls:

• Engineering Controls
o Ventilation systems in cabs of vehicles
o Wet cutting methods
o Vacuums equipped with a 0.3-micron HEPA filter
• Administrative Controls
o Policies and Procedures
o Following Operations and Maintenance (O & M) manuals
o Conducting Job Hazard Analysis (JHA)
o Exposure Control Plan
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
o Hand protection
o Eye and face protection
o Respiratory protection
o Gloves

The employer must comply with all regulations outlined in OSHA’s construction
ventilation standard 1926.57. Additionally, OSHA encourages the use of alternative
substrates to replace silica when possible as an added engineering control. The use of
a respirator is mandatory when doing repair task where engineering and work practices
aren’t feasible.

The employer must also develop and display a written exposure control plan that
includes at least the following information:

• Description of the tasks in the workplace involving exposure to silica

• Description of engineering controls, work practices, and respiratory protection for
each task
• Description of housekeeping measures
• Description of the signs that indicate the engineering or other exposure controls
are not working effectively, such as increase of visible dust or no water being
delivered on the blade of a handsaw
• Include manufacturer instruction for all tools and equipment that are being used
per the Table 1 guidelines
• Annual review of plan for effectiveness and update the plan when necessary
• Written plan must be readily available to each employee covered by the section,
their designated representative, the Assistant Secretary and the Director

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Housekeeping is a term that refers to the condition of the work environment as a
measure of cleanliness. Employees must avoid dry sweeping, brushing, or using
compressed air to blow dust off of themselves or any surface. This practice will increase
the exposure of silica to the worker and the surrounding workstations.

Medical evaluation

Workers who are required to wear respirators under the standard for 30 or more days a
year must be given a medical evaluation. These examinations must be offered every 3
years and must contain tests for pulmonary functions, a chest x-ray, and a physical
exam. This medical surveillance is intended to:

• Identify if there is any disease caused from exposure to respirable crystalline

silica contracted by the worker, and take actions necessary to protect their health
• Determine if the work has any conditions that may make them or others sensitive
to working around silica
• Determine if the worker is fit to wear a respirator

After the exam the worker will get a report detailing their health and the employer will
receive a medical opinion as per the limitations, if any, to the worker as a result of the
exam. All medical evaluations must be free to the employees and offered at a
reasonable time and place. Medical records must be kept and made available in
accordance to 29 CFR 1910.1020. The records must include:

• Air monitoring data

• Objective data
• Medical Records

Though silica sand in the respirable state can be very dangerous for the workers, it is
controllable by engineering, administrative, and PPE. In some cases, the exposure to
this dust can be eliminated by substitution methods. However, the employer must
protect its workers from this known hazard through the methods outlined in the OSHA
standard.

Hazard Communication

Employers must comply with the 29 CFR 1910.1200 Subpart Z hazard communication
standard. This standard is commonly referred to as “the right to know” rule for chemical
exposure. Workers must be aware of the hazards related to the handling, storage, and
use of chemicals in or around their work environment. Under the silica standard
employers must address:

• Cancer hazards
• Lung effects
• Immune system effects
• Kidney effects

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Under the hazard communication standard each component of a workplace must have:

• Labelling of primary and secondary containment of chemicals

• A written hazard communication program
• An administrator for the hazard communication program
• Training on the chemicals that the workers are exposed to the workplace
• Instructions on how to interpret the Safety Data Sheets (SDS)
• Knowledge of what task will produce over-exposure to chemicals

Workers must be trained on the following topics regarding respirable silica dust
exposure:

• How the presence or release of silica is detected and analyzed

• Objective data or Air Monitoring Sampling
• How a visible increase in dust concentration indicates that the work exposure
control practice in inadequate
• The details of workplace-specific SDS information, signage, container labels,
emergency procedures, and written exposure control plan
• Work practices that will reduce or increase the exposure to silica dust
• Housekeeping techniques designed to reduce or eliminate the workplace
exposure to silica

If workers are ever found to be working in a manner that suggests they have forgotten
their initial training, they must be retrained on the hazards of silica.

Acceptable training methods are as follows, but not limited to:

• Hands-on training
• Webinars
• Videotapes
• Slide presentations
• Classroom instruction
• Seminars
• Written material
• Any combination of training delivery systems

Lesson Summary

• A molecule of silica is made up of two of the most abundant elements on the

earth: it contains two oxygen atoms and one silicon atom. The bonded
molecules, when lined up in a repeatable pattern, are referred to as “crystalline
silica”. There are 3 identified forms of silica in the OSHA standard: Quartz,
Cristobalite, and Tridymite.

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 • Respirable crystalline silica refers to a very small, breathable particle of
hazardous crystalline silica in the air that is linked to lung cancer, silicosis,
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and kidney disease. It could consist of
any of the three forms of silica listed above (quartz, cristobalite, and tridymite).
• Over-exposure to respirable crystalline silica has been linked to several health
diseases and conditions, such as, but not limited to: Lung Cancer, Chronic,
Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD), and
Silicosis.
• Tools that commonly produce respirable silica include grinders, saws,
jackhammers, drills, and crushing machines.
• Employers that either do not perform the tasks listed in the previous section or
choose to use another form of exposure control must evaluate the worksite for
silica exposure. For the employer to know the actual employee exposure level to
respirable crystalline silica, they will have to do worksite assessment. There are
two options of assessments allowed under the silica standard: the performance
option or the scheduled monitoring option.
• Engineering controls are the most effective way to protect a worker from any
hazard that cannot be completely eliminated. An engineering control is a physical
device or mechanism that will protect workers from a hazard. The second-best
way to protect a worker from a hazard is to define administrative controls (work
rules). Finally, Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is utilized when engineering
and administrative controls are not sufficient to completely negate the hazard’s
effects.
• Employers must comply with the 29 CFR 1910.1200 Subpart Z hazard
communication standard. This standard is commonly referred to as “the right to
know” rule for chemical exposure. Workers must be aware of the hazards related
to the handling, storage, and use of chemicals in or around their work
environment.

Module 20: Lead Exposure

Module Description
Lead is a very toxic substance. People who are exposed to lead or lead compounds
may become ill or even die due to lead poisoning. Our bodies remove lead from our
systems at a slow rate, so inhaling even small doses of lead for a prolonged period of
time can result in lead poisoning. Workers who are required to work at or near sites that
are contaminated with lead are at a greater risk of lead poisoning.

This module is designed for workers who work in areas where the hazard of lead
exposure exists. The module focuses on the health risks associated with exposure to
lead and how workers can protect themselves against lead.

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Module Learning Objectives
At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

• Identify the health effects and risks of exposure to lead

• Identify the ways in which lead can enter the body
• Identify the signs and symptoms of exposure to lead
• Describe the medical monitoring program
• Discuss the medical tests that are required before an employee begins work
• Explain how to control lead exposure
• Identify common control measures

Lesson 1: Lead in the Workplace

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe how lead is used in the construction industry

• Describe the common routes of exposure to lead
• Identify activities that can cause lead exposure
• Describe the health hazards of lead exposure
• Describe the signs and symptoms of lead poisoning
• Explain how medical monitoring must be administered
• Describe a exposure assessment

Introduction

Lead is a heavy metal that is mixed with many substances to form lead compounds
used for a multitude of purposes. Despite its usefulness, lead is toxic if absorbed by the
body in sufficient quantities through inhalation or ingestion.

When lead enters the body, it circulates in the bloodstream and accumulates in various
organs, possibly causing irreversible harm to body tissues. Although the body routinely
rids itself of absorbed lead, some may still remain in the blood and tissues. With further
exposure, the stored amount of lead may continue to increase, eventually leading to
lead poisoning, which can cause serious illness or death.

Lead in the Construction Industry

Due to its various useful properties, lead is abundantly used in the construction industry.
Some of these properties include its:

• Low melting point

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 • High molecular weight
• High density
• Ductility (how easily it can be molded and shaped)
• Availability

In the past, lead compounds were often applied to steel and iron structures in the form
of paint primer. Lead was also commonly used for making the different metal alloys
found in shielding in walls and in lead pipes. Because of these and other uses, workers
in the construction industry are at an increased risk of exposure to lead and lead
compounds. Continuous exposure can be catastrophic if specific control measures are
not taken.

Routes of Exposure to Lead

Lead most commonly enters the body through inhalation or ingestion. It is not usually
absorbed through the skin.

Inhalation

In the construction industry, inhalation is the most common route of lead absorption into
the body. It occurs when there are airborne lead particles in the work area and workers
breathe them in. Inhalation can also occur when a worker smokes in a contaminated
area.

Ingestion

Workers can accidentally consume lead particles while eating or drinking contaminated
food or beverages, or by eating, drinking, or smoking with contaminated hands. If
workers do not follow specific work guidelines and hygiene practices they may take
contaminants home, causing harm to the whole family.

Activities That Can Cause Lead Exposure

Construction workers are most commonly exposed to lead while performing the
following tasks:

• Removing and applying lead-based paints

• Melting and casting lead and babbitt metal
• Soldering
• Reclaiming lead-acid batteries
• Grinding or sanding lead-containing materials
• Machining lead
• Cutting or heating lead-containing materials

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Health Hazards of Lead Exposure

Lead is a toxic substance and can cause severe adverse health effects if there is long-
term or acute overexposure. Lead can severely damage your nervous, urinary,
reproductive, and other systems. Lead can also cause anemia, as it hinders the
formation of hemoglobin in the blood, and it can damage the cells in the kidneys,
potentially leading to kidney failure.

Lead has also been found to reduce sperm count in men and decrease their fertility. If a
pregnant woman is exposed to lead, the lead particles can pass from the mother to the
infant through the placenta.

Signs and Symptoms of Lead Poisoning

Exposure to lead can affect each person differently, sometimes causing severe damage
to the body even before symptoms appear.

Early Signs

Early signs of lead poisoning can be overlooked as everyday medical complaints. These
include:

• Loss of appetite
• Metallic taste
• Irritability
• Moodiness
• Joint and muscle aches
• Trouble sleeping
• Lack of concentration
• Fatigue
• Decreased sex drive
• Headaches

Later Signs

Brief intense exposure or prolonged overexposure can result in severe damage to your
blood-forming, nervous, urinary, and reproductive systems. Some noticeable medical
problems include:

• Anemia
• Kidney failure
• Stomach pains
• High blood pressure
• Convulsions or seizures
• Constipation or diarrhea

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 • Tremors
• Nausea
• Wrist or foot drop
• Reduced fertility

Medical Monitoring

Lead has an action level of 30 micrograms per cubic meter (30 ug/m3). If you work in
the construction industry and are exposed to lead at or above the action level, initial
medical surveillance is required.

Your employer may be required to perform medical monitoring every six months. If you
have a blood lead level of 40 ug/100g, you must be tested at least every other month
until your blood lead level goes below 40 ug/100g for two consecutive blood tests. Your
employer is required to notify you in writing within 5 days of the test if your blood lead
level exceeds 40 ug/100g.

If your blood lead level is at or above 50 ug/100g, you must not enter any lead
contaminated areas until two consecutive tests confirm that your blood lead level has
been reduced to 40 ug/100g or less. Your employer is required to provide annual
medical examinations to all employees whose blood lead levels have been at or above
40 ug/100g during the previous year.

Exposure Assessment

Employers are responsible for assessing each employee's exposure level. If the initial
exposure is assessed to be at or above the action level (30 ug/m3), the employer must
obtain samples that indicate the level of exposure for each work shift and for each task
in each work area. The degree of daily exposure to lead for each monitored employee
can be assessed through these samples.

The results of all assessments that indicate the exposure level of employees to lead
must include the following information:

• All observations, information, and calculations that show an employee's exposure

to lead
• Measurements of any previous airborne lead
• Any complaints made by an employee of symptoms that indicate lead exposure
• Objective information about the materials that are used or the processes that
have to be carried out

If two consecutive readings that have been taken a week apart are below the action
level, an employer can discontinue the lead monitoring program and choose to only
monitor those employees who are at a greater risk of lead exposure. Employers can
also use the information related to lead exposure for the same task that was taken in

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the previous 12 months. However, employers must maintain an accurate account of any
preceding exposure data.

If the initial assessment is not performed by the employer, the company must assume
that all employees carrying out lead-related tasks are exposed at levels above the
permissible exposure level (PEL) of 50 ug/m3 and must provide them with the
appropriate respirators, protective clothing and equipment, enclosed changing areas,
washing facilities, and proper training.

If the initial assessment indicates that the level of exposure is below the action level (30
ug/m3), employers must document these findings, including the date, exact work
location, and the names and social security numbers of all the employees that were
monitored.

Monitoring and Observing

If the initial assessment indicates that the exposure is below the action level, employers
are not required to assess the workplace unless the processes or controls are changed.
The company is required to perform monitoring at least every six months if the exposure
level is at or above the action level, but at or below the PEL. Monitoring must be
continued until at least two consecutive measurements, that have been taken at least
seven days apart, are below the action level.

Monitoring must be performed quarterly if the employee exposure is above the PEL.
When at least two consecutive measurements that have been taken at least seven days
apart are at or below the PEL, but at or above the action level, monitoring should be
continued every six months until the exposure is below the action level.

Employers are required to perform additional monitoring if there is a change in the

equipment, control, process, or personnel. Additional monitoring is also required when a
new task has been started that can increase the risk of exposure to lead. Employers are
required to inform all employees about the assessment results within five working days
after they have been received.

If the exposure level is determined to be at or above the PEL, employers are required to
issue a written notice to workers informing them about the exposure level and the
preventive measures they must take in order to reduce exposure.

If workers are required to perform lead-related tasks, they have the right to observe the
monitoring of their lead exposure. Furthermore, they are entitled to receive respirators,
protective clothing, and any other equipment that is necessary to perform the task
safely.

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Lesson Summary

• Lead can be very toxic—even deadly—if it is absorbed by the body in sufficient

quantities, most commonly by either unintentional inhalation or ingestion.
Because our bodies are slow to remove lead from our systems, someone who
inhales small doses of lead—over a long period of time—can end up with lead
poisoning. When lead enters the body it circulates in the bloodstream and
accumulates in various organs, possibly causing irreversible harm to body
tissues.
• If the amount of lead stored in the body continues to increase, the person can
suffer numerous adverse health effects, including severe damage to kidneys,
nervous, urinary, blood-forming, and reproductive systems; anemia; decreased
fertility; and danger to the unborn babies of pregnant workers, since lead
particles can pass through the placenta. Workers must learn to recognize the
early and later symptoms of lead poisoning, which range from headaches and
fatigue to seizures and tremors.
• Workers in the construction industry are at an increased risk of lead exposure
because lead is used in everything from steel and iron structures to walls and
lead pipes. Specific measures must be taken to protect workers from the deadly
hazards posed by lead. Such measures include medical monitoring, medical
surveillance where indicated, exposure assessments, regular monitoring of
exposure levels, and additional monitoring where indicated.

Lesson 2: Exposure Reduction & Employee Protection

Lesson Focus

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe lead control measures

• Describe the personal hygiene, housekeeping practices, and personal protective
equipment (PPE) needed to protect against lead
• Explain what recordkeeping is necessary for lead exposure

Lead Control Measures

In order to minimize employee exposure to lead, employers must make sure that lead
control measures and proper work practices are used whenever workers are performing
lead-related tasks. The permissible exposure level of lead is 50ug/m3. If exposure
beyond this level exists, additional controls are required.

Some control measures that can be adopted to reduce your exposure to lead include
exhaust ventilation, encapsulation, substitution, process modification, and isolation.

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Exhaust Ventilation

All equipment and tools used to remove lead-based paint must have a high-efficiency
particulate air (HEPA) vacuum system attached to collect lead dust particles. Your
employer must provide local exhaust ventilation for tasks such as welding, cutting,
burning, or heating. To clean up the work area, you must only use HEPA vacuums in
order to prevent lead particles from becoming airborne.

Some operations, such as abrasive blasting, may require full containment or enclosure.
The structure of the enclosure must allow the flow of ventilation air past you. This
reduces the concentration of airborne lead and increases visibility. The enclosure must
be equipped with dust collection and air-cleaning devices so that the emission of lead
particles can be controlled. Your employer is required to maintain a negative pressure
inside the enclosure in order to prevent lead particles from contaminating areas outside
the enclosure.

Encapsulation

Your employer is required to follow similar precautions if they are making all lead-based
paint inaccessible by encapsulating it with a material that adheres to the surface, such
as epoxy coating, acrylic, or flexible wall coverings. In addition to painting or coating,
lead can also be enclosed by using systems such as plywood paneling, gypsum
wallboard, aluminum, or vinyl. Vinyl tiles or linoleum flooring can be used to cover floors
that are coated with lead-based paint.

Your employer is also responsible for supervising the workers and contractors who are
carrying out activities that involve encapsulated lead-based paint, and ensuring that a
minimum amount of lead is released in the air during maintenance or demolition.

Substitution

You can avoid using lead-containing materials by selecting other materials. Epoxy-
covered zinc-containing primers can be used instead of lead-containing coatings. Also,
you can use equipment that decreases the risk of lead emission. When cutting lead-
containing materials, for example, you can use a mobile hydraulic shear instead of a
torch. For some operations, you can use surface preparation equipment instead of
abrasive blasting.

Hand scraping using a handheld gun can be replaced by chemical strippers. This
considerably reduces the amount of lead dust released in the air. However, care must
be taken because these strippers can themselves be hazardous.

Process Modification

To reduce the risk of lead hazard, lead-containing paints can be applied using brushes
or rollers instead of spraying them. Using this method ensures that only a little amount

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of lead is introduced into the air. For abrasive-blasting operations, you should use a
non-silica containing abrasive instead of sand when possible, as free silica in the sand
can create an increased respiratory hazard for the workers.

A large amount of dust may be produced while performing abrasive blasting. Less dusty
techniques should be used to minimize the dust being produced. These techniques can
include:

• Hydro-blasting involves using high-pressure water with or without abrasives to

remove coatings from different substances.
• Vacuum blasting in which there is a vacuum system attached to the blast head
that removes the blast material immediately after it is produced.

When removing lead-based paints in residential housing units, workers must use a
flameless electrical heat gun type softener. Furthermore, the temperature of these heat
guns must be set below 700 degrees Fahrenheit.

If you are required to perform abrasive blasting on the exterior surfaces of buildings, you
must ensure that the configuration of the head of the blasting nozzle is appropriate for
the substrate being used, so that the vacuum can contain all the debris. You must also
have HEPA vacuum cleaner attachments for different surfaces. Using the right brush
and attachment for the right surface will reduce the amount of lead dust emitted into the
air.

Isolation

Employers cannot completely enclose and ventilate some abrasive blasting tasks.
However, they can isolate many operations to reduce the risk of exposure to lead. Your
employer must restrict unauthorized personnel from entering the isolated work areas by
posting warning signs. In each work area where employee exposure to lead is above
the PEL these signs should read:

• WARNING
• LEAD WORK AREA
• POISON
• NO SMOKING OR EATING

Personal Hygiene and Housekeeping Practices

Exposure to lead can have adverse health effects. However, you can minimize your
exposure to lead by adopting rigorous personal hygiene and housekeeping practices.
These practices ensure that you do not take lead-contaminated dust from the worksite
to your home where it can endanger your family.

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Housekeeping

All accumulations of lead and lead debris must be removed every day or after every
work shift. At the end of each shift, you must either use a high-efficiency particulate air
(HEPA) vacuum to clean lead dust or else wet it before sweeping. All workers
performing clean up tasks must wear proper protective equipment and clothing,
including suitable respirators, to prevent contact with and inhalation of lead particles.

All lead debris and contaminated material that need to be disposed of must be placed in
impermeable bags or containers and properly sealed. These bags and containers must
be labeled as lead-containing waste. These measures ensure that no worker is exposed
to lead. Your employer is responsible for disposing of lead waste according to federal,
state, and local government laws.

Personal Hygiene Practices

Your personal hygiene practices must focus on minimizing your exposure to lead. The
work area must have adequate washing facilities so that workers do not take
contaminants into uncontaminated areas. Your employer is responsible for providing
workers with clean changing areas. Furthermore, they must also provide non-
contaminated eating areas that are separate from the work areas.

Changing Areas

If you are exposed to lead above the permissible exposure limit (PEL), you must be
provided with a clean changing area. This changing area must be divided into two
sections: one for storing clean street clothes, and the other for removing and storing
contaminated clothing. This segregation ensures that your street clothes do not come
into contact with contaminated work clothes.

Employees must NEVER wear contaminated clothes away from the work site. They
should not be taken home for washing under any circumstances. They should only be
laundered by professionals. Disposable clothing must be properly disposed of according
to federal, state, and local laws.

Showers

If you get a considerable amount of contaminants on your skin, hair, and protective
clothing while performing your assigned tasks you must take a shower before leaving
the work site. It is the responsibility of the employer to provide you with adequate
showering facilities to remove contaminants and change into clean clothing.

If you do not shower and change into clean clothing before leaving the worksite, you
may contaminate your vehicle and home with lead dust. This lead contamination can
harm your family members.

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Eating and Drinking Practices

All employees who perform lead-related tasks must clean or remove their protective
clothing and thoroughly wash their hands and face before eating, drinking, or smoking.
It is the responsibility of the employer to inform all workers that they must not eat, drink,
or smoke in the work area or in areas where lead-containing material is present.

Washing Facilities

Your employer is required to provide workers with adequate washing facilities that are
located near the worksite. These washing facilities must be equipped with water, soap,
and clean towels so that employees can thoroughly remove lead contamination from
their skin.

Contaminated water from all showers and washing facilities must be disposed of
according to the local, state, or federal laws.

End-of-Day Procedures

At the end of the workday, workers must follow certain procedures to minimize their
exposure to lead. These procedures include:

• Placing disposable clothes and shoe covers into impermeable containers that are
assigned for lead waste and then properly sealed off
• Placing all lead-contaminated clothes, shoes, and personal protective equipment
in a closed container to be laundered by a professional
• Taking a shower and washing hair and skin as necessary
• Changing into regular street clothes

Protective Clothing

If you are required to perform lead-related tasks, your employer must provide you with
clean, dry, protective clothing and equipment free of cost. Clothing that may be required
at lead-containing construction sites include:

• Full-body protective work clothing

• Gloves
• Goggles with protective shields
• Blasting or welding helmets

If there are no laundering services available, employers should provide workers with
disposable clothes and shoe covers. They must change into clean non-disposable
coveralls every day. Before taking off their work clothes and respirators, workers must
clean all loose particles on their clothing by using high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA)
filter vacuum equipment. Loose particles of lead can also be removed from the
respirator by using a damp wipe. All protective clothes worn must fit properly.

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All contaminated clothes that have to be laundered, cleaned, or disposed of should be
placed in closed containers and sealed off. These containers must be labeled with
warning signs that advise workers not to remove dust by blowing or shaking. Employers
must inform anyone who handles lead contaminated clothing or equipment, in writing,
about potential lead hazards. Workers must be careful never to remove lead from
protective clothing by any means that can release lead dust into the work area, such as
shaking, brushing, or blowing.

Workers must never wear protective clothing outside the work area or take
contaminated clothing and equipment to their homes or vehicles. Underneath the
protective clothing, you should wear clothes that are appropriate for the existing weather
and temperature conditions.

Respiratory Protection

At some construction sites the lead content in the air may be high or might vary widely
over time. At such sites, workers may be required to use respirators in addition to other
protective measures. If lead levels require this kind of additional protection, workers
must put on respirators before entering the work area and remove them only after
leaving the work site.

Employers are required to initiate a respiratory protection program in order to train all
employees about the usage of their respirators. Minimum requirements of the program
include:

• A written guide explaining how to select and use respirators

• Selection of respirators according to the hazards associated with a particular task
• Training sessions about the proper usage of respirators along with their
limitations
• Inspecting, cleaning, disinfecting, and maintaining the work site on a regular
basis

Types of Respirators

Protection from lead particles can be obtained by using different types of respirators.
Usually, a respirator is selected according to the nature of the work and the amount of
lead present in the workplace.

Before entering the work area, you must perform a user seal check on your respirator
by putting it on and making sure that it fits properly and that there are no gaps where
lead dust or vapors can enter.

There are two basic types of respirators that can be used to provide protection against
lead: air-purifying respirators and atmosphere-supplying respirators.

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Air-Purifying Respirators

A respirator with an air-purifying filter, cartridge, or canister is called an air-purifying

respirator. A properly selected respirator removes lead contaminants from the air by
passing air through the air-purifying component and making it acceptable to breathe
normally.

Atmosphere-Supplying Respirator

An atmosphere-supplying respirator consists of a component that provides you with

breathable air not taken from the ambient atmosphere. There are two types of
atmosphere-supplying respirators: the supplied-air respirator (SAR) and self-contained
breathing apparatus (SCBA) unit.

Supplied-air respirators use a hose called an airline to provide clean air from the air
tank. There are two types of supplied-air respirators: pressure-demand respirators and
continuous-flow respirators.

Pressure-demand respirators prevent the contaminated air from entering the face-piece
by maintaining a positive pressure. Continuous-flow respirators also maintain a positive
pressure by constantly supplying fresh air to the face-piece.

A self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) consists of a hose that is connected to a

cylinder of compressed air.

Recordkeeping

Employers are required to maintain records of all the findings of employee exposure
assessments. These records should be accurate and must contain the following
information:

• The name, social security number, and job classification of the employee who
was monitored
• Description of the sampling procedures along with the date, number, duration,
location, and results of each sample taken
• Details of all sampling and analytical methods used along with the evidence of
their accuracy
• The type of respirator worn
• The factors that might affect the measurement of employee exposure

Employers must make these records available to workers and their representatives.
Furthermore, if an employer stops doing business, all records and documents regarding
employee monitoring and assessment must be handed over to their successor.

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Lesson Summary

• In order to minimize employee exposure to lead, employers must make sure that
lead control measures and proper work practices are used whenever workers are
performing lead-related tasks. The permissible exposure level of lead is
50ug/m3. If exposure beyond this level exists, additional controls are required.
• Common lead control measures include ventilation, encapsulation, substitution,
process modification, and isolation.
• You can minimize your exposure to lead by adopting rigorous personal hygiene
and housekeeping practices. These practices ensure that you do not take lead-
contaminated dust from the worksite to your home where it can endanger your
family.
• Lead exposure can be minimized through proper housekeeping and personal
hygiene practices, using changing areas and showers as required, and following
the proper end-of-day procedures.
• If you are required to perform lead-related tasks, your employer must provide you
with clean, dry, protective clothing and equipment free of cost. Clothing that may
be required at lead-containing construction sites include:
o Full-body protective work clothing
o Gloves
o Goggles with protective shields
o Blasting or welding helmets
• At some construction sites the lead content in the air may be high or might vary
widely over time. At such sites, workers may be required to use respirators in
addition to other protective measures. If lead levels require this kind of additional
protection, workers must put on respirators before entering the work area and
remove them only after leaving the work site.
• Employers are required to maintain records of all the findings of employee
exposure assessments.

Module 21: Asbestos Exposure

Module Description
Asbestos is a substance that has been used for centuries. Its heat-resistant properties
make it almost indestructible; due to this property, asbestos has been widely used in the
construction industry, including for pipe and boiler insulation, flooring and ceiling tiles,
drywall, adhesives, and much more. Asbestos has also been widely used in products
such as vehicle brakes, wire insulation, and dryers. Before 1973, asbestos was sprayed
onto different surfaces for fire protection purposes, but this practice was banned due to
its hazardous nature. Furthermore, it is no longer legal to use asbestos for insulating
pipes and boilers in most countries, including the United States.

Because it was used for so long, asbestos can still be found in many buildings. Those
who work in construction, repair, demolition, and renovations are at a greater risk of

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contracting asbestos-related diseases such as asbestosis, lung cancer, and
mesothelioma. Very stringent exposure guidelines have been established for asbestos.
This module introduces students to the hazards of asbestos in the workplace and
provides information about the measures that must be taken in order to minimize the
effects of exposure to asbestos.

Module Learning Objectives

At the conclusion of this module, students will be able to:

• Describe the hazards of asbestos in the workplace

• Discuss the health effects of exposure to asbestos
• Identify and assess asbestos-related work activities
• Apply control measures for low-risk, moderate-risk, and high-risk activities
• Relate the proper disposal of asbestos containing material
• Select appropriate protective equipment

Lesson 1: Asbestos in the Workplace

Lesson Topics

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe asbestos and its properties

• Describe how asbestos has been used and where it may be commonly found
• Describe the health effects related to asbestos exposure
• Describe the most common asbestos-related diseases

What is Asbestos?

Asbestos is the generic term for a group of naturally occurring, fibrous minerals with
high tensile strength, flexibility, and resistance to heat, chemicals, and electricity.
Because of these properties, asbestos has long been used in the construction industry,
in installed products such as sprayed-on fireproofing, pipe insulation, floor tiles, cement
pipe and sheet, roofing felts and shingles, ceiling tiles, fire-resistant drywall, drywall joint
compounds, and acoustical products. Because of its significant health hazards, it is
rarely used for these applications anymore. Most worker exposures therefore occur
during the removal of asbestos and the renovation and maintenance of buildings and
structures containing asbestos.

Types of Asbestos

The three types of asbestos that were commonly used in building materials are
Chrysotile, Amosite, and Crocidolite. Chrysotile or “white asbestos” was the most
commonly used type. It is often found in roofs, walls, and floors in residential and

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commercial structures. Amosite, commonly referred to as "brown asbestos," is the
second most common type of asbestos and accounts for approximately four to six
percent of the asbestos used in building materials in the United States. It is commonly
found in cement sheets and pipe insulation. Crocidolite is the least common type of
asbestos and accounts for only about one to four percent of the asbestos materials
used in the United States. Crocidolite is commonly known as "blue asbestos," and was
found insulating steam engines and in some types of spray-on insulation.

Uses of Asbestos

Asbestos has many properties that make it ideal for use in a variety of products. It is
strong, fire-resistant, a poor conductor of heat and electricity, corrosion-resistant, and
found in abundance. Those products that are made with asbestos are called asbestos-
containing materials (ACM).

By the end of the 19th century, and until around 1980, asbestos was widely used in the
construction industry for the manufacture of building material. Building materials that
contain asbestos are known as asbestos-containing building materials (ACBMs).

The most common uses of ACBMs include:

• Insulation: This was usually applied with spray, trowel, or manually installed on
many surfaces to insulate them from heat and cold.
• Fireproofing: This material was applied with a spray to steel beams that were
used in construction of multi-story buildings. This helped to protect the structural
members from damage caused by heat in case there was a fire.
• Acoustical or soundproofing: Apart from soundproofing, this material was also
used for decoration. A mixture of asbestos and some other materials was
sprayed onto ceilings and walls to create a textured look.
• Miscellaneous: Asbestos has been used in the making of many products,
including roofing felts, roofing shingles, floor tiles, vehicle brakes, combustion
vents, exterior siding and wallboard, and flues for waste gases and heat.

The asbestos fibers in these products are tightly woven into the materials and are easily
released if the material is damaged (for example, by a mechanical process such as
drilling, grinding, cutting, or sanding). The asbestos present in roofing shingles and
siding that is exposed to weathering can also deteriorate gradually and release
asbestos fibers in the air.

Because very few asbestos containing products are being installed today, most worker
exposures occur during the removal of asbestos and the renovation and maintenance of
buildings and structures already containing asbestos. The potential for a product
containing asbestos to release breathable fibers depends, in part, on its degree of
friability.

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 • Friable means that the material can be easily crumbled or reduced to dust-size
particles likely to emit fibers into the air. It is more dangerous than a non-friable
piece of asbestos.

The fibrous or fluffy sprayed-on materials used for fireproofing, insulation, or sound
proofing are considered to be friable, and they may readily release airborne fibers if
disturbed. Materials such as vinyl-asbestos floor tile or roofing felts are considered
nonfriable and generally do not emit airborne fibers unless subjected to damage,
polishing, grinding, sanding, and similar operations. Asbestos-cement pipe or sheet can
emit airborne fibers if the materials are cut or sawed, or if they are broken.

Health Hazards of Exposure to Asbestos

Many studies have proven that any prolonged or excessive exposure to asbestos is
likely to have adverse health effects. Inhaling asbestos fibers can cause several lung
diseases, and the greater the exposure to asbestos fiber, the greater is the risk of
developing an illness.

Asbestos fibers enter the body when a person inhales or ingests airborne particles,
which become embedded in the tissues of the respiratory or digestive systems.
Exposure to asbestos can cause disabling or fatal diseases such as asbestosis, an
emphysema-like condition; lung cancer; mesothelioma, a cancerous tumor that spreads
rapidly in the cells of membranes covering the lungs and body organs; and
gastrointestinal cancer. The symptoms of these diseases generally do not appear for 20
or more years after initial exposure.

If someone is exposed to brief bursts of asbestos fibers in addition to those present in

the background, he or she is at a greater risk of contracting an asbestos-related
disease. Construction workers who work on and disturb asbestos-containing materials
in buildings are at a much greater risk of coming in contact with additional asbestos
fibers.

Asbestos and the Respiratory System

Exposure to asbestos fibers can damage the lungs. There are several mechanisms in
the human body that are used to "filter" the air we breathe. Many large particles from
the air are removed in the nose and mouth. Then air is passed to the airway tubes that
are covered with mucus that traps smaller particles. Tiny hair-like cells present in the
airway tubes then push these particles upwards into the nose or the back of the mouth.
From there they can either be swallowed or expelled. It is important to know that the
effectiveness of these hair-like cells may be greatly impaired when a person smokes.
This may render the body susceptible to unwanted dust or fibers that may be present in
the air.

Dust particles too small or too numerous to be captured and expelled through the body's
normal protective mechanisms may enter the tiny air sacs in the lungs where respiration

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occurs. A smoker is likely more susceptible to this than a non-smoker due to the
compromised filtration system. The human immune system then releases large cells
called macrophages that attempt to digest the dust particles. This is another one of the
body's defense mechanisms against unwanted particles in the lungs.

The risk of developing an asbestos-related disease increases greatly when the body's
natural defenses are not able to control or remove asbestos fibers that enter the lungs.
The three main factors that determine the likelihood of developing an asbestos related
disease include smoking, the amount and duration of the exposure, and the person’s
age. Common asbestos-related diseases include asbestosis, lung cancer,
mesothelioma, and some other cancers.

Asbestosis

Asbestosis is a serious disease that causes severe scarring of the lungs and reduces
lung elasticity. Due to this, breathing becomes very difficult. The scarring makes it hard
for oxygen to get into the blood. Workers who have been exposed to asbestos fibers for
long periods of time often manifest the symptoms of this disease. Symptoms of
asbestosis include shortness of breath and a dry, crackling sound in the lungs while
inhaling. There is no effective curative treatment for asbestosis, which can lead to
disability or even death.

All types of asbestos can cause asbestosis. Just like all other diseases that are
associated with asbestos exposure, it may take many years for the disease to show up.
Typically, asbestosis has a latency period of 15 to 40 years.

Mesothelioma

Mesothelioma is a type of cancer that affects the abdominal lining or the chest cavity
lining. Asbestos exposure is the leading cause of this type of cancer. It most often
affects the tissue that surrounds the lungs (pleura), causes great damage to the vital
functions of the body, and almost always results in death. Signs and symptoms may
include:

• Chest pain
• Painful coughing
• Shortness of breath
• Unusual lumps of tissue under the skin on your chest
• Unexplained weight loss

Mesothelioma occurs in people who have been exposed to asbestos for a limited period
of time. There is no direct link between cigarette smoking and mesothelioma, though
research suggests that smoking can increase a worker’s risk after asbestos exposure
has occurred. It depends on the amount of asbestos inhaled and the period of
exposure. Mesothelioma has a latency period of 15 to 50 years.

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Lung Cancer

Lung cancer occurs due to long periods of exposure to asbestos. The risk of contracting
this disease increases if the worker smokes cigarettes. In fact, workers who are
cigarette smokers are 50% more likely to develop lung cancer than those who do not
smoke. Asbestos-related lung cancer has a latency period of 15 to 30 years. The most
common symptoms of lung cancer are coughing and a change in breathing. Other
symptoms include shortness of breath, persistent chest pains, hoarseness, and anemia.

Lesson Summary

• Asbestos is the generic term for a group of naturally occurring, fibrous minerals
with high tensile strength, flexibility, and resistance to heat, chemicals, and
electricity. Because of these properties, asbestos has long been used in the
construction industry, in installed products such as sprayed-on fireproofing, pipe
insulation, floor tiles, cement pipe and sheet, roofing felts and shingles, ceiling
tiles, fire-resistant drywall, drywall joint compounds, and acoustical products.
• If someone is exposed to brief bursts of asbestos fibers in addition to those
present in the air, he or she is at a greater risk of contracting an asbestos-related
disease. It has been demonstrated that the greater the exposure to asbestos
fiber, the greater the risk of developing an illness.
• Asbestos-related diseases include asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma.
Workers who have been exposed to asbestos fibers for long periods of time often
manifest the symptoms of asbestosis; this disease can lead to disability or even
death. Mesothelioma, on the other hand, may occur in people who have been
exposed to asbestos for a limited period of time.

Lesson 2: Protection Against Asbestos

Lesson Topics

At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Describe the engineering controls and safe work procedures needed when
asbestos is present
• Describe the personal protective equipment necessary to protect workers from
asbestos

Compliance Program

OSHA has established limits for worker exposure to asbestos in the workplace. These
exposure limits are the levels considered to be safe for the average worker. However,
keep in mind that everyone is different! Genetic makeup or previous exposures may
affect your reactions to certain chemicals.

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OSHA exposure limits for asbestos are:

• Permissible Exposure: The level of exposure to airborne asbestos fibers may

not exceed 0.1 fibers per cubic centimeter of air (0.1 f/cc) averaged over the 8-
hour workday.
• Excursion Limit: The employer should ensure that no employee is exposed to
an airborne concentration of asbestos in excess of 1.0 fiber per cubic centimeter
of air (1 f/cc) as averaged over a sampling period of thirty (30) minutes.

The time-weighted average (TWA) is the average exposure to a hazardous substance

measured over a specific time period. If the TWA and/or excursion limit is exceeded, the
employer must establish a program to reduce employee exposure until it drops to or
below the TWA and/or the excursion limit. This is done by means of engineering and
work practice controls, and by the use of respiratory protection where required or
permitted. Such programs should be updated as necessary to reflect significant
changes in the status of the employer's compliance program.

The employer must inform all employees concerning the availability of self-help smoking
cessation program material. The employer should also institute engineering controls
and work practices to reduce and maintain employee exposure to or below the TWA
and/or excursion limit except to the extent that such controls are not feasible. When
they are not sufficient, they will be supplemented by appropriate respiratory protection.
Employers must provide respirator training and medical clearance to use respirators.

For any employee exposed to airborne concentrations of asbestos that exceed a

Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL), employers must provide and require the use of
protective clothing, such as coveralls or similar full-body clothing, head coverings,
gloves, and foot coverings. Also, employers must provide face shields, appropriate eye
and face protection, or other appropriate protective equipment wherever the possibility
of eye irritation exists and require workers to wear it.

Employers must establish decontamination areas and hygiene practices for employees
exposed above a PEL. In addition, employees may not smoke in work areas that might
expose them to asbestos. In general industry, employers must provide medical
examinations for workers who are exposed above a PEL.

Sign Specifications

The warning signs should indicate the following information:

• Danger
• Asbestos
• Cancer and Lung Disease
• Hazard
• Authorized Personnel Only

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In addition, where the use of respirators and protective clothing is required in the
regulated area, the warning signs should include “Respirators and protective clothing
are required in this area.”

Warning Labels

Warning labels must be affixed to all raw materials, mixtures, scrap, waste, debris, and
other products containing asbestos fibers, or to their containers. The labels should
comply with the requirements of OSHA's Hazard Communication (HazCom) standard
and include the following information:

• Danger!
• Contains Asbestos Fibers
• Avoid Creating Dust
• Cancer and Lung Disease Hazard

All hand-operated and power-operated tools that would produce or release fibers of
asbestos, such as saws, scorers, abrasive wheels, and drills, must be equipped with
local exhaust ventilation systems, which should be designed, constructed, installed, and
maintained in accordance with good practices of ANSI Z9.2-1979.

As much as possible, asbestos should be handled, mixed, applied, removed, cut,

scored, or otherwise worked in a wet state sufficient to prevent the release of airborne
fibers.

Engineering Controls and Safe Work Procedures

Employers are not allowed to use employee rotation as a means of compliance with the
TWA and/or excursion limit. In general industry, employers must perform initial
monitoring for workers who may be exposed above a PEL or above the excursion limit.
Employers must conduct subsequent monitoring at reasonable intervals, and in no case
at intervals greater than six months for employees exposed above a PEL.

Employers must establish regulated areas wherever asbestos concentrations may

exceed a PEL. These areas are designed to protect employees where certain work with
asbestos is performed, and employers should limit access to these areas to authorized
persons who are wearing appropriate respiratory protection and who have been
properly trained. Employers should also prohibit eating, smoking, drinking, chewing
tobacco or gum, and applying cosmetics in these areas, and they must display warning
signs at each regulated area.

Low-risk Work Activities

Low-risk work activities are those that do not pose a great health and safety threat to
workers. Work that will be done near friable asbestos-containing material but will not
disturb it is categorized as low-risk work. Moving asbestos containing material that is in

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clean and sealed bags is also considered a low-risk task. Workers who have to carry
out such tasks, however, must still be informed about the hazards of asbestos.

Employers are required to identify and clearly label all areas where asbestos-containing
materials are present. Employers must also ensure that all workers are properly trained
to handle asbestos-containing materials when workers are required to perform this
work.

Moderate-risk Work Activities

There are many asbestos-related work tasks that are categorized as moderate-risk
activities. These tasks require workers to follow specific procedures in order to ensure
their safety and the safety of others.

Activities that carry a moderate risk of exposure to airborne asbestos fibers may
include:

• Cutting, drilling, grinding, shaping, or removing non-friable manufactured

products that contain asbestos using hand tools
• Using a coarse disc to buff floors
• Drilling into non-friable asbestos-containing materials
• Removing mounting screws from cement products that contain asbestos
• Analyzing asbestos samples in a laboratory
• Collecting samples of materials that might contain asbestos for laboratory
analysis
• Removing a false ceiling to get to a work area when there are friable asbestos-
containing materials on the surface
• Taking apart drywall that contains asbestos in the joint-filling material
• Carrying out a procedure that does not create any friable asbestos waste
material, such as removing vinyl-asbestos floor coverings
• Destroying a block wall that contains asbestos fragments in the cavity
• Taking apart the treated enclosure after the asbestos-containing materials have
been removed
• Installing or removing a glove-bag apparatus in order to remove pipe insulation
when the insulation is in good condition
• Removing asbestos insulation from piping using prefabricated glove-bags

Workers who are involved in a moderate-risk task must follow specific work procedures.
They must make sure that all those present at or near the work area are not exposed to
the asbestos fibers in the air. Workers must place necessary enclosures, barricades, or
similar structures around the work area so that everyone knows the exact location of the
designated work area. They must warn unauthorized people from entering the work
area by placing signs around it.

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Workers are required to put on suitable protective equipment and clothing. The material
of the clothing must not allow penetration of asbestos fibers. Torn or defective clothing
must be replaced immediately. A respirator with an appropriate filter must also be worn.

All dust and waste produced during work must be wiped—compressed air must never
be used to clean clothing or work surfaces! That could send asbestos particles into the
air. Polyethylene sheets should also be used to prevent the spread of asbestos dust to
other parts of the work area. These sheets can be used to seal doorways, windows, or
any other openings. If a worker suspects the presence of friable asbestos on any
surface in the work area, he or she must wipe it off with a damp cloth and take
necessary steps to identify the source and correct any deficiencies that may have
allowed the dust to be present.

All sealable containers or bags containing asbestos waste must be labeled properly to
identify the contents, the associated hazards, and the precautionary measures required
when handling the substance. These bags and containers must not be left in the work
area and should be removed after each work shift. Workers must make sure to wipe the
surface of each container or bag before it is removed from the work area.

Once work is completed, all polyethylene sheets and work area barriers should be
sprinkled with water. They should then be folded carefully in order to contain any
remaining dust. After that, they should be placed in bags or containers and properly
sealed. The bags should be disposed of as asbestos waste.

Before removing it from the work area, workers must use proper materials to clean all
protective equipment and clothing. If there is no designated storage area for clothing
within the work area, it must be placed in a sealable bag or container and disposed of
as asbestos waste. The encapsulation of asbestos-containing materials also requires
covering with a sealant or glue to prevent the release of fibers.

After the work has been completed, a document must be presented to the employer
stating that the work area is safe to enter by unprotected personnel.

High-risk Work Activities

Those work activities that are categorized as high-risk must be carried out very
carefully, following certain specific procedures in order to protect workers and other
personnel who may be otherwise affected by them.

Some of the tasks that may pose a high risk of exposure to asbestos fibers in the air
include:

• Maintaining, cleaning, or removing air-handling equipment in structures and

buildings where fireproofing material contains sprayed asbestos
• Encapsulating, removing, or enclosing friable asbestos-containing materials while
repairing, altering, maintaining, or demolishing a building or a structure

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 • Repairing, dismantling, demolishing, or altering any structure, building, or device
that contains asbestos
• Any task where large amounts of friable asbestos fibers can become airborne

High-risk activities require special measures for specific tasks including isolating the
work area, decontaminating workers, controlling airborne asbestos fibers, disposing of
asbestos containing material, and collecting samples of materials that may contain
asbestos.

Isolating the Work Area

All designated work areas must be isolated to prevent unauthorized personnel from
entering. To isolate a work area, employers should place signs around it to warn
unauthorized people against entering. The work area must be enclosed with proper
polyethylene sheets that will contain the asbestos fibers. If the work area cannot be
enclosed, a notice must be provided to all workers specifying alternative work
procedures that can control the risk of asbestos exposure.

In order for the contaminated air to remain in the enclosed area or filtered prior to
release, the air pressure in the work area must be kept lower than that of the
surrounding area. This low pressure should be maintained until all work has been
completed. Stairways and elevators must be sealed off using polyethylene sheets and
tape. The air heating and ventilation system in the work area must also be shut down
and all ducts should be sealed off with polyethylene sheets.

All devices and fixtures that can be removed should be wiped with damp cloths and
removed from the contaminated area. All non-removable devices and fixtures should be
covered with polyethylene sheets. The floor of the work area must be covered with
polyethylene sheets that also extend at least 12 inches up the wall. All enclosures must
be inspected on a regular basis to ensure that there are no breaks, tears, or leaks.

Decontaminating Workers

In order to ensure that workers do not carry any contaminants outside the work area,
they must be decontaminated in a designated space inside the work area. Before
entering the contaminated work area, workers should remove their street clothing in a
clean room and put on clean work clothes. They must make sure that their respirator fits
properly. Workers are required to enter the personnel transfer room and put on the
required personal protective equipment. They can then proceed towards the
contaminated work area to carry out the assigned tasks.

After leaving the contaminated work area, workers should remove the asbestos fibers
from personal protective equipment using a proper system. They must remove all
protective clothing and equipment in the personnel transfer room. Any disposable
clothing must be placed in polyethylene bags and disposed of properly.

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When the respirator and its harness are free from all contaminants, these should then
be removed. The workers can then enter the clean room to put on their street clothes.
The respirator should be cleaned and disinfected and stored in the clean room until it is
required again. All tools and equipment must be stored in the equipment holding room.

Controlling Airborne Asbestos Fibers

In order to properly control the asbestos fibers in the air:

• Materials containing asbestos should only be removed after getting an approval

from authorized personnel. Workers must never use dry clothes or compressed
air to clean asbestos-containing materials.
• After all the asbestos-containing materials have been removed, all exposed
surfaces in the work area must be properly cleaned.
• Employers must identify all asbestos material that is encapsulated and must
ensure that it is firmly bound by the encapsulating material so that there are no
loose fibers. Workers must ensure that encapsulating material does not disturb
the bond between asbestos-containing material and its supporting surface.
• Workers must make sure that they disturb or displace the least amount of
asbestos-containing material possible while repairing it. After performing this
task, they should seal the exposed asbestos and then remove the work
enclosure. All surfaces that are exposed must be washed thoroughly and
properly protected.

Disposing of Asbestos Waste Materials

To ensure that asbestos waste is properly disposed of, all waste materials should be
placed in leak-proof containers while they are still inside the enclosed area. These
containers should be sealed and labeled, and their outside surfaces should be
decontaminated before they are removed from the storage room and the waste transfer
room.

In order to prevent the containers from getting damaged or torn while being transported
to the disposal site, workers must properly package them using double polyethylene
bags. Employers must ensure that asbestos-containing waste material is disposed of
immediately or after each work shift. All arrangements must be made in advance with
the concerned authorities to transport the waste to the assigned dumpsters. It is very
important to inform the transport drivers about the hazards of asbestos and the
appropriate measures they must take. Signs must be placed on the transport vehicles
displaying the nature of the materials being transported.

Once the asbestos waste has been removed, workers must decontaminate the
enclosure and all the equipment by washing and vacuuming. Finally, the air inside the
enclosure must be decontaminated before taking apart the enclosure.

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Collecting Samples of Materials that May Contain Asbestos

Only a qualified person may collect samples of materials that may contain asbestos.
These samples must then be sent immediately to a laboratory where their contents can
be determined.

To collect samples, a qualified person must take the safety precautions that are
recommended for moderate-risk activities. Before starting work, there must be no
unprotected workers present in the work area. The materials should be prepared to
ensure that no asbestos fibers will be released during the collection process, and the
workers must disturb the least amount of material possible.

To ensure that the sample is valid, it should be taken by deep penetration into the
material. The sample collector must observe the color and the texture of the various
materials present in the work location in order to collect samples of all those present.
Samples should then be placed in leak-proof containers and properly sealed. Labels
must also be placed on the containers to identify the contents as laboratory samples.
To collect any loose material that may break off while sampling, the floor of the work
area should be covered with polyethylene sheets. After completion of the work, these
sheets must be placed in leak-proof containers and disposed of properly.

All workers present near the sampling area must be equipped with a respirator, as
sampling can create airborne asbestos fibers that could be injurious to health.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Protective Clothing

Personal protective equipment includes all clothing designed to protect against

asbestos exposure, such as coveralls or any other full-body clothing, hard hats, gloves,
rubber boots without laces, and eye protection. All workers who are required to perform
asbestos-related tasks must wear protective clothing that meets the following
requirements:

• It should be made with a material that does not allow asbestos fibers to
penetrate.
• It should cover the whole body, and it should fit comfortably at the neck, wrists,
and ankles.
• It should include headgear and proper boots that can resist the penetration of
asbestos fibers.
• If protective clothing gets damaged or torn, it must be replaced immediately.

Workers must not exit the work area while wearing their protective clothing. All
contaminated clothing and equipment must be taken off and kept in the equipment room
or work area so that the contaminants do not enter the clean area.

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Respiratory Protection

Many types of respirators provide protection from asbestos dust and fibers. A respirator
is usually selected according to the nature of the work and the amount of asbestos that
may be produced. Before entering the work area, workers must put on their respirators,
make sure that they fit properly, and check that there are no gaps through which
asbestos fibers may enter.

Respiratory protection against asbestos can be obtained through two basic types of
respirators: air-purifying respirators and atmosphere-supplying respirators.

• Air-purifying Respirator: A respirator with an air-purifying filter, cartridge, or

canister is called an air-purifying respirator. This respirator removes asbestos
contaminants from the air by passing it through an air-purifying component,
making it acceptable to breathe normally.
• Atmosphere-supplying Respirator: An atmosphere-supplying respirator
consists of a component that provides the user with breathable air that is not
taken from the ambient atmosphere. There are two types of atmosphere-
supplying respirators: supplied-air respirators (SARs) and self-contained
breathing apparatus (SCBA) units.
o Supplied-air respirators (SAR): Supplied-air Respirators use a hose
called an airline to provide clean air from an air tank. There are two types
of supplied-air respirators. One, a pressure-demand respirator, prevents
the contaminated air from entering the face-piece by maintaining positive
pressure. The other type, continuous-flow respirators, also maintain
positive pressure, this time by constantly supplying fresh air to the face-
piece.
o Self-contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) Unit: A SCBA unit
consists of a hose that is connected to a cylinder of compressed air.
Activities that carry a risk of exposure to asbestos do not usually require
the use of SCBAs. However, in some cases, pressure-demand SCBAs are
used, which supply air to the face-piece if the inside pressure reduces due
to inhalation or leakage.

Employee Notification of Monitoring Results

The employer, within 15 working days after receiving the results of any monitoring
performed, must notify each affected employee of these results either individually in
writing or by posting the results in an appropriate location that is accessible to all
affected employees. The notification should contain the corrective action being taken by
the employer to reduce exposure to or below the TWA and/or excursion limit, wherever
monitoring results indicated that the TWA and/or excursion limit had been exceeded.

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You must keep accurate records of the following:

• All measurements taken to monitor employee exposure to asbestos (kept for 30

years)
• Medical records, including physician's written opinions (kept for the duration of
the employee's employment, plus 30 years)
• Training records (kept for 1 year beyond employee’s last date of employment)

Lesson Summary

• All workers who are required to perform asbestos-related tasks must wear the
appropriate protective equipment. Protective clothing should be made with a
material that does not allow asbestos fibers to penetrate. The protective clothing
should cover the whole body, and should fit comfortably at the neck, wrists, and
ankles. Headgear and boots that resist the penetration of asbestos fibers must
also be worn, and if protective clothing gets damaged or torn, it must be replaced
immediately.
• To collect any loose material that may break off while sampling, the floor of the
work area may need to be covered with polyethylene sheets. After completion of
the work, these sheets must be placed in leak-proof containers and disposed of
properly. Only a qualified person may collect samples of materials that may
contain asbestos. These samples must then be sent immediately to a laboratory
where their contents can be determined.
• Workers must disturb the least amount of material possible. By washing and
vacuuming, one must then decontaminate the enclosure and all of the
equipment. Next, all exposed surfaces from which asbestos has been removed
should be sealed or protected. Finally, the air inside the enclosure must be
decontaminated before taking apart the enclosure.
• In order to prevent the containers from getting damaged or torn while being
transported to the disposal site, they must be properly packaged using double
polyethylene bags. All permanent enclosures around asbestos-containing
materials must be airtight, and warning signs must be put up inside enclosures to
warn workers about the dangers of asbestos and any protective measures that
must be taken.
• Workers must never use dry clothes or compressed air to clean asbestos-
containing materials. Also, in order for the contaminated air to remain in the
enclosed area or filtered prior to release, it must be ensured that the air pressure
in the work area is lower than the surrounding area. This low pressure should be
maintained until all work has been completed. All designated work areas must be
isolated in order to prevent unauthorized personnel from entering. In order to
isolate a work area, signs should be placed around it to warn unauthorized
persons against entering.

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Course Summary

This course provided students with the information needed to recognize hazards while
working in the construction industry. Our focus throughout the course was on hazard
identification, control, and avoidance for the protection of the workers. The following is a
list of the topics we covered:
• Introduction to OSHA
• Managing Safety and Health
• OSHA Focus Four Hazards
o Falls
o Electrocution
o Struck-by
o Caught-In
• Personal Protective Equipment
• Health Hazards in Construction
• Stairways and Ladders
• Confined Space Entry
• Cranes and Rigging
• Ergonomics
• Excavations
• Fire Protection and Prevention
• Material Handling, Use, and Disposal
• Rollover Protection for Motor Vehicles and Mechanized Equipment
• Signs, Signals, and Barricades
• Powered Industrial Vehicles
• Scaffolds
• Tools hand and power
• Welding and Cutting
• Silica Exposure
• Asbestos Exposure

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