Ladina Ellis

Supervisor: Terry Walker

Language Survey: Sub-Module 2

Written Assignment 1: The Development of the English Language

1. The word order in Modern English is SVO. Find an example from each of the Old English
(OE) texts (Text 1 and Text 5) in which the word order is OVS. Why was word order less
important in OE?
In text 1, we can find an example of the word order OVS here: “Then divided he them his
goods.” In text 5, we can find the same word order here: “His things gathered the younger
son”
2. Give the case and number of suna and sunu in the first OE text (Text 1). To which noun
declension does it belong? Hint: you may have to ‘google’ to find information on the
declension.
In the first OE text (1), the case of “suna” is genitive, indicating relationship and the number
is plural since in the first sentence, “suna” refers to “two sons”. The case of “sunu” is
nominative as it is the subject of the sentence along with a singular number as it refers to
one “son”. The root word also belongs to the u-stem or strong declension.
3. Look at the second OE text (Text 5). Barber et al. have translated ðe and ðu and ge and
eow as ‘you’. This is because you has replaced the other forms of second person pronouns
in modern English. But what is the modern spelling of the forms ðe and ðu and ge? Give
the case and number of each of these pronoun forms.
The modern spelling of “ðe” is “thee”. Its case is “accusative” (direct object) and its number
is singular. The modern spelling of “ðu” is “thou” and is the subjective case of the second
person singular pronoun (nominative). The modern spelling of “ge” is “ye” and is the
subjective case (nominative) of the second person plural pronoun, thus its number is plural.
(Oxford English Dictionary)
4. In the first OE text (Text 1) cwæð (infinitive cweðan) is used. In Texts 2–4, a different verb,
seide/saide/said (infinitive say) is used. Give the OE form of the verb seide/saide/said (Text 5
may help you find the answer). Although it rarely occurs today, how is the verb cwæð spelt in
modern English? The verb syle (infinitive sellan) from the first OE text (Text 1), and departide
(infinitive depart) from the ME text (Text 2) also still exist today, but both the spelling and the
meaning of each verb has changed over time. How are these verbs spelt today? What do
these verbs mean today? Use the above-mentioned dictionaries to help you, but do not
simply quote the dictionary entry, use paraphrase (and note that not all of each entry will be
relevant).
According to the Oxford English Dictionary website, when entering the OE word “secge”
which means “say”, the past tense of the verb “said” is “saegde”. “Cwæð” has the same
meaning as the past tense verb “said or spoke” in Modern English but is translated to the
word “quoth”. The verb “syle” in OE means “to give” but translates as “sell” in ME. In the
same way, the verb “departide” in OE means to give, but in ME translates as “divided or
parted” in the past tense.
5. Give four examples of loanwords from French in the ME text (Text 2).
The Norman invasion of 1066 brought French vocabulary into England. Four examples of
loanwords from French in the ME in text 2 are:
1. Pilgrimage = pilgrimage – A journey to a sacred place for religious purposes.
2. Contré = country – a region or area of land
3. Lecherie = lechery – Habitual indulgence of lust; lewdness of living.
4. Porcioun = portion – An allocation, a share. (OED.com)
6. Is the grammar of the ME text (Text 2) closer to the OE texts (Text 1 and 5) or to the Early
Modern English (EModE) text (Text 4)? In what ways is it closer? For what reasons it is closer?
The Middle English (ME) grammar exhibits closer similarities to Old English (OE) than to Early
Modern English (EModE) in several aspects. This is evident in the inflectional system, as ME
retained a simplified version inherited from OE, where word endings denoted grammatical
cases for nouns, adjectives, and definite articles. Furthermore, in terms of word order, ME
evolved towards a more fixed structure, notably adopting the SVO (Subject-Verb-Object)
pattern prevalent in EModE, although it maintained some flexibility inherited from OE. In ME,
the significance of word order increased due to the diminishing reliability of inflections in
indicating the grammatical function of words. However, the SVO order was not as firmly
established as it would later become in EModE. Another indication lies in the loss of
grammatical gender. By the end of the ME period, grammatical gender, a characteristic of OE,
had gradually given way to natural gender as seen in EModE, marking a transitional phase
from OE to ME (Barber et al. 2000:157-161).
7. The Great Vowel Shift was a change in pronunciation: Describe this change, and give
examples to illustrate the Vowel Shift. Roughly when did the process begin and end? Listen to
the full recording of the ME text (Text 2). How were the modern English words swine and
house pronounced in ME?
The Great Vowel Shift was a significant transformation in the pronunciation of the English
language, particularly impacting the long vowels. This linguistic shift commenced around the
early fifteenth century. Throughout this period, the quality of all long vowels underwent
substantial alterations which led to vowels being raised and diphthongised (Barber 191). For
example, the long vowel [a:] “mark” became [e:] in “make”. The long vowel [e:] “feht”
became [i:] in “feet”. The long vowel [i:] “meece” became [ai:] in “mice”. The long vowel [o:]
“boat” became [u:] in “boot”. The long vowel [u:] “hoos” became [au:] in “house” (Barber et
al. 2000:192-197).
Similarly, the word “swine” was therefore pronounced “sween” in Middle English, and
“house” sounded more like “hoos” as in the previous example.
8. The modern English third person plural forms they, them, and their came into English from
Scandinavia during the Old English period (Barber et al 2008: 142– 143). List all the forms of
the third person plural pronoun in Texts 1–5 (but note that þam in Text 5 is not a third person
pronoun form, but the dative form of the demonstrative pronoun se). Based upon your
findings, in which of these texts is the Scandinavian influence seen? Why is the Scandinavian
influence found in those texts and not in the other texts?
When the Vikings invaded England between 750 – 1050, it was clear that the language they
brought with them was bound to influence the existing English language. Thus, many words
were borrowed from the Scandinavian language (Barber et al. 2000:127). Here we will
examine the third person plural pronouns in the given texts:
Text 1:12 – Him, 14 – hȳ
Text 2:12 – Hem, 13 – Him
Text 3:12 – Thame
Text 4: Them
Text 5: Him
We see that Texts 3 (Scots English) and 4 (Early Modern English) directly exhibit the
Scandinavian influence with "Thame" and "Them," respectively. These examples highlight the
gradual integration and standardization of Scandinavian-derived pronouns into English. Scots
English, owing to its proximity and cultural connections to Norse settlements, and Early
Modern English, representing a period where such influences were increasingly embraced,
both demonstrate this assimilation (Barber et al. 2000:132-134).
9. In the EModE text (Text 4) the verb fall takes the ending -eth in the third person singular. In
modern English the ending is -s. Look at Texts 1–3: from which area might the -s variant have
originated?
The advancement of the third person singular ending from "-eth" to "-s" in Modern English
can be traced back to its usage in Northern dialects of Middle English, as well as Old English
and Scots English. This linguistic transformation, initially observed in certain dialects, gained
widespread usage influenced by sociolinguistic factors, demonstrating a historical continuum
that mirrors the intricacies of English language development. The prevalence of the "-s"
ending in Modern English signifies the amalgamation of these historical and dialectical
influences, underscoring the dynamic and adaptable nature of the language (Barber et al.
185-186).
10. Give evidence from the EModE text (Text 4) showing that spelling had not yet been
standardised and could therefore vary even within a single text
In Early Modern English, it is apparent that spelling had not yet been standardized, as
evidenced by the example in Text 4. In verse 12 of the Bible passage, we observe the
interchange of the letters "u" and "v," as seen in words like "diuided" instead of "divided"
and "vnto" instead of "unto."
Work Cited
Barber, Charles, Joan C. Beal and Philip A. Shaw. 2000. The English Language: A Historical

Introduction. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.