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According to the "grand tack hypothesis", Jupiter began to form at a distance of roughly
3.5 AU (520 million km; 330 million mi) from the Sun. As the young planet accreted
mass, interaction with the gas disk orbiting the Sun and orbital resonances with Saturn
[24][29]
caused it to migrate inward. This upset the orbits of several super-Earths orbiting
[30]
closer to the Sun, causing them to collide destructively. Saturn would later have
begun to migrate inwards at a faster rate than Jupiter, until the two planets became
captured in a 3:2 mean motion resonance at approximately 1.5 AU (220 million km; 140
[31]
million mi) from the Sun. This changed the direction of migration, causing them to
[30]
migrate away from the Sun and out of the inner system to their current locations. All
of this happened over a period of 3–6 million years, with the final migration of Jupiter
[29][32]
occurring over several hundred thousand years. Jupiter's migration from the inner
solar system eventually allowed the inner planets—including Earth—to form from the
[33]
rubble.
There are several unresolved issues with the grand tack hypothesis. The resulting
formation timescales of terrestrial planets appear to be inconsistent with the measured
[34]
elemental composition. It is likely that Jupiter would have settled into an orbit much
[35]
closer to the Sun if it had migrated through the solar nebula. Some competing
models of Solar System formation predict the formation of Jupiter with orbital properties
[25]
that are close to those of the present day planet. Other models predict Jupiter
[36]
forming at distances much farther out, such as 18 AU (2.7 billion km; 1.7 billion mi).
[37]

According to the Nice model, infall of proto-Kuiper belt objects over the first 600 million
years of Solar System history caused Jupiter and Saturn to migrate from their initial
positions into a 1:2 resonance, which caused Saturn to shift into a higher orbit,
disrupting the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, depleting the Kuiper belt, and triggering
[38]
the Late Heavy Bombardment.
Based on Jupiter's composition, researchers have made the case for an initial formation
outside the molecular nitrogen (N2) snowline, which is estimated at 20–30 AU (3.0–4.5
billion km; 1.9–2.8 billion mi) from the Sun, and possibly even outside the argon
[39][40]
snowline, which may be as far as 40 AU (6.0 billion km; 3.7 billion mi). Having
formed at one of these extreme distances, Jupiter would then have, over a roughly
[36][37]
700,000-year period, migrated inwards to its current location, during an epoch
approximately 2–3 million years after the planet began to form. In this model, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune would have formed even further out than Jupiter, and Saturn
[36]
would also have migrated inwards.
Physical characteristics

Jupiter is a gas giant, meaning its chemical composition is primarily hydrogen and
helium. These materials are classified as gasses in planetary geology, a term that does
not denote the state of matter. It is the largest planet in the Solar System, with a
diameter of 142,984 km (88,846 mi) at its equator, giving it a volume 1,321 times that of
[2][41] 3 [d]
the Earth. Its average density, 1.326 g/cm , is lower than those of the four
[43][44]
terrestrial planets.
Composition

By mass, Jupiter's atmosphere is approximately 76% hydrogen and 24% helium,

though, because helium atoms are more massive than hydrogen molecules, Jupiter's
[45]
upper atmosphere is about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium by volume. The
atmosphere also contains trace amounts of methane, water vapour, ammonia, and
silicon-based compounds, as well as fractional amounts of carbon, ethane, hydrogen
[46]
sulfide, neon, oxygen, phosphine, and sulfur. The outermost layer of the atmosphere
[47]
contains crystals of frozen ammonia. Through infrared and ultraviolet measurements,
[48]
trace amounts of benzene and other hydrocarbons have also been found. The
interior of Jupiter contains denser materials—by mass it is roughly 71% hydrogen, 24%
[49][50]
helium, and 5% other elements.
The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical
[51]
composition of the primordial solar nebula. Neon in the upper atmosphere only
consists of 20 parts per million by mass, which is about a tenth as abundant as in the
[52]
Sun. Jupiter's helium abundance is about 80% that of the Sun due to precipitation of
these elements as helium-rich droplets, a process that happens deep in the planet's
[53][54]
interior.
Based on spectroscopy, Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter, but the
other giant planets Uranus and Neptune have relatively less hydrogen and helium and
relatively more of the next most common elements, including oxygen, carbon, nitrogen,
[55]
and sulfur. These planets are known as ice giants because during their formation
these elements are thought to have been incorporated into them as ices; however, they
[56]
probably contain little ice today.
Size and mass

Main article: Jupiter mass

 Size of Earth compared to Jupiter in true colours

[2]
Jupiter's mass is 318 times that of Earth; 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the
Solar System combined. It is so massive that its barycentre with the Sun lies above the
[57][58]: 6
Sun's surface at 1.068 solar radii from the Sun's centre. Jupiter's radius is about
[59]
one tenth the radius of the Sun, and its mass is one thousandth the mass of the Sun,
[60]
as the densities of the two bodies are similar. A "Jupiter mass" (MJ or MJup) is often
used as a unit to describe masses of other objects, particularly extrasolar planets and
brown dwarfs. For example, the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass of 0.69 MJ,
[61][62]
while the brown dwarf Gliese 229 b has a mass of 60.4 MJ.
Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had over 40% more mass, the interior would
be so compressed that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of
[63]
matter. For smaller changes in its mass, the radius would not change appreciably. As
a result, Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its
[64]
composition and evolutionary history can achieve. The process of further shrinkage
[65]
with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition was achieved.
Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times more massive to fuse hydrogen and
[66]
become a star, its diameter is sufficient as the smallest red dwarf may be only
[67]
slightly larger in radius than Saturn.
Jupiter radiates more heat than it receives through solar radiation, due to the Kelvin–
[68]: 30 [69]
Helmholtz mechanism within its contracting interior. This process causes
[70][71]
Jupiter to shrink by about 1 mm (0.039 in) per year. At the time of its formation,
[72]
Jupiter was hotter and was about twice its current diameter.
Internal structure
 Diagram of Jupiter with its interior, surface features, rings, and inner moons

Before the early 21st century, most scientists proposed one of two scenarios for the
formation of Jupiter. If the planet accreted first as a solid body, it would consist of a
dense core, a surrounding layer of fluid metallic hydrogen (with some helium) extending
[73]
outward to about 80% of the radius of the planet, and an outer atmosphere
[71]
consisting primarily of molecular hydrogen. Alternatively, if the planet collapsed
directly from the gaseous protoplanetary disk, it was expected to completely lack a core,
consisting instead of a denser and denser fluid (predominantly molecular and metallic
hydrogen) all the way to the centre. Data from the Juno mission showed that Jupiter has
a diffuse core that mixes into its mantle, extending for 30–50% of the planet's radius,
[74][75][76]
and comprising heavy elements with a combined mass 7–25 times the Earth.
[77][78]
This mixing process could have arisen during formation, while the planet
[79]
accreted solids and gases from the surrounding nebula. Alternatively, it could have
been caused by an impact from a planet of about ten Earth masses a few million years
[80]
after Jupiter's formation, which would have disrupted an originally solid Jovian core.
[81]

Outside the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of

hydrogen. At this depth, the pressure and temperature are above molecular hydrogen's
[82]
critical pressure of 1.3 MPa and critical temperature of 33 K (−240.2 °C; −400.3 °F). In
this state, there are no distinct liquid and gas phases—hydrogen is said to be in a
supercritical fluid state. The hydrogen and helium gas extending downward from the
cloud layer gradually transitions to a liquid in deeper layers, possibly resembling
[68]: 22 [83][84]
something akin to an ocean of liquid hydrogen and other supercritical fluids.
[85] [86][87]
Physically, the gas gradually becomes hotter and denser as depth increases.
Rain-like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through the lower
[53]
atmosphere, depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere.
[88]
Calculations suggest that helium drops separate from metallic hydrogen at a radius
of 60,000 km (37,000 mi) (11,000 km (6,800 mi) below the cloud tops) and merge again
[89]
at 50,000 km (31,000 mi) (22,000 km (14,000 mi) beneath the clouds). Rainfalls of
[90]
diamonds have been suggested to occur, as well as on Saturn and the ice giants
[91]
Uranus and Neptune.
The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily inward as the heat of
[54]
planetary formation can only escape by convection. At a surface depth where the
atmospheric pressure level is 1 bar (0.10 MPa), the temperature is around 165 K (−108 °C;
−163 °F). The region where supercritical hydrogen changes gradually from a molecular fluid to a
metallic fluid spans pressure ranges of 50–400 GPa with temperatures of 5,000–8,400 K (4,730–
8,130 °C; 8,540–14,660 °F), respectively. The temperature of Jupiter's diluted core is estimated
[92]
to be 20,000 K (19,700 °C; 35,500 °F) with a pressure of around 4,000 GPa.
Atmosphere

Main article: Atmosphere of Jupiter

Timelapse of Jupiter's cloud system moving over the course of one month (photographed during
Voyager 1 flyby in 1979)

The atmosphere of Jupiter is primarily composed of molecular hydrogen and helium,

with a smaller amount of other compounds such as water, methane, hydrogen sulfide,
[93]
and ammonia. Jupiter's atmosphere extends to a depth of approximately 3,000 km
[92]
(2,000 mi) below the cloud layers.
Cloud layers

Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds of ammonia crystals, which may contain
[94]
ammonium hydrosulfide as well. The clouds are located in the tropopause layer of
the atmosphere, forming bands at different latitudes, known as tropical regions. These
are subdivided into lighter-hued zones and darker belts. The interactions of these
conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence. Wind speeds of 100 metres
per second (360 km/h; 220 mph) a