Unit 1

Key Facts
Psychologists to Know
Mary Whiton Calkins—The first female president of the American Psychological Association. She created
self-psychology, which emphasized a self-evaluation of one’s personal
experiences.
Charles Darwin—Developed theories of evolution and natural selection. His beliefs inspire the evolutionary
approach in psychology.
Dorothea Dix—An advocate for the mentally ill by highlighting the deplorable conditions in asylums. She created
the first mental hospitals in America.
Sigmund Freud—Sigmund Freud is the father of psychoanalysis.
G. Stanley Hall—Known as the founder of educational psychology and child psychology. He shaped adolescent
themes in psychology.
William James—Wrote the Principles of Psychology and is the founder of functionalism. He created the
James-Lange theory and mentored Mary Whiton Calkins.
Ivan Pavlov—Known for his work in classical conditioning ��
Jean Piaget—Created stages of development for children including the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational, and formal operation phases.
Carl Rogers—A humanist psychologist who created client-centered therapy where the therapist guides personal
growth.
B.F. Skinner—A behaviorist psychologist. He created the theory of operant conditioning where he studied how
consequences shape behavior.
Margaret Floy Washburn—The first woman granted a Ph.D. in psychology.
John B. Watson—The father of behaviorism. He is famous for the controversial Little Albert experiment.
Wilhelm Wundt—Created the first psychology laboratory. Also the founder of structuralism.

Vocabulary
structuralism basic research external validity
introspection applied research internal validity
functionalism theory descriptive statistics
behaviorism operational definition inferential statistics
gestalt independent variable correlation
experiment dependent variable skews
correlational study confounding variable normal
survey research control variable informed consent
case study random assignment debriefing
longitudinal study sampling bias Milgram Experiment
cross-sectional study experimenter bias mean
hawthorne effect hindsight bias median

1.1

Key Terms to Review (30)

Biological Perspective: The biological perspective in psychology is a way of looking at psychological issues by studying the
physical basis for animal and human behavior.
It's one of the major perspectives in psychology and involves such things as studying the brain, immune system, nervous system,
and genetics.
Biological Psychology: Biological psychology, also known as biopsychology or psychobiology, is a field in psychology that
examines the physical basis for behaviors and
mental states, looking specifically at the roles of genetics and the brain.
Biopsychosocial Perspective: The biopsychosocial perspective is an integrated approach that considers biological,
psychological, and social factors in health and illness.
Clinical Psychology: Clinical psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on diagnosing and treating mental, emotional,
and behavioral disorders.
Cognitive Approach: The cognitive approach in psychology is a way of understanding human behavior that focuses on how we
think. It suggests that our thought
processes affect the way we behave.
Cognitive Psychology: Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of mind as an information processor - it involves studying
how people perceive, remember, think about
information & solve problems.
Counseling Psychology: A branch of psychology that focuses on facilitating personal and interpersonal functioning across the
life span with a focus on emotional, social,
vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns.
Developmental Psychology: The scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life. It's
concerned with infants through old age.
Early Behaviorism: Early Behaviorism is a theory suggesting that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. It proposes
that our responses to environmental stimuli
shape our actions.
Educational Psychology: A field in psychology that studies how people learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of
educational interventions, the psychology of
teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations.
Evolutionary Approach: The evolutionary approach in psychology applies principles of evolution, including natural selection
and survival of the fittest, to explain
psychological processes and phenomena.
Experimental Psychology: Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that utilizes scientific methods to investigate
how and why humans think, feel, and
behave the way they do.
Functionalism: Functionalism is a psychological philosophy that considers mental life and behavior in terms of active
adaptation to the person's environment. It focuses on
how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.
Gestalt Psychology: Gestalt Psychology is a school of psychology based upon the idea that we experience things as unified
wholes. This approach to psychology
emerged in Germany in the early 20th century as an alternative to the traditional structuralist approach.
Humanistic Approach: This is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the study of the whole person and believes
individuals have free will. It focuses on human
potential and encourages self-exploration rather than studying behavior in response to a stimulus.
Industrial-Organizational Psychology: Industrial-organizational psychology applies psychological theories and principles to
organizations. It focuses on increasing
workplace productivity and related issues such as physical and mental well-being of employees.
Introspection: Introspection is self-examination or observation of one's own emotional states or thought processes. It involves
looking inward to analyze one's inner
thoughts and feelings.
John Watson: John Watson was an American psychologist who is often referred to as the father of behaviorism, a school of
thought in psychology that emphasizes the
importance of observable behaviors over internal mental processes.
Little Albert Experiment: The Little Albert experiment was a famous psychology study conducted by John Watson and Rosalie
Rayner. They conditioned a small child,
Albert, to fear a white rat. They also demonstrated that this fear could generalize to other similar objects.
Personality Psychology: Personality psychology studies personality along with its variation among individuals. It aims to show
how people are individually different due to
psychological forces.
Positive Psychology: Positive psychology is a branch within psychology that focuses on studying positive emotions,
strengths-based character traits, and healthy
institutions with an aim towards improving quality life and preventing the pathologies that arise when life is barren and
meaningless.
Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Approach: This is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the importance of unconscious
mental processes and early childhood
experiences in shaping behavior, thoughts, and feelings.
Psychometric Psychology: Psychometric psychology is a field of study that focuses on the theory and technique of psychological
measurement. This includes the
measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, personality traits, and educational achievement.
Self-Actualization: Self-actualization is the process of realizing and fulfilling one's potential and capabilities. It's the highest
level of psychological development where
personal growth, fulfillment, and accomplishment are sought.
Sigmund Freud: An Austrian neurologist who founded psychoanalysis. He proposed theories about the role of the unconscious
mind, childhood experiences, and sexuality
in influencing human behavior and development.
Social Psychology: Social psychology is an area within psychology that explores how people's thoughts, feelings, behaviors are
influenced by others around them. It
studies social interactions including their origins and their effects on individuals.
Sociocultural Approach: The sociocultural approach examines how social and cultural environments influence behavior.
Structuralism: Structuralism is an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the
human mind.
Wilhelm Wundt: Wilhelm Wundt was a German physician, psychologist, and philosopher who is widely regarded as one of the
founders of modern psychology. He
established the first laboratory for psychological research at Leipzig University in Germany.
William James: William James was an American philosopher and psychologist who was also trained as a physician. He is often
referred to as the father of American
psychology. His work laid much of the groundwork for modern theories about consciousness, perception, memory, emotion, etc.

1.2

Key Terms to Review (27)

Adderall: Adderall is a prescription medication containing two drugs, amphetamine and dextroamphetamine. It is used for
treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) and narcolepsy.
Association: In psychology, association refers to any connection between thoughts, feelings, or experiences that leads one to
recall another. It's often used in learning
theories such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Case Studies: Case studies are detailed investigations into one individual or small group. These studies provide rich qualitative
data and can offer insights into unique
situations that may not be captured in larger-scale research methods.
Cause and Effect: Cause and effect is a relationship between events or things, where one is the result of the other. This is a
combination of action and reaction.
Conformity: Conformity refers to adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard or expectation.
Control Group: In an experiment, the control group is the set that does not receive the treatment or intervention and is used as a
benchmark to measure how other tested
subjects do.
Correlational Studies: Correlational studies measure two variables and examine how they relate to each other without
manipulating either one of them.
Cross-Sectional Studies: Cross-sectional studies are observational research methods that analyze data from a population, or a
representative subset, at one specific
point in time.
Cross-Sectional Study: A cross-sectional study is a type of observational research that analyzes data from a population at one
specific point in time—it’s like taking a
snapshot of the population.
Ethical Issues: Ethical issues refer to problems or situations requiring a person or organization to choose between alternatives
that must be evaluated as right (ethical) or wrong (unethical).
Experiments: Experiments are a type of research method where the researcher manipulates one variable (independent variable)
to determine its effect on another variable (dependent variable).
Frontal Lobes: The frontal lobes are areas at the front of each cerebral hemisphere involved with decision-making,
problem-solving, control over voluntary movements or
activity (motor skills), and complex behaviors such as social interactions and personality expression.
Generalize Results: Generalizing results means applying findings from a sample group in an experiment or study to larger
populations outside the study.
Hawthorne Effect: The Hawthorne Effect refers to the alteration of behavior by the subjects of a study due to their awareness of
being observed.
Human Development Stages: Human Development Stages refer to distinct phases that individuals pass through from birth until
death, including physical, cognitive, and socioemotional changes.
Independent Variables: An independent variable is what researchers manipulate during an experiment to measure its impact on
dependent variables.
Longitudinal Studies: Longitudinal studies are research methods that involve repeated observations of the same variables (e.g.,
people) over long periods of time, often many decades.
Naturalistic Observations: Naturalistic observation is an observational method where researchers observe individuals' behavior
in their natural environment without intervention or manipulation.
Personality Change: A personality change refers to a significant shift in a person's established patterns of behavior, thoughts,
and emotions. This can be due to various factors such as brain injury, mental health disorders, or life experiences.
Phineas Gage: Phineas Gage was a railroad construction foreman who survived a severe brain injury in the mid-19th century.
His case is often studied in psychology because of the dramatic personality changes he experienced after his accident, which
provided early evidence for the role of the frontal lobes in personality and behavior.
Realism: In psychology, realism refers to an orientation towards facts and reality, accepting them without distortion by personal
feelings or prejudices.
Replicate: In psychology, to replicate means to repeat a research study, often with different participants and in different
situations, to see if the basic findings can be observed again.
Research Methods: Research methods are the strategies, tools, and techniques used to collect and analyze data in psychology.
They help psychologists understand human behavior and mental processes.
Response Rates: In psychology research, response rates refer to the proportion of people who respond out of the total number
asked or surveyed.
School Grades: School grades are a measure of a student's academic performance in their coursework. They typically range from
A (excellent) to F (failing).
Solomon Asch: Solomon Asch was a prominent psychologist best known for his experiments on conformity, where he
demonstrated the influence of group pressure on individual behavior.
Survey Research: Survey research is a method of data collection that involves asking a large number of participants a series of
questions or completing a questionnaire.

1.3

Key Terms to Review (19)

Applied Research: Applied research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. This kind of
research plays an important role in solving everyday issues that often have an impact on life, work, health, and overall
well-being.
Basic Research: Basic research is a type of scientific study aimed at expanding knowledge and understanding fundamental
concepts. It's not necessarily intended for immediate, practical application.
Cause and Effect: Cause and effect is a relationship between events or things, where one is the result of the other. This is a
combination of action and reaction.
Confounding Variables: These are factors other than the independent variable that may cause a result in an experiment, making
it difficult to determine if the results were due to the independent variable or these other factors.
Control Variables: Control variables are factors that researchers keep constant to ensure that they do not interfere with the
results of an experiment.
Dependent Variable: The dependent variable is what changes when the independent variable changes - it's what you're
interested in measuring as a result of your experiment.
Double-Blind Procedure: A double-blind procedure is an experimental method used to eliminate bias. In this setup, neither
the participant nor the experimenter knows which group (control or experimental) the participant is in.
Experimenter Bias: Experimenter bias refers to the possibility that a researcher's expectations might skew the results of an
experiment.
Hawthorne Effect: The Hawthorne Effect refers to the alteration of behavior by the subjects of a study due to their awareness of
being observed.
Hindsight Bias: Hindsight bias is the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen or predicted
it.
Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess or proposition made as a basis for reasoning or research without any assumption
of its truth. It's testable and falsifiable statement about two or more variables related in some way.
Independent Variable: The independent variable is the factor in an experiment that a researcher manipulates to see if it has any
effect on the outcome.
Operational Definitions: An operational definition describes how to measure a variable or define a term. It outlines the
procedures used in research.
Overconfidence: Overconfidence refers to the tendency of an individual to overestimate their abilities and knowledge, leading
them to make decisions without considering potential risks or negative outcomes.
Random Assignment: Random assignment is a method used in experiments to ensure that each participant has an equal chance
of being placed into any group. This helps to eliminate bias and make sure the results are due to the variable being tested, not
differences between groups.
Random Sample: A random sample is a subset of individuals randomly selected by researchers from a larger population. Each
individual has an equal probability of selection which helps ensure that the sample represents the population well.
Sampling Bias: Sampling bias occurs when some members of your intended population have lower sampling probability than
others or when there's systematic difference between samples taken at different times or places. It can lead to misleading
results.
Scientific Method: The scientific method is a systematic procedure that researchers use to conduct experiments. It involves
observing, forming questions, making predictions, doing experiments, and developing theories.
Theory: A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is acquired through the scientific
method and repeatedly tested and confirmed, preferably using a written, pre-defined, protocol of observations and experiments.

1.4

Key Terms to Review (12)

Case Studies: Case studies are detailed investigations into one individual or small group. These studies provide rich qualitative
data and can offer insights into unique
situations that may not be captured in larger-scale research methods.
Cause and Effect: Cause and effect is a relationship between events or things, where one is the result of the other. This is a
combination of action and reaction.
Confounding Variables: These are factors other than the independent variable that may cause a result in an experiment, making
it difficult to determine if the results were
due to the independent variable or these other factors.
Correlation: Correlation refers to the statistical relationship between two variables. If one variable changes, there tends to be a
consistent change in the other variable too.
Correlational Research Method: Correlational research methods involve measuring two variables and analyzing how they relate
to each other - whether they move
together (positive correlation), move in opposite directions (negative correlation), or have no relationship (zero correlation).
Descriptive Research Method: This method involves observing and describing behavior without manipulating variables. It often
involves naturalistic observations, surveys,
and case studies.
External Validity: External validity refers to how well the results of a study can be generalized or applied to other situations and
people.
Internal Validity: Internal validity refers to how well an experiment is done, especially whether it avoids confounding (more
than one possible independent variable [cause]
acting at the same time).
Naturalistic Observations: Naturalistic observation is an observational method where researchers observe individuals' behavior
in their natural environment without
intervention or manipulation.
Research Question: A research question is a clear, focused, concise, complex and arguable question around which you center
your research. It's the question to which you
want to find an answer through your study.
Surveys: Surveys are a research method that involves asking a large number of people questions about their thoughts, feelings,
behaviors, or attitudes.
Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which a test or experiment measures what it is supposed to measure.

1.5

Key Terms to Review (22)

Bimodal Distribution: A bimodal distribution occurs when two different values appear most frequently (modes) in the data set.
Correlation Coefficient: The correlation coefficient measures the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two
variables on a scatterplot. It ranges from -1 to
1 where -1 indicates perfect negative correlation, 0 indicates no correlation, and 1 indicates perfect positive correlation.
Descriptive Statistics: Descriptive statistics are numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. They do
not allow us to make conclusions beyond
the data we have analysed or reach conclusions regarding any hypotheses we might have made.
Frequency Distribution: Frequency distribution refers to how often something happens within certain ranges or intervals for a
set of data points.
Inferential Statistics: Inferential statistics are procedures used that allow researchers to infer or generalize observations made
with samples to the larger population from
which they were drawn.
Mean: The mean is simply the sum of all values in a dataset divided by the total number of values. It's often referred to as the
"average."
Measures of Central Tendency: Measures of central tendency are statistical indicators that identify the center, or average, of a
data set. These measures include mean,
median, and mode.
Measures of Variation: Measures of variation describe how spread out or scattered the values in a data set are. They include
range, variance, and standard deviation
among others.
Median: The median is defined as the middle value when all values within a dataset are arranged from smallest to largest. If
there is an even number of observations, then
there is no single middle value; so we take an average (mean) between two middle numbers instead.
Mode: The mode is the most frequently occurring score in a set of given numbers.
Multimodal Distribution: A multimodal distribution is a probability distribution with more than one peak, or "mode." This
means that there are multiple values that appear
most frequently in the data set.
Negative Correlation: A negative correlation is a relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other
decreases.
Negatively Skewed Distribution: A negatively skewed distribution is a type of distribution in which more data values fall to the
right side (higher end) of the distribution
graph, with the tail on the left side (lower end).
No Correlation: No correlation exists when there is no relationship between two variables; changes in one do not affect changes
in another.
Normal Distribution: A normal distribution, also known as a bell curve, is a statistical concept that refers to a type of
continuous probability distribution for a real-valued
random variable. In this distribution, most of the data falls near the mean (average), with frequencies decreasing away from the
mean.
Outliers: An outlier is an observation that lies an abnormal distance from other values in a random sample from a population.
Positive Correlation: Positive Correlation occurs when both variables increase together or decrease together; as one variable
increases, so does the other.
Positively Skewed Distribution: A positively skewed distribution is a type of distribution where the values are more spread out
on the right side (tail) of the distribution
graph. This means that there are some unusually high values in your data.
Range: In statistics, range refers to the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a data set.
Standard Deviation: Standard deviation is a measure used to quantify the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values. It
tells us how much on average scores
deviate from their mean value.
Statistical Significance: Statistical significance refers to whether any differences observed between groups being studied are
"real" or if they’re likely due just to chance.
It's often determined by p-values less than 0.05.
Summarizing Data: Summarizing data involves simplifying collected information into smaller, understandable parts. This can
involve using measures such as averages,
percentages, or graphs.

1.6

Key Terms to Review (15)

American Psychological Association (APA): The APA is a scientific and professional organization that represents psychology in
the United States. It's responsible for setting ethical guidelines for psychological research.
Anonymity: Anonymity in psychology refers to the practice of ensuring that all information collected from a participant in a
study is not linked to their identity, thus protecting their privacy.
Attachment Bonds: Attachment bonds refer to the deep, enduring emotional connection that forms between individuals,
typically between a child and caregiver. This
bond significantly influences the child's development and ability to form relationships in the future.
Coercion: Coercion involves forcing someone into doing something against their will, often through threats or manipulation. In
psychological research, it's unethical to
coerce someone into participating in a study.
Contact Comfort: Contact comfort refers to the physical and emotional comfort that an infant receives from being in physical
contact with its mother or primary caregiver.
Deception: In psychology, deception refers to the act of misleading or lying to participants about the true purpose or nature of a
study.
Deception Debriefing: Deception debriefing involves explaining any deceptive elements and revealing the true purpose of the
study to participants after it has concluded.
Ethical Guidelines: These are rules set by professional organizations that govern the conduct of its members and provide a
framework for ethical decision making.
Harry Harlow's Monkey Experiment: A series of experiments conducted by psychologist Harry Harlow in the 1950s and 1960s
on rhesus monkeys to demonstrate the
importance of care-giving and companionship in social development and cognitive function.
Informed Consent: Informed consent is an ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them
to choose whether they wish to participate.
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC): The IACUC is a self-regulating entity that, according to U.S. federal
law, must be established by institutions that
use laboratory animals for research or instructional purposes to oversee and evaluate all aspects of the institution's animal care
and use program.
Institutional Review Board (IRB): The IRB is an administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human
research subjects recruited for participation in
activities such as biomedical and behavioral research.
Milgram Experiment: A series of psychological experiments conducted by Stanley Milgram which measured the willingness of
participants to obey an authority figure who
instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal conscience.
Protection from Harm or Discomfort: This is an ethical principle in psychology that ensures participants are not subjected to
physical or psychological harm during a
study.
Secure Base: A secure base refers to the concept in attachment theory where the caregiver provides a safe and reliable
environment from which the child can explore their surroundings.