MAT137 Introductory Applied Mathematics formula sheet

Sets and Probability

Notation & terminology
n(A) = |A| = number of elements in set A
the empty set: a set with no elements in it, Eg: if B = { } or B = Ø
 is a subset of
 is not a subset of
 is a strict/proper subset of
 is not a strict/proper subset of
A ∩ B = A and B means the intersection of A & B
A ∪ B = A or B means the union of A & B
A means the complement of A
U A the set difference between U & A; elements that are in U but not in A

( )
P(E) =
( )

n(A ∪ B) = n(A B) + n(A ∩ B) + n(B A)

÷ n(∪)
P(A ∪ B) = P(A B) + P(A ∩ B) + P(B A)

n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ∩ B)

÷ n(∪)
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A ∩ B)

n(A) = n(A B) + n(A ∩ B)

÷ n(∪)
P(A) = P(A B) + P(A ∩ B)

n(B) = n(A ∩ B) + n(B A)

÷ n(∪)
P(B) = P(A ∩ B) + P(B A)

n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B)

÷ n(∪)
P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B)

n(A) = n(U) – n(A)

÷ n(∪)
P(A) = 1 – P(A)

A B = A∩B B A = B∩A
( ∩ ) ( ∩ )
P(A | B) = =
( ) ( )

P(A | B) means the probability that A occurs given that B has occurred
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So if events A & B are independent then: P(A ∩ B) = P(A) • P(B) or
P(A | B) = P(A) or
P(B | A) = P(B)

So if events A, B & C are independent then: P(A ∩ B ∩ C) = P(A) • P(B) • P(C) and
P(A ∩ B) = P(A) • P(B) and
P(A ∩ C) = P(A) • P(C) and
P(B ∩ C) = P(B) • P(C)

Functions
Domain example: dom(f) = {x ϵ R: x ≠ 2}
Range example: ran(g) = {y ϵ R: y > -1}

y = a•f( (x + c) ) + d

Translations/shifts:
Vertical translation/shift d units up or down: y = f(x) + d
Horizontal translation/shift c units left or right: y = f(x – c)
Scaling/stretching/shrinking:
Vertical scaling by a factor of a: y = a•f(x)
Horizontal scaling by a factor of b: y = f( •x) = f( )

the function y = f(x) has an inverse y = f -1(x)

dom(f) = ran(f -1)
dom(f -1) = ran(f)

For a function to be continuous at a point x = a, we need:

lim f(x) = lim f(x) = f(a)
→ →

f◦g(x) = f( g(x) )

(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) (fg)(x) = f(x)•g(x)

( )
(f – g)(x) = f(x) – g(x) ( )(x) =
( )

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Differentiation

( ) ( )
Gradient = = lim
→

dy df
= = y = f
dx dx
If y = c (a constant) then y ’ = 0

dy
if y = a•xn then y ’ = = a•n•xn – 1
dx
if y = c•f(x) then y ’ = c•f ’(x)
if y = f(x) ± g(x) then y ’ = f ’(x) ± g ’(x)
if y = [ f(x) ]n then y ’ = n•[ f(x) ]n – 1 •f ’(x)
if y = f•g then y ’ = f ’•g + f•g’ Product rule
• •
if y = then y ’ = Quotient rule

if y = f(u) and u = g(x) then = • Chain rule

if y = sin(x) then y ’ = cos(x)

if y = sin( f(x) ) then y ’ = cos( f(x) )•f ’(x)
if y = cos(x) then y ’ = – sin(x)
if y = cos( f(x) ) then y ’ = – sin( f(x) )•f ’(x)

if y = tan(x) then y ’ =
( )

if y = tan( f(x) ) then y ’ = ⦁f ’(x)

( ( ))

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Differentiation continued

if y = ex then y ’ = 1ln(e)ex = ex

if y = ef(x) then y ’ = f ’(x)•ln(e) ef(x) = f ’(x)•ef(x)

ln(e) = 1

if y = ax then y ’ = 1ln(a)ax = ln(a)ax

if y = af(x) then y ’ = f ’(x)•ln(a)af(x)

if y = ln(x) = log e (x) then y ’ = =

( )

( ) ( )
if y = ln f(x) = log e ( f(x) ) then y ’ = =
( ) ( ) ( )

if y = log a (x) then y ’ = ( )•

( )
if y = log a ( f(x) ) then y ’ = ( )• ( )

if f(x) = ∫ f(t) dt then = f(x)

equation of a tangent line: y = m•x + c

for a function to be differentiable at a point x = a, we need:

1. lim f(x) = lim f(x) = f(a) it must be continuous
→ →

2. lim = lim
→ →

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Integration

so ∫ 0 dx = c (c is a constant)

n xn+1
so ∫ x dx = n+1
+ c

so ∫ f(x) ± g(x) dx = ∫ f(x) dx ± ∫ g(x) dx

so ∫ c•f(x) dx = c • ∫ f(x) dx
[ ( )]
so ∫ f‘(x)•[f(x)]n dx = + c

(ax + b)
so (ax + b) dx = + c , n ≠ −1
(n + 1)a

so ∫ cos(x) dx = sin(x) + c
so ∫ sin(x) dx = – cos(x) + c

If f(x) dx = F(x) + c
F(ax + b)
then f(ax + b) dx = + c
a

a a
a dx = + c = + c
1 • ln(a) ln(a)

e
e dx = + c = e + c
1 • ln(e)

a
a dx = + c
bln(a)

e e
e dx = + c = + c
bln(e) b

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 x⦁ ln(x) − x x⦁ ln(x) − x
log (x) dx = + c = + c
1 • ln(a) ln(a)

(bx + d)⦁ ln(bx + d) − (bx + d)

log (bx + d) dx = + c
bln(a)

x⦁ ln(x) − x
ln(x) dx = + c = x⦁ ln(x) − x + c
1 • ln(e)

(bx + d)⦁ ln(bx + d) − (bx + d)

ln(bx + d) dx = + c
bln(e)
(bx + d)⦁ ln(bx + d) − (bx + d)
= + c
b

1 ln| x |
dx = + c = ln| x | + c
x 1

1 ln| bx + d |
dx = + c
bx + d b

tan(x) dx = −ln| cos(x) | + c

− ln| cos(bx + d) |
tan(bx + d) dx = + c
b

The area of region A between y = f(x) and the x-axis on an interval [a, b] is given
by the definite integral

Area (A) = ∫ f(x) dx

If y = f(x) is above y = g(x) on [a, b] then the area between them is given by

Area (A) = ∫ f(x) − g(x) dx

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Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC):
Part 1. Let the function f be continuous on the interval [a, b], and define the
function g by

g(x) = ∫ f(t) dt where c, x ϵ [a, b].

Then the derivative of g is given by = f(x)

Part 2. If f is continuous on an interval [a, b] and we denote F(x) = ∫ f(x) dx

then

f(x) dx = F(b) − F(a)

Displacement (x), Velocity (v), Acceleration (a):

x(t) v(t) = a(t) = =

x(t) = ∫ v dt v(t) = ∫ a dt a(t)

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Trigonometry

sin(θ) = cos(θ) = tan(θ) =

π radians = 180˚

= 0.5π = 90

Sin All
π = 180o 0o and 2π = 360o

Tan Cos

= 1.5π = 270

60
√2 1 2 1

45 30
1 √3

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Arithmetic & Geometric sequences & series

Arithmetic:
General relationship: Tn = a + (n – 1)d , n = 1, 2, 3, …
Recursive relationship: T1 = a , Tn = Tn-1 + d , n = 2, 3, 4, …
( )
Sum: S = an +

Geometric:

General relationship: Tn = arn-1 , n = 1, 2, 3, …

Recursive relationship: T1 = a , Tn = Tn-1r , n = 2, 3, 4, …

( ) ( )
Sum: S = = , r1

use for r < 1 use for r > 1

S = an , if r = 1

Sum to Infinity: S = , −1 < r < 1

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Probability Distributions

Discrete random variables:

Note: Essential properties of a Probability Distribution Function, pdf:

1. 0 ≤ P(X = x) ≤ 1 for all x , all probabilities are between 0 & 1

2. P(X = x ) = 1 the sum of all probabilities for X must add to 1

Note: Essential properties of a Cumulative Distribution Function, cdf:

1. cumulative probability does not decrease with increasing x

2. the last probability in a cdf is always = 1

Mean:
µ = mean
E(X) = expected value of a random variable X

μ = E(X) = x • P(X = x )

Variance and Standard deviation:

σ2 = Var(X) = variance of the pdf of X
σ = standard deviation of the pdf of X
σ2 = Var(X) = E(X – µ)2

= (x − μ) • P(X = x )

= E(X2) – [E(X)]2

σ = Var(X)

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Translation and scaling:
Suppose a new variable Y is scaled by a factor of a units and translated/shifted
b units relative to X

so Y = a•X + b

scale by a factor of a translate/shift by b

then mean of Y is: µy = a•µx + b location

variance of Y is: Var(Y) = a2•Var(X) shape
standard deviation of Y is: σy = |a|•σx shape

Continuous random variables:

y

P(a ≤ X ≤ b) = area

P(a ≤ X ≤ b) = f(x) dx y = f(x)

P(a ≤ X ≤ b) is the area under the curve f(x) between a and b

a b x

Note:
1. For f(x) to be a Probability Density function, pdf, it must satisfy 2
properties:
f(x) = y must be greater than or equal to 0
 f(x) ≥ 0 for all x ϵ R f(x) must be on or above the x axis
this avoids negative probabilities

• f(x) dx = 1 total probability is equal to 1

total area under the curve must equal 1

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Mean / expected value:

μ = E(X) = x • f(x) dx

Variance:

Var(X) = E( (X – µ)2 )

= (x − μ) • f(x) dx

= x • f(x) dx − μ

Standard deviation:

σ = Var(X)

Median = M is given by solving

1
f(x) dx =
2

If f(x) is the pdf of a continuous random variable X then the Cumulative Density
Function F(x) = P(X ≤ x) is given by:

F(x) = P(X ≤ x) = f(t) dt

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Exponential & Logarithmic functions

Exponents Logarithms

an = aaa … n times log a(x) = y  ay = x

Laws: Index laws Log laws

am⦁an = am + n log a(x) + log a(y) = log a(x⦁y)

= am – n log a(x) – log a(y) = log a( )
(am)n = amn log a(xb) = b⦁log a(x)
( )
(ab)n = an⦁bn log a(b) =
( )

=
log a(a) = 1
a0 = 1 log a(1) = 0
a–n = log 10(x) = log (x)
a = √a log e(x) = ln (x)

( )
a = x
x
log a(a ) = x⦁log a(a) = x⦁1 = x
log e(e) = ln (e) = 1
e ln(x) = x
e = 2.718281… natural base ln (ex) = x⦁ln (e) = x⦁1 = x

Quadratic formula
−b ± √b − 4ac
x =
2a

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