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I. INTRODUCTION

Tourism is considered one of the largest and fastest growing sectors of the

American economy. However, according to Mill and Morrison, 1985; Gunn, 1988;

Inskeep, 1991; and the World Tourism Organization, 2004, if not properly planned

and developed, tourism can negatively impact a community. Essential then, is

tourism planning and development that guides a community’s growth, protects

its valuable resources, and leads the community to economic and societal

success. According to the World Tourism Organization (2004) “in this context, the

design and content of tourism education systems is subject to strong pressures

from the environment around it, since the human factor has become one of the

key elements in achieving competitiveness in tourism enterprises and

destinations” (p. 4). The dynamic nature of the tourism industry demands

professional competencies.

Jafari, (2002) insists that tourism destination planning and development will

continue to reach higher levels of sophistication. Yet, Gunn (1998) and The

World Tourism Organization (2004) cautioned that programs of study in tourism

higher education may not be meeting the needs of future tourism professionals.

Decision makers in institutions of higher education, tourism industry professionals,

and governmental leaders may not consider tourism planning and development

important competencies, even though the strategic planning of tourism is the

basis for a community’s tourism success. In fact, tourism professionals staffing

Tourism Destination organizations lead the public policy effort to nurture the

tourism industry. To begin to understand the emergent problem of poorly

planned and executed tourism development, this study sought to identify

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competencies essential to tourism professionals. Further, the study investigated

professional competencies that may be needed in the future, and measured

industry professionals’ interest regarding the functions of tourism planning and

development.

A stratified random group of professionals (N=368) was selected for query

from a sampling frame of 750 professionals leading Destination Organizations

across the United States. The survey, intended to address research questions one

and two, resulted in 104 returns, or a response rate of 28.3%. The questionnaire

was based on several sources: (a) Section 3.2 – Role of Non-government

Organizations in Promoting Sustainable Tourism Development from An Action

Strategy for Sustainable Tourism Development authored by the Tourism Stream

Action Committee at the Globe ’90 Conference on Sustainable Development,

(b) tourism educational materials, (c) discussions with United States tourism

professionals, and (d) international professors of tourism, and (e) personal

professional tourism planning and development experiences. The survey

questionnaire (Appendix A) subsequently listed seventy competencies

prompting respondents to rank these per level of importance, on a five point

Likert Scale.

In addition to the 70 listed competencies, respondents had the opportunity to

add and prioritize other tourism competencies of importance to them. Data on

the competencies reported as important were compared to the competencies

addressed in tourism higher education curricula offered across the United States

per institution literature (course catalogues and course descriptions).

Three hundred twenty-one colleges and universities offering tourism or travel

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in their curricula were initially identified, ultimately rendering 160 programs for

analysis. The data identifying tourism programs offered were based on an

analysis of college and university catalogues and course descriptions. Associate

degree programs, certificate programs and doctoral programs were not part of

the study. The one hundred sixty programs and doctoral programs were not part

of the study. The one hundred sixty programs analyzed were Bachelor’s and

Master’s tourism higher education programs.

Data analysis was conducted as a systematic process, was population

specific, and empirically based. The Fisher’s LSD Multiple Comparison test, Mean,

Standard Deviation and Standard Error tests were all used. Data are presented

in tables and figures and are organized by the research questions that guided

this dissertation, namely: (1) What are the competencies needed in tourism

planning, as identified by experts in the field? (2) How are these competencies

obtained? (3) To what extent does higher education tourism curriculum across

the United States address competencies indicated important by tourism

professionals?

This chapter discusses the growth of the tourism industry, introduces an

international perspective on tourism higher education curricula, and addresses

tourism planning and development as a specialized field of study. The chapter

defines the technical terms used throughout the study.

Origins of Tourism Curricula in Higher Education

While tourism can be traced well back into European history, it has only

recently become a subject of study in institutions of higher education in the

United States. Wolfire (1988) indicated that travel and tourism programs started
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in the United States as two-year programs in the late 1930’s, then developed into

four-year programs by the late 1950’s. Tourism programs began to expand

throughout the United States in the 1970’s and 1980’s (p. 66).

Study Background

According to Roseland (1998) “a quiet transformation is taking place all over

North America and around the world. Thousands of citizens and their

governments are embracing a new way of thinking and acting about the future”

(p. 2). Motivations may differ; but these citizens and governments are in

agreement with a desire to improve their quality of life, to protect the

environment and are concerned about the legacy left to their children. Tourism

development has many positive attributes when planned correctly, however,

tourism development unplanned; may have negative human and

environmental impacts on the future of a community.

Additionally, The World Tourism Organization (2004) indicated that tourism is

not only a leading economic sector in the world but also a leading employment

producer. Riegel & Dallas (2002) indicated that, “regardless of the sources

consulted, travel and tourism is the world’s largest industry and rivals any other in

terms of size and economic impact” (p. 6). Hall (2000) argued that tourism is

significant because of its size and because of the enormous impact it has on

people’s lives and the places they live (p. 1).

Supported by research from the National tour Association, Dr. Suzanne Cook

of The Travel Industry Association of America, indicated that the United States

tourism industry would continue to grow over the next several years (TIA, 10, 2003

and NTA, 1, 2003). Many tourism professionals consider tourism an industry

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because it has multi-sectors; it is cohesive and has somewhat of a direction.

In contrast, Professor Emeritus Clare Gunn of the Texas A & M University

offered a differing view. Gunn contended that tourism is not necessarily an

industry but an "agglomeration of a huge array of public and private entities"

(Personal communication, July 24, 2004). A common theme did emerge,

however; tourism plays major societal, economic, employment and higher

education roles in most of the world. Industry or not, tourism is an enormous

economic driving force.

Problem Statement

Progressive tourism planning and development functions are not luxuries; they

are necessities. Moo Hyung Chung (1992) stated, “An uncontrolled tourism

industry may eventually destroy the very elements that primarily attracted tourists

to the area” (p. 31). Tourism planning and development is the approach that

can help to achieve harmonious growth along with positive benefits for a

community. Tourism destinations without planning, or controlling mechanisms

may undergo social, cultural and economic distortions while seeking tourism

revenues to help their communities. “Indeed, a widely acknowledged problem

is the extent to which ill-conceived and poorly planned tourism development

can erode the very qualities of the natural and human environment that attract

visitors” (Globe 90’ Conference, 1990). This problem is just as an important now,

as it was in 1990, insisted Dr. Tim Tyrell of the University of Rhode Island (Personal

communication, July 10, 2003). Might programs of study with an emphasis on

tourism planning address these concerns?

Tourism can create social impacts, both positive and negative. One positive
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impact is that tourism and the hospitality industry often provide first-time jobs for

young people, new immigrants, and for those returning to the workforce.

According to Riegel and Dallas (2002) “Young people between the ages of 18

and 24 have traditionally been a major source of entry-level labor for the

hospitality and tourism industry” (p. 8). Very often, tourism is considered an

important part of many communities’ economic development strategy.

Tourism planning and development are policy-based issues that communities

struggle with based on their values and philosophy. Generally, “a philosophy

may be defined as a system for guiding life; as a body of principles of conduct,

beliefs or traditions; or the broad general principles of a particular subject or field

of activity” (Goeldner, Ritchie, & McIntosh, 2000, p. 454). Tourism planning,

therefore, guides the philosophy of development activities in a community.

Some communities, however, may react after change takes place, or choose a

positive outcome philosophy, and develop plans for that future success.

Higher education programs in tourism planning and development may make

a positive difference in communities. For example, tourism curricula in higher

education may help prepare tourism professionals by teaching the disciplines

aligned with community values. According to Chung (1992) “If service to society

is one of the major functions of higher education, those involved in higher

education have an important role to play as every change occurs in this

increasingly global environment” (p. 6). If tourism is so important to a

community, a question arises: Are higher education tourism institutions offering

the needed education to address community needs?

Chung (1992) indicated the need for dynamic curricula: “Tourism needs a
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significant initiative from higher education institutions that direct a curriculum

toward a discrete body of knowledge, provide a research model and design an

academically based training program for educators” (pp. 6-7).

Governments, on the federal, state, and local levels are involved in tourism.

According to Mill and Morrison (1985) “The public sector often plays a

coordinating function…Coordination is necessary among the many

governmental bodies concerned with different aspects of tourism” (p. 242).

Tourism programs may not be understood and prioritized as well as they could, to

provide all the benefits possible. Hall (2000) suggested that the tourism industry,

and its impacts and analysis of public policy have been a low priority of

governments. Historically, government officials have been concerned more with

promotion and short-term returns than with strategic investment and

sustainability.

As a remedy to this limited scope, higher education tourism programs

focusing on, tourism planning and development, may help students learn what

they need to know to help communities address the shortcomings and short-

term returns of basic promotion and marketing.

Visitor Industry Demands

Appropriately educated tourism professionals, staffing public purpose

Destination Organizations, could help move a community toward sustainable

long-term investments and improved quality-of-life for its residents. Potts (2003), a

tourism expert at Clemson University, argued that community planners don’t

have enough research data to plan for tourism growth. Potts further contended

that more information, skills and resources are needed to address visitor industry
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growth. This need is within the scope of work of the competent tourism

professional. Gunn (1998) a thirty-year tourism educator and author argued that

it is clear that there is a need for expanding the scope of programs and curricula

in the field of tourism to address tourism growth in communities.

Don Hawkins, Eisenhower Professor of Tourism Policy at George Washington

University, indicates that not enough is being done to understand the core

competencies needed by tourism planning and development professionals

(Personal communication, May 5, 2003). How are core competencies

established for tourism professionals? To what threshold does tourism higher

education teach if there are no standards established? According to Dr. Tim

Tyrell (2003), of the University of Rhode Island's, Department of Research

Economics there is no known state, national or industry competency requirement

for tourism professionals or for tourism planning and development professionals

(Personal communication, July 10, 2003).

Palus and Horth (2002) discussed the importance of competencies. They

argued that managers should be able to identify competencies and integrate

them with traditional skills. This allows managers to help their organizations and

communities develop competencies to create shared understandings to better

resolve complex challenges. When reviewing competencies, it is important to

understand how they can be used.

Tourism professionals and tourism planners and developers, may require a

select combination of competencies to perform their responsibilities well. Along

with the traditional promotional and marketing skills, tourism planners with an

understanding of landscape design, historic preservation, environmental

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protection, resources conservation, transportation planning and building design

could be helpful to the tourism destinations they serve.

Stynes and O’Halloran (1987) suggested using competencies in a

comprehensive approach that integrates a strategic marketing plan with more

traditional public planning activities. According to McKercher and deCros

(2002), to achieve a balance between tourism education, conservation and

commodification, a more holistic focus is needed on the way the planning

processes in communities are managed (p. 99). Since tourism is such an

economic force in the world, well-educated professionals may be needed to

assist communities in their tourism development and growth goals.

There is a substantial body of research advocating a sustainable form of

tourism. To create sustainable tourism, it is necessary to teach tourism planning

and development professionals how to implement policies consistent with the

values of this growing part of the United States economy.

Status of Tourism in Higher Education

Does tourism higher education meet the needs of tomorrow’s tourism

professionals? Presently, it is not an easy task for potential students to identify

tourism studies curriculum through a web-based or catalogue search. Tourism

curricula are often embedded in hospitality oriented programs, institutional

management, or parks and recreation programs. According to Gunn (1998)

most tourism curricula does not include the full scope of tourism but focuses on

the hospitality industry. Frequently, tourism programs are intertwined with other

studies making it difficult for a student to identify competencies essential to

future tourism professionals.

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In an article about issues in tourism curricula, Gunn (1998) argued that

curricula focus on outcome opportunities for providers of direct traveler activities

and traveler support products and services. Gunn further noted that curricula for

tourism “policymakers, planners and developers receive little or no attention,

even though attention is needed” (pp. 75-76).

Rach (1992) studied competencies needed for a doctoral program in tourism

and noted that the interrelatedness of hospitality, institutional, and tourism

curricula creates problems, specifically around the issue of agreement on

competencies. Gunn (1998) argued, “most curricula today do not include the

full scope of tourism but rather focus on the hospitality industry” (p. 74). Gunn

(1998) further explained that, “the broad field of tourism… is also recognized as

encompassing more elements than the business service sector” (p. 74). “In

developing curricula the question arises concerning these other elements and

how they are to be taught” (p. 74). Gunn argued that, due to the projected

growth of tourism, it should be incumbent on university, college and technical

school administrators to determine the ever-changing needs of tourism

personnel prior to curriculum development.

According to Lengfelder, Obenour, and Cuneen (1994) programs in tourism

have grown and expanded. “The rapid growth of the tourism industry in the mid-

1970’s resulted in tourism education’s embryonic foothold in higher education”

(p. 22). They further contended, “The growth of tourism, combined with new

technology, created a need for more formalized tourism higher education” (p.

22). Courses were then developed in several higher education departments

such as economics, sociology, architecture, geography and home economics

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according to Lengfelder, et al., (1994). Has tourism higher education expanded

to address tourism planning and development curricula however?

The World Tourism Organization (WTO) (2004) suggested changes: "even

having the most necessary tourism resources in place will be insufficient if the

business of destinations do not have necessary personnel -- quantitatively and

qualitatively, in the appropriate posts. Therefore, the education and training of

human resources is essential to achieving competitiveness in tourism enterprises"

(p. 5). The WTO further contended "attaining competitiveness also requires

applying professional management in tourism education and training, breaking

habits of inertia in education institutions and responding to the real needs of the

market" (p. 5).

According to the World Travel and Tourism Council (2000, in Goeldner, Ritchie,

& McIntosh, 2000), the tourism sector has long lamented the lack of recognition

the industry receives. Rather than gaining prestige and recognition the tourism

industry has suddenly found itself in the mainstream of societal concerns at a

time when all aspects of society are being questioned as to their value, their

continued relevance, and their sustainability over the long term (Goeldner,

Ritchie, & McIntosh).

According to Lengfelder, Obenour and Cuneen (1994) there is a developing

need for improved tourism higher education. “The growth of tourism, combined

with new technology, created a need for more formalized tourism higher

education” (p. 22). It is, however, widely understood and taught in universities

and colleges across America that tourism greatly influences the economy and

employment.
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There are also concerns about how tourism is planned and developed and

how students are trained to influence this phenomenon. For example, negative

impacts of tourism include increased traffic in small older areas, where

promotion and desire to visit outpace careful planning. Of course, tourism does

offer various benefits. It provides opportunities for education, leisure, and

pleasure, and provides millions of employment opportunities. According to

Vroom (1981) tourism is considered an antidote for the stresses that result from

urbanization and industrialization (p. 7). Yet, uncontrolled developments can

cause environmental and economic harm. Hawkins (1993) having assessed

global tourism policies argued that, “while tourism has done much to enhance

economic development and encourage worldwide friendship and peace, the

industry has not always been a willing nor a pro-active partner in the realization

of these goals” (p. 188). Hawkins (1993) further noted, “while components of the

industry have been oriented toward achieving socially desirable objectives,

there is a general feeling that tourism has tended to be reactive to emerging

global issues rather than providing leadership in their identification and

resolution” (p. 188). Can tourism higher education, specifically in the planning

and development area, help to address these concerns?

Tourism’s Impact

Tourism curricula in institutions of higher education may help address the

concerns of Professor Donald Hawkins regarding the power that the tourism

industry has in the world. Hawkins, (1993) argues that the tourism industry’s

actions “may have been acceptable in an era when tourism was relatively

unimportant - it is no longer judged that this is the case” (p. 188).

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Brent Ritchie (1994), Chairman of the World Tourism Education and Research

Centre at the University of Calgary, explained "one of the most compelling forces

that has emerged in recent years is the desire of peoples all over the world to

recapture control of the political process that affects their daily lives" (p. 29).

Ritchie (1994) continued, "as a result, societies in all parts of the globe have had

to radically rethink and reshape the organizations and the processes that have

traditionally been used to develop national policies and to implement

supporting programs" (pp. 28-29). Ritchie (1994) also noted,

tourism, as an important and integral part of the global social and economic

fabric, has not escaped the pressures for change created by this metamorphosis of

the democratic process. Increasingly, along with all important industry sectors

tourism is being critically assessed concerning its net contribution to the well-being of

the community or region that it both serves and impacts. (p. 30)

Appendix B contains a listing of tourism industry sectors.

Tourism Industry Responsibilities

The question arises: Do tourism industry professionals adequately protect and

show responsibility for the community on which it depends for its survival?

According to Hall (2000), when businesses such as those in tourism, rely on the

same environmental space, or when they compete for scarce resources,

negative impacts may occur. Hall argued that business is rarely interested in

long-term, social and environmental needs but is focused on short-term revenue

and profits. Weaver (1993) of the University of Missouri argued, “In many

communities a carnival environment develops because community leaders

have failed to plan, not because of tourism. They have failed to plan for what
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they want…” (p. 33). Gunn (1998) contended, “In the United States, for

example, the administrators of hundreds of tourism associations have not

benefited from educational curricula directed toward their special needs in

tourism” (p. 76). These associations are public purpose Tourism Destination

Organizations, charged with increasing tourism in the community.

Tourism Planning and Development

Applied tourism planning and development competencies may assist a

destination to receive the economic, employment and social benefits needed,

while mitigating the negative impacts of unplanned tourism growth. The World

Tourism Organization (1993) noted “tourism planning takes place at various levels

ranging from the macro national and regional levels to the various micro local

planning levels. At the local level, tourism plans are prepared for resorts, cities,

towns and villages and various special forms of tourism to be developed in an

area” (p. 39). Tourism planning and development generally fall under the

responsibility or at least the concern of state, regional or community tourism

Destination Marketing Organizations.

The WTO (1993) argued for tourism planning and development standards.

According to the WTO, “at the local level, determination and adoption of tourist

facility development and design standards are essential to ensure that facilities

are appropriately sited and designed with respect to the local environmental

conditions and desired character of the development” (p. 39). These

competencies can be acquired through tourism on-the-job training, through

higher education, or in combination.

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Gunn (2002) categorized professional tourism planners in four sectors, and

explained the responsibilities of each:

The Business Sector –

Tourism businesses at the planning stage are obliged to consider not only potential

profits but also the many implications of their decisions - on the environment, on

competition, the relevance to other businesses, and on the infrastructure and social

values of a community. (p. 11)

The Public Sector –

Although the governing agencies may set policies and exercise practices primarily

for residents, these utilities (water supply, sewerage disposal, police and fire

protection) are of critical importance to travelers. Official city planning, building

codes, and zoning have much to do with how tourism is developed. (p. 12)

The Professional Consultant Sector –

Professionals combine the services of architects, landscape architects, engineers,

and others in order to provide the needed services for projects. Often other

specialists are added - historians, archeologists, wildlife specialists, foresters, and golf

designers. Not only do these teams work on specific land development projects but

also provide consulting services. (p. 14)

The Non-Profit Sector -

The voluntary, informal, family sector holds great promise for tourism expansion,

especially in developing countries. Rather than inviting the large multinational firm to

invest outside capital and labor, local talent can be harnessed for many indigenous

and small-scale tourism developments. Because the goal is less profit than ideology,

many cultural benefits can accrue from nonprofit tourism development. (p. 12)

It would appear that those entering the field of tourism would need to be

educated about these disciplines in order to be competent in their profession.

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Francesco Frangialli, Secretary-General of the World Tourism Organization, at the

World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002), expressed concern about the

future of tourism. Frangialli argued, “in the absence of proper guidance and

control, the inevitable growth of the number of visitors will amplify the

undesirable effects produced by today’s tourism, which are cited by the Global

Code of Ethics for Tourism…not everything can be justified in the name of trade

liberalization and the development of new destinations” (p. 4).

The call for more organization in a seemingly disorganized industry is coming

from the highest levels. WTO Sectary-General Francesco Frangialli (2004)

announced that 900 million international tourist arrivals are predicted by 2010.

Frangialli argued that the WTO must focus its interests on the protection of

resources while harnessing the phenomenal growth for international

development (NTA, 2004). John Turner, United States Assistant Secretary of State

for Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs (2004) stated

“tourism is fundamental for creating a constituency for conservation”

(NTA, 2004, p. 1).

Are institutions of higher education and the tourism industry itself ready to

address these concerns about tourism and development? In an industry as large

as tourism, there may be confusion as to responsibilities and professional

competencies necessary for success.

Skills required of professionals working in tourism planning and development

should not be confused with those required of professionals working in Hospitality

Management or Travel Industry services. A major distinction is that hospitality

management concentrates on hotel and restaurant management, convention

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and meeting planning and event implementation. Travel Industry services

concentrate on travel agency management and the transportation of people,

corporate and leisure, to chosen destinations. Yet, students in either of these

education concentrations may not be educated in the specialized

interdisciplinary competencies needed by the tourism professionals with

responsibilities in tourism planning, and development. Specifically, tourism

Planning and Development professionals concentrate on the community plans

needed to host visitors, transportation modes necessary to manage traffic, the

protection and preservation of environmental and historical resources, and the

development and promotion of these to meet the values and goals of the

community in which they are working.

Clearly, hospitality education is quite different than tourism. Burgermeister

(1993) explained, “Hotel and restaurant administration is described as a social

art. The relations with people – guests, patrons, employees, purveyors and the

community at large – are closer and often more sensitive than in most fields”

(p. 41). Burgermeister (1993) described an eclectic group of courses such as

nutrition, hotel management, restaurant management, real estate and data

processing, not found in a tourism administration program. Riegel (1998)

disagreed, noting that hospitality; tourism and travel education is “inextricably

intertwined” (p. 1). While these fields are designed to serve the visiting public

and may be to some extent intertwined, the industries certainly have different

focuses. Higher education in each field then, appears to require a separate

curriculum.

According to Smith and Cooper (2000) “As societies globalize through the
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influences of international travel and the revenues it generates, the global

industry [tourism] is giving increased prominence to service quality and skills

standards across sectors and, more important, to the academic education and

training of employees" (p. 2). Smith and Cooper (2000) continued, “In this

context, identification of industry needs and requirements leads logically to the

establishment of sector-specific education and training skill standards and the

involvement of industry in academic curriculum design” (p. 2). The WTO (2002)

noted that the increasing complexity of demand, the globalization of markets

and the flexibility gained from new technologies and information systems has

drastically altered the business paradigm of tourism prevailing for the last four

decades (p. 4). The WTO added, "Due to the rapid growth in tourism, demand

has led to human resource needs being covered by workers from other sectors,

with no specific training in tourism" (p. 4). This is not the optimum situation for

communities. There is competency standardization in many industries in the

United States, but by default, tourism industry ranks are being filled by those with

no tourism competencies, according to the WTO. Is this acceptable to

communities that are concerned about growth balanced with conservation? Is

the best practice to learn on the job, or should a Destination Organization hire

tourism-educated professionals?

To professionalize the industry, tourism, travel services, and hospitality

management higher education programs have grown in number and in

specialization over the past seventy years. Tourism programs in higher education

are following the growth of the industry by providing broader educational

opportunities. The World Tourism Organization’s Education Council (2002) stated

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“Currently, education and training suffer in many cases from a lack of depth and

isolation from the reality of the sector and tourism host societies”

(TedQual, pp. 36-37).

While tourism educational programs in higher education continue to grow in

scope and number, there is a lack of agreement regarding outcomes. Riegel

and Dallas (2002) stated, “In the United States, the number of post-secondary

institutions offering hospitality programs has more than quadrupled during the

past twenty-five years” (p. 9). The George Washington University, a leader in

tourism education by virtue of its many international affiliations, developed its first

tourism curriculum in 1972 within the Department of Tourism and Hospitality

Management. Dr. Donald Hawkins originated the Master’s in Tourism

Administration degree in 1974 (Hilliard, 2003). By 2003, the University offered six

different Master’s-level higher education tourism programs (Rodriquez, 2003). A

curriculum in tourism planning and development does not appear to be offered

in most institutions of higher education in the United States. This study reviewed

tourism programs (N=321) offered at higher educational institutions in the United

States. Curricula that did not have the term “tourism” in their title, or offer at least

one course in tourism, were not analyzed.

Dr. Clare Gunn (1979) noted “even among tourism practitioners, planning is

neither a common idea nor practice” (p. xi). If today’s tourism professionals and

practitioners are not interested in tourism planning, and are not seeking

education in tourism planning and development, will tourism higher education

be affected and will communities ultimately be negatively affected? A

community’s future may be at stake. This may be a compelling argument for the
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expansion of tourism planning and development curricula as opposed to current

offerings of one or two courses as part of a tourism and or hospitality higher

education program. If courses in tourism and planning are of increased priority

in colleges and universities, will tourism professionals return to school and will the

next class of college students be guided to these new programs?

Educated professionals involved in tourism planning and development could

address emerging developmental growth issues in a community. Ed McMahon,

Director of the Conservation Fund’s American Greenways Program (1997) stated,

“In recent years American tourism has had steadily less to do with America, and

more to do with tourism” (p. 19). He continued, “Tourism involves much more

than marketing. It also involves making destinations more appealing. This means

conserving and enhancing a destination’s natural tourism assets” (p. 20).

McMahon further argued that local planning, zoning and urban design

standards are important to communities with tourism resources. These are the

aspects of a community with which tourism planning and development

professionals can assist.

Boniface (2001) stated that on one hand tourism has the potential for

damage to the social, cultural, and environmental fabric of a community, but on

the other hand, tourism can solve problems through quality development and

regeneration. Properly managed, tourism can work for all, in a dynamic

relationship between the host societies, their visitors and the tourism industry.

Boniface’s (2001) argument was corroborated by a Florida study, which

demonstrated that tourism provides benefits that far outweigh negatives,

according to its residents. Florida depends on tourism as its largest industry.

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McIntosh and Goeldner (1990) conducted a social impact and attitudinal study

of tourism in Florida and found that Central Florida residents had consistently

positive attitudes toward the presence of tourists in their communities.

However, Frechtling (2002) Chair of the Department of Tourism and Hospitality

Management at The George Washington University wrote in TedQual, a World

Tourism Organization publication, that historically tourism professionals have not

been interested in tourism planning. Frechtling argued “tourism educators and

industry managers don’t agree on what tourism development means. Aside

from preventing the building of a body of knowledge, this sad state of affairs

obscures an important point in tourism development: Who should be served”

(p. 8)? Frechtling (2002) indicated that destination development is about

meeting the needs of a destination’s stakeholders through satisfying visitors.

Frechtling (2002) noted residents, suppliers and visitors are the primary

stakeholders of a destination.

Approaches to Tourism Curricula

Hall (2000) argued that tourism curricula is designed to deliver the kind of

education that the industry requests. The tourism industry is generally organized

under four broad approaches, according to Hall. They are “boosterism,

economic, physical and the community-oriented approach” (p. 20). Hall (2000)

found that tourism education pedagogy in the United States is currently geared

to address these four industry approaches. However, Hall (2000) described more

social and environmental community-driven aspects of tourism development

and more sustainable forms of tourism. For example, he noted that the

boosterism approach promotes and markets the community. How many visitors
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can the community attract? The economic approach uses tourism as an

economy generator. The physical approach addresses carrying capacity of

ecological and cultural resources. The community-oriented approach is the

search for balanced development within any community.

Can tourism higher education have a positive affect on communities?

Although all four of Hall’s (2000) approaches are important, and work as a

system for the tourism industry, two subsets, the physical, and the community-

oriented approach, focus on tourism planning and development. Therefore,

does tourism curriculum in higher education meet the complete educational

needs of aspiring tourism professional? Tourism higher education in the United

States may evolve to meet the vulnerable needs of the community or

destination, not just the needs of tourism businesses.

By definition, a tourism destination may be a geographic area, some as large

as a state or multiple states, some as small as a town, but all related by several

qualities where the tourism experiences take place. Hundreds of public purposes

Destination Organizations are working in all jurisdictions throughout the United

States to increase tourism in their respective destinations. Their missions and work

plans may vary, but these are the organizations where tourism professionals work

to cultivate tourism in their community.

Ritchie and Crouch (2002) stated, “Undoubtedly, the most traditional of the

destination management functions is marketing. This has resulted in a feeling, for

many, that the acronym DMO effectively means “Destination Marketing

Organization.” However, the growing acknowledgement that a DMO has many

other responsibilities has led to an increasing recognition of DMO to mean

 23

“Destination Management Organization” (TedQual, p. 15). Is higher education

currently preparing students for this Ritchie and Crouch management definition

of destination organizations?

Definition of Terms
Specific terms are used to describe the tourism industry and tourism higher
education. These terms provide a frame of reference for the vocabulary in this
study.
Community “The persons and public and private bodies who are

potentially affected, both positively and negatively, by the

impacts of tourism development within the boundaries of

the destination area” (Bosselman, Peterson, & McCarthy,

1999, p. 11).

Competency “Normally used to identify abilities and skills necessary for

licensure or certification [credentialing]; the focus of test

standards is on the level of knowledge and skills necessary to

assure the public that a person is competent to practice”

(Gaff & Ratcliff, 1997, p. 347).

Credentialism “Theoretical position asserting that the primary function

served by schooling is to provide school completers with

credentials that set them apart from the remainder of the

workforce and provide them with the credentials for entry

into occupations with status” (Gaff & Ratcliff, 1997, p. 709).

Curriculum “A body of courses presenting the knowledge, principles,

values, and skills that is the intended consequences of

education” (Gaff & Ratcliff, 1997, p. 118).

 24

Curriculum
Development “Process of planning an educational program, including

the identification and selection of educational objectives,

the selection of learning experiences, the organization of

learning experiences, and the evaluation of program results”

(Gaff & Ratcliff, 1997, p. 709).

Destination The place to which someone or something is going or being

sent (Oxford Color Dictionary, 1993, p.188).

Destination
Development The process of meeting the needs of a destination’s

stakeholders through satisfying visitors (WTO, 2004, p. 10).

Epistemology “The study of how one knows or how one acquires

knowledge” (Viotti & Kauppi, 1999, p. 477).

Pedagogy “Methods of teaching and interaction employed by an

instructor; may encourage students either in passive

absorption of information or in active construction of

meanings for course material” (Gaff & Ratcliff, 1997, p. 713).

Policy “A set of regulations, rules, guidelines, directives, and

development/promotion objectives and strategies that

provide a framework within which the collective and

individual decisions directly affecting tourism development

and the daily activities within a destination are taken”

(Goeldner, Ritchie, & McIntosh, 2000, p. 445).

Professionalism “A term used to identify the criteria by which an occupation

or an activity may be judged to be professional. Such

 25

criteria would include all the attributes and characteristics

displayed by persons employed in the occupation which

are construed as being professional in nature by peers and

by those served” (Wolfire, 1988, p. 7).

Professionalization “A term which refers to the dynamic process of the

movement of an occupation toward identity with the

professional model - a phenomenon that may affect any

occupational field to a greater or lesser degree” (Wolfire

1988, p. 7).

Quality
Certification "Quality certification is the step by which a third party

testifies that a product process or service meets with one or

several standards or specifications" (WTO 2004, p. 16).

Standardization "An obligatory type of assessment which meets the required

standards of impartiality, competence and integrity" (WTO

2004, p. 17).

Sustainable
Development “A program to change the process of economic

development so that it ensures a basic quality of life for all

people, and protects the ecosystems and community

systems that make life possible and worthwhile”

(International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives, et

al 1996; Roseland, 1998, p. 4).

Tourism “The study of man away from his usual habitat, of the

touristic apparatus and networks, and of the ordinary and

 26

non-ordinary worlds and their dialectic relationship” (Jafari,

1988, p. 409).

Tourism Planning “Organizing the future to achieve certain objectives. There

is a strong element of predictability in planning because it

attempts to envision the future, although often now only in a

general manner because it is realized that many factors

cannot be very precisely predicted” (Inskeep, 1991, p. 25).

A coherent and ethical approach to the development of

tourism in a range of environments at national, regional and

sub-national levels” (ASC SCHOOL: Business and

Management, 2003).

Visitor “Any person traveling to a place other than that of his/her

usual environment for less than 12 months and whose main

purpose of visit is other than the exercise of an activity

remunerated from within the place visited” (World Tourism

Organization and the United Nations, TedQual, 2002, p. 10).

Significance of the Study

Tourism educator Clare Gunn (1977) observed, “the overall planning of the

total tourism system is long overdue…there is no overall policy, philosophy or

coordinating force that brings the many pieces of tourism into harmony and

assures their continued harmonious function” (p. 85). The tourism system in the

United States may have made limited evolutionary progress since Gunn’s (1997)

study. Yet, Hall (2000) remarked that the need for coordination has become one

of the great truisms of tourism planning and policy. He continued, “Coordination

 27

is a political activity and it is because of this, that coordination can prove

extremely difficult, especially when, as in the tourism industry, there are a large

number of parties involved in the decision-making process” (p. 82). Presently,

tourism professionals, working in private and public Destination Organizations,

oversee tourism growth in the United States, while the need for competent

planning and development professionals remains unfulfilled. For the purposes of

the present study the term Destination Organization indicates public and/or

private supported tourism councils, convention and visitor bureaus, tourism

associations or chambers of commerce.

The present study’s findings identify competencies required of tourism

professionals; describe how such competencies are generally acquired; and

report the extent to which higher education tourism curricula offered in the

United States, address the identified competencies.

This study is intended to advance the literature in the dynamic field of tourism

and perhaps foster discussion among industry professionals towards sustainable

tourism, industry standards, and credentialing. Finally, it is intended that policy-

makers in institutions of higher education may adopt the study’s

recommendations.

Availability of Higher Education Programs

Availability of higher education programs in tourism planning and

development may be limited, even as the tourism industry and higher education

programs in hospitality and tourism continue to grow. An interest in tourism

education reform is emerging. Ritchie and Sheehan (2001) documented a

developing interest in revamping tourism education. They noted that efforts to

 28

comprehensively examine the nature of tourism education began with

international tourism conferences first in England in 1988, and then in Canada in

the early 1990’s. A formal textbook on tourism education emerged from these

conferences. Since then, according to Ritchie and Sheehan (2001), the World

Tourism Organization called for “the need for standards against which to assess

the quality of the growing number of (tourism education) programs” (p. 38).

Ritchie and Sheehan (2001) noted however “in today’s environment, there is

often relatively little room for new program development” (p. 39).

Some tourism educators have called for, and predict change in tourism

education. Gunn (1994) for example, argued that certain policies and principles

should be implemented for effective tourism development. Gunn noted that,

first, planning must enhance visitor satisfaction if economic improvement is to

occur. Second, planning must integrate tourism into the social and economic

life of communities and destinations. Third, tourism, if properly planned, cannot

only protect, but can improve the quality of fundamental environmental

resources. Gunn (1994) predicted an eventual change in tourism education that

will take into consideration these policies and principles. Gunn continued,

College and university curricula will be expanded to include better

educational programs directed toward planning, development, and

management of tourism projects. Greater policy and financial support for

tourism research, education, and training will be required from all three

sectors, governments, nonprofit organizations and commercial enterprises. (p. 442)

According to the World Tourism Organization (1993), “Appropriate and

thorough education and training of persons working in tourism are essential for
 29

the successful development and management of this sector” (p. 138).

The WTO (1993) also noted, Government tourism officials need to understand

tourism policy formulation, planning and marketing techniques, project

identification and feasibility analysis, tourism statistics and management of

tourism information systems, environmental, social and economic impact analysis

[as they] establish and administer tourist facility and service standards, tourist

information services, and other matters (p. 138).

According to the WTO, “If certain technical matters, such as planning and

project feasibility analysis are carried out by experts, government tourism officials

need to know enough about the subjects to review the work done by the

experts” (p. 138). Domestic and international tourism is growing and may put

pressure on United States destinations. The Quarterly Market Review, published

by the Travel Industry Association of America (TIA) includes the latest outbound

data from government sources, inbound data from the U.S. Department of

Commerce and an analysis of economic and social events that affect travel to

the United States from key markets. According to TIA (2004) tourism continues to

grow around the world. In the first half of 2004, TIA noted that international

arrivals to the U.S. in the second quarter of 2004 were up by more than 20% over

the second quarter of 2003 (TIA, Nov 24, 2004).

In order to meet present and future tourism demands, industry professionals

must understand and facilitate sustainable tourism. Presently, higher education

tourism planning and development curricula addressing sustainable tourism are

limited in scope and availability. Dr. Rich Harrill pointed out, “As more

destinations open up globally due to free trade and advances in technology

 30

and transportation, the need for education in tourism planning is more urgent

than ever” (Personal communication, November 3, 2003). Moreover, Gunn

(1998) stated, “Tourism planning and development will need a curriculum that

includes courses in engineering, transportation, land use economics,

environmental conservation, landscape architecture, architecture, and

planning” (p. 75). Using accepted principles, tourism planners and developers

seek to benefit a community and promote quality economic development using

community natural and man-made resources. Dr. Tim Tyrell of the Department of

Resource Economics at the University of Rhode Island noted that, special

features of a place must be preserved for the residents of an emerging tourism

destination to enjoy in the future. If these features are to be affected, residents

need to be consulted as to the possible quality-of-life trade-offs (Personal

communication, July 10, 2003).

An example of a trade-off is tourism promotion. A natural counterpart to the

tourism industry, promotional programs, may come without regard to tourism

planning. A professional, with planning credentials, explains a dilemma with

tourism professionals. Elizabeth Watson, Executive Director of Eastern Shore

Heritage Inc, Maryland, and a member of the American Institute of Certified

Planners, works with regional tourism organizations concerned with reducing the

negative impacts of tourism. Watson stated, “Tourism’s short-term payoff comes

from good marketing, you hear that over and over. Marketing and its

companion - advertising and promotion - are the only ways to build visitorship.

Significant investment is required for that, to the exclusion of all else.” Watson

continued, “Planning should be in place, for the long-term payoff, but the
 31

incentives and the means to undertake planning aren’t structured into typical

tourism programs” (Personal communication, Oct 29, 2003).

Competency Development

Addressing the status of professional education in Travel and Tourism

Hawkins and Hunt (1988) noted, “Competency development in tourism

regardless of the level has traditionally been gained through a variety of formal

and informal education delivery systems and on-the-job training” (p. 9). They

add that the formal education of many professionals in tourism has been in a

variety of fields, most of which are only marginally related to the tourism

profession. The present research appears to support the Hawkins and Hunt 1988

findings.

Hawkins and Hunt’s (1988) recognition of the complexity of tourism indicated

that there is a growing concern for improving formal education in the tourism

field. They questioned the various levels of formal education and their

curriculum. According to Hawkins and Hunt, (1988) “To understand and deal

with the visitor and industry relationships to environments (social-cultural,

economic, political, and physical) requires more disciplines ranging from

ecology and geography to political science and planning” (p. 10). They

expressed concerns with how the teaching of tourism takes place in the United

States. While they concur that the programs may be good and attempt to

broaden the student’s education, they observed that these programs do not

provide holistic education in tourism. Hawkins and Hunt (1988) reviewed

Bachelor’s degree programs that were entitled “tourism.” Hawkins and Hunt

found that they are “generally options or minors attached to an older, more
 32

traditional core curriculum in some other, yet related, curriculum and thus

maintain a strong bias or ‘flavor’ of the root curriculum” (p. 10). Hawkins and

Hunt (1988) also found that most tourism programs were offered in hotel and

restaurant management programs such as those at the University of

Massachusetts, University of Nevada-Las Vegas, Michigan State University or

parks and recreation programs at Clemson University, Michigan State University,

Colorado State University, Texas A&M University and the University of Utah.

The situation appears similar today. Tourism programs at Texas Tech University

are offered through the Department of Education, Nutrition, and Hotel

Management, and at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, offered through the

Department of Urban and Regional Planning. The latter is useful for students

interested in tourism planning and development. At Western Illinois University

and the University of Florida, tourism departments are embedded in the

departments of recreation, parks and tourism. In fact, college recreation, parks

and tourism departments may be more appropriate hosts than hospitality

departments for tourism programs. Yet, current research for tourism curricula at

United States universities and colleges appeared to be no easier than it was for

Hawkins and Hunt sixteen years earlier. As was the case historically, tourism

curricula are not readily apparent, or easy to find, because that tourism

curriculum is embedded in an institution’s offerings. One needs to know where

to seek elusive tourism curriculum information.

In terms of improving tourism curriculum, the Conference Board’s Business

Enterprises for Sustainable Travel (2001) is seeking, “to produce a model

curriculum on sustainable travel, which would be distributed to hospitality and

 33

tourism education programs throughout the world” (p. 6). To achieve

sustainable benefits for a community, tourism will need to be guided by

professionals who obtain education in tourism planning and development as

suggested by the Conference Board. Morrish and Brown (1994) identified the

key responsibilities a tourism planning professional would perform on the job.

Specifically in the area of planning; tourism professionals formulate a vision and a

mission statement for their community, note projects necessary to implement

plans, prepare an outline of policies and programs to implement plans; and

create a framework to help evaluate projects and programs.

Finally, tourism destination development may change in the future.

The World Tourism Organization’s Business Council, (2004) contended, “the

current trend in almost all regions of the world, is toward semi-public but

autonomous tourism organizations involving a partnership with both private

sector and regional and/or local authorities” (p. 1). Will higher education in

tourism help aspiring professionals meet these challenges of the changing trends

in the tourism industry?

Summary

The present study was conducted against the backdrop of the growing

worldwide tourism industry, the need for tourism professional competencies, and

the status of tourism higher education curricula offerings.

Tourism is one of the world’s fastest growing industries and shows no decline

according to The World Tourism Organization. Consequently tourism educators

continue to call for more programs in tourism planning and development, as has

been the case for more than twenty years. Curriculum reform has occurred but
 34

what further reform is necessary? Do potential students understand the value of

and necessity for education in this field of study? Presently, it appears that a

credentialing system is not in place for tourism planning and development

professionals who manage tourism in the United States. Research may heighten

interest in improving tourism higher education and engender further progress in

establishing a comprehensive credentialing protocol for tourism professionals.

This chapter identifies that Tourism Planning and Development curriculum is not

widely offered at colleges and universities in the United States. However, some

tourism courses are available through various Hospitality Administration and

Management curricula and Parks and Recreation curricula.

Dissertation Outline

Chapter II reviews literature relevant to tourism higher education. It features

long-standing calls for improvements in tourism curricula, and investigates

competencies and credentialing for United States tourism professionals, and the

industry training available. Chapter III describes the present study’s research

design, instrumentation, sampling protocol, and data collection and analysis.

Chapter IV presents the research findings from the tourism professionals,

featuring the ten competencies identified as most important. These

competencies are cross referenced with current college and university programs

that include tourism, hospitality, recreation, or travel services as noted in course

catalogues and course descriptions. Chapter V summarizes findings, draws

conclusions, makes recommendations for tourism certification, calls for

professional credentialing, improved tourism curricula, and identifies

recommendations for future practice.

 35

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

This chapter summarizes a historical perspective of tourism education;

research on tourism competencies, how competencies are obtained; tourism as

a profession; the need for higher education degrees; and the values of hands-

on-learning. The chapter further identifies changes in tourism curricula; the

potential for common curricula; an international view on tourism; credentials for

tourism professionals; and accreditation for tourism education programs.

Background

Wolfire (1988) indicated that travel and tourism programs began in the United

States as two-year programs in the late 1930’s, then developed into four-year

programs by the late 1950’s. Tourism programs began to expand throughout the

United States in the 1970’s and 1980’s. At the time of Wolfire’s (1988) study, five

schools offering tourism and travel curricula had tourism planning courses

available to students, and eight schools indicated a need to offer courses in the

area of tourism planning and development. Lengfelder, Obenour, and Cuneen

(1994) noted that there were thirty-three, four-year Bachelor’s degree programs,

three Master’s level programs, and no Doctoral programs in tourism in the United

States in 1989.

According to Wolfire (1988) tourism and/or travel programs have evolved

over the years in American universities and those programs have often shifted

departments, within the institution. Wolfire’s (1988) research determined that

tourism programs have been shifted from one department to another and from

one area of the university to another, in order to find an appropriate location for
 36

the curriculum. Wolfire stated the decision of where to place a tourism program

in higher education, is often related to faculty perception.

Rach (1992) found corroborating evidence of program departmental shift in

his research. Rach (1992) noted that tourism programs exist in schools and

departments of liberal arts, home economics, business, education, recreation,

anthropology, business, economics geography, history, leisure studies, marketing,

political science, psychology, recreation, sociology, urban planning and hotel

management.

Differing Perspectives

According to Smith & Cooper (2000) “Globalization is having a major impact

on the tourism sector but has not yet affected the design of tourism and

hospitality curricula” (p. 1). Riegel and Dallas (2002) offered differing views on

tourism education. They explained that most tourism curricula today resemble

one of five approaches to education. They are the “Craft/Skill Approach,”

which helps students acquire technical skills; the “Tourism Approach,” which

emphasizes the content of tourism concepts, trends and the main social

sciences that contribute to the tourism field; the “Food Systems/Home Economics

Approach,” where hospitality programs are housed; the “Business Administration

Approach,” which tends to pay more attention to administration management,

finance, marketing and accounting; and the “Combined Approach,” which

combines business administration with food systems and home economics (pp.

11-12). Riegel and Dallas (2002) did not include tourism planning and

development as part of any of the approaches.

Jafari and Aaser (1988) discussed the growing interest in tourism and its
 37

increasing recognition in the academic community. “Tourism as a scientific field

of study has only a recent beginning” (p. 407). They maintained, “It now

represents the work of a small but growing community of researchers, trained

mostly in social sciences, which apply concepts and methods from different

disciplines and hence contribute to the formation of a touristic body of

knowledge” (p. 407). Smith & Cooper (2000) argued that tourism education has

remained lost because demands of globalization moved ahead of tourism

education’s ability to deliver. Smith & Cooper (2000) explained “tourism is

youthful and has had to concern itself with many fundamental issues, long since

resolved in more mature subject academic fields” (p. 2).

Education in tourism planning and development appears to be limited in

availability. According to Riegel and Dallas (2002) hospitality and tourism

programs differ in curricula specialization. They noted that some college and

university programs argue that specialization beyond an undergraduate degree

is unnecessary and offer hospitality and tourism programs which all students,

regardless of their career goals, must complete. Riegel and Dallas (2002) noted

some colleges and universities offer specializations in hotel management,

restaurant management, sales and marketing, attractions management,

destination management, or convention and meeting management. Other

institutions offer elective courses related to the major, which permit students to

specialize or pursue their specific interests.

In a study to develop a model course of study for travel-tourism, Vroom (1981)

made several recommendations including calling for new programs. According

to Vroom (1981) “Additional studies, similar in scope and content, should be

 38

made in other regions of the United States and Europe; a model travel-tourism

program should be developed for a Bachelor’s degree as well as for a graduate

degree” (p. 94). McIntosh (1983) then Professor of Tourism at Michigan State

University, worked to develop a model university tourism curriculum. McIntosh

(1983) noted that, when schools design a curriculum, they start with the needs of

the likely employer or the graduate four years hence this places a business

employer orientation to the curriculum. United States higher education curricula

analyzed for the present study indicates much of tourism education is imbedded

in Hospitality and Restaurant Administration or Parks and Recreation

departments.

Lonam (1999) using a modified Delphi Study, identified competencies

required of graduates in Bachelor’s hospitality and tourism programs in the year

2010. Lonam (1999) found the global importance of the tourism industry requires

a new hospitality education paradigm, based on the reality that tourism is a

mainstream business rather than a niche or departmental consideration in higher

education (Abstract, April 16, 2004). Clearly, the nature of tourism as a field of

study is still developing.

Competency Based Tourism Education and Industry Input

Buergermeister (1983) in a study to assess the skills and competencies needed

by hospitality managers stated, “To meet the challenge of maintaining currency

in the professional area, education should seek all the industry responses possible

to its existing programs” (p. 39). Buergermeister (1983) added, “The more

objective this feedback is, the more value it will hold.

 39

It has to determine the perceptions of selected post-secondary hospitality

management educators with respect to the ideal Hotel and Restaurant

curriculum” (p. 39).

In assessing the tourism higher education curricula for tourism planners and

developers, other hospitality studies should be considered. Buergermeister (1983)

conducted a competencies assessment at the University of Wisconsin-Stout,

which studied the competencies needed by hospitality managers (p. 36).

Therein, hospitality operators, educators and recent graduates were questioned.

The study provided base-line information for evaluating hospitality curricula

through the use of a survey method for both educators and industry responses.

Buergermeister (1983) recommended that there should be substantial input

from both industry and educators regarding the evaluation of hospitality

curricula. Results of such as evaluation should be shared with not only industry

and educators but also with students. According to Buergermeister, (1983) the

leading competencies and skills to be developed are: human relations,

motivational skills, supervision and effective communications. Buergermeister

(1983) argue that faculty should include in their course objectives: courtesy,

service, organization, sensitivity and motivation and should evaluate their

personal perceptions of the importance of certain hospitality skills and

competencies. Applebaum (1998) agreed with Buergermeister (1983)

contending academia and industry, professionals need more interaction to

benefit all interested parties.

Walk (1987) studied the validation and development of competencies for

professional meeting planners. The Walk study included a survey questionnaire

 40

mailed to members of the St Louis Association of Meeting Planners International

(N=204), rendering (N=86) usable responses. Walk (1987) attempted to

determine the skill and knowledge requirements for a meeting planner in the St.

Louis area. Walk (1987) determined that, “while the results are specific for one

community, other communities may find the results have implications for them”

(p. 324). Walk’s (1987) study also revealed that all of the categories researched

are somewhat important and will vary in quality depending on the individual.

While an individual can’t be strong in all categories, what should be taught

when all subject areas are important?

The Tourism Industry and Marketing

Pearce and Butler (1993) noted that tourism is considered very beneficial at

the local level, but government regulations may not be in place to control or

plan tourism, and any regulation in place, is easily circumvented. Governments

often play a policy-making role, but may not emphasize the importance of

tourism planning for a community. Pearce and Butler added that it is assumed

that the industry is self-governing and protects the interest of the community.

They asserted, “The industry would like to agree with this, but there is no method

of self-regulation for an industry like tourism, made up of the complete range

and size of operations from one person enterprises to multi-national corporations,

most of whom are in competition with each other” (p. 144).

Pearce and Butler (1993) further argued that virtually all government tourism

departments at every level have mandates to market their area and increase

tourism. “A few may have established development plans or strategies, but in

many cases these are ignored if potential developers’ wishes are contrary to the
 41

stated objectives of the plans, or even in some cases ignored when they do

match objectives” (p. 144). Does tourism just come about, and when it does, is it

consistent with the values of a community? “Many governments believe that

tourism just happens and there are really no problems associated with the

industry. With attitudes such as this being prevalent, it is not likely that much

responsibility will be assigned to restrict tourism,” according to Pearce and Butler

(p. 144). Gunn (2004) emphasized that tourism is multidisciplinary in nature

(Personal communication, July 24, 2004). By studying tourism in travel and

tourism programs, hospitality administration programs, and parks, recreation and

tourism programs, are present day tourism students being prepared to address

Pearce and Butler’s concerns, and Gunn’s emphasis about the multidisciplinary

nature of tourism?

Understanding Future Needs

Kelly (1988) pointed out “designing successful tourism development strategies

is an aspect of planning practice in which most professional planners have little

first-hand knowledge or experience” (p. 1). Other research also points to tourism

planners’ need for expertise and several competencies. For example, Long and

Nuckolls (1992) noted this fact in their tourism planning workshops where they

argued that organizing tourism development requires an understanding of the

principles of planning. They further contended that all levels of government must

have a plan (not simply a marketing plan) to guide their tourism growth effort.

They suggested that core planning therefore include actions to garner human,

physical, financial resources and expertise needed to assist in determining

capability to develop tourism as a viable industry.

 42

McIntosh and Goeldner (1990) corroborated by noting “the decision to

develop tourism, or expand present tourism development in a community, a

region, or a country must be studied carefully” (p. 304). McIntosh and Goeldner

(1990) indicated that, “tourism development must be guided by a carefully

planned policy, a policy not built on balance sheets and profit and loss

statements alone, but on the ideals and principles of human welfare and

happiness” (p. 305). Moreover, Frechtling (2002a) stressed the value of tourism

planning and development as it relates to sustainable tourism. Frechtling (2002b)

credited sustainable tourism with “meeting the needs of the present without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs,

understood as having economic, social/cultural and

environmental dimensions” (p. 41).

The World Commission on Environment and Development addressed the

sustainability of tourism at the 1987 World Commission on Environment and

Development conference that addressed growing threats to the environment.

Bosselman, Peterson and McCarthy (1999) agreed with the emphasis of

appropriate sustainable tourism planning and development. They stated, “If

development destroys the resources that attract tourists to a destination, tourism

cannot be sustained there” (p. 114).

Sustainable tourism requires a unique amalgam of contributions from various

fields of study. As Gunn (1994) noted, “Tourism is a complex phenomenon and

therefore, the research of tourism must utilize all the disciplinary approaches that

will be most useful in solving problems and in providing new information” (p. 9).

Gunn argued that due to the multidisciplinary nature of tourism, cooperation

 43

and collaboration by researchers in several areas, such as land use, history,

anthropology, sociology, market analysis, geography, engineering, wildlife,

forestry, water resources and consumer behavior, are needed. Gunn (1994)

further argued “these and many other combinations of disciplines will need to be

created in order to address and provide solutions to needed tourism planning,

development, and management issues in the future” (p. 9). Similarly, Riegel and

Dallas (2002) contended that, “An emerging view of hospitality and tourism

education is that of a field of multidisciplinary study which brings the

perspectives of many disciplines especially those found in the social sciences, to

bear on particular areas of application and practice in the hospitality and

tourism industry” (p. 10).

Such collaborative, interdisciplinary research may shape base competencies

needed by future tourism professionals and subsequently shape future curricula.

Tourism professionals with needed competencies may provide a community with

the talent it needs to predict how it may change in the future if there is growth

and development in tourism.

Differing Views on Competencies and Higher Education

Riegel and Dallas, (1998) research indicated that there are approximately

fifty United States professional certifications and designations in the hospitality

industry. They noted however, that there may be only one certification or

designation for tourism professionals, and it is for group tourism professionals (p.

181). The American Bus Association and the Cross Sphere Global Association for

Packaged Travel offer professional certifications specifically for the Group

Tourism Professional.
 44

A comprehensive list of Professional Tourism Organizations is found in

Appendix C.

Lengfelder et al. (1994) compared (N=49) international tourism professionals’

perceptions regarding Bachelor’s and graduate education. While the

instrumentation differed from that of the present study, the conclusions were

useful. Lengfelder (1994) shed light on the ways in which United States tourism

professionals obtain knowledge and what professionals considered important in

tourism education. The researchers stated that, “comparing the relevancy and

importance of international course topics provides a tool for academicians who

plan curricula for both the Bachelor’s and graduate levels” (p. 23). They

continued, “United States educated tourism professionals must compete,

cooperate, understand and lead in a global atmosphere where tourism plays a

significant role with ramifications of social, cultural, political, economic,

environmental and global importance” (p. 23).

In the Lengfelder et al. (1994) study, international professionals identified

Planning Management in Tourism, and System Analysis of Services, as more

significant at the Bachelor’s level than did United States professionals. Some of

the importance of these tourism topics to international professionals at the

Bachelor’s level could indicate the nature of the respondents’ host countries.

Visitor-receiving countries consider carefully the needs of their host country,

which relates to the emphasis for competencies in tourism planning and

development.

Lengfelder et al. (1994) further indicated that tourism professionals in the

United States placed a higher importance on Personnel Management and

 45

Principles of Public Relations courses than did their international counterparts.

Tourism professionals who had studied at the graduate level however, were

more management-oriented than tourism planning-oriented (p. 23). Tourism

planning and development curricula, at least on the Bachelor’s level, appeared

to be considered more important in countries other than the United States.

According to Lengfelder et al. (1994), the course topic of “Planning

Management of Tourism” was perceived as significantly lower in importance at

the Bachelor’s level by tourism professionals in the United States than by

international tourism professionals. In the United States, marketing and hospitality

curricula in higher education appeared more important and overshadowed

programs in the tourism planning and development area. Fifteen years prior to

the Lengfelder (1994) study, Gunn (1979) noted that tourism planning is an

uncommon idea and unfortunately not a common discipline with tourism

professionals.

With marked specificity, The World Tourism Organization (2004) argued

“tourism education and training should offer (i) quality, responding to the needs

of the tourism industry, and (ii) efficiency, studying and evaluating the costs and

benefits of the wide range of education process and methods available.”

Additionally, “the first step to establish a competitive tourism education system is

to identify the needs and expectations of those involved in such a system, i.e.

tourism employees, students and educators, to guarantee that the education

given and the processes adopted are valid” (The World Trade

Organization, 2004, p. 5).

According to (Jafari, 2002) “Efforts in tourism education and training are

 46

being assumed by at least three main stakeholders: government agencies,

private and public universities, and industry sectors” (p. 29). These stakeholders

use a combination of human resource development models in order to respond

effectively to destination management needs. As explained by (Jafari, 2002) the

terms “training” and “education” are often used interchangeably in the tourism

industry, but there is a difference. Training is offered to those who want to

occupy “hands-on” positions, and “education” is offered to those with “minds-

on” or leadership positions (p. 30).

Jafari (2002) furthered contended that there is a diverse range of programs –

local, state, national, regional and international – that can assist in the education

of tourism professionals. There are affiliation options such as traditional college or

university programs and industry support/based programs. In addition, there are

different levels of education available depending on the need of the

professional, such as traditional vocational/hands on programs, undergraduate

programs, Master’s programs and doctoral programs. Jafari (2002) concluded,

“In years to come, systematic tourism destination planning and management will

continue to reach higher levels of sophistication and integration with Human

Resource Development models/options firmly and strategically lodged in the

core” (p. 34). Distance learning may be one of those sophistications appropriate

to deliver the principles of destination planning and management,

supplemented with practical hands-on experiences.

Wikoff (1995) noted another concern about the future of tourism and

hospitality higher education. Wikoff (1995) argued that the gap between supply

and demand of qualified tourism faculty has been widening, while terminal
 47

degrees are required to teach in many universities and there are fewer

candidates to fill these vacancies.

The International Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Education

(ICHRIE) (2002) explained the differences and attributes of Hospitality and

Tourism educational programs. Certificate or diploma programs are directed

towards with specific skills for specific jobs; Associate degree programs provide

students with the training and education necessary for hospitality and tourism

management careers; Bachelor’s degree programs, which often integrate

tourism with hospitality, provide career education in broad general studies; and

Graduate degree programs provide advanced education for specialized

positions.

The International CHRIE’s delineations are in keeping with Riegel and Dallas’

(2002) recommendations for a multidisciplinary education model in hospitality

and tourism higher education. Moreover, Rach (1992) cautioned that, “Tourism

education has been dominated by curriculum developed to provide the

operational skills needed by entry-level managers” (p. 5). Rach (1992) further

argued, “With the increasing demand for better educated employees, the

tourism educational system has to produce individuals with advanced skills and

knowledge. In response, graduate programs developed to provide the

professional skills required for a career” (p. 5).

Tourism as an Emerging Profession

According to Rach (1992) tourism experts recognize that the tourism field is an

emerging profession. Rach (1992) supports the argument by noting that tourism

is limited and is somewhat repetitive. Rach (1992) argued that, “A profession’s

 48

stage of development can be determined by the profundity of its body of

knowledge. An emerging profession will not possess an extensive body of

knowledge nor an extreme degree of specialization” (p. 25).

Houle (1980) considered factors contributing to the professionalization of an

occupation. Houle (1980) suggested that the characteristics associated with the

process of improving an occupation include: (a) Definition of the occupation’s

function, (b) Mastery of theoretical knowledge, (c) Capacity to solve problems,

(d) Use of practical knowledge, (e) Self-enhancement, (f) Formal training, (g)

Credentialing, (h) Legal reinforcement, and (i) Ethical practices. According to

Riegel and Dallas (2002) these characteristics of professionalization are

corroborated by tourism professionals who noted that: (a) Professional education

consists of knowledge, skills and values, (b) Knowledge is necessary for the

practice of the profession, (c) Skills are abilities necessary to apply professional

knowledge to the field, and (d) Values foster key career attributes necessary for

success in the field.

Hiring Practices in the Tourism Industry

Members of The World Tourism Organization (2004) commented on the

professional status of the tourism industry. “Tourism’s lack of prestige as a

professional career, leads students with the greatest intellectual potential to

choose other fields of study, discarding tourism as an option, with the evident loss

of valuable human resources in the sector” (p. 9). This is exacerbated by:

The lack of consistency in the curricular design is confusing to both the potential

students and the tourism employers. The employers end up selecting their
 49

employees on an ad-hoc criterion thus hindering the chances for students with

competitive skills to find their first job. (World Trade Organization, 2004, p. 3)

According to Hawkins and Hunt (1988) competency development in tourism,

has traditionally been gained through a variety of education delivery systems

and on-the-job training. They argue many professionals gain their skills in a vast

variety of fields, many not related to tourism. Certifying higher education tourism

educational programs will assist with the quest for full professional status among

tourism professionals, according to the World Tourism Organization (2004).

Wolfire (1988) spoke to the commitment required of professionalization noting

that acceptance into a profession is normally attained after compliance with

rigorous requirements concerning education and training followed by

examinations, degrees and sometimes licenses. Wolfire (1988) posited

“Professional education, in part, should be concerned with an occupation that

has powers of self-regulation granted by statute, provides a service to the

community that is in the wide-spread demand and requires lengthy education”

(p. 18). It appears important to work toward improving the professionalism of the

tourism industry. Similarly, Rach found that (1992) “With the increasing

importance of tourism as an economic sector, it logically follows that the

workforce should be educated by individuals who are academically prepared in

the field” (p. 8). If tourism is indeed an emerging profession, the timing may be

right to review and reform higher education tourism curricula.

Higher Education and Employment

Employment opportunities over the next several years appear to be greater

for individuals with a college degree as opposed to those without. Employment

 50

Outlook (1999) reported that employment needs for those with a Bachelor’s

degree will grow 24.3%, employment needs for those with a doctoral degree will

grow 23.3%, and employment needs for those with an associate degree will grow

31.2% between 1998 and 2008. Predictions also indicated that employment for

those with long-term on-the-job training would grow 8.7%, employment for

moderate-term on-the-job training will grow 7%, and employment for short-term

on-the-job training will grow 13.7%. It is obvious then that higher education

makes the greater difference in earnings. According to Employment Outlook

(1999) on-the-job training is less effective than a college education.

According to Gaff and Ratcliff (1997), curriculum leaders must analyze and

reevaluate what it is that students need to know. They argue that prior to any

curriculum change, college officials should examine “demographic, social,

political, economic, and technological forces that will influence undergraduate

education” (p. 119). Tourism professionals need quality education to prepare

them for this century’s challenges, to separate them from the general public,

and to increase their control over this vocation. Does tourism higher education

in the United States adequately prepare students for the future?

Hands-on Training in Tourism Education

It is clear that professionals in the tourism industry need some length and form

of on-the-job, hands-on training and/or competency development. Hands-on

training, also known as experiential leaning, occurs on several levels. On-the-job

training can be short-term to long-term. Employment Outlook (1999) reported

that on-the-job training is considered 30 days or less, moderate-term on-the-job

 51

training is considered 30 days to 365 days, and long-term on-the-job training is

considered 12 months to 4 years.

Many institutions of higher education that offer a tourism curriculum, offer

internships, externships, and learning practicum sites to serve as on-the-job

experiential learning for their students. This type of leaning supports academic

education.

Multidisciplinary Tourism Curricula

A tourism curriculum that has the support of academicians will assist in the

professionalization of the tourism industry. Riegel (1987) explained that

professional education consists of three elements: “knowledge, skills, and values”

(p. 31). The present sought to identify the level of interest in these elements as

reported by tourism professionals working in Destination Organizations. Riegel

(1987) noted, “skills both contribute to the knowledge base and permit practice

from that base…the values taught in professional education are those important

to the field of study” (p. 31). Rach (1992) argued that one obstacle to

agreement over curriculum has been the relationship of tourism to other fields of

study. Tourism curriculum overlaps into hospitality and recreation fields and is

strongly influenced by and dependent upon economics, business, sociology and

political science practices. Rach (1992) noted that, “the interrelatedness creates

problems, specifically around the issue of agreement on competencies” (p. 8).

Riegel (1987) trivialized Travel and Tourism as simply a specialized curriculum area

in a Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Management indicating this specialization

does not warrant its own degree. In contrast, McIntosh (1997) supported tourism

planning and development education for all tourism professionals. McIntosh

 52

(1997) noted that all tourism professionals are involved in some aspect of

planning and development and advocated that a special course in tourism

planning and development principles should be required in tourism curricula in

higher education. Yet, it has not been determined if one tourism planning and

development course is suffice to satisfy the future needs of the tourism

professional.

Recommended Tourism Courses

According to the International Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional

Education (ICHRIE) (2002) there are four types of higher education hospitality

and tourism programs: Certificate, Associate, Bachelor’s and Graduate. Only

the latter three are discussed in the present study. The Associate degree is

offered most often at community colleges, but is also at several four-year

universities and colleges. This degree provides training and education necessary

for hospitality and travel management careers, and candidates generally

complete it completed in two years. The Bachelor’s degree is offered at four-

year colleges and universities and this degree provides career education in

combination with broad general studies and advanced learning skills. Degrees

are generally completed in 4 years. The Graduate degree is offered at

universities. Degrees provide advanced education for specialized industry

positions, and emphasis is placed on creating an interdisciplinary base for

applied research, policy analysis, planning, and theoretical education.

Degrees are generally completed in one to five years.

It is clear that aspiring tourism professionals need a broad set of

competencies. For example, Dr. Rich Harrill of Georgia Tech’s Economic

 53

Development Institute notes needed criteria of a tourism planer: A tourism

professional must have a basic understanding of the planning process, from

framing problem statements to implementation. Tourism professionals may also

be conversant in architecture, urban design, economic development, historic

preservation, environmental studies and sustainable development (Personal

communication, November 3, 2003). Moreover, the University of Minnesota

Extension Service (1993) reported that tourism planning uses the disciplines of

public policy, land use, transportation planning and promotion (pp. 1-16). These

courses are not often found in higher education programs in Hospitality

Administration, Recreation or Hospitality Management.

In 1994, Professor Emeritus Clare Gunn of Texas A. & M. University encouraged

research in several areas to help build curricula, due to the multidisciplinary

nature of tourism. Gunn (1994) noted that research into some facets of tourism is

much slower to develop than others. For example, he warned, “A

preoccupation with promotion has tended to favor large funding for promotion

and little for research” (p. 3). Gunn lamented that there may be a general lack

of understanding of how “sweeping and complicated the field of tourism really

is. It is not just a business; nor is it really an ‘industry.’ It involves much more. And

each part sees tourism from its own perspective, not as a whole” (p. 3). Gunn’s

comments regarding a preoccupation with promotion over research is

investigated in the present study.

There is some agreement among professional educators for tourism curricula

reform towards addressing both the needs of the industry and the community.

There is limited agreement, however on the logistics of such reform. According

 54

to Beni (1990) existing tourism education plans and programs do not adequately

meet the tourism industry’s needs. Beni (1990) argued for the immediate and

future charge of higher education: to prepare for perspective professionals and

to provide education for the greatest benefit of society as a whole. Lengfelder,

et al. (1994) asserted that the higher education system is the foundation upon

which United States tourism professionals obtain knowledge to plan and

understand the ramifications of growth in the tourism industry. They suggested a

strong base of tourism theory as an essential element in developing tourism

curricula in the United States.

Lengfelder, et al. (1994) “A body of knowledge for a tourism accreditation

plan is an essential element in the continued development of tourism as a

profession.” They argued “The growth of tourism combined with new

technology, created a need for more formalized tourism higher

education” (p. 28).

Beni (1990) found that reviewing a bibliography of courses in tourism revealed

certain flaws in courses and programs of study. They found this was because

curricula are content specific to certain subjects (for example, the economics of

humanities) but neglect professional training. Beni (1990) however, suggested

avoiding specialization at the undergraduate level and observed that tourism

curriculum structure should consider two priorities: planning in tourism and tourism

business management. Planning in tourism aims to introduce students to the

development of communities, while tourism business management exposes

students to tourism management activities.

According to Moilliet, (1995) hospitality industry higher education must also be

 55

improved. Moilliet (1995) contended “It seems that the greatest constant faced

by hospitality and tourism managers in the near future will be change” (p. 15).

Moilliet’s (1995) research suggested that, in nearly all cases studied, courses in

tourism have been developed as a result of academic enterprise than by

industry demand. This is a disparate view as compared with other research.

For example, Hawkins and Hunt (1988) suggested a set of principles and

guidelines for establishing a higher education curriculum in tourism. They

suggested that, if a university is to develop an educated graduate, tourism

curriculum should be founded on these principles:

1 A holistic understanding of the complicated field is required, including

the totality of touristic activities, i.e., economic, social, cultural, environmental,

political, technological and physical aspects.

2 The graduate of the tourism program must be a broadly educated

person with knowledge, skills and awareness required by all educated people

with a professional specialization in tourism.

3 The program should be designed so the graduate can secure an

entry-level position heading toward leadership and managerial roles in the

tourism industry.

4 The tourism program should be based on theoretical models of

tourism, which are dynamic, comprehensive, easily understood and unifying.

As student learning progresses, the model(s) must provide a foundation

around which the student can organize and synthesize knowledge and skills in

this complex field (Hospitality & Tourism Educator, 1988, p. 10).

Suggesting a need for curriculum reform, Smith and Cooper (2000) found that
 56

in the tourism and hospitality field there is often confusion between developing

skills and delivering concepts. Smith and Cooper note (2000) that it is important

to be clear about the difference between what a student will be able to do as a

result of learning and how the student arrives at a level of knowledge (p. 4).

Similarly, Viotti and Kauppi (1999) explained that “epistemology” (p. 18), is about

how one acquires knowledge. In addition to identifying competencies

important to tourism professionals, the present study describes epistemology,

i.e. – the nature of such acquisition.

Further prescribing curriculum reform, Hawkins and Hunt (1988) noted that

students should be made privy to the vast opportunities in travel and tourism

both at entry level and beyond. They contended, “While the nature of

opportunities and problems in tourism are highly varied, any university education

program which does not consider all functions in tourism will be simplistic and

ineffective in providing well educated and skilled professionals” (p. 12).

Appendix D identifies the positions available in field of travel and tourism. In the

present study “Destination Development Specialist is the closest in definition to

the tourism and planning professional.

While a common tourism curriculum is not in place in the U.S., Moilliet (1995),

found in the United Kingdom, a national common tourism education curriculum

that includes “the significance and characteristics of tourism; the social and

economic impact of tourism; international tourism trends; planning and

development of tourism and the impacts of tourism development on the Third

World” (p. 22). Moilliet continued, “In those countries where the state recognizes

tourism as an important source of income, some attempt has been made to

 57

encourage systematic training in a variety of job skills and government

educational authorities have supported local initiatives in course

development” (p. 22).

Yet, Moilliet (1995) noted that in North America, individual colleges with or

without support have more often driven the impetus for new educational

programs from other sources.

Lengfelder, et al. (1994) argued that while future tourism professionals obtain

knowledge to plan and understand the ramifications of growth and

development in the tourism industry through their studies in institutions of higher

education, the curriculum itself is in need of reform. They discussed the need for

a sound theoretical base for a global tourism higher education curriculum

integrated with tourism curriculum offered in the United States. Little evidence

exists, according to Lengfelder et al. (1994) that “United States universities have

defined the cognitive content of tourism and built educational programs that

respond to context” (p. 23). There appears to be a program that helps tourism

educational institutions meet educational standards. The World Tourism

Organization offers a certification system for tourism education programs. The

goal of the WTO certification TedQual is “to adapt the contents of the education

process to the real expectations of employers, gaining loyalty and a positive

reputation” (TedQual, 2002, p. 58).

Underscoring the longevity of the call for curriculum reform McIntosh (1983)

identified “eleven broad groupings of courses to create a comprehensive and

academically rigorous curriculum in travel and tourism management” (p. 137).

These courses included: (a) Land Economics, (b) Water Resources Development,
 58

(c) Principal Issues in Promoting Economic Development, and (d) Location

Analysis. McIntosh (1983) further argued that his model university curriculum was

important to “produce a graduate who is adequately educated and quickly

able to become a valued member of any travel business organization” (p. 137).

McIntosh addressed learning competencies on the job, arguing that learning,

resulting from employment in a tourism business during college, is one of the most

valuable learning experiences for a student. Moilliet (1995) agreed with real life

situation training. According to Moilliet (1995), “while it is realized that academe

cannot begin to prepare its graduates for every eventuality…it can help to ease

the transitional process by providing workshops within its curricula that would

treat ‘real life’ business situations” (p. 42).

A review of the literature did suggest some degree of success in higher

education tourism planning and development programs offered in the United

States. For example, a fourth-year student at the University of New Hampshire

(UNH) described the tourism planning and development program. The program

is offered through the College of Life Sciences and Agriculture which offers

courses in: (a) Small Business Management, (b) Environmental Resource

Economics & Perspectives, (c) Economics of Travel & Tourism, (d) Community

Planning, (e) Tourism Planning & Development, (f) Tourism & Global

Understanding, (g) Natural Resource Product Marketing, (h) Marketing Places,

and (i) Social Impact Assessment. According to the student, the program

encouraged further interest in community planning and the student is now

considering earning a graduate degree in Planning and Architecture (A, Lash,

personal communication, October, 20, 2004). The student’s interest in these

 59

subjects appears to be in alignment with competencies needed in a professional

tourism planner.

The preponderance of the literature, however, revealed that curriculum was

at issue, although the content and delivery were much in debate. For example,

a long-time tourism educator and tourism author observed that diversity in

curriculum and courses might best serve students. Professor Clare Gunn (1983)

stated, “we can conclude that out of this vast array of education and training

objectives and goals, our national needs are best served not by training

objectives and goals, our national needs are best served not by just one

standard program, but a great diversity of curricula and courses” (p. 23).

Moreover, Dr. Caroline Cooper, Professor of Hospitality and Tourism, at

Johnson & Wales University, does not predict a common curriculum for tourism

higher education in the United States. According to Dr. Cooper “Other nations

have a country-wide curriculum because there is centralized education and the

state centralization of standards, whereas in the United States there is

decentralized education. In the U.S., each higher educational institution’s

mission is different.” Cooper explained, “In Europe, Chambers of Commerce,

determine what will be taught. They meet to insure no overlap of educational

programs occurs.” “In the United States, higher education students seeking the

best college or university for their interests need to understand the purpose of a

particular university, then the purpose of a particular department, then

understand the purpose of the degree” (Personal communication, Aug, 5, 2004).

A recent accreditation document issued by the New England Association of

Schools and Colleges (NEAS&C) corroborated Cooper’s comments. NEAS&C is

 60

one of six regional higher education accrediting bodies in the United States.

NEAS&C is a voluntary, self-governing organization, having as its purpose the

accreditation of educational institutions. The Draft Standards for Accreditation

June 2004 outlined the review of academic programs: “The institution’s

academic programs are consistent with and serve to fulfill its mission and

purposes. The Institution works systematically and effectively to plan, provide,

oversee, evaluate, improve, and assure the academic quality and integrity of its

academic programs and the credits and degrees awarded” (New England

Association of Schools and Colleges, 2004, p. 7). “The institution develops the

systematic means to understand how and what students are learning and to use

the evidence obtained to improve the academic program” (New England

Association of Schools and Colleges, 2004, p. 7).

As much as a common curriculum for tourism may be an intriguing idea,

according to Gaff and Ratcliff (1997), it is not easy to accomplish. Gaff and

Ratcliff (1997) noted that, “Higher education institutions have evolved into

complex, decentralized organizations. These organizations have a mission that

guides all campus activities and an endemic culture that further defines the

relationships among faculty, administrators and students” (p. 647). “Navigating

the political realm of curricular change is particularly treacherous because it

involves attention to both the texts and the subtexts of the institution” (p. 647).

According to Shirley Eber of the University of London (2002) teaching

sustainability is gaining interest. Eber (2002) argued, “Since sustainability is

gaining in importance in the modern business environment, it is surely incumbent

 61

upon the academic community to ensure that students about to enter this world

can contribute usefully to its development” (p. 3).

Eber noted, “The teaching of sustainability in tourism focuses not on

something called ‘sustainable tourism’ but rather on ‘sustainability and tourism

business” (p. 4).

International Perspective of Tourism Planning

Reported by (Jafari, 2002) many countries are engaged in tourism education

from the secondary level to the Doctoral degree. Yet the education models are

not consistent. That is, curricula vary, course contents are different, goals are

very diverse and delivery methods lack standards.

While the present study does not examine the breadth and depth of

international higher education tourism planning and development programs, it is

important to note that international higher education programs appear to focus

on tourism planning and development more than United States higher education

tourism programs. For example, according to the Department of Tourism

Development at the College of Economics & Commerce at Cheju National

University in Korea (2003), students study subjects such as resource management

and development, public policies, design and planning techniques,

environmental issues, transportation planning, tourism landscape architecture,

site planning, public administration and theory of cultural assets. These

undergraduate students also study tourism marketing, public law and

economics. At the University of the Philippines Asian Institute of Tourism (2003),

the Bachelor’s of Science tourism degree offers tourism courses such as Tourism

Development, Control and Resort Area Development (pp. 1-2).

 62

Some countries are also arguing for change in their tourism education. Ratz

(1997), of the Budapest University of Economic Sciences, suggested the

transformation of Hungarian tourism education due to the lack of an established

core curriculum. Ratz noted (1997) “there is no established core curriculum in

higher tourism education and there has not been any attempt to develop one.

Though there are similar courses in all the important tourism programmes like

geography of tourism, tourism marketing, (and) economics of tourism…” (p. 2).

Holloway (1996) in Ratz (1997) discussed seven areas of knowledge, originally

identified in Tourism in Central and Eastern Europe: Educating for Quality. The

seven areas of knowledge were: (a) The meaning and the nature of tourism, (b)

The structure of the tourism industry, (c) The dimensions of tourism and issues of

measurement, (d) The significance and impact of tourism, (e) The marketing of

tourism, (f) Tourism planning and development, (g) Policy and management in

tourism (p. 4). The work of Holloway (1996) in Ratz (1997) may be considered

important not only in Central and Eastern Europe, but in the United States tourism

higher education system as well.

A final example of an international perspective of tourism planning is found at

Israel’s Galillee College (2002), which offers a degree in Tourism Planning

Management and Development that focuses on strategies for national tourism

development and the importance of tourism planning.

Tourism Professional Credentialing

Lengfelder et al. (1994) called for a tourism accreditation plan for continued

development in tourism as a profession. Additionally, Rach (1992) identified four

problematic areas that impact the overall development of tourism as an

 63

academic field and as a profession: (a) The lack of agreement on the

theoretical basis for the field of study, (b) The lack of agreement on basic

terminology, (c) The absence of faculty educated in tourism, and (d) The

absence of faculty with doctoral degrees (p. 40).

The credentialing of tourism professionals is also being considered on the

worldwide level. The World Tourism Organization (2002) reported there is an

initiative underway for the certification of professionals working in sensitive areas

of tourism development and operations. The initiative will concern the following:

(a) Certifying professionals working in sensitive areas of tourism development, (b)

Development of a professional register, (c) Education and training of present

and future professionals, (d) Research, (e) Publications and dissemination of

matters pertaining to education, (f) Training and knowledge in sustainable

tourism and certification, (g) Dissemination of information, (h) Awards, (i)

Education, and (j) Training in tourism policy (p. 98). This initiative may be the

certification or credentialing protocol that tourism industry policy-makers in the

United States may want to strongly consider. The WTO currently offers a

certification program for tourism professionals in Tourism Policy and Strategy,

Rural Tourism Development, Strategic Positioning and Communication in Tourism,

and Re-engineering of Tourism Processes.

The WTO (2003) suggested that criteria:

1 Be based on existing legal standards and instruments and set well

above legal compliance.

2 Include the precondition of compliance by the applicant with these

legislations.
 64

3 Address the three dimension of sustainability: environmental, socio-cultural

and economic issues.

4 Define core criteria and supplementary criteria specific for different

tourism product and service groups (e.g. hotels and other accommodations,

transportation services, restaurants, tour operators and travel agents,

attractions, etc.).

5 Be adjusted to specific regional and local environmental and socio

economic conditions.

6 Be defined through indicators that are measurable and easy to

understand by the different type of stakeholders involved in the certification

process.

7 And indicators, be based on scientific research that evaluates the key

environmental and socio-economic impacts of the sector.

8 Should refer to attainable and realistic goals for private sector

participants.

9 Be set in different levels of requirements: from more easily achievable to

very demanding criteria. Thus, the certification system sets a framework for

continuous improvement whereby applicants can achieve higher

performance levels step by step.

10 Be measured for compliance through a process and performance-based

assessments (July 25, 2004). See Appendix E. Permission to quote this

document is in Appendix F.

Additionally, the International Association of Convention & Visitor Bureaus

 65

(IACVB) offers the Certified Destination Management Executive (CDME) program

in conjunction with the University of Calgary, Purdue University and the World

Tourism Management Council. The CDME program is offered to veteran

executives in the field. According to the IACVB, the CDME program focuses on

vision, leadership, productivity and implementing business strategies. This

certified program includes destination strategic planning, visioning and product

development, which are in the tourism planning and development interests. The

frequency of the offering of these courses is varied. Courses are not available to

professionals who are not Chief Executive Officers of a Convention and Visitors

Bureau or Destination Marketing/Management Organization, unless nominated

by that organization. Tourism professionals who achieve credentials in their field

establish their expertise and in essence, separate themselves from amateurs, and

establish some control over the profession.

Moilling (1995) stated, “It has been said many times over that industry wants

great graduates and that graduates want great jobs. In this dilemma educators

are caught somewhere in the middle” (p. 24). Moilling (1995) further noted “the

successful hospitality and tourism professionals of the future will be better

prepared, more broadly educated and more market sensitive” (p. 241). Will

institutions of higher education be caught in the middle as Moilling (1995)

suggested?

Higher Education Accreditation

The International Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Education

(ICHRIE) an association of educators for the hospitality and tourism industry,

recommended accreditation. According to ICHRIE (2002) “Accreditation is a

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status granted to an educational institution or program that has been found to

meet or exceed stated standards of educational quality” (p. 33). Accreditation

has two purposes, according to ICHRIE documentation: “to assure the quality of

the program and to assist in the improvement of the institution or program”

(p. 33). ICHRIE (2002) literature suggested that, “accreditation – which is

applicable to institutions or programs – should be distinguished from certification

and licensure, which apply to individuals” (p. 33).

The accreditation programs ICHRIE recommends are developed and

implemented by the Accreditation Commission for Programs in Hospitality

Administration (ACPHA) and the Commission for Accreditation of Hospitality

Management Programs, (CAHM) formed in 1994.

According to ICHRIE (2002) “Standards for both the ACPHA and the CAHM

focus on core curriculum requirements, faculty credentials, and other measures

of program quality, yet still allow for diversity in terms of program goals and

philosophy” (p. 11). This appears to comply with academic freedom within

United States Universities. Both accrediting organizations, ACPHA and CAHM,

focus on hospitality program certification and not tourism curriculum. Programs

that are accredited by these organizations are noted in Appendix G.

Weber (1988) also addressed the question of accreditation standards for

Commercial Recreation Curriculum. Weber (1988) noted that national

accreditation organizations maintain that program accreditation can have the

following advantages: (a) Program identity by having met established standards,

(b) Service to the public, (c) Raising standards of a profession, (d) Assisting
 67

students in the selection of quality programs, and (e) Improvement of

educational standards (pp. 10-11).

The World Tourism Organization (2004) cautioned that “The scarcity of human

resources prepared to meet the challenge of the dynamic and demanding

current tourism market has led to the proliferation of specialized courses in

different areas of tourism, at various academic levels and given by a diversity of

entities and organizations” (p. 6). The WTO (2002) offers a certification program

to teaching institutions, business schools and training centers wishing to certify

specific tourism education programs (TedQual, p. 58). Appendix G lists those

United States universities that have the WTO certification.

The WTO (2002) suggests that there is “a great demand for tourism

professionals, but there are numerous standards which cause fragmentation and

lack of transparency in training” (TedQual, p. 58). The World Tourism

Organization developed a certification program to improve the quality and

efficiency of tourism education. The WTO’s certification program may be the

most comprehensive certification for universities interested in tourism education.

Appendix E contains the: Recommendations to Governments for Supporting

and/or Establishing National Certification Systems for Sustainable Tourism as

suggested by the World Tourism Organization.

The World Tourism Organization’s certification program is Tourism Education

Qualification, or TedQual. According to the WTO (2002) the benefits of their

TedQual certification program are: (a) To adapt the contents of the education

process to the real expectations of employers, gaining loyalty and a positive

reputation, (b) To establish continuous improvement of the education and

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training process and minimize the cost of low quality, (c) To improve internal

communication among the different actors of the institution, thus fostering staff

motivation and productivity, (d) To obtain a uniform and assured level of quality,

(e) To foster the credibility of the academic degrees of the institution, enhancing

its reputation among potential students, (f) To offer the possibility of continuous

collaboration with WTO, (g) To open the way to membership in the WTO

Education Council (TedQual, p. 58).

According to the WTO (2004) there are 58 university programs worldwide that

are certified by the World Tourism Organization. Three universities in the United

States have WTO certified programs. The Masters in Business Administration in

Hospitality Management at Johnson & Wales University, the Events Management,

Destination Management, the Master’s program in Tourism, at The George

Washington University, and the Bachelor’s of Science program at the University of

Hawaii at Manoa are all TedQual WTO certified.

A Case for Standardized Tourism Curriculum

Is it time to seek a standardized curriculum for tourism higher education in the

United States? Lawyers, accountants, travel agents, nurses, architects,

engineers, and most trades are certified by industry and/or government

standards of competency. Students of these careers study a common

curriculum that leads them to a specific goal – their license or certification.

Should tourism professionals, especially those involved in tourism planning and

development, be offered a standardized higher education curriculum that may

lead them to earn a universal accepted certification for their knowledge?

Gaff and Ratcliff (1997) explained that, “When champions of effective

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undergraduate education have challenged traditional educational

philosophies, or introduced alternative structures to realize their goals they have

emphasized: ‘interdisciplinary studies to bridge the disciplines and the creation of

programs and centers to promote integrative study,’ and they have emphasized

‘experiential, hands-on, and service learning’” (p. 687). Experiential hands-on

and service learning are important parts of tourism learning and are already

integrated into many college and university tourism curricula.

Summary

Research shows there may be disagreement regarding important

competencies for tourism professionals. Historically, universities and colleges

offering tourism programs create the curriculum that best serves the perceived

needs of their students. A review of the literature did not reveal standardized

curricula for tourism or tourism planning and development curriculum in the

United States. However, there is evidence that tourism programs in other

countries other than the U.S. appear to have standardization in their curricula.

Despite calls by some tourism educators to include tourism planning and

development in higher education curriculum, it is still not widely available in

United States higher education.

Preliminary research indicates that there are no credentials required of United

States tourism professionals as with travel agents, lawyers, plumbers and other

professional careers. Because tourism is such a large and growing industry, there

are concerns as to the need for standards, credentials and professionalizing of

the industry. Such action would authenticate expertise, separate novice from

expert, and facilitate professional control over the vocation.

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It appears that most communities are focused on promotion of tourism rather

than planning for tourism, thereby reinforcing the lack of interest in tourism

planning. There is a certification for tourism organizations worldwide offered by

the World Tourism Organization (WTO, 2002, in TedQual, 2002).

Emerging Questions

Questions begin to emerge through this review of literature:

1 What are the competencies needed in tourism planning, as identified by

experts in the field?

2 How are these competencies obtained?

3 To what extent does higher education tourism curriculum across the

United States address competencies indicated important by tourism

professionals?

The present study sought to advance the literature in the dynamic field of

tourism and perhaps foster discussion among industry professionals towards

sustainable tourism, industry standards, and credentialing. Finally, it is intended

that policy-makers in institutions of higher education may adopt the study’s

recommendations.
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III. METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This chapter describes the research design used to conduct the present

study. The chapter presents descriptions of sampling, instrumentation, data

collection and data analysis techniques.

The questions that guided this research were:

1 What are the competencies needed in tourism planning,

as identified by experts in the field?

2 How are these competencies obtained?

3 To what extent does higher education tourism curriculum across the

United States address competencies indicated important by tourism

professionals?

The Research Design

Psychologist John Dewey (1938) noted that research design is an event, a

process, with phases connected to different forms of problematic experiences.

With Dewey’s definition in mind a multi-question, survey instrument was designed

and implemented to seek the opinions of tourism professionals (N=368) working in

Tourism Destination Organizations throughout the United States. These tourism

professionals were queried about competencies they consider important to their

industry positions. The survey questionnaire also posed questions about

epistemology, i.e. how these competencies are obtained. Finally, the study

compared higher education tourism curricula offered in the United States to the

competencies tourism professionals consider important.

Primary and secondary research types were used in this study. Research
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questions one and two were answered through a survey questionnaire.

Research question three was answered through an archival review, particularly,

course catalogues and course descriptions.

With reference to the survey questionnaire, according to Gall, Borg & Gall

(1996) both closed and open-ended questions render useful information. Gall et

al. (1996) indicated that the qualitative nature of the desired information makes

it necessary to use open-ended questions.

The quantitative approach was the core of this study. A questionnaire was

used to gather information for this study and is presented in Appendix A. This

study used close-ended questions selected to provide a uniformity of response

that would be easily processed and analyzed. There were also six open-ended

options focusing on educational background, number of years in the industry,

and experience level.

Chacko and Nebel (1991) noted the goal of quantitative research include

hypothesis testing, statistical description, and the specification of relationship

between variables. A quantitative researcher, according to Chacko and Nebel

allows the chips to fall where they may, while the qualitative researcher searches

for the chips.

Appelbaum (1998) assessed the needs and competencies of convention

meeting planners and noted there are basically two methods to conduct a

needs assessment: formal and informal. The informal can be simply looking at

information that is readily available, such as periodicals, economic and

demographic information, social indicators, and discussions with industry and

community members. The formal method employs what may be the most
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commonly used instrument, the survey. The formal method was chosen as the

appropriate method to assess the competencies of United States tourism

professionals leading Destination Organizations. Applebaum (1998) additionally

noted that hospitality educators and researchers have traditionally relied on

quantitative methods to explain this complex and multi-dimensional industry.

Data were gathered through a survey questionnaire that was administered to

(N=368) tourism professionals. The survey questionnaire was designed to serve

two purposes. The first purpose was to identify competencies required of tourism

professionals. The second purpose was to determine how such competencies

are generally acquired. The research design is population specific,

systematically focused and empirically based.

Next, all known United States tourism Destination Organizations were

identified. These are the organizations that are created to market, manage and

affect tourism development in each state. Next, a list was generated including

all known names of staff members at these Destination Organizations. A stratified

random group was selected from the list, with the intention that these industry

professionals were to be questioned in order to address research questions one

and two.

In order to address research question three, thereby determining the extent

to which higher education tourism curricula offered in the United States,

addresses the identified competencies, a program analysis was conducted as

follows. Nationally published sources, web searches, and college and university

tourism course catalogues and course descriptions were analyzed and then

ranked against the tourism professionals’ competencies identification.

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Instrumentation

A survey questionnaire was used to collect the data to address the first two

objectives. The questionnaire package was mailed using 1st class postage via

the U.S. Postal Service and included: (a) An Introductory Letter (Appendix H)

explaining the purpose of the survey and who was implementing it, (b) An

Informed Consent Letter (Appendix I) and Response Form, (c) The Questionnaire

(Appendix A), (d) A postage-paid return (Appendix J) Anonymity Post Card to

protect the identity of the respondents, (e) A postage-paid Return Envelope for

the survey questionnaire and the Informed Consent Form, and (f) A $1 state of

Rhode Island lottery ticket was included to acknowledge the time and effort of

participants in the study.

The present study’s survey questionnaire was based on several sources: (a)

Section 3.2 - Role of Non-government Organizations in Promoting Sustainable

Tourism Development from An Action Strategy for Sustainable Tourism

Development authored by the Tourism Stream Action Committee of the Globe

’90 Conference on Sustainable Development, (b) Tourism educational materials,

(c) Discussions with United States tourism professionals, and (d) International

professors of tourism. The survey questionnaire subsequently listed seventy

competencies, prompting respondents to rank these per level of importance, on

a five point Likert Scale. See Appendix A.

Content Validation

A Preliminary Questionnaire was used to validate the instrumentation. A letter

(Appendix K) and the Preliminary Questionnaire was mailed on February 5, 2004

to several tourism industry content experts: (a) A professor of Resource

 75

Economics at the University of Rhode Island, (b) A professor of Tourism Planning

at Johnson & Wales University, (c) The Community Development Director in the

City of Pawtucket, Rhode Island, (d) The Executive Director of the Blackstone

River Valley National Heritage Corridor Commission, Woonsocket, Rhode Island,

(e) The Tourism Director for the City of Warwick, Rhode Island, and (f) The

President of the Newport County Convention and Visitors Bureau of Newport,

Rhode Island.

On February 15, 2004, ten days after mailing the Preliminary Questionnaire, a

reminder post card was mailed. Refinement edits were made to the

questionnaire based on the comments received from the panel of Content

Validity Experts.

The edited Preliminary Questionnaire was then titled the Pilot Questionnaire. It

was then mailed to further examine the Questionnaire’s validity and to improve

its format in terms of clarity and facility for analysis. According to Gall et al.

(1996) before using a questionnaire in a study, it should be pilot tested. Similarly,

Fowler (1990) stated that, “every questionnaire should be pre-tested, no matter

how skilled the researcher. Virtually every questionnaire could be changed in

some way to make it easier for respondents and interviewers to meet the

researcher’s objectives” (p. 103).

Twenty-five southern New England tourism professionals were asked to

complete the Pilot Questionnaire. The Pilot Questionnaire was mailed on

February 25, 2004. A reminder post card was mailed ten days after the original

Pilot Questionnaire mailing, to those who did not respond promptly.

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Respondents to this mailing offered very minor recommendations that helped in

clarification of the final Questionnaire. The suggested changes were made to

the Questionnaire.

In its final form, the Questionnaire was then mailed to (N=368) tourism

professionals beginning with (N=36) on March 9, 2004. Each week following the

first mailing, 36 to 48 additional Questionnaires were mailed until all tourism

professionals were mailed a Questionnaire. Ten days following the mailing of

each group mailing of the Questionnaire, a Reminder Post Card (Appendix L)

was mailed, if the Questionnaire had not been returned within 9 days.

Sample Selection

According to Khazanie (1979) the goal of a statistical investigation is “to

explore the characteristics of a large group of items on the basis of a few” (p. 2).

A representative sample of tourism professionals across the United States was

established. This sample is the Destination Management Organizations

representing most cities, regions or states in the United States. According to

Ritchie and Crouch (2002), Destination Marketing Organizations, which are the

normal agencies that perform the work of tourism advertising, coordination,

promotion, planning and development, are acknowledging that their

responsibilities have expanded. Destination Management Organizations is a

more appropriate title for their expanded responsibilities. Due to this updated

definition, the terms Destination Marketing Organization, Destination

Management Organization and Destination Organization are used

interchangeably throughout this study. Ritchie and Crouch (2002) indicated that

Quality of Service and Experience, Information Research, Human Resource

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Development, Finance and Venture Capital, Visitor Management, Resource

Stewardship, Crisis Management and Organizational Management are all

functions of the Destination Management Organization. The tourism leaders at

these Destination Organizations were considered the appropriate population of

tourism professionals to survey. Ritchie and Crouch’s 2002 research served as the

basis and support for identifying these tourism professionals as the population

who should be surveyed.

According to Weisberg, Krosnick and Bowen (1996) “the ideal sampling frame

would be identical to the population of interest” (p. 39). The actual size of the

population of tourism professionals working at Destination Organizations is

unknown. According to Khazanie (1979) when a sample is drawn, the interest

goes well beyond the sample to extrapolate the nature of the population from

which the sample is drawn. Khazanie (1979) continued, “It is on the basis of the

findings from the sample, if the sample is properly chosen to be representative of

the population, that we acquire a better understanding of the

population” (p. 3).

In determining which industry professionals to survey, the study focused on

the national tourism professional membership organizations to determine who

the Destination Management Organization tourism professionals were, where

they were employed, and other demographic information. Membership

databases were obtained from these organizations. The membership

organizations were the International Association of Convention and Visitor

Bureaus, the Travel Industry Association of America, the National Tour

Association, the American Bus Association and the National Alliance of Heritage
 78

Areas. Duplicate names of professionals and their organizational memberships

were excluded.

This statistical investigation began with listing the names of approximately 900

tourism professionals and their respective Destination Management

Organizations. It became apparent that a Destination Management

Organization did not represent certain regions in some states, yet, a reason for

this was not apparent. A review of membership rosters was undertaken to seek

out any possible overlooked communities. Following that, an Internet search was

implemented to fill geographic gaps where possible. After review, the list was

reduced to 750 names and their respective organizations through duplicative

membership identification.

Cooper and Emory (1995) noted that costs often dictate sample size

(p. 207). They contended, “How large a sample should be is a function of the

variation in the population parameters under study and the estimating precision

needed by the researcher” (p. 206). A stratified random group of 368

professionals was finally selected. To build a significant sample size that was

stratified across each state and across the United States, it was decided that at

least seven professionals from each of the fifty states would be chosen to receive

the questionnaire. The present study selected small, medium, and large

population communities to provide results from a broad spectrum. It was

assumed that different professional backgrounds, from different regions should

allow for less bias and greater differences of ideas about competencies needed

by tourism professionals. The respondents, although a small group, did offer wide

geographical representation.
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Ultimately, the survey questionnaire produced 104 sets of data.

Babbie (1990) argued that research “should test for (and hope for) the

possibility that the respondents are essentially a random sample of the initial

sample and thus a somewhat smaller random sample of the total population”

(p. 182). According to Cooper and Emory (1995) “The ultimate test of a sample

design is how well it represents the characteristics of the population it purports to

represent” (p. 201). Cooper and Emory further stated that a sample must be

valid, meaning the sample must be accurate and precise. Accuracy is the

degree to which bias is absent from the sample. They explained that the under-

estimators and the over-estimators are balanced among the members of the

sample. In the present study, balance was attempted because the sample

included small and large agencies; tourism organizations from all fifty states were

included in the study. Precision of estimate is the second criterion of a good

sample according to Cooper and Emory (1995), who indicated that precision, is

measured by the standard error of estimate, the smaller the standard error of

estimate, the higher the precision of the sample. Standard Error is measured in

this present study.

According to Salkind (2000) the comparison between the characteristics of

the sample and the characteristics of the test distribution set at such a small error

insure a “true” relationship between variables (p. 184-185).

Survey Administration

The tourism professionals who were mailed survey questionnaires were

geographically stratified by region of the country, by state, then by region within

the state where tourism organizations were located. Moving from the East coast
 80

to the West coast, the number of tourism organizations identified in each state

drops. No explanation for this is offered in this study, other than that the

geographic size of each state increases from the East coast to the West coast.

A group of two to three dozen professionals and their Destination

Management/Marketing Organization were chosen to receive the questionnaire

each week following the Pilot Testing. This process was repeated until the

complete sample of 368 was mailed. Ten days after each mailing, if a response

was not received, a reminder post card was mailed to encourage the return of

the completed questionnaire. Sekaran (1992) indicated that there are effective

techniques to improve rates of response to mail questionnaires. Sending follow-

up letters, “enclosing some small monetary incentives with questionnaire,

providing the respondent with self-addressed, stamped return envelopes, and

keeping the questionnaire as short as possible with all help to increase return

rates of mail questionnaires” (p. 201). Stamped addressed return envelopes

were included to increase response rate as well as a small monetary gift of a

Rhode Island Lottery scratch ticket valued at $1.

The city and state of each professional’s organization were plotted on a 38”

by 50” United States map. This plotting allowed for easy visual inspection of the

geographical spread of Target respondents and actual respondents. As

responses from the sample were received, a circle was drawn over the

responding Destination Management Organization to indicate that a

questionnaire was returned by its tourism professional.

Data Collection

Data collection was facilitated through a survey questionnaire. This type of

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educational research is often used to collect information that is not directly

observable. According to Gall et al. (1996) “these types of data collection

methods typically inquire about the feelings, motivations, attitudes,

accomplishments, and experiences of individuals” (p. 288). Fowler (1990)

indicated the purpose of a survey is to produce statistics of a study population.

Fowler (1990) also noted that a key way of collecting information is by asking a

fraction of the study population questions and analyzing that data. To achieve

the research objectives, a survey questionnaire was developed, tested and

reviewed by tourism professionals and academicians.

The items on the present study’s survey questionnaire were guided by

research by Weisberg et al. (1996) who suggested a method of questioning that

using a rating scale. Weisberg et al. (1996) further suggested, “open-ended

questions have the advantage of allowing respondents to express their thoughts

and feelings in their own words instead of in words chosen by the researcher” (p.

78). There were six open-ended questions included in the questionnaire.

Questions for the final survey questionnaire were developed from several

sources: (a) Section 3.2 – Role of Non-government Organizations in Promoting

Sustainable Tourism Development from An Action Strategy for Sustainable

Tourism Development authored by the Tourism Stream Action Committee of the

Globe ’90 Conference on Sustainable Development, (b) Tourism educational

materials, (c) Discussions with tourism professionals, and (d) Personal professional

tourism planning and development experiences.

In the preliminary pilot study of the questionnaire, the entire instrument and its

administrative procedures were tested. The questionnaire instructions offered an

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academic definition of tourism planning and development, and verified that the

survey was a being administered nationally to (N=368) tourism professionals.

A Likert Scale was utilized to rank responses. Choices were: 1 = Unimportant,

2 = Slightly Important, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Important, 5 = Very Important. Gall et

al. (1996) suggested using the Likert Scale because it is an effective

measurement tool that asks individuals to check their level of agreement with

various statements about attitude. Survey questionnaire items focused on six

topics: (a) Business Knowledge, (b) General knowledge, (c) Languages, (d)

Information Technology, (e) Tourism-specific, and (f) Related Areas.

The survey Questionnaire subsequently listed seventy competencies,

prompting respondents to rank these per level of importance, on a five point

Likert Scale. See Appendix A. There were also six open-ended questions

focusing on educational background, number of years in the industry, and

experience level. In addition to the 70 listed competencies, respondents had

the opportunity to add and prioritize other tourism competencies of importance

to them.

Data Processing and Analysis

The following methods of data analysis were conducted:

1 Calculation of the response rate of completed surveys,

2 Analysis of frequencies,

3 Ranking of competencies,

4 Two sample t-test to establish significant differences in Mean scores

across Bachelor’s and Master’s Degree respondents.

5 Analysis of Variance for each of the seventy competencies,

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6 Analysis of the competencies suggested by the respondents,

7 Analysis of the open-ended questions,

8 A quantitative analysis of respondent’s educational

backgrounds,

9 Post hoc Fisher’s LSD tests for multiple comparisons, to indicate

regional differences of competency responses.

Only competencies with a significant ANOVA F-test (p < 0.05) are shown in

the analysis.

The response rate was calculated by dividing the number of completed

surveys by the number of possible respondents. Frequency analysis was

conducted for all quantitative data gathered. The analysis reports the

frequency and percentile for each response. The Mean, Standard Deviation,

and Standard Error were computed for each competency and numeric

demographic question. The frequencies of each group were compared to

determine any similarities and differences of importance. Responses from the

five regions of the United States were compared to the competency questions to

determine if differences or similarities existed. Responses from each education

level achieved were compared to the competency questions to determine if

differences or similarities existed. All identified higher education programs

offered in the United States, except for certificate and distance learning

programs, were analyzed. Each of the programs (Appendix G) was analyzed to

determine their tourism course content and if tourism planning and development

courses were offered. College and university curricula were analyzed to

 84

determine if they maintain industry certifications in addition to their state and

regional accreditations.

Open ended questions were compared and evaluated to identify common

themes or trends. Question 6 on the questionnaire (Appendix A) asked

respondents to add any additional comments. Comments are reported in

Chapters IV and V.

College and university undergraduate and graduate programs were

analyzed to determine if the competencies rank highest by the tourism

professionals, were part of the analyzed curriculum. The level of significance was

set at .05 for Fisher’s non-conservative LSD test.

Research Question One

What are the competencies needed in tourism planning, as identified by

experts in the field?

The objective of this question was to understand first hand, from practitioners

employed at United States Destination Marketing Organizations, the

competencies necessary in their industry.

Each competency response underwent a frequency-count recording. This

count allowed the groups to be compared to determine if the respondents’

views on the competencies rank the same in level of importance. Most of the

competency questions were answered by all of the 104 respondents. Most

questions received more than 90 responses. The ranking of the tourism

professionals’ view of the important competencies permits a comparison of

these competencies to the educational course offerings provided in higher

education today.
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Sampling results should show that some competencies are considered more

important that others. The full list of Competency Rankings, according to their

Means, is reported in Table 1, Appendix M.

Table 2, Appendix M compares Means of the competencies tourism

professionals identified as important, to curricula offerings at United States

Bachelor’s and Master’s programs (N=160) that host tourism programs.

The response rate was calculated by dividing the number of completed

surveys by the number of possible respondents. Frequency analysis was

conducted for all quantitative data. The analysis reports the Frequency and

Percentile for each response. The Mean, Standard Deviation, and Standard Error

were computed for each competency and pertinent demographic questions.

Means are identified and ranked in Table 3, Appendix M. Means are compared

to the nearest ranking that is significantly different from each competency.

Some demographics are categorical. The Frequencies of each group were

compared to determine differences of importance. According to Gall et al.

(1996) a Frequency-count recording is most useful in recording behaviors of short

duration.

Average responses from the five regions of the United States were compared

for each of the competency questions to determine if differences existed.

Average responses from each educational level achieved by respondents were

compared to the competency questions to determine if differences existed,

(Figures 4, 5, 6 and 7, Appendix N).

The questionnaire included space where respondents could list and prioritize

additional competencies that were not included in the survey. Also, there was
 86

space where the tourism professionals could include any comments they

preferred. Responses that were similar were noted to identify emerging themes.

Research Question Two

How are the stated competencies obtained?

The objective of this question was to determine the manner in which tourism

professionals obtain their competencies. On the job, continuing education,

tourism higher education, other higher education programs, or any other means

were all considered methods of epistemology.

In order to gather the data needed to address this question, both open

ended and forced choice closed ended questions were included on the survey

questionnaire. Open-ended questions allow for unanticipated responses and

depth of response. The respondents were able to describe their views using their

own words. In addition questions about educational level, name of higher

education institution attended, how competencies were learned, and the size of

community served were asked. The purpose of these questions was to discover,

through a variety of backgrounds, the reliability of the responses. One set of

questions inquired about the type and level of education or professional

credentials needed for the respondent’s position. It was assumed that an

understanding of educational and credentialing needs could facilitate

curriculum design appropriate to those needs. Demographic questions were

used to determine regional differences and differences between large and small

populations served. (Figure 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 and 21, Appendix N).

The following methods of analysis were conducted:

A Calculation of the response rate overall and by question,

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B Analysis of Frequencies,

C Analysis of the how competencies were learned,

D Analysis of the open-ended questions,

E Analysis of respondents’ educational backgrounds,

F Fisher’s LSD post-hoc tests on all significant findings,

G Analysis of Bachelor’s and graduate degrees,

H Analysis of Variance to establish significant differences in Mean scores

across the regions of the United States.

To ascertain regional differences in the United States, a determination was

needed to identify what states were in what region of the country. The Oracle

Thinkquest Education Foundation of California’s (2004) definition was selected for

this study. Oracle (2004) divided the United States into five regions. The regions

are the “Northeast, Southeast, Midwest, Southwest and the West,” and

according to Oracle, “the regions of the United States are grouped by history,

traditions, economy, climate and geography” (Oracle Thinkquest.org, p. 1).

Oracle noted that the Northeast region includes the states of Connecticut,

Maine, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Vermont, Delaware,

Maryland, New Jersey, New York and Pennsylvania. The Southeast region

includes the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana,

Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia and West Virginia.

The Midwest region includes the states of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan,

Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, Wisconsin, Ohio and South Dakota.

The Southwest region includes the states of: Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma

and Texas. The West region includes the states of Colorado, Idaho, Montana,
 88

Nevada, Utah, Wyoming, Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon and Washington.

The Oracle (2004) determination best fit the needs of the present study and the

map used to plot the sample that was mailed the questionnaire, was delineated

to define the regions per Oracle (2004).

Open-ended questions were compared to seek common themes or a trend.

The questionnaire asked respondents to identify their college or university

attended. Names of colleges and universities were compared. If more than

three respondents indicated they attended the same institution, it was noted.

Research Question Three

To what extent do higher education tourism curricula across the United States

address these competencies indicated important by tourism professionals?

The objective of this research question was to analyze United States higher

education tourism curriculum. Comparisons were made between the

competencies reported important by tourism professional respondents, and

current curriculum in higher education. In order to gather the data needed to

answer the research question, nationally published sources, web searches, and

an analysis of colleges and universities course catalogues and course

descriptions were used.

The study sought to compare differences between the competencies

identified by tourism professionals and current curriculum in higher education.

The data included curriculum from all identified United States colleges and

universities that offered any form of tourism program, even those embedded in

Hospitality Administration, Hospitality Management and Parks and Recreation.

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The study further analyzed these curricula on the Associate, Bachelor’s, and

Graduate levels.

Course catalogues and online course descriptions from more than 400

college and university programs offered in the United States were initially

identified and reviewed. Many schools offered several programs, yet some

offered only one. The George Washington University in Washington D.C. offered

over a dozen programs. After analysis, it became was evident that many

Associate level tourism programs were travel agent management programs and

Doctorate level programs were few. Therefore, all Doctorate curricula were

eliminated from the final analysis. Schools that offered programs with no tourism

curriculum, just offering travel programs preparing students for travel agency

management, were also eliminated from the study. Certificate and distance

learning program curricula were analyzed to determine their tourism course

content and to ascertain if tourism planning and development courses were part

of the curriculum.

Course catalogs and online course descriptions were reviewed as to how

many times they appeared in the Bachelor’s and Master’s college and university

curricula. Not intending to perform a course audit, tourism curriculum was

matched as closely as possible to the competencies identified by the tourism

professionals.

Next the average number of tourism courses available at the universities and

colleges was determined. College and university documents were also

analyzed to determine industry certifications and/or regional accreditations.

Table 2, Appendix M, compares competencies tourism professionals

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identified as important to the course offerings in United States Bachelor’s and

Master’s tourism programs. Each competency questioned was assigned a

corresponding Bachelor’s and Master’s tourism course. For example, leadership

was identified by respondents as important. Leadership was analyzed in terms of

the number of leadership courses that were offered in higher education. Table 4

Appendix M compares competencies identified as important to the course

offerings in Master’s tourism programs. Table 5, Appendix M compares

competencies identified as important to the course offerings in Bachelor’s

tourism programs. Table 3 Appendix M illustrates the Mean and the nearest

ranked competency that tourism professionals reported as important, that is

significantly different from each competency.

Limitations of the Study

Results of this study are limited as follows: (a) Only degree-granting United

States higher education institution were included, (b) Only United States tourism

professionals employed at city, state and regional tourism offices were queried.

Distance education and certificate programs are not included in this study.

Delimitations of the Study

The study is delimited by: (a) Tourism leaders chosen from a number of

national organizations who are considered representative of the industry; (b) The

number of tourism professionals who could be identified; (c) The United States

higher education institutions that offer tourism curricula.

The interpretation of the word Economics by some respondents may have

been limited by Economics being understood as merely the raising of revenue.

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Summary

This study includes an analysis of United States tourism professionals’ rankings

of identified competencies and a description of the relationship between these

competencies and higher education curricula offered in the United States. The

analysis was conducted in a systematic process attempting to provide useful

and usable information. The analysis is population specific and empirically

based. It was conducted according to the research criteria established to

ensure reliable information.

Several statistical tests were used, including the Fisher’s LSD multiple

comparison test, Mean, Standard Deviation and Standard Error. The design

sought to provide cross-confirmation of the competencies required by tourism

professionals.

A primary objective of the research is to understand what United States

tourism professionals, employed at Destination Management Organizations,

identify as needed competencies in their industry. Competency responses

underwent a frequency-count recording. The competencies were then ranked.

Sampling results show that some competencies are more important that others.

Another primary objective was to understand the level of education of the

professionals and the professional credentials needed. Understanding

educational and credentialing needs could help higher education target

programs to specific needs. Demographic questions were used to determine

regional differences. Several questions provided tourism professionals the

opportunity to add their own words about what competencies they consider

needed to be successful and write about anything they chose.

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Lastly, United States higher education tourism programs were analyzed to

verify tourism curricula in general and to determine if tourism planning and

development courses are part of that curricula (Appendix G).

NCSS 2004 Statistical Software was used for the analysis.

This study is intended to advance the literature in the dynamic field of tourism

and perhaps foster discussion among industry professionals towards sustainable

tourism, industry standards, and credentialing. Finally, it is intended that the

study’s recommendations may be adopted by policy-makers in institutions of

higher education.
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IV. FINDINGS, RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Introduction

This chapter summarizes the research findings, discusses the results of the

study and presents an analysis of the data obtained. The purpose of the analysis

is to identify the knowledge, abilities, and attitudes of a particular group of

United States tourism professionals, with regard to the competencies they

reported important in their positions, and to describe how the respondents

acquired the identified competencies. Further, this chapter analyzes curricula

offered in United States institutions of higher education with the purpose of

determining the extent to which the curricula addressed the identified

competencies.

Several statistical analyses were performed, including the Fisher’s LSD multiple

comparison test, Mean, Standard Deviation and Standard Error. The analyses

sought to provide cross-confirmation of the competencies identified by

respondents as necessary for tourism professionals.

This statistical investigation began by listing the names of United States tourism

professionals leading Destination Organizations (N=750). These agencies, public

and private, affect tourism growth in the United States. Ultimately, a stratified

random sample was selected for query (N=368), to address research questions

one and two, rendering 104 usable survey questionnaires.

A lottery ticket was enclosed with each survey packet as a small token of

appreciation. Two of the 104 respondents returned a winning lottery ticket with a

note that the money could be used to help with the cost of postage.
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One respondent returned the lottery ticket, indicating that state regulations

would not allow a gift to be accepted.

Next, a total of 321 tourism and travel programs offered by institutions of

higher education in the United States were identified. Of these, 160 were

selected for curricular review, having eliminated programs at the associate,

certificate, and doctoral levels, and having eliminated distance-learning

programs as well. Ultimately, curricula from 160 Bachelor’s and Master’s degree

programs were analyzed.

Research Questions

The research questions guiding the present study were: (1) What are the

competencies needed in tourism planning, as identified by experts in the field?

(2) How are these competencies obtained? (3) To what extent does higher

education tourism curriculum across the United States address competencies

indicated important by tourism professionals?

Research questions one and two were addressed by gathering data from a

survey questionnaire. The survey questionnaire offered 70 forced-choice

competency categories and six open-ended options. Additionally, the survey

questionnaire called for data regarding respondents’ educational background,

number of years in the industry, and experience level.

Principal Findings

Data were gathered from survey questionnaires distributed to the stratified

sample of tourism professionals in each state (N=368), rendering 104 returns. The

response rate was 28.3%. The respondents were asked how many years they

have worked in the workforce, how many years they have worked in the tourism
 95

industry, and how they learned their competencies. Corresponding data are

presented in Appendix N, Figures 2, 14 and 15. Data are also presented in tables

and figures and organized by the research objectives of this study.

Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA) tests were performed for each of the 70

competencies listed on the survey to determine significant differences in Mean

scores across the five regions of the United States. Post hoc Fisher’s LSD multiple

comparisons give indication of specific regional differences of competency

responses. Only the competencies with a significant F-test (p < 0.05) are shown

in the analysis. Error bar charts show the sample Mean, plus or minus, one

standard error.

ANOVA, according to Gall et al. (1996), is a statistical procedure that

compares the amount of between-groups variance in individuals’ scores with

the amount of within-groups variance (p. 392). However, according to Gall et al.

(1996), ANOVA does not illustrate which individual Means are distinct from one

another; therefore, Fisher’s LSD post-hoc tests were conducted on all significant

findings. The interval scale was assumed. Gall et al. (1996) indicated that, with

an interval scale, the distance between any two adjacent points is the

same.

Seventy seven respondents reported that they have tourism planning and

development responsibilities; however, when the competencies data were

analyzed, the Means of their competency responses were not high per the five

point Likert Scale. Specifically, the Tourism Planning Mean was 3.77. The

Architectural Design Mean was 2.7. The Landscape Design Mean was 2.27. The

Engineering Mean was 2.15.

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The Understanding Design Plans Mean was 2.8. The Building Design Principles

Mean was 2.5. Moreover, Eco-tourism reflected a Mean of 3.9. Cultural

Resource Protection was lower, at 3.39. River and Coastal Management

rendered another low Mean of 3.34.

Study Findings per Research Questions

Research Question One

What are the competencies needed in tourism planning, as identified by

experts in the field?

Tourism professionals responding to the questionnaire (N=104) ranked these

ten competencies as the most essential for their positions. The Means of these

top ten competencies do not fall below 4.47. They are listed from the highest to

the lowest Mean ranking and are further defined by their Standard Deviation

values. Table 1, Appendix M reports the Mean and Standard Error and the

questionnaire category on all questions.

1 Economic Impact of Tourism SD .55

2 Leadership SD .50

3 Public Relations SD .51

4 Product Knowledge SD .67

5 Basic Computer SD .66

6 Decision Making SD .66

7 Financial Management SD .70

8 Cultural & Heritage Tourism SD .74

9 General Business Knowledge SD .57

10 Sustainable Tourism SD .77

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The competency “Philosophy and Ethics” ranked significantly below the

number one competency, rendering Philosophy and Ethics fourteenth out of the

seventy competencies listed. The top ten competencies cannot be

distinguished statistically from many of the lower-ranking competencies.

Table 3, Appendix M, reports the Mean and Competency Rankings and the

Nearest Rank that is significantly different from each competency.

The Economic Impact of Tourism ranked as the number one competency

reported as important by, and for, tourism professionals. Its Mean is significantly

different from all competencies ranked at or below Philosophy and Ethics (the

14th ranking).

A number of respondents added comments about economic development.

Their remarks reinforce the finding that the tourism professionals considered

Economic Development most important. The respondents reported:

(a) “It is extremely important to better define and characterize tourism as

a sector of the economy; especially when talking with local/state

elected officials.”

(b) “The business of tourism has been treated superficially by the profession.”

(c) “Tourism is economic development.”

(d) “I look forward to the day when we are considered economic

development.”

(e) “We have been much too focused on economic impact and not

really enough focused on entrepreneurial development.”

(f) “I would like to see more tourism professionals look at the whole

picture from economic impact to conservation preservation.”

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(g) “Need to better define tourism as an industry and promote the discipline

as such.” “It is especially important to define tourism as an important sector

of the economy and promote it as such to local officials.”

The Mean for Leadership ranked as the second competency thought

important to tourism professionals. Its Mean is significantly different from all

competencies ranked at or below Tourism Economics, which ranked 19th.

See Appendix M, Table 1.

In addition to the ten competencies most identified, supplementary

competencies were reported important. In highest to lowest Mean rank order

with their respective Standard Deviation values they were:

11 Tourism Development SD .76

12 Inter-governmental Relations SD .73

13 Community Involvement SD .85

14 Philosophy and Ethics SD .66

15 Community Outreach SD .80

Differences among competencies one through fifteen are not distinguishable

statistically. They are all considered approximately the same value.

An Analysis of Variance to determine differences among regions was

performed for each of the seventy competencies considered in the survey

questionnaire. Post hoc Fisher’s LSD multiple comparisons were used to provide

indications of regional differences of competency responses. Based on the

data, tourism professionals did not indicate Tourism Planning competencies as

vitally important. Tourism Planning includes several individual competencies such

as Landscape Design, Transportation Planning and Ecological Principles. The

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Means for Transportation Planning, Ecological Principles, and Landscape Design

are all below 3.77.

A number of respondents commented about the importance of community

involvement on all levels of tourism planning:

(a) “Tourism planners need to first and foremost, have knowledge of

the community’s wants and needs and have the ability to bring it all

together.”

(b) “Community input before decision making is critical.”

(c) “Understanding of the total impact tourism has on a community – not

just attractions & motels – but main street businesses.”

(d) “Tourism is more than advertising and marketing. It is developing a

product that can be sustained by the community.”

(e) “Tourism professionals need to have a broad understanding of planning

principles, economics, business and community engagement practices.

There seems to be a need for many of the topic areas of the questionnaire to

achieve hierarchical competencies in the tourism field.”

(f) “Tourism planning cannot be achieved in a vacuum. Specific skills such as

those listed under Specialized Areas should be part of a planning

organization committee, or contracted services. Planners need to first and

foremost have knowledge of the communities’ wants & needs and have the

ability to bring it all together.”

(g) “It is critical that tourism professionals be aware of the uniqueness of what

they are selling and advocate for development that is mindful of avoiding

the ‘anyplace USA’ syndrome as discussed by Ed Mc Mahon.”

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(h) “Tourism is more than advertising and marketing. It is developing product

that can be sustained by the community.

The survey questionnaire prompted respondents to suggest other

competencies that should be evident with tourism professionals. Appendix O

presents those additional suggested competencies.

Research Question Two

How are professional tourism competencies obtained?

Tourism professionals were asked how they obtained their competencies. Of

the (N=104) tourism professionals questioned, almost 98% reported to have

learned their competencies on the job. The data are reported in Figure 2,

Appendix N. A Confidence Interval formula indicates the research is 95%

confident; that the true percentage of all tourism professionals learning on the

job is between 91.4% and 99.8%. Regarding learning competencies on the job,

one respondent noted: “one year of learning on the job is worth two years of

college education.”

The survey questionnaire included prompts regarding respondents’

background in higher education. The research showed that 33.7% of the

respondents indicated their education did not prepare them for their position in

the tourism industry.

Several respondents reported the name of the college or university they

attended. See Appendix P.

Within the confines of the present study only the University of Colorado had

more than one graduate from its school. In addition, several of the respondents

indicated they are either working toward or hold a Certified Destination

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Management Executive certification offered by the International Association of

Convention and Visitor Bureaus. Appendix Q reports the selection of

certifications held by the respondents and/or available ongoing education.

In addition to the questions about competencies, demographic information

was requested through the survey questionnaire. Responses were received from

all regions of the United States. Of these responses, 16.8% were received from

the Midwest; 37.9% from the Northeast; 26.3% from the Southeast; 5.3% from the

Southwest and 13.7% were from the West. Regional differences in average

importance of competencies across the five regions of the United States were

identified. Differences in average importance of competencies across five

regions of the country appear in Figure 4, Appendix N.

Figures 22 through 92 in Appendix R, graphically report the competency

summaries. Analysis of Variance tests were performed for each of the 70

competencies listed on the questionnaire to establish significant differences in

Mean scores across groups. Post hoc Fisher’s LSD multiple comparisons give

indication of regional differences of competency responses. Only the

competencies with a significant F-test (p < 0.05) are shown in the analysis. Error

bar charts show the Sample Mean, plus or minus one Standard Error. Fisher’s LSD

post-hoc tests were conducted on all significant findings.

The interval scale was assumed.

The Response Count, Response Percentage, Competency Ranking, Standard

Deviation, Standard Error and the Mean of the competency items are indicated

in Figures 22 through 92 in Appendix R.

The purpose of asking respondents to rank the importance of Social

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Responsibilities was to determine perceived responsibility to the social well being

of the community. Most of the respondents, or (N=63) out of (N=103), ranked

social responsibilities as important, while (N=25) ranked Social Responsibilities as

very important.

The research also shows differences in the importance of competencies

across education levels. A comparison of the Means renders higher scores for

tourism professionals holding a Master’s degree as compared with the Bachelor’s

degree. Data from respondents whose highest level of education is a Bachelor’s

degree (N=49) were compared to data from those whose highest level of

education is a Master’s degree (N=19) using the standard two-sided t-test.

Respondents (N=35) who were identified as having a high school diploma, who

had completed some college courses or held Doctoral degrees were not

included in these 6 tests but are included in all other analysis. Respondents with

Master’s and Bachelor degree were compared. Figures 8, 9,10,11,12 and 13, in

Appendix N, report the differences in Means between the two-degree holders.

The sample size for Figure 8, Media Database, was (N=65). The sample size for

Figure 9, Development Policies, was (N=67). The sample size for Figure 10,

Sustainable Tourism, was (N=67). The sample size for Figure 11, Visitor Safety, was

(N=68).

The sample size for Figure 12, Eco Tourism, was (N=64). The sample size for

Figure 13, Architectural Design, was (N=67). Each test rendered significance at

the 0.05 levels.

Could the reason for the higher Mean be that increased education, and/or

increased experience in the competencies analyzed, result in a higher Mean?

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One respondent was particularly interested in the difference between tourism

education and hospitality education.

It seems like there is a need to define competencies as it relates to professional

growth. As students come out of tourism planning and development programs they

tend to be more focused on hospitality business. Being such a diversified industry,

tourism professionals need to have a broad understanding of planning principles,

economics, business, community engagement practices, and management.

Depending on one’s career path, private industry or public sector, there seems to be

a need for many of the topic areas on pages 2-4 to achieve hierarchical

competencies within the tourism field.

One respondent commented on industry professionals: “Tourism professionals

vary in education, background and cultures. My encounters with my peers have

always been both enjoyable and professional.”

Research Question Three

To what extent does higher education tourism curriculum across the United

States address competencies indicated important by tourism professionals?

Documents from 321 colleges and universities offering tourism in their

curriculum were initially analyzed. The data identifying tourism programs offered

were based on an analysis of college and university catalogues and course

descriptions.

The average number of tourism courses available at those 321 universities and

colleges was 3.61.

The average number of tourism planning courses available was 0.60.

Associate, certificate, distance learning and doctoral programs were not

analyzed, thereby rendering a total of 160 Bachelor’s and Master’s tourism

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higher education programs for review. In the 51 Master’s programs (Table 4,

Appendix M) there were 81 tourism planning courses available. In the 109

Bachelor’s programs (Table 5, Appendix M) there were 55 tourism planning

courses available. Appendix G reports the list of higher education institutions

reviewed.

Data were analyzed by aligning each competency identified on the survey

questionnaire with a corresponding course from the higher education curricula

offerings. Course listings then reviewed to determine how many times they

appeared in the college and university curricula via course catalogues.

The following information was charted: (a) Institution name, (b) Name of the

program, (c) URL address, (d) City and state of the institution, (e) Number of

tourism courses in the curriculum, (f) Number of tourism planning and

development courses, (g) Regional, national and international academic and

industry certifications and accreditations on record.

Table 1 Appendix M, depicts the competencies industry professionals

indicated as important in the performance of their jobs. For instance, Leadership

ranked second in importance as a competency, however, Leadership studies

were only available at 26 colleges and universities out of the 160 higher

education institutions analyzed. Principles of Planning and Design was taught at

47 universities and colleges, however, competencies in this area were identified

important by the tourism professionals, as they ranked this competency 37 out of

70 competencies tested. The percentage of tourism planning courses offered by

institutions of higher learning, among all tourism courses offered, is 16.6%.

At eighty-one of the 160 Bachelor’s and Master’s degree-granting institutions

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analyzed, at least one course in tourism planning and development was offered.

However, advertising/sales and marketing courses ranked highest with 94 courses

available to students interested in studying in a tourism curriculum.

Courses in the Principles of Tourism Planning and Design were available at

approximately 25% of the 160 colleges and universities. Some tourism planning

and development courses had low course frequency, meaning there were not

many available for students to choose. The research revealed ten courses in

Historic Preservation, six courses in Landscape Design, three courses in

Understanding Design Plans, three courses in Land-use Regulations, and two

courses in Architectural Design.

Engineering, Indigenous Languages, Crisis Management, and Grant Writing,

all ranked as the least important competencies for tourism professionals to attain.

Their competency interest rendered Means no higher than 3.8, indicating

modest importance to tourism professionals however, no similar courses were

offered in the 160 college and university programs.

Competency data were also analyzed by comparing responses across

education levels. Data reported by respondents whose highest level of

education is an undergraduate degree, (49 respondents or 47.6%) were

compared to data from respondents whose highest level of education is a

Master’s degree (19 respondents or 18.4%) based on the standard two-sided

t-test. Data from respondents who identified their highest level of education as

high school, some college, or Doctoral degrees (35 respondents or 34%), were

not included in this particular data comparison. The data analysis therefore

represents responses from 84 respondents.

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The Means of the Master’s degree respondents rank higher than those with a

Bachelor’s degree. An argument could possibly be made the higher Means

among Master’s degree recipients may be attributed to additional education, or

experience in Architectural Design, Eco-tourism, Sustainable Tourism, Visitor

Safety, Development Policies or Media and Databases. Perhaps familiarity with

these competencies leads to an appreciation of their importance to tourism

planning and development. Figures 8, 9,10,11,12 and 13, Appendix N, report

differences in Means with these particular tests. Only those tests with significance

at the 0.05 levels are shown. No correction is made for multiple tests. Error bar

charts illustrate the sample Mean, plus or minus one standard error.

Table 3, Appendix M, illustrates the Mean and the nearest rank that is

significantly different from each competency. The Economic Impact of Tourism

ranked as the number one competency thought important by tourism

professionals. Its Mean is significantly different from all competencies ranked at

or below Philosophy and Ethics, which ranked (N=14). The Mean for Leadership

ranked as the second competency reported important by tourism professionals.

However, its Mean is significantly different from all competencies ranked at or

below Tourism Economics, which ranked (N=19).

In general, this research shows a difference between Mean scores

comparing data from respondents holding a Bachelor’s degree as

compared to those holding a Master’s degree. Mean scores for the Master’s

degree were higher.

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Broad-Spectrum Comments from the Respondents

(a) “We are the only state in the Union that does not have a funded tourism

office. It is all membership funded.”

(b) “I really don’t know what the focus of the survey is. I answered questions

based on what we do in our office.”

(c) “We need education of the public. People need to be more aware of

what the tourism industry is.”

(d) “Measurement should not always be by quantity.”

(e) “A small bureau has to do everything a larger bureau does with smaller

staff.”

(f) “I would like to see someone create tourism infrastructure development

grants. This could be for projects such as taking an old mill and renovating it

into a museum featuring exhibits related to the original reason the mill was

built.”

(g) “As we consider sustainability, we need to focus on other measurements

for success such as longer length of stay (and) incentives for off season

visitation.”

(h) “The business of tourism has been treated superficially by the

profession.”

(i) “Not sure where you are going with this. I suspect most answers from

tourism professionals will be the same.”

(j) “More lodging and dining establishments should have a better

understanding of what local and state tourism offices can do for them to

increase business. They should also do more co-ops together.”

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(k) “Grass roots organizations are very important to our industry. We all love

what we do. Keeping people involved is key.”

(l) “People need to be made more aware of what the tourism industry is. We

don’t only bring people to a destination; we help support what is already

here.”

(m) “Skill sets may depend on (the) sophistication of the problem and the

destination.”

(n) “Authenticity, redevelopment of heritage tourism programs etc.”

(o) “Tourism planning cannot be achieved in a vacuum.”

(p) “We are the Tourism Planning Division.”

(q) “Government regulations, land assessments etc, should all be analyzed in

order to develop tourism.”

(r) “You can plan all you want but when the political realities come into

play all the research & planning can be ignored.”

(s) “State offices should include sustainable tourism planning and assist the

private sector with development of a comprehensive tourism plan for the

state.”

Discussion

Responses to the survey questionnaire submitted by 104 tourism professionals

in the five regions of the United States were analyzed. The analysis sought to

highlight possible regional differences of opinion about competencies essential

to tourism professionals (Figures 4, 5, 6, and 7, Appendix N).

An Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed for each of the

competencies (N=70) of the survey. Post hoc Fisher’s LSD multiple comparisons
 109

give an indication of regional differences of competency responses. Only the

competencies with a significant F-test (p < 0.05) are shown.

Based on the tourism professionals’ responses there are discernable regional

differences of opinion. There are discernable differences between the North

East and South West tourism professionals as compared with tourism professionals

from the West, in terms of how they view Media Database competencies. (Figure

5, Appendix N). Further, there are differences in opinion regarding the Estimation

and Forecasting competency, in the North East and West as compared with

tourism professionals in the South East. (Figure 6, Appendix N). Tourism

professionals from the South East considered Estimation and Forecasting more

critical than did their colleagues from the rest of the United States. Data from the

respondents relating to competency in Ecological Principles reflected

discernable differences as displayed in Figure 7, Appendix N. Professionals from

the West, South West, North East and South East, considered Ecological Principles

more critical than did their counterparts from the Mid West.
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V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

This chapter summarizes the research conclusions and presents

recommendations for future practice and research. Conclusions drawn from the

analyses are presented in accordance with the research objectives stated. The

final section of this chapter includes recommendations regarding the

competencies identified by tourism professionals, the potential for enhanced

professionalism in the industry, and the opportunity for improvements in tourism

higher education.

Purpose of the Study

The purposes of this study were (1) To identify competencies needed in

tourism planning as identified by tourism experts in the field; (2) To determine the

methods tourism officials use to obtain these competencies, and (3) To

determine the extent to which higher education tourism planning curricula,

offered across the United States, address the identified competencies.

This study is intended to advance the literature in the dynamic field of tourism,

to contribute to the field of tourism planning, to extend the theory of professional

education in the tourism industry, and perhaps to foster discussion among

industry professionals towards sustainable tourism, improved industry standards,

and professional credentialing. Finally, it is intended that the study’s

recommendations may inspire further discussion regarding the future of the

tourism industry in the United States and possibly be adopted by policy-makers in

institutions of higher education, government, and the tourism industry.

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Summary

A stratified random group of professionals (N=368) was selected for query from

a sampling frame of 750 professionals leading Destination Organizations across

the United States. The survey, intended to address research questions one and

two, resulted in104 returns, or a response rate of 28.3%.

The questionnaire was based on several sources: (a) Section 3.2 - Role of Non-

government Organizations in Promoting Sustainable Tourism Development from

An Action Strategy for Sustainable Tourism Development authored by the Tourism

Stream Action Committee of the Globe 90 Conference on Sustainable

Development, (b) Tourism educational materials, (c) Discussions with United

States tourism professionals, (d) International professors of tourism, and (e)

Personal professional tourism planning and development experiences. The

survey questionnaire subsequently listed seventy competencies, prompting

respondents to rank these per level of importance, on a five point Likert Scale.

See Appendix A.

In addition to the 70 listed competencies, respondents had the opportunity to

add and prioritize other tourism competencies of importance to them. Data on

the competencies reported as important were compared to the competencies

addressed in tourism higher education curricula offered across the United States,

per institution literature (course catalogues and course descriptions).

Three hundred twenty-one colleges and universities offering tourism or travel in

their curriculum were initially identified, ultimately rendering 160 programs for

analysis. The data identifying tourism programs offered were based on an

analysis of college and university catalogues and course descriptions. Associate

 112

degree programs, certificate programs, and doctoral programs were not part of

the study. The one hundred sixty programs analyzed were Bachelor’s and

Master’s tourism higher education programs.

The analysis in this study was conducted as a systematic process, was

population specific, and empirically based. The Fisher’s LSD Multiple Comparison

test, Mean, Standard Deviation and Standard Error tests were all used. Data are

presented in tables and figures, and are organized by the research questions

that guided this dissertation, namely: (1) What are the competencies needed in

tourism planning, as identified by experts in the field? (2) How are these

competencies obtained? (3) To what extent does higher education tourism

curriculum across the United States address competencies indicated important

by tourism professionals?

Conclusions

Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions were reached.

Limited Number and Scope of Tourism and Tourism Planning Programs

It appears that education for the hospitality industry drives education for the

tourism industry. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council (2001),

tourism is one of the world’s fastest growing industries. Tourism Planning and

Development, when properly implemented, is the essence of quality tourism

growth. Moreover, according to Dr. Richard Harrill (2003), Destination

Management tourism professionals should have a grasp of sustainable tourism

and tourism planning growth issues as they originate in their own offices or in city

halls.
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However, programs of study in tourism and tourism planning and

development are not widely offered at colleges and universities in the United

States. Rather, it is common that Hospitality Administration or Parks and

Recreation higher education curricula include tourism courses. Moreover, while

tourism educators have long called for more in-depth and robust programs in

tourism, many current programs focus on marketing and public relations as

opposed to the foundations of the industry: tourism planning. While marketing

and public relations are important competencies, for destination organization

professional’s they fall short on competencies needed for a sustainable, tourism

industry. In the present study, one respondent noted: “Tourism is more than

advertising and marketing. It is developing products that can be sustained by

the community.” Roget Merchant, Extension Educator of the University of Maine

Cooperative Extension (2005) corroborated the statement that tourism is more

than promotion. “Raising the tourism flag and setting the community sails with no

agreed to plan and direction, is like sailing out of harbor without a map and

compass…unplanned tourism is an invitation to go in circles, at worse running

aground…on the reef of unwanted changes for a community” (p. 3).

Based on the data, tourism professionals did not indicate Tourism Planning

competencies as vitally important. Tourism Planning includes several individual

competencies such as Landscape Design, Transportation Planning and

Ecological Principles. The Means for Transportation Planning, Ecological

Principles, and Landscape Design are all below 3.77.

For example, Hawkins and Hunt (1988) suggested a set of principles and

guidelines for establishing a higher education curriculum in tourism. They

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suggested: (a) A holistic understanding of economic, social, cultural,

environmental, political, technological and physical aspects, and (b) a program

based on theoretical models of tourism, which are dynamic, comprehensive,

easily understood and unifying.

Beni (1990) observed that tourism curriculum structure should consider two

priorities: planning in tourism and tourism business management. Dr. Donald

Hawkins, professor at George Washington University (2005), noted that visitor

destinations operating in a sustainable manner could protect their environment,

which is more than likely the basis for the appeal of their destination. Hawkins

argued that sustainable destination management development should be: (a)

Comprehensive, (b), Iterative and Dynamic, (c) Integrative, (d) Community

Oriented, (e) Renewable, and (f) Goal Oriented. (Personal communication,

March 3, 2005).

Essential Competencies for Tourism Planning Professionals

The present study found the following ten competencies of highest

importance to respondents (n=104): (1) Economic Impact of Tourism, (2)

Leadership, (3) Public Relations, (4) Product Knowledge, (5) Basic Computer,

(6) Decision Making, (7) Financial Management, (8) Cultural & Heritage Tourism,

(9) General Business Knowledge, and (10) Sustainable Tourism. While these are

important competencies, they may not be sufficient for the work of future tourism

professionals.

The survey questionnaire data, coupled with a review of the literature, and a

review of course catalogues and course descriptions, suggested that there is a

general lack of consensus as to the important courses and competencies

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necessary for tourism professionals. Dr. Caroline Cooper, of Johnson & Wales

University does not predict common curricula for tourism higher education in the

United States. According to Dr. Cooper the United States offers decentralized

education. Each institution’s mission is different. Cooper explained, in the United

States, higher education students seeking the best college or university for their

interests need to understand the purpose of a university, the purpose of a

department, and then understand the purpose of the degree (Personal

communication, Aug, 5, 2004). The World Tourism Organization (2004) argued

“tourism education and training should offer (i) Quality, responding to the needs

of the tourism industry, and (ii) Efficiency, studying and evaluating the costs and

benefits of the wide range of education process and methods available” (The

World Tourism Organization, 2004, p. 5). A lack of consensus could cause the

industry to stagnate at a time when the industry is poised for exponential growth.

Moreover, in the present study, a comparison of the top ten essential

competencies identified by industry professionals, and the ten courses most

frequently listed in tourism education program literature (course catalogues)

yielded little similarity. Appendix O reports additional competencies suggested

as important by respondents.

The ten courses most often listed in higher education tourism program

literature compared with the top ten competencies reported very important by

respondents were:

College/University Courses Competencies per Professionals

1 Advertising/Marketing/Sales Economic Impact of Tourism

2 Tourism Planning Leadership

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3 Research Public Relations

4 Financial Management Product Knowledge

5 Business Management Basic Computer

6 Principles of Planning and Design Decision Making

7 Tourism Law Financial Management

8 International Relations Cultural & Heritage Tourism

9 Economic Impact of Tourism General Business

10 Strategic Management Sustainable Tourism

There is obvious incongruity among course offerings and competencies

identified as important to industry professionals (See Table 2, Appendix M).

However, Financial Management ranked in the top ten competencies important

to the respondents and ranked in the top ten courses most available to

Bachelor’s and Master’s students of tourism. Economic Impact of Tourism is

number one in the top ten competencies, as ranked by the respondents. When

this competency was compared to the courses offered at college and university

tourism programs, the course ranked as the 11th most available of the 160

courses analyzed. Tourism Development ranked as the 11th most important

competency according to the respondents. It was offered at one half of the 160

tourism programs analyzed.

Moreover, respondents ranked Intergovernmental Relations as 12th in

importance as a competency. However, it ranked 47th in availability at the

colleges and universities analyzed. Tourism professionals responding ranked

Community Involvement as a competency, 13th in importance. Community

Involvement appeared 46th in course availability out of the 160 course analyzed.
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Being competent in Strategic Management ranked 16th with the respondents

and 10th in availability with colleges and universities analyzed. In addition,

Advertising/Sales/Marketing was the number one course in availability at tourism

programs in Higher Education, however it ranked 18th in level of importance to

the tourism professionals responding. Cultural & Heritage Tourism ranked 8th in

importance to the tourism professionals responding, and ranked 22nd in

availability the 160 Bachelor’s and Master’s tourism programs analyzed.

The percentage of tourism planning courses offered by institutions of higher

learning, among all tourism courses offered was 16.6%. It is not clear how often

these planning and development courses are offered, how popular they are

with students, and if enrollment in tourism planning courses is being encouraged.

Ninety-four Advertising, Sales and/or Marketing courses were available to tourism

students. Engineering, Indigenous Languages, Crisis Management, and Grant

Writing, all ranked as the least important competencies by the tourism

professionals. Their competency interest rendered Means no higher than 3.8,

indicating modest importance to tourism professionals.

No courses that address these competencies were offered in the 160

Bachelor’s and Master’s programs analyzed (See Table 2, Appendix M).

Standardized Credentialing

The present study did not reveal common practices for hiring tourism

professionals at government and tourism destination organizations. Moreover,

the study did not reveal standard credentials required of United States tourism

destination management professionals as is the case with other professions

including: travel agents, lawyers, accountants and plumbers. This finding

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corroborates Dr. Timothy Tyrell’s (2003) contention that there is no known state,

national or industry competency requirement for tourism professionals or for

tourism planning and development professionals who mange tourism

destinations in the United States (Personal communication, July 10, 2003). Tyrell,

of the University of Rhode Island's, Department of Research Economics,

indicated that according to the Travel Industry Association of America (2002),

“travel and tourism is the first, second, or third largest employer in 29 states” (p.1).

It is reasonable to suggest, therefore, that the absence of standards is reason for

concern. Since tourism is such a large and growing industry, there is a need for

standards, credentials, and professionalization within the tourism field.

The WTO (2003) suggested that credentialing criteria:

1 Be based on existing legal standards and instruments and set well above

legal compliance.

2 Include the precondition of compliance by the applicant with these

legislations.

3 Address the three dimensions of sustainability: environmental, socio-

cultural and economic issues.

4 Define core criteria and supplementary criteria specific for different

tourism product and service groups (e.g. hotels and other accommodations,

transportation services, restaurants, tour operators and travel agents,

attractions, etc.).

5 Be adjusted to specific regional and local environmental and socio-

economic conditions.

6 Be defined through indicators that are measurable and easy to

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understand by the different type of stakeholders involved in the certification

process.

7 And indicators, be based on scientific research that evaluates the key

environmental and socio-economic impacts of the sector.

8 Should refer to attainable and realistic goals for private sector participants.

9 Be set in different levels of requirements: from more easily achievable to

very demanding criteria. Thus, the certification system sets a framework for

continuous improvement whereby applicants can achieve higher

performance levels step by step.

10 Be measured for compliance through process and performance-based

assessments (July 25, 2004). See Appendix E.

Communities Reinforce Lack of Interest in Tourism Planning

Based on the survey questionnaire data, tourism professionals did not indicate

Tourism Planning competencies as vitally important. Tourism Planning includes several

individual competencies such as Landscape Design, Transportation Planning and

Ecological Principles. The Means for Transportation Planning, Ecological Principles, and

Landscape Design are all below 3.77.

In addition, to the moderate level of importance of Tourism Planning as reported by

respondents, research shows that most communities are focused on the promotion of

tourism rather than planning for tourism, thereby reinforcing the lack of interest in

tourism planning from a policy viewpoint. Gunn (1994) argued, "A preoccupation with

promotion has tended to favor large funding for promotion and little for research" (p. 3).

Moreover, while 77% of the respondents indicated they are responsible for tourism

planning, 82% indicated they have no separate division to assist in tourism planning
 120

issues. Due to the high number of professionals who reported to learning on the job, it

follows that communities could be in jeopardy if new hires are not qualified in tourism

planning and development skills. If we look to higher education to provide professional

development in this area or to provide education in planning and development as part

of the curriculum, the present study’s findings indicated that only 16.6% of the tourism

courses offered are tourism planning courses. Further it is not clear how often these

planning and development courses are offered, how popular they are with students,

and if enrollment is being encouraged.

Field-Based Experience Proves Pragmatic

The present study’s findings suggest that much of tourism education takes

place on the job. Ninety-eight percent of the (N=87) respondents to this

question [(95% Confidence interval: (91.4%, 99.8%)] reported to have learned

their competencies on-the-job, and not through a higher education institution

tourism curriculum. In fact one respondent commented that one year on the job

is equal to two years of academic education.

While the survey data revealed that 33.7% of the respondents indicated their

education did not prepare them for their tourism position, many United States

universities and colleges include field-based learning in their curriculum to

facilitate competency acquisition, as noted by Cantor (2002) in Experiential

Learning in Higher Education: Linking Classroom and Community, and by Ratz

(1997) in Transformation of Hungarian Tourism Education. Cantor (2002) noted

that “Experiential learning as a formal part of college and university curricula

extends across the range of subject areas and disciplines” (p. 2). Ratz (1997)

argued that internship, or practical learning, “give[s] students an opportunity to

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gain experience and a realistic appreciation of the working environment of the

industry” (p. 5).

No Standardized Tourism Curricula in the United States

There does not appear to be a uniform standard for tourism curricula or for

tourism planning and development curricula within institutions in the United

States. Unlike practices in other countries, in the United States, tourism curricula

at universities and colleges vary. The preponderance of research suggests that

the dynamic field of tourism will continue to thrive. Yet, in order to professionally

staff the industry, and to mitigate the negative impacts of unplanned tourism

growth, it is necessary to offer higher education curricula focusing on tourism

and tourism planning and development. The need for tourism planning is

documented throughout the literature.

For example, the WTO (2002) suggested that there is “a great demand for

tourism professionals, but there are numerous standards which cause

fragmentation and lack of transparency in training” (TedQual, p. 58). Gunn

(1998) contended that, because of the complex nature of tourism and pre-

occupation with promotion within communities and institutions of higher learning,

tourism education has lacked the administrative support it deserves. In addition,

with the projections of the phenomenal growth within the industry, a focused

tourism curriculum, and tourism planning and development curriculum, is critical.

In the absence of such curriculum reform, the tourism industry will not realize its

potential, and eventually, communities’ natural and historic resources will be

adversely affected.

McIntosh (1983) proposed a higher education curriculum for tourism

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managers, high-ranking staff, or owners. He identified eleven education divisions

for tourism. Courses would be in the: Humanities, Communication, Natural

Science, Social Science, Business, Planning and Design, Marketing,

Management, Law, Foreign Language, and specialized tourism courses which

would include several concepts such as the tourism system, planning principles,

and the study of public and private tourism organizations. McIntosh’s suggested

curricula appear valid today.

In addition, curriculum reform in tourism education must be fluid, as noted by

the World Tourism Organization. For example WTO (2004), cautioned that the

responsibilities of governments related to tourism planning and development are

changing due to public-private sector partnerships.

Decentralization indicates a need for flexible and multi-disciplinary

approaches to destination management and tourism education.

Tourism Planning to Fulfill Community Needs

In the present study respondents in the present study noted the importance

of community involvement as related to tourism planning: (a) “Tourism planners

need to first and foremost, have knowledge of the community’s want and needs

and have the ability to bring it all together.” ; (b) “Community input before

decision making is critical.” ; (c) “Understanding of the total impact tourism has

on a community-not just attractions & motels-but main street businesses.” ; and

(d) “Tourism is more than advertising and marketing. It is developing a product

that can be sustained by the community.” If industry professionals are to

develop tourism planning skills at institutions of higher education, afore

mentioned curricula reform is essential.

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Regardless of where and how such competencies are developed, well-

planned tourism can fulfill community needs. Dr. Clare Gunn addressed tourism

development over several decades and the importance of breaking away from

the repetition of the past. Gunn (1994) argued “Ingenuity and originality must be

directed toward all major goals of tourism planning, economic improvement,

better visitor satisfaction, resource protection, and integration into the local

economic and social setting” (p. 443). Gunn added “This new philosophy places

heavier professional demands upon all education and the practice of planners

and designers” (p. 443). According to Marcoullier, Kim and Deller (2004)

contemporary politics has emphasized market-based solutions to tourism

development. They report that public policy encourages “boosterism” planning,

overlooking the attributes required for collaborative community planning.

Necessity for Consultants

Data derived through open-ended questions within the present study’s

questionnaire confirmed the literature reviewed. In particular, some tourism

bureaus contract consultants to help with professional competency gaps.

Several respondents noted their use of consultants for issues related to tourism

planning. The following notations were offered by the respondents:

(a) “Often we attract needed competencies through the retention of

consultants as we cannot support full time staff for all needed disciplines.”

(b) “Some planners could be both employee and outside consultant.”

(c) “Skills mentioned could be part of a planning organization or contracted.”

(d) “One needs to know enough to avoid being snowed.”

While professional collaboration is highly valued, the use of consultants in

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these cases could prove costly, both financially and practically, as consultants

are likely to be less familiar with the visitor destination in which they are asked to

work. Further, consultants may not be available to Destination Organization staff

on a daily basis, which could delay decisions, or worse, the organization may not

have the immediate ability to comment on community changing projects.

Community Input is Important

Responses repeatedly addressed the need for broad community input before

a decision is made. The respondents offered the following notations:

(a) “Tourism planners need to first and foremost, have knowledge of

the community’s wants and needs and have the ability to bring it all

together.”

(b) “Community input before decision making is critical.”

(c) “Understanding of the total impact tourism has on a community – not

just attractions & motels – but main street businesses.”

(d) “Tourism is more than advertising and marketing. It is developing a

product that can be sustained by the community.”

Tourism professionals working for a Destination Organization, who posess

planning and development skills, would be better able to gather and utilize

community input for new tourism plans and projects. Residents of a community

either benefit from tourism developments or they do not. Destination

Organization tourism staff, with tourism planning competencies, works to guide

the private tourism developer to achieve not just the developer’s goals but the

sustainable tourism goals of the community.

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These professionals represent the public policy and protect and improve the

public welfare in their work to develop their community for tourism.

Respondents Suggest Additional Competencies

The questionnaire asked tourism professionals to indicate additional

competencies needed in the positions. Appendix O reports several additional

competencies that were suggested by the respondents. Only community

oriented competencies were mentioned more than once.

Implications

Tourism planning and development skills are essential in the vast and dynamic

field of tourism, particularly as they support sustainable tourism. In the present

study, tourism professionals staffing Destination Organizations reported that

sustainable tourism is important, ranking the competency with a Mean of 4.47 on

a five-point scale. Moreover, a review of tourism program literature revealed

that Tourism Planning was the second most often listed course in higher

education tourism programs of the (N=321) programs reviewed. However, it is

important to note that a single course in tourism planning is insufficient

preparation for real-world application of tourism planning and development.

Finally, the tourism planning courses available through institutions of higher

education in the United States are often surreptitiously offered within disciplines

such as Hospitality Administration or Parks and Recreation. This diminishes their

perceived importance and clearly diminishes their identity.

It is unsettling to note that 97.7% of the respondents (N=87) reported to have

acquired their competencies on-the-job, and not through a higher education

institution tourism curriculum. This causes concern for current and future tourism
 126

students for obvious reasons, but additionally, we must wonder if there are

professional development opportunities readily available to present tourism

professionals so that they might develop (or refine) skills in tourism planning and

development. It appears, then, that there are clear and present opportunities in

higher education for curricula revision. This includes development and offering

workshops, seminars, courses, and ideally; programs of study in tourism planning.

The argument could be made that tourism higher education should continue

to include business, management, and communications courses. However, it is

critical to respond to the need for focus on the principles and practice of tourism

planning and development.

In addition, it is likely that professionalism in the tourism industry will remain

stagnant if the World Tourism Organization’s (2003) certification system for

sustainable tourism, or some other like program, is not considered adoptable, at

the national, state, regional or community levels. If there is no impetus to

improve the tourism system, market forces will build the communities of the future

with little regard for design, land use, environmental and historical protection.

Appendix E reports recommendations to governments for supporting and/or

establishing national certification systems for sustainable tourism as suggested by

the World Tourism Organization. In addition to tourism destination certification, it

is extremely important to have well educated, credentialed professionals staffing

these organizations. A professional credential, earned through rigorous higher

education study and practical experience, is important to this vibrant industry.

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Recommendations for Future Research

Consideration of Various Learning Methodologies

The results of this research were limited by the questions asked of the tourism

professionals. Were the study to be replicated a number of issues should be

considered. For example, it would be useful to consider the efficiency of on-the-

job learning as compared with academic learning through coursework.

Other types of tourism learning could be examined, such as experiential

learning, service learning, and guided experiential learning combined with

academic learning.

Next, it is likely that envisioning tourism planning and development as a

discipline, rather than skill sets, may mystify present day tourism professionals. A

lengthy definition of “tourism planning and development” was included at the

beginning of the present study’s survey questionnaire to assist in the clarification

of the study’s objectives. This definition was possibly overlooked, or

misunderstood, or possibly mitigated by respondents who did not place

importance on tourism planning and development, even though they indicated

it was one of their responsibilities. The definition of tourism planning and

development should therefore be abbreviated, and featured more prominently

on the survey instrument.

Moreover, it is not clear how the respondents interpreted the term

“sustainable tourism” and the response rate for that competency may have

therefore been affected. For example some respondents considered

sustainable tourism the act of attracting visitors to their district to stay longer.
 128

Therefore, a clear, a succinct definition as designated by the WTO should be

prominently featured on the survey instrument.

Sustainable Tourism Skills and Resources

Further and extensive study is suggested to determine if tourism professionals

are prepared to address sustainable tourism development as a process of

economic development so that it ensures quality of life and protects the

ecological and community systems in which tourism operates.

It would also be interesting to discover if industry professionals have sought

professional development in this area, but have found it lacking or unavailable.

Feasibility of Tourism Certification

Research is needed to determine the feasibility of national, state, and tourism

certification. Possibly the adoption of the World Tourism Organization’s (2003)

certification system for sustainable tourism which addresses: (a) Environmental

performance of organizations, operations and visitor destinations, (b) Product

quality, and (c) Corporate and Social Responsibility of their operations may

satisfy this need. WTO Certification targets accommodations, restaurants, sport

and leisure facilities, visitor attractions, destinations, tour operators, transportation

companies and tourism associations (p. 1).

Tourism Educators’ Priorities

Further study is warranted to determine if tourism educators recommend

curricula reform and/or standardized competencies, and to identify emerging

common themes in these areas.

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Recommendations for Future Practice

1 Establish a new paradigm in tourism curricula with an agreed upon set of

common competencies for Tourism and Tourism Planning and

Development studies. A formal undergraduate program offering a

degree in Tourism with a follow-on Graduate degree in Tourism Planning

could be established. Adjunct to the curriculum and perhaps as piloting

opportunities, create and deliver workshops, to serve as professional

development opportunities.

2 Results of this study should be shared with tourism industry stakeholders to

propose that tourism officials and their industry organizations will

encourage a universally accepted national credential for tourism

planning and development professionals. Similarly, aspiring lawyers pass a

bar exam, nurses are registered, accountants are certified, and plumbers

are licensed. While segments of the tourism industry have their own

membership credentials, seemingly none address the critical aspects of

tourism planning and development to the degree necessary for the

future. If the WTO General Tourism Achievement Test or a similar

credentialing system is implemented, credentials could be planned for,

taught, and tested in institutions of higher education. The World Tourism

Organization certification addresses several of the subject areas

necessary for tourism planners, and should be carefully studied for its utility

and content.

3 Results of this study should be shared with community leaders

recommending that credentialing should be required for all professionals.

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4 Results of this study could be presented to organizations such as ICHRIE,

state governments, recreation, tourism associations, tourism membership

organizations such as the Tourism Industry Association of America, the

International Association of Convention and Visitor Bureaus, the National

Tour Association, the National Heritage Areas and the American Bus

Association for their review, comment, support and possible publication.

5 Academic information about tourism careers should be made clear to

potential students. It is difficult for students to understand what they are

“purchasing” when they make their tourism higher education decisions.

A separate identity must be established for tourism education through

defined programs of study in tourism planning, as this field is not merely a

subset of other disciplines such as hospitality or recreation.

6 Certified continuing tourism education programs should be widely

available for today’s tourism professionals to earn certification.

7 The present study’s research shows minimal interest by students, industry

professionals, and academia in competencies relating to the field of

tourism planning. Professional education should be made available to

career tourism professionals. This would afford them the opportunity to

build upon their tourism planning knowledge and better contribute to the

community they serve. Tourism planning classes can be offered through

various delivery systems in higher education such as field-based learning

distance learning seminars etc.

8 The present study’s participants ranked leadership as the second most

important competency for industry professionals. While this is a

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multifaceted skill, it may be useful for tourism program curriculum planners

to include courses that focus on the complexities and opportunities of

leadership.

Summary

This research established the perceptions of a representative sample of

professionals who staff Destination Organizations within the United States,

regarding competencies important to their respective positions within the

industry. Although disquieting, the majority, 97.7%, of the respondents reported

that they attained their essential skills on-the-job rather than through higher

education.

The study also identified significant incongruity among course offerings at

institutions of higher education across the United States and competencies

identified as important to industry professionals. This research makes clear,

obligations and opportunities regarding tourism curricula revision in higher

education. Great collaboration among industry professionals, private

membership organizations, and tourism educators will be necessary if tourism in

the United States is to grow in a sensitive, sustainable manner.

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 143

APPENDIX A

Competencies Questionnaire

Your opinion as a tourism industry professional is needed.

Knowledge, skills and competencies are important in the tourism planning and
development profession. Just what these competencies are, and should be in
the future, are not set out formally.

With input from today’s United States tourism professionals, we may have the
opportunity to affect what is being taught in universities tomorrow, and affect
positively, the future of tourism professionals.

Over 350 tourism professionals are being asked to take part in this study. Please
take a few minuets to respond today.

Read the definition of tourism planning and development:

Tourism is one of the most important social and economic activities of

today’s world. There is a justifiable concern about the possible
negative effects of tourism, and a growing desire to develop in a
planned and controlled manner that optimizes benefits while
preventing serious problems.

In addition to newly developing tourism areas, those places that

already have substantial tourism development now desire to make
improvements to meet contemporary standards and environmental
objectives.

Recognition is being given to the urgency of developing tourism in an

integrated manner that sustains its resources for perpetual use, and
helps conserve and not deteriorate, an area’s natural and cultural
heritage resources. (Inskeep, Tourism Planning, an integrated and
sustainable development approach)

If your agency is not involved in tourism planning or development, please

forward this questionnaire to the responsible agency for your area.

Directions for completion of the questionnaire

1. Indicate the importance of each of the below subjects to the success of

your tourism program, by circling the number that best represents your
thoughts.
2. You may also identify additional subject areas that you or your agency,
feel are important in fulfilling responsibilities.
 144

Not Slightly Very

General Information Important Important Undecided Important Important
a. Social responsibilities 1 2 3 4 5
b. Leadership 1 2 3 4 5
c. Philosophy and ethics 1 2 3 4 5
d. Research skills 1 2 3 4 5
e. International relations 1 2 3 4 5
f. Grant writing 1 2 3 4 5
g. Community outreach 1 2 3 4 5
h. Tourism law 1 2 3 4 5
i. Decision making 1 2 3 4 5
j. Other suggestions or
additions

1 2 3 4 5
Knowledge of Languages
a. Foreign languages 1 2 3 4 5
b. Indigenous languages 1 2 3 4 5
c. Other suggestions or
additions

1 2 3 4 5
Knowledge of Information
Technology
a. Basic computer
competencies 1 2 3 4 5
b. Computer mapping 1 2 3 4 5
c. Web research skills 1 2 3 4 5
d. Media database 1 2 3 4 5
e. Community database 1 2 3 4 5
f. Other suggestions or
additions

1 2 3 4 5
Knowledge of Business
a. General business
knowledge 1 2 3 4 5
b. Business management 1 2 3 4 5
c. Estimation and
forecasting 1 2 3 4 5
 145

d. Inter-governmental
relations 1 2 3 4 5
e. Financial management 1 2 3 4 5
f. Entrepreneurship 1 2 3 4 5
g. Strategic management 1 2 3 4 5
h. Non-profit management 1 2 3 4 5
k. Economics 1 2 3 4 5
L. Risk management 1 2 3 4 5
m. Public relations 1 2 3 4 5
n. Advertising 1 2 3 4 5
o. Labor relations
p. Other suggestions or
additions

1 2 3 4 5
Knowledge of Tourism
Specific Education
a. Tourism development 1 2 3 4 5
b. Structure of the Industry 1 2 3 4 5
c. Environmental impacts 1 2 3 4 5
d. Product knowledge 1 2 3 4 5
e. Development policies 1 2 3 4 5
f. Sustainable tourism 1 2 3 4 5
g. Principles of planning and
design 1 2 3 4 5
h. Tourism facility planning 1 2 3 4 5
I. Tourism economics 1 2 3 4 5
j. Visitor safety issues 1 2 3 4 5
k. Cultural & heritage
tourism 1 2 3 4 5
L. Transportation planning 1 2 3 4 5
m. Community involvement 1 2 3 4 5
n. Eco-tourism 1 2 3 4 5
o. River/coastal
management 1 2 3 4 5
p. Economic impact of
tourism 1 2 3 4 5
q. Property development 1 2 3 4 5
r. Resource management 1 2 3 4 5
s. General tourism
operations 1 2 3 4 5
t. Crisis management 1 2 3 4 5
u. Education 1 2 3 4 5
 146

v. Other suggestions or
additions

1 2 3 4 5
Knowledge of related
specialized areas
a. Landscape design 1 2 3 4 5
b. Engineering 1 2 3 4 5
c. Community planning 1 2 3 4 5
d. Interpretive skills 1 2 3 4 5
e. Historic preservation 1 2 3 4 5
f. Architectural design 1 2 3 4 5
g. Fund development 1 2 3 4 5
h. Understanding design
plans 1 2 3 4 5
I. Building design principles 1 2 3 4 5
j. Recreation area
management 1 2 3 4 5
k. Attraction management 1 2 3 4 5
L. Interpretation of resources 1 2 3 4 5
m. Cultural resource
protection 1 2 3 4 5
n. Land use regulations 1 2 3 4 5
o. Ecological principles 1 2 3 4 5
m. Community
engagement 1 2 3 4 5
n. Countryside
management 1 2 3 4 5
p. Environmental integration 1 2 3 4 5
q. Inter-agency regulations 1 2 3 4 5
r. Understanding community
needs and wants 1 2 3 4 5
s. Other additions or
suggestions

1 2 3 4 5

2. Please provide background information about you and/or your organization.

(Check appropriate box)

a. Highest level of education?

High School [__] Some College [__] BA/BS [__] MA/MS [__] Doctorate [__]
 147

Other technical training________________________________________________

b. Name of college/university/technical school(s) attended?

____________________________________________________________________

____

c. I have learned my tourism competencies/skills on the job. Yes [__] No

[__]

d. My higher educational training did ___ did not___ prepare me for my

position.

e. Number or years in the tourism industry? [_____]

f. Number of years in the workforce? [_____]

g. Does your office have a separate Tourism Planning Division?

Yes [__] No [__]

h. Are the tourism planning and development functions part of your

tourism office’s responsibilities?

Yes [__] No [__]

i. Does your community, region or state require that a person have a

required degree or certification to hold a position in tourism planning?

Yes [__] No [__] If so, list.

_________________________________________________

j. What is the approximate population of the area you represent?

__________

Is it considered an urban, sub-urban or rural area?

Urban [__] Sub-urban [__] Rural [__].

 148

3. Are there continuing tourism planning and development education

programs in your area? Yes [__] No [__]

4. If yes to the above, name them_____________________________________

5. Are there other competencies that you feel should be more evident?

with tourism professionals? ____________________________________________

6. Comments you would like to add?

Would you be willing to be interviewed further about your work? Yes [__] No [__]

Questions developed from The Tourism System (Mill and Morrison, pp. 201-220),

practical experience, and through discussions with Dr. Rich Harrill (Personal

communication, November 2, 2003).

Date of completion of Questionnaire: _____________________

Your name (optional): _____________________________________________

Title: ___________________________________

Organization name (optional): ______________________________________________

City (optional): _____________________________________________ State: _________

Please return within 5 days to: Robert Billington, President

Blackstone Valley Tourism
Council Inc
1571 Mendon Rd
Cumberland, RI 02864
Fax: 401 724 1342

Questions: 1 800 454 2882

Email: [email protected]
 149

APPENDIX B

Tourism Industry Segments

Accommodations Food & Beverage

Apartments Dining Rooms

Bed & Breakfast Private Clubs
Convention Centers Quick Services
Country Inns Restaurants
Guest Homes
Hotels Suppliers & Services
Meeting Halls
Motels Barber Shops
Resorts & Lodges Beauty Salons
Special Venues Beverage Equipment
Catering Services
Events & Attractions General Supplies
Gift Shops
Arboretums Health Clubs
Aquariums Retail Outlets
Art Galleries Souvenirs
Battlefields Meetings Services
Cemeteries Professional Services
Churches Emergency Services
Dams
Fairs & Festivals Tourism Organizations
Historical Exhibitions
Marine Attractions Federal
Missions State/Provincial/Territorial
Monuments Regional
Natural Phenomena Municipal
Observatories
Parks Travel Trade
Planetariums
Racetracks Transportation
Railroads Travel Agents
Restored Settlements Sales Reps & Brokers
Schools/Colleges/Universities Corporate Travel
Sporting Events Credit Card Companies
Waterfalls Tour Operators
Zoos Travel Clubs
Franchises

(Wolfire 1988, p. 287)

 150

APPENDIX C

Professional Tourism Organizations

AAA American Automobile Association

ABA American Bus Association
ABC American Booking Charter
ACTO Association of Caribbean Tour Operators
AHMA American Hotel Motel Association
AIEST International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism
AIT Academic Internationale du Tourisme
ATME Association of Travel Marketing Executives
Amtrak National Railroad Passenger Corporation
AP American Plan
APEX Advanced Purchase Excursion Fare
ARC Airlines Reporting Corporation
ARDA American Resort and Development Association
ARTA Association of Retail Travel Agents
ASTA American Society of Travel Agents
ATA Air Transport Association of America
ATC Air Transport Committee (Canada)
BIT Bulk Inclusive Tour
BTA British Tourist Authority
CHRIE Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Education
CITC Canadian Institute of Travel Counselors
CLIA Cruise Lines International Association
COTAL Conference of Tourist Organizations of Latin America
CRS Computerized Reservations System
CTA Caribbean Travel Association
CTC* Canadian Tourism Council
CTC Certified Travel Counselor
CTO Caribbean Tourism Organization
DIT Domestic Independent Tours
DMO Destination Management Organization
DOT U.S. Government Department of Transportation
ECOSOC Economic and Social Council of the United Nations
EP European Plan
ETC European Travel Commission
FAA (U.S.) Federal Aviation Administration
FHA Federal Highway Administration
FIT Foreign Independent Tour
GIT Group Inclusive Tour
HSMAI Hotel Sales Management
IAAPA International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions
IACVB International Association of CVBs
IAF International Automobile Federation
IAST International Academy for the Study of Tourism
IATA International Air Transport Association
IATAN International Airlines Travel Agent Network
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
 151

ICC Interstate Commerce Commission

ICCL International Council of Cruise Lines
ICSC International Council of Shopping Centers
IFWTO International Federation of Women's Travel
IHA International Hotel Association
IIPT International Institute for Peace Through Tourism
IIT Inclusive Independent Tour
ILO International Labor Organization
ISMP International Society of Meeting Planners
ISTTE International Society of Travel and Tourism Educators
IT Inclusive Tour
ITC Inclusive Tour Charter
IYHF International Youth Hostel Federation
MAP Modified American Plan
MCO Miscellaneous Charges Order
MPI Meeting Professionals International
NACOA National Association of Cruise Only Agents
NAPVO National Association of Passenger Vessel Owners
NARVPC National Association of RV Parks and Campgrounds
NCTA National Council of Travel Attractions
NCUTO National Council of Urban Tourism Organizations
NRA National Restaurant Association
NRPA National Recreation Parks Association
NTA National Tour Association
OAG Official Airline Guide
OAS Organization of American States
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
PAII Professional Association of Innkeepers International
PATA Pacific Asia Travel Association
RAA Regional Airline Association
RPM Revenue Passenger Miles
RTF Rural Tourism Foundation
RVIA Recreational Vehicle Industry Association
SATW Society of American Travel Writers
SITE Society of Incentive Travel Executives
S&R Sell & Report
TI Tourism Industries (U.S.)
TIA Travel Industry Association of America
TIAC Tourism Industry Association of Canada
TTRA Travel and Tourism Research Association
UFTAA Universal Federation of Travel Agents Association
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
USTDC United States Travel Data Center
USTOA United States Tour Operators Association
WATA World Association of Travel Agents
WHO World Health Organization
WTAO World Tourism and Automobile Organization
WTO World Tourism Organization
WTTC World Travel and Tourism Council
 152

WWW World Wide Web

XO Exchange Order

(Goeldner, Ritchie & McIntosh, 2000, pp. 725-727)

 153

APPENDIX D

Positions Available in the Field of Travel and Tourism

Tourist Bureau Manager Tour Wholesaler

Travel Journalist/Writer Reservations Agents

Promotion/Public Relations Specialist Interpretive Specialist

Marketing Representative Destination Information

Specialist
Promoter

Sales Representative Curriculum Specialist

Travel Agency Manager Business Travel Specialist

Recreation Specialist Financial Analyst

Recreation Specialist Teacher/Instructor

Tour Escort Transfer Officer

Retail Store Manager Market Researcher

Incentive Travel Specialist Group Sales Manager

Consultant Association Manager

Translator Tour Broker

Sales Manager Public Relations Officer

Policy Analyst Tour Operator

Campground Manger Receptionist

Research/Statistical Analyst Tour Leader

Marina Manager Meeting/Conference Travel

Manager

Economist Guide

In-Transit Attendant Ski Instructor

 154

Resident Camp Director Advertising Agency Account

Executive

Recreation Facility/Park Convention Center/Fair

Manager Manager

Concession Operator Sales Representative

Auto-Recreation Vehicle Rental Agency Guest House/Hostel

Manager Manager

Destination Development Specialist Entertainer

Information Officer Program Specialist

Travel Agent Motor Coach Operator

Counselor/Sales Manager

(Hawkins & Hunt, 1988, pp. 8-14).

 155

APPENDIX E

World Tourism Organization Recommendations to Governments for

Supporting and/or Establishing National Certification Systems for
Sustainable Tourism

Introduction

Certification systems for sustainable tourism play an increasing role in regulating

tourism operations as voluntary instruments above legal frameworks. They usually
address three main aspects, namely: 1) environmental performance of
companies, operations and destinations; 2) product quality; and 3) corporate
social responsibility of operations. They normally target tourism suppliers, such as
accommodation, restaurants, sport and leisure facilities, tourist attractions,
destinations, tour operators, (tourist) transport companies, tourist associations,
etc.

Considering the growing number and importance of certification systems and

other voluntary initiatives in tourism, and based on a recommendation made by
the UN Commission on Sustainable Development, WTO undertook a
comprehensive worldwide study on this topic. The results of this study were
published in 2002, under the title “Voluntary Initiatives for Sustainable Tourism:
Worldwide Inventory and Comparative Analysis of 104 Eco-labels, Awards and
Self-commitments”.

The WTO Committee on Sustainable Development of Tourism, at its 3rd Session

held in Costa Rica, 25-26 September 2002 recommended the preparation of a
set of guidelines for Governments on certification systems for sustainable tourism.
Acting on this decision of the Committee, the present document aims at
enhancing awareness among governments about the opportunities certification
systems may provide as part of their sustainable development policy goals, and
provides basic recommendations for supporting and/or establishing such systems
at the national level. It is primarily based on the WTO study mentioned above. It
also draws on the survey conducted among WTO Member States in November
2001 – January 2002, considering the feasibility of a Sustainable Tourism
Stewardship Council, on the experience gained in the area of certification
through the International Year of Ecotourism 2002, on comments received
from the Committee members, and on other relevant documents.

The role of governments in present certification systems

The WTO study on voluntary initiatives for sustainable tourism revealed that
governments have an important role in many of the certification systems
presently operating. Twenty of the 59-certification schemes investigated are lead
by government agencies. A further 18 have government involvement, either
through direct financial support, marketing support, and expert know-how in
criteria setting, verification procedures, or surveillance of procedures followed by
 156

the certification body. Government financial support is crucial to half the

schemes for which data is available. Government agencies involved generally
include either environment ministries, national tourism authorities and tourist
boards, and in fewer cases, standards institutes.

Certification systems can bring benefits to society, the environment,

governments, private companies and consumers as well.

Potential benefits for society:

• Generally speaking, societies will benefit from certification systems that cover
the three aspects of sustainability: social, environmental and economic. Certified
companies are supposed to generate benefits in these three areas, while
reducing their negative impacts. Therefore, the contribution of tourism activities
to the sustainable development of host societies will be more evident, more
measurable and more accountable.
• Furthermore, the level of awareness on sustainability issues will be stronger in
the host society if the large majority of tourism companies and/or destinations
are certified.

Potential benefits for the environment:

• It is evident that certification systems and eco-labels that include strict

environmental criteria result in benefits for the local environment and, to the
extent that some mass tourism activities can impact biodiversity and climate
change, also the global environment.
• Furthermore, the widespread use of eco-labels and certification systems in the
tourism industry helps to generate increased environmental awareness among
both, tourists and host societies and should result in more caring attitudes with
respect to the natural and built environments.

Potential benefits for governments:

• Providing an effective alternative to direct regulation, which could prove more

difficult and time-consuming to implement;
• Enabling governments to adopt a flexible approach to monitoring the tourism
Industry, permitting organizations to proceed at the pace they feel most
comfortable with, while encouraging them to develop innovative approaches to
environmental and socio-cultural improvements;
• Giving tourism companies greater scope for making environmental and social
improvements by exploiting opportunities specific to their individual
circumstances, rather than governments having to control and inspect
companies in order to check that they comply with general, industry-wide
regulations;
• Allowing part of the costs of implementing and monitoring environmental
protection measures to be transferred to the industry itself, thereby reducing the
financial burden of regulation on the taxpayer;
 157

• National programs of tourism certification can enhance tourism’s recognition in

the country, national competitiveness and image in international markets.

Potential benefits for companies:

• Adherence to voluntary environmental initiatives can enable the company to

market its products more effectively, and to improve their public image among
consumers, business partners and with the host communities;
• Engaging in voluntary certification can help companies to signal their specific
commitment to environmental, social and even economic improvements, which
may in turn help to defer the need for further direct regulation by governments;
• Pursuing sound environmental management strategies can generate
substantial cost savings for the company;
• Participation in a certification programme can provide better access to
modern techniques, technology and know-how;
• Applying effective environmental management can help to protect the
environmental and cultural assets upon which the tourism industry depends for its
continued prosperity.

Finally, certification and eco-labels can of course benefit consumers by

providing them with more information and guidance for their decisions on travel
choices, as well as assurances for product and service quality.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Certification systems for sustainable tourism need to be developed and

operated to fit geographical, political, socio-economic and sectoral
characteristics of each country. For this reason, the following recommendations
serve as general orientation and they need to be adapted to the economic,
institutional, social and environmental conditions prevailing in each country.

1. Development of the certification system

Governments can play a key role in the initiation and development of

certification systems for sustainable tourism by creating the supportive legal and
institutional structures. The following general recommendations can be made:

1. Consider a national certification system as an integral part of sustainable

tourism development policies, strategies and objectives, and an effective tool to
implement them.
2. Identify key stakeholders and potential target groups relevant to and
interested in certification programmes.
3. Develop the certification system through multi-stakeholder consultation
processes, involving all relevant interest groups, such us different government
authorities (tourism, environment, transportation, finance, education, etc);
tourism trade associations and other private groups; academic, education and
research institutions; NGOs; consumer associations; etc. The development and
the operation of a successful certification program in many cases lays in the
 158

multi-stakeholder representation of the team awarding certificates and

supporting the program.
4. Coordinate an in-depth research on the conditions and feasibility of a
certification system, including aspects such as:
• Existing legal and voluntary instruments affecting the tourism sector (e.g.
laws, regulations, taxes, subsidies, local certification systems, codes of
conduct, environmental awards, etc.);
• Experience of certification systems applied in other sectors in the country,
like agriculture, forestry, and draw lessons from them for the tourism sector
• Certification criteria (see section 2 below);
• Operational mechanisms: application, verification, awarding, revision and
inspection procedures; consulting and technical assistance for participants,
marketing and communication; funding (see section 3 below).
5. Provide finance and/or seek partners for co-financing and providing technical
contributions for the research, development and operational costs of
certification programmes (e.g. different government departments, NGOs,
academic institutions, international finance and development agencies, private
foundations, etc).
6. Ensure transparency throughout all the stages of the development and
operation of the certification system and establish an appeals process.
7. Make clear to the private sector the benefits, costs and other implications of
certification systems.
8. Develop incentives to motivate and encourage tourism companies to
become certified, e.g. marketing incentives by giving priority in trade shows and
nationally sponsored publicity, or ensuring access to environmental
technologies, etc.
9. Consider issues affecting the sustainability of destinations as a whole, involving
all tourism product and service providers.
10. Pay special attention to equitable access to certification, especially by small
and medium size firms, as they can have more difficulties in meeting the costs
and technical requirements than bigger companies.
11. Conduct pilot projects for testing and demonstration of the certification
system.
12. Prepare the market for certification, in order to reach a good demand level
from tourism companies, and a critical mass at the initial phase to get the system
running.

2. Certification criteria

Developing certification criteria is a critical part of the certification system

development process. The following general recommendations need to be
considered:

1. Base criteria on existing legal standards and instruments and set them well
above legal compliance.
2. Include the precondition of compliance by the applicant with these
legislations.
 159

3. Address the three dimensions of sustainability: environmental, socio-cultural

and economic issues.
4. Define core criteria and supplementary criteria specific for different tourism
product and service groups (e.g. hotels and other accommodations,
transportation services, restaurants, tour operators and travel agents, attractions,
etc.). By this way consider the implications to destinations as a whole, and not
just certain tourism product and service groups.
5. In bigger countries, criteria can be adjusted to specific regional and local
environmental and socio-economic conditions.
6. For each criterion, define indicators that are measurable and easy to
understand by the different type of stakeholders involved in the certification
process.
7. Base criteria and indicators on scientific research that evaluates the key
environmental and socio-economic impacts of the sector.
8. Criteria should refer to attainable and realistic goals for private sector
participants.
9. Criteria can be set in different levels of requirements: from more easily
achievable to very demanding criteria. Thus, the certification system sets a
framework for continuous improvement whereby applicants can achieve higher
performance levels step by step.
10. Compliance with criteria can be measured through process and
performance-based assessments. Indicators are essential tools for measuring
environmental, social and economic impacts of tourism operations:
Environmental indicators can relate to the following factors, among others:
• Environmental impact assessment conducted for setting up the operation or
construction of establishments;
• Environmental management practices, company policies and technical
measures (e.g. energy, water saving and waste treatment devices,
environmental friendly transportation, etc.) in place;
• Land use and property issues in destinations;
• Health and safety;
• Use of natural resources: Energy (consumption, reduction, efficiency)
Water (consumption, reduction, quality) Solid and liquid waste (reduction,
reuse, recycling, treatment, disposal) Appropriate building materials
Hazardous substances (reduction, handling, use of nature friendly
cleaning products) Noise (reduction) Air quality (quality, improvement)
Habitat/eco-system/wildlife maintenance and enhancement;
• Environmental information/interpretation/education for customers;
• Transportation services (public transport, environmental friendly alternatives;
• Indicators and standards on the impacts at specific tourist use areas (e.g.
beaches) and on the impacts caused by specific tourism activities and
facilities (e.g. diving, golf, marinas etc.);
• Visual impacts of establishments and infrastructure; etc.
Social indicators can relate to the following factors, among others:
• Social impact assessment conducted for setting up the operation and the
establishments;
• Staff policies and management (information, education, training, incentives,
health, safety, etc.);
 160

• Relationships with local communities (local employees, outreach and

education programmes);
• Emphasis on, and conservation of local/regional culture, heritage and
authenticity;
• Maintaining aesthetics of physical development/architecture;
• Community feedback systems, satisfaction of local population;
• Contribution to community development purposes (infrastructure
improvement; social services, etc.);
• Information provided to guests on sustainability aspects;
• Guest feedback systems in place, customer satisfaction, etc.
Economic indicators can relate to the following factors, among others:
• Creation of local employment (number of employees from local communities
and their level of skills);
• Supply chain management through green and sustainable purchasing policies;
• Creation of networks of environmentally friendly businesses within a given
destination;
• Responsible marketing;
• Use of locally sourced and produced materials and food, etc.
In addition, certification criteria for eco-tourism should specifically address the
elements below, besides the general sustainability criteria:
• Financial and in-kind contributions to conservation of eco-tourism sites by
companies;
• Level of involvement of local communities and benefits accruing to them;
• Use of specialized guides and other interpretation techniques, information
provided to tourists through eco-tourism operations;
• Environmental education activities provided for tourists and local populations;
• Locally appropriate scale and design for lodging, infrastructure and tours;
• Minimal impact on and the appropriate presentation of local and indigenous
culture.
11. Indicators to measure the success of certification systems can address:
• The number of applications and certified companies (i.e. increase over time of
the number of companies registered in a certain certification system);
• The percentage of certified companies in the different tourism product and
service groups;
• Improvement in environmental and social performance in certified companies
(e.g. changes in water and energy consumption, resource savings, etc.);
• Environmental and social performance of certified companies as compared to
non-certified ones (e.g. a current estimate is that environmental performance
per certified accommodation enterprises can be taken as about 20 % better
than the average performance at accommodation facilities in Europe).
12. Consider the whole product life cycle when setting product environmental
criteria (from the manufacturing, transporting, through purchasing, consumption,
to recycling, disposal, etc.).
13. Undertake periodic revision and update of criteria (e.g. every 2-3 years).
 161

3. Operation of certification systems

The procedure is normally composed of the application, verification and

certification processes. The funding mechanism for the above services and
procedures is a crucial and critical element for the success of certification
systems. Normally there is a funding, verification and certification body
interacting in these processes. In many cases the funding and certification
bodies coincide. Fundamental components of any certification system are the
facilitation of consulting, advisory and technical assistance and marketing
services. The following general recommendations can be made in relation to
the operational processes:

3.1 Application:

1. The system should be open to all potential applicants.

2. Provide clear and easily accessible information on the criteria, costs and
benefits and other conditions of certification (e.g. through Internet, email,
telephone, information kit).
3. Offer immediate sources for consultation services.
4. Show tangible benefits for applicants (e.g costs savings, marketing
advantage, access to technical assistance and modern technology and
financial possibilities, etc.) and explain clearly the commitments and costs.
5. Application documents should be clear, easy to understand and fill in.
6. Conduct a pre-evaluation/assessment of the applicant in order to identify
technical and technological aspects that need to be improved to meet the
criteria. Provide assistance and financial incentives for these improvements.

3.2 Verification

7. Verification of compliance with criteria should be done by an independent or

third party organization. In other words by a body which is independent from the
parties being certified and of technical assessment or funding.
8. Verification is normally done through a combination of different activities:
review of application documents and references, self-assessment by the
operation through questionnaire, on-site visit, and fees to be paid by the
applicant.
9. Verification audits should be conducted by suitably trained auditors.
10. The verification process can be also used to give recommendations to the
applicants on how to improve their performance and achieve further progress.

3.3 Certification (awarding of certification)

The certification is basically the awarding of the certification to the applicant,

granting a permit for using the logo, marketing and other services of the system.

11. Certification bodies can be composed of representatives of the mayor

stakeholder groups participating in the development and operation of the
 162

system. Governments have a key role in certification bodies, by giving credibility

and recognition of the system.
12. As it was also mentioned among the recommendations for criteria
development, awarding of certification can be done at single-level or at multi-
level. The latter one occurs if criteria are set on different scales with a view to
ensure a framework of continuous improvement.
13. The certification, the use of a logo and related benefits should be granted for
a predetermined period, after which re-assessment and verification should be
conducted to ensure continuous compliance with the same or higher criteria.
14. Follow up control can be conducted after certification. For example, the
WTO study on voluntary initiatives demonstrated that more than 50% of the
certification systems currently operating undertake some control visits after
certification: 38% are announced, and 17% are surprise visits. Some eco-labels
either do phone checks, stimulating guests’ feedback or sending “mystery
guests” to the certified tourism service.
15. Procedures have to be in place for the cancellation and withdrawal of
certification and the use of the corresponding logo in case of non-compliance.
16. The certification system can also include consumer and local community
feedback mechanisms.

3.4 Consulting, advisory and technical assistance services

The facilitation of the following services represents important added value for
tourism companies and can be decisive factors for joining the certification
system.

17. Provide technical consultancy options from the initial expression of interest
and through the application phases onward, and give guidance to the
applicant at every stage of the process.
18. Facilitate technical assistance for applicants so that they can introduce
advanced management techniques and technology to meet the certification
criteria. Provide access to environmental technologies, equipments and
techniques by creating alliances with other organizations that can provide
assistance for this purpose.
19. Develop training and capacity building programmes in form of courses,
workshops, distance learning, etc.
20. Organize regular meetings for certified companies to promote the exchange
of experiences and the sense of group.
21. Constant assistance and advisory is especially important in certification
systems where the criteria and awarding are set on different scales.

3.5 Marketing and communication

Marketing is another fundamental element of certification programmes,

representing perhaps the biggest attraction and the most tangible benefits for
private companies. The following general recommendations can be made:
 163

22. Develop a precise marketing strategy for the certification system targeting
three groups in principle:
22.1 Potential candidates: aiming at attracting companies to join the
programme
22.2 Applicants and certified companies: providing marketing and promotional
support and market advantages for them
22.3 Consumers: reaching recognition of the certification programmes, fostering
responsible travel choices, and make effective the marketing advantage for
certified companies.
23. Develop a well-distinguished and unequivocal logo design for the system.
The logo can be accompanied by a motto, or slogan. Ensure legal protection of
the logo.
24. The presentation of the system in media and communication should reflect a
well recognized corporate image in the market for businesses and consumers as
well. The system can represent a sort of brand.
25. Use all available forms and channels to publicize and provide information on
the certification programme for companies and consumers (e.g. brochures,
flyers, guide books, printed and electronic media, Internet, conferences,
seminars, tourism and trade fairs, etc.)
26. Give good media coverage to the awarding ceremonies.
27. Provide marketing support and promotion for certified companies through
national tourist boards or national tourism marketing organizations, e.g.
presentation of these companies in national brochures, catalogues, listings,
websites, support for presence at national stands at tourism fairs and exhibition,
etc.
28. Give recommendations and examples to applicants and certified
companies on how to include the certificate in their own marketing activities.
29. Demonstrate the distinction on environmental performance, economic and
socio-cultural effects between certified and non-certified products/companies.
30. Communicate on a regular basis with certified members (e.g. through
periodic meetings and events, newsletters, emails, exclusive access to
information on Internet, etc.)
31. Provide clear and easily understandable information to consumers on the
characteristics and added value that certification represents.
32. Develop consumer awareness raising and education campaigns on the
certification system and certified products.
33. Involve consumer associations in these efforts

3.6 Fees and funding

Governments have a key role in providing funding themselves, and/or in

conceiving and developing alternative funding mechanisms with other partners
for the operation of the certification system.

34. Establish the right balance between financial contributions of the public and
private sectors.
 164

35. Ensure that the sources of funding do not create a conflict of interest, since
undue influence by funding organizations should be avoided in the certification
procedure.
36. Establish fees for participants to cover (at least part of) application and
verification
costs. Fees should be kept as low as possible in order to encourage participation.
37. Fees should be calculated proportionally to size of businesses (e.g. by number
of beds or visitors, turnover, etc.).
38. Provide incentive measures and support the application of companies,
especially of small and medium size enterprises that would otherwise be left out
(e.g. by soft loans and subsidies to make the necessary improvements to meet
the criteria).
39. Consider in-kind contributions by governments for the operation, e.g.
providing facilities, office space and equipment.

FINAL NOTE: Governments are encouraged to convey to the World Tourism

Organization their experience in connection with certification systems related to
sustainability in tourism. This will allow WTO to periodically revise these guidelines,
introduce any additional guidelines or modify those recommended above.

Madrid, March 2003

 165

APPENDIX F

Permission to Quote World Tourism Organization

Dear Mr. Billington,

Thank you for your communication of 28 February 2005.

This is to give you permission to use the WTO document Recommendations to

Governments for Supporting and / or Establishing National Certification Systems
for Sustainable Tourism in your Dissertation.
We inform you that it is required to quote the source.

Kind regards,

Mª Teresa Ortiz de Zárate

Sustainable Development of Tourism Department
======================================
World Tourism Organization
Capitan Haya, 42
28020 Madrid
Spain
Tel. (34) 915 678 100
Fax (34) 915 713 733
======================================

-----Mensaje original-----
De: [email protected] [mailto:[email protected]]
Enviado el: lunes, 28 de febrero de 2005 4:05
Para: [email protected]
Asunto: Requesting permission to quote
Dear WTO:

I am requesting permission to use the World Tourism Organization's Recommendations to

Governments for Supporting and / or Establishing National Certification Systems for Sustainable
Tourism in my Doctoral Dissertation about tourism educational curriculum.

Could you please inform me about how I may receive permission to use the document in my
Dissertation?

Sincerely,

Robert Billington
 166

APPENDIX G

Higher Education Institutions Offering Tourism Curricula

Question 3 analyzes higher education tourism curricula in the United States.

Three hundred twenty-one Associate, Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Doctorate

programs were analyzed. This appendix reports the higher education institutions

reviewed. Each program analyzed the following: institution name, name of the

program, URL address, city and state of the institution, number of tourism courses

offered in the curriculum and the number of tourism planning and development

courses offered. Curricula was also analyzed to determine their national,

international and industry certifications other than normal regional

accreditations.

Type of
College or Number of Tourism Program
WTO ACPHA CAHM
University City St Program Title Web Address Tourism Planning with
Cert Cert Cert
Name Courses Courses Total
Count

Adirondack Hospitality and

Queensbury NY Tourism Management
http://www.sunya 3 0 Master – 65
Community
College – AAS cc.edu/page210

Travel and Tourism - http://www.andov

Andover M Associate –
College
Lewiston
E
Travel and Tourism ercollege.com/tra 2 0
81
Concentration - AS vel.asp

Travel & Tourism - http://andovercoll

Andover M Bachelor’s-
College
Lewiston
E
Hospitality Operations ege.com/travel.as 1 0
154
Concentration - AS p

Recreation Tourism
Arizona State Concentration - Doctorate –
University
West Phoenix AZ
Tourism Management www.asu.edu 8 2
16
Emphasis - BS

http://www.asu.e
Recreation du/provost/articul
Arizona State Certificate –
University
West Phoenix AZ Management and ation/chksheets/0 4 1
3
Tourism – BS 4-05/04ckp-
tm.hm
 167

http://www.aib.ed
Distance
AIB College of
Des Moines IA
Travel and Tourism – u/academics/maj 2 0 Learning –
Business BS ors/business_maj 2
ors.htm
Bay State M Travel and Hospitality www.baystate.ed
Boston 0 0 Total – 321
College A Management - AS u

http://www.bealco
M Travel and Tourism –
Beal College Bangor
E AS llege.com/hospita 1 0
lity.htm

Hospitality http://www.berks
Berkshire
Pittsfield
M Administration - hirecc.edu/wm/pr 1 0
Community
A Travel and Tourism ograms/index.jsp
College
Concentration - AS
?program=asha

Bethune-
Cookman
Daytona
FL
Hospitality www.bethune.co 1 0
Beach Management - BS okman.edu
College

Business
Administration - http://www.bhsu.
Black Hills
State University
Spearfish SD Tourism and edu/businestechn 3 1
Hospitality ology
Management - BS

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http://www.bgsu.
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 168

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Bowling Green Bowling O Tourism Curriculum -
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Bowling Green Bowling O
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Fort
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Community
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Bunker Hill el Program - Travel mass.edu/AR/Pro
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 169

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California State
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http://www.csulb.
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Missouri State Warrensburg 7 1
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 170

http://www.centra
Central
Pennsylvania Summerdale PA
Travel & Tourism lpenn.edu/acade 4 0
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109-2

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Clemson SC Tourism Management 7 2
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 171

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 172

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Cornell Hotel Administration –
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CUNY - New
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Travel and Tourism -
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Dover DE
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 173

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Management - AAS c_programs/trave 3 0
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htm
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Historic edu/public/geo/H 3 0
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http://Hospitality.fi
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Travel and Tourism u.edu/bachelors_ 8 0
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University
htm

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Hospitality http://hospitality.fi
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http://hospitality.fi
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u.edu/masters_pr 9 1
International
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 174

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Florida National Travel and Tourism –

College
Hialeah FL
AS http://fnc.edu 1 0

http://www.cob.fs
Florida State
Tallahassee FL
Hospitality u.edu/undergrad/ 1 0
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 175

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http://www.gwu.e
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 176

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http://www.gvsu.e
Grand Valley Hospitality & Tourism
State University
Allendale MI
Management - BS/BA du/htm/program.c 3 0
fm

http://web1.hpu.e
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University
Honolulu HI
Management - BS/BA du/index.cfm?sec 1 0
tion=undergrad36

Business
Heald College Honolulu HI
Administration: http://www.heald. 2 0
Hospitality and edu
Tourism - AAS

http://www.indian
Indiana Tourism Management
University
Bloomington IN
– AS a.edu/~recpark/to 1 1
urism.html

Hospitality and
Indiana
Bloomington IN Tourism Management
http://www.indian 9 0
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Indiana
University Ft
Hospitality Tourism http://www.ipfw.e
Bloomington IN 3 0
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Wayne In

Hospitality and
Tourism Management http://www.jmu.e
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University
- Tourism & du/hospitality/cou 5 0
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Hospitality and
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University
- Special Events and du/hospitality/cou 5 0
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Concentration - AS

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 177

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Johnson VT
Hospitality & Tourism www.jsc.vsc.edu/ 8 0
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http://www.lagcc.
LaGuardia
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 178

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M http://www.lasell. 2 0
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Lincoln College Normal IL 0 0
AS

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City College
Long Beach CA Restaurant/Catering - u/Fall03Rev/FA0 0 0
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City College
Long Beach CA Tourism - (THRT) – u/Fall03Rev/FA0 2 0
AS 3_V.pdf
http://www.luzern
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Community Nanticoke PA
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http://lynn.accriso
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School of Travel, Tourism -
Grand C
Hospitality Industry
tate.edu/schools/ 2 0
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Junction O sbps/busadm/trav
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Studies el.htm
 179

Miami Dade Travel Industry

Miami FL 2 0
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Hospitality and
Miami Dade
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College
– AS

Parks Recreation and http://www.prr.ms

Michigan State Tourism - Community
University
East Lansing MI
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Parks Recreation and http://www.prr.ms

Michigan State Tourism - Commercial
Recreation & Tourism u.edu/Main/About
East Lansing MI 2 0
University
– BS US/History.cfm
Parks, Recreation and http://www.msu.e
Michigan State
East Lansing MI Tourism Resources - du/user/prtr/mspr 3 0
University
Track A - MS ogram.htm
Parks, Recreation and http://www.msu.e
Michigan State
East Lansing MI Tourism Resources - du/user/prtr/mspr 3 0
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Parks, Recreation and http://www.msu.e

Michigan State
East Lansing MI Tourism Resources – du/user/prtr/phdp 1 0
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PhD rogram.htm

http://www.prr.ms
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m

http://www.bus.m
Michigan State Hospitality Business –
University
East Lansing MI
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http://www.mhcc.
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 180

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 181

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 182

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 183

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 184

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 185

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 186

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 187

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 188

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 189

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 190

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 191

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Missouri- Columbia
O
Tourism - Travel and derground/prtcur. 2 1
Columbia Tourism - BS htm
 192

http://www.snr.mi
University of
Missouri- Columbia
M Parks Recreation & ssouri.edu/prt/gra 8 3
O Tourism - MS duate/options.ht
Columbia
m
University of Recreation http://ww.forestry.
Montana - Management, umt.edu/academi
College of Missoula MT Recreation Resources cs/undergrad/rec 2 1
Forestry and Management Option – mgmt/recman.ht
Conservation BS
m

University of http://www.forestr
Recreation y.umt.edu/acade
Montana -
Management, Nature
College of Missoula MT
Based Tourism mics/undergrad/r 3 1
Forestry and ecmgmt/nature.ht
Option - BS
Conservation
m
Hotel Administration -
Tourism and http://www.unlv.e
University of
Convention
Nevada Las Las Vegas NV
Administration du/tourism/tour.ht 4 1
Vegas ml
Department - Tourism
Administration - BS

http://www.newha
University of Hotel and Restaurant
New Haven
West Haven CT
Management - AS ven.edu/tourism/ 4 0
hotel.html

http://www.newha
University of Hotel and Restaurant
New Haven
West Haven CT
Management - BS ven.edu/tourism/ 7 0
hotel.html

Hotel and Restaurant http://www.newha

University of Management -
New Haven
West Haven CT
Tourism ven.edu/tourism/ 10 0
Concentration - BS hotel.html

http://www.newha
University of Hospitality and
New Haven
West Haven CT
Tourism - MS ven.edu/tourism/ 1 0
graduate.html

University of
New
Tourism Planning and www.dred.unh.ed
Durham NH 7 3
Development - BS u
Hampshire

University of
New Mexico - Organizational http://traveltouris
Robert O. N Management - Travel
Anderson
Albuquerque
M and Tourism Track – m.mgt.unm.edu/b 2 0
Schools of BBA bacurriculum.asp
Management

University of
New Mexico - Organizational http://traveltouris
Robert O. N Management -
Anderson
Albuquerque
M Tourism Management m.mgt.unm.edu/b 3 0
Schools of Track - BBA bacurriculum.asp
Management
 193

Hotel, Restaurant &

University of http://www.uno.e
New Orleans LA Tourism 7 1
New Orleans du/~hrt/circ2.htm
Administration - BS

Hospitality and http://www.uno.e

University of
New Orleans
New Orleans LA Tourism Management du/~hrt/masters1. 12 1
– MS htm

http://www.uncg.
University of Recreation, Parks &
edu/reg/Catalog/c
North Carolina Greensboro NC Tourism Management 10 2
at Greensboro - Major - BS urrent/RPT/minor
RPT.html

http://www.uncg,
University of Recreation, Parks &
North Carolina Greensboro NC Tourism Management
edu/reg/Cataog/c 11 2
at Greensboro - Minor - BS urent/RPT/minor
RPT.html

University of Recreation, Parks &

http://www.uncg.
North Carolina Greensboro NC Tourism Management 8 0
at Greensboro – MS edu

http://www.unoh.
University of edu/academics/c
O Travel and Hospitality
Northwestern Lima
H Management - BA ollegebusiness/d 2 0
Ohio egrees/index.php
?curriculum=16

http://www.unoh.
University of edu/academics/c
O Travel and Hospitality
Northwestern Lima
H – AS ollegebusiness/d 2 0
Ohio egrees/index.php
?curriculum=25

University of
North Texas - http://www.smhm
Hospitality
School of
Denton TX Management HMGT –
.unt.edu/schools/ 1 0
Merchandising hospitality/underg
BS
and Hospitality
Management
raduate.html

Hotel, Restaurant and http://www.sc.edu

University of
South Carolina
Columbia SC Tourism Management /bulletin/grad/Ghr 2 0 ACPHA
– MS sm.html

Hotel, Restaurant, http://www.sc.edu

University of
South Carolina
Columbia SC and Tourism /bulletin/ugrad/hr 2 0 ACPHA
Management - BS smhrtm.html

http://csm.utk.edu
University of Hotel, Restaurant and
Tourism - Thesis - MS /grad/hrdefault.ht
Knoxville TN 2 1
Tennessee
ml
Hotel, Restaurant and http://diglib.lib.utk
University of
Knoxville TN Tourism - Non- thesis- .edu/dlc/catalog/i 3 1
Tennessee
MS mages/g/2003/gfi
 194

elds

University of Hotel and Tourism

Tennessee
Knoxville TN
Management - BS www.utk.edu 1 0

Hotel and Tourism

University of
Tennessee
Knoxville TN Management - Minor www.utk.edu 1 1
– BS

University of Hotel and Restaurant

Knoxville TN 1 0
Tennessee Management - BA/BS

Hotel and Restaurant

University of
Knoxville TN Management - BA/BS 1 0
Tennessee
– Minor

http://tourism.uts
University of
San Antonio TX
Tourism Management a.edu/degrees/ap 5 0
Texas at San
– BA pliedartsscitouris
Antonio
m.html

http://tourism.uts
University of Marketing with a
San Antonio TX Tourism
a.edu/degrees/bi 7 0
Texas at San
Antonio Concentration - BBA zadminmktgtouris
m.html

Parks, Recreation, http://www.health

University of and Tourism - Leisure
Utah
Salt Lake City UT
Services .utah.edu/prt/nr.ht 5 0
Management - BS ml

Parks, Recreation, http://www.health

University of
Utah
Salt Lake City UT and Tourism Core – .utah.edu/prt/grad 4 1
MS uate.html

Parks, Recreation, http://www.utah.e

University of
Utah
Salt Lake City UT and Tourism - du/graduate_sch 1 1
Research Core - MS ool/forms.html

Parks, Recreation, http://www.utah.e

University of and Tourism -
Utah
Salt Lake City UT
Professional Option du/graduate_sch 3 0
Curriculum - MS ool/forms.html

University of Parks Recreation, and http://www.health

Salt Lake City UT 5 0
Utah Tourism - PhD/Ed.D .utah.edu

University of www.uwstout.edu
Hospitality and
Wisconsin – Menomonie WI
Tourism - MS /grbulletin/gb_ht. 9 0
Stout html
 195

University of Hospitality & Tourism

Wisconsin – Menomonie WI - Administration www.uwstout.edu 2 0
Stout Concentration - MS

Hospitality & Tourism

University of
- Administration
Wisconsin – Menomonie WI
Concentration Online www.uwstout.edu 3 0
Stout
– MS

University of
Wisconsin – Menomonie WI Tourism - Minor - BS www.uwstout.edu 5 1
Stout

Professional
Development
Certificates -
Administration
Concentration - http://www.uwsto
University of
Menomonie WI
Degree in Hospitality ut.edu/programs/ 2 0
Wisconsin –
and Tourism - msht/adm/cert.ph
Stout
Foundation in
p
Hospitality and
Tourism Professional
Development
Certificate - MS

University of Hotel, Restaurant and

Menomonie WI Tourism Management
http://www.uwsto 2 0
Wisconsin –
Stout – BS ut.edu

Hospitality, Tourism &

University of
Menomonie WI
Service http://www.uwsto 7 1
Wisconsin –
Concentrations: - ut.edu
Stout
Campus - MS

Virginia
Polytechnic
Hospitality and
Institute -
Pamplin
Blacksburg VA Tourism Management ? 2 0
– BS
College of
Business

Hospitality and www.vt.edu/acad

Virginia Tech Blacksburg VA Tourism Management emics/ugcat/ucd 2 0
– BS HTM.html

Hospitality and http://www.cob.vt.

Virginia Tech Blacksburg VA Tourism Management edu/htm/GP/grad 2 0
–MS handbook.html
 196

Hospitality and http://www.cob.vt.

Virginia Tech Blacksburg VA Tourism Management edu/htm/GP/grad 1 0
– PhD handbook.html

Webber http://www.webbe
International Tourism
International Babson Park FL
Management - AS r.edu/academics/i 3 0
University nternational.html

Webber
International Tourism
International Babson Park FL
Management - BS www.webber.edu 7 1
University

West Virginia
University - The http://www.caf.wv
Davis College Recreation Parks and
of Agriculture, Morganstown
W
Tourism Resources –
u.edu/college/maj 4 2
V ors/undergrad/rcp
Forestry, and BS
Consumer k.html
Sciences

West Virginia
University - The
Davis College Recreation Parks and http://www.caf.wv
W
of Agriculture, Morganstown
V
Tourism Resources – u.edu/majors/gra 2 1
Forestry, and MS d/MSRPTR.htm
Consumer
Sciences

Recreation, Park & http://www.wiu.ed

Western Illinois
University
Macomb IL Tourism u/grad/catalog/rpt 4 2
Administration - MS a.shtml

Recreation, Park & http://www.wiu.ed

Western Illinois
University
Macomb IL Tourism u/catalog/progra 4 1
Administration - BS ms/rpta.shtml

Western Hotel, Restaurant,

Bowling
KY and Tourism
http://www.wku.e 1 1
Kentucky
Green du/hospitality
University Management - BS

http://www.widen
Widener Tourism Leisure
University
Chester PA
Services – BS er.edu/?pageId+1 1 0
946

Widener Hospitality http://www.widener.ed

Chester PA 1 0
University Management - BS u/?pageId+1928
 197

Widener Hospitality
Chester PA Widener.edu 2 1
University Management - MS

CAHM - The Commission for Accreditation of Hospitality

ACPHA – The Accreditation Commission for Programs in Hospitality Administration

WTO – World Tourism Organization

 198

APPENDIX H

Introductory Letter

Robert Billington
1571 Mendon Road, Cumberland, Rhode Island, 02864 USA
401 724 2200 [email protected] FAX 401 724 1342

February/March/April 2004

Dear:

As a Doctoral student at Johnson & Wales University, in Providence, RI

and President of the Blackstone Valley Tourism Council, I am undertaking a study
for our industry and requesting your help. The attached questionnaire titled: An
Analysis of Tourism Professional Competencies and the Relationship to U.S. Higher
Education Curricula, attempts to determine what competencies tourism officials,
in planning and development, need to carry out their responsibilities effectively.

Over 350 tourism professionals across the United States have been
selected for their opinions. They have been identified as CEO’s and from their
membership in industry organizations. This confidential research is aimed at
obtaining your responses because your experience will contribute toward
understanding the future higher educational needs of the tourism industry. The
average time to complete the questionnaire is 15 minutes.

To participate please complete the enclosed Informed Consent

Procedure Form. Return it, and the signed Questionnaire within 5 days. If you do
not wish to sign the Questionnaire, please return it regardless. This will guarantee
anonymity of your responses. By returning the enclosed post card separately, we
will know that you did respond. This way your completed Questionnaire and
name will not be connected in any way.

Comments concerning any aspect of the tourism industry, not covered in

the questionnaire, are welcome. Data collected will be used only in the
aggregate form. It will only be shared with those that have a need-to-know for
the purposes of this research. Data will be destroyed after the research project is
completed and a final report published.

Thank you for completing the Questionnaire and the Informed Consent
form. Kindly return them in the enclosed return envelope. For your effort and
expertise I have enclosed a special gift.

Sincerely,

Robert Billington
 199

APPENDIX I

Informed Consent Form

Analysis of Tourism Professional Competencies and the relationship to U.S. Higher

Education Curricula

Introduction
You are being asked to take part in the tourism research project described
below. If you have additional questions, contact Robert D. Billington, the principal
investigator at 1 800 454 2882 or [email protected].

Description
Destinations realize the importance of managing their resources to benefit visitors
and residents. As the tourism industry continues to grow, communities need educated
professionals to implement tourism planning and development programs. This study
seeks your opinion to determine what competencies you, as an industry professional,
think are important in the field of tourism.

Benefits of Study
The benefits of the study will: (a) identify the competencies necessary for
leadership in the field of tourism planning and development as described by community
tourism experts, (b) understand the manner by which these competencies are obtained
and, (c) identify and compare existing higher education Tourism Planning and
Development programs offered in the United States.

Confidentiality
The information that you provide will not be personally identified with you, either
by name or title. The data will be stored in a locked file and be available only to the
researcher. After the research is concluded, the data will be destroyed. You may
choose not to sign the questionnaire or this form, but please return the enclosed
separate postcard. This will keep your responses confidential and allow us to know who
did respond.

Voluntary Participation
The decision to participate in this study is voluntary. If you do not decide to
participate, simply do not respond or inform Robert Billington of your decision. If you are
not satisfied with the way in which this study was conducted, you may convey your
concerns to the Johnson & Wales University Institutional Review Board, which can be
contacted at 401 598 1803.

I have read the consent form. My questions have been answered. My signature
below indicates that I understand the information and that I consent to participate in this
Study.

___________________________________ ____________________________________
First Name - Last Name Date Robert Billington Date
 200

APPENDIX J

Anonymity Post Card

Please return this post card only if you have chosen

to reply to the survey anonymously. We would like

to keep a record that you responded while maintaining

confidentiality in your answers.

 201

APPENDIX K

Request to Content Validity Experts

Robert Billington
1571 Mendon Road
Cumberland, Rhode Island, 02864
401 724 2200 [email protected] FAX 401 724 1342

February 2004

Dear:

Attached is a pilot questionnaire titled: An Analysis of Tourism Professional

Competencies and the Relationship to U.S. Higher Education Curricula. I am
asking for your help in reviewing this questionnaire.

The questionnaire is designed to determine the competencies necessary

for U.S. tourism professionals, employed in planning and development, to excel in
his or her position. The professionals questioned will be members of the National
Tour Association, the American Bus Association, the Alliance of National Heritage
Areas or the International Association of Convention and Visitors Bureaus.

You are being asked to critique the questionnaire, and attached

documents, so that I may take your comments into consideration as I prepare
the final questionnaire for mailing to 375 professionals. Those questioned are
CEO’s of their respective organizations.

Your sincere comments are necessary for me to proceed. Could you

find time to complete the survey and return it in the enclosed envelope? If you
would rather I do not attribute your comments to you, but do wish to complete
the survey, please return it completed, do not sign it, but send the enclosed post
card separately so I may count you as a respondent.

Thank you for you time in helping with this important study.

Sincerely,

Robert Billington
 202

APPENDIX L

Reminder Post Card

Dear Friend:

Ten days ago I sent along an important request to help me with a questionnaire
regarding tourism issues.

Could you please find the time to complete it and return it in the postage paid
envelope?

Sincerely,

Robert Billington
 203

APPENDIX M

Competency Rankings

Table I identified the competencies considered in the questionnaire and how

they ranked in importance according to the responding (N=104) tourism

professionals.

Table 1. Competency Rankings:

______________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________
Rank Competency M SE Category

1 Economic impact of tourism 4.77 5.51E-02 Tourism Specific

2 Leadership 4.74 4.93E-02 General
3 Public relations 4.73 0.055347 Business
4 Product knowledge 4.61 6.69E-02 Tourism Specific
5 Basic computer 4.59 6.54E-02 Information Technology
6 Decision making 4.57 6.51E-02 General
7 Financial management 4.52 0.06 Business
8 Cultural & heritage tourism 4.49 7.34E-02 Tourism Specific
9 General business knowledge 4.48 5.63E-02 Business
10 Sustainable tourism 4.47 7.72E-02 Tourism Specific
11 Tourism development 4.46 7.59E-02 Tourism Specific
12 Inter-governmental relations 4.45 7.21E-02 Business
13 Community involvement 4.43 8.49E-02 Tourism Specific
14 Philosophy and ethics 4.42 6.51E-02 General
15 Community outreach 4.42 7.93E-02 General
16 Strategic management 4.42 7.03E-02 Business
Understanding community
17 needs and wants 4.40 9.17E-02 Specialized Areas
18 Advertising 4.37 0.09 Business
19 Tourism economics 4.35 7.91E-02 Tourism Specific
20 Business management 4.35 6.54E-02 Business
21 General tourism operations 4.31 0.06 Tourism Specific
22 Structure of the Industry 4.30 8.10E-02 Tourism Specific
23 Media database 4.28 9.38E-02 Information Technology
24 Web research skills 4.25 9.04E-02 Information Technology
25 Community database 4.15 9.41E-02 Information Technology
26 Research skills 4.13 8.17E-02 General
27 Development policies 4.12 0.07 Tourism Specific
28 Environmental impacts 4.09 9.28E-02 Tourism Specific
29 Visitor safety issues 4.06 9.36E-02 Tourism Specific
30 Education 4.02 9.90E-02 Tourism Specific
31 Community engagement 4.01 9.55E-02 Specialized Areas
32 Estimation and forecasting 4.01 8.85E-02 Business
 204

33 Social responsibilities 4.00 8.10E-02 General

34 Entrepreneurship 4 0.09 Business
35 Non-profit management 3.96 0.10 Business
36 Eco-tourism 3.91 9.91E-02 Tourism Specific
37 Principles of planning + design 3.91 9.55E-02 Tourism Specific
38 Resource management 3.87 9.82E-02 Tourism Specific
39 Tourism facility planning 3.81 0.10 Tourism Specific
40 Crisis management 3.80 0.10 Tourism Specific
41 Economics 3.79 0.10 Business
42 Transportation planning 3.77 0.10 Tourism Specific
43 Historic preservation 3.75 0.10 Specialized Areas
44 Fund development 3.72 0.10 Specialized Areas
45 Interpretive skills 3.69 0.12 Specialized Areas
46 Cultural resource protection 3.69 0.10 Specialized Areas
47 Inter-agency regulations 3.68 0.12 Specialized Areas
48 Interpretation of resources 3.62 0.11 Specialized Areas
49 Risk management 3.62 0.11 Business
50 Tourism law 3.53 0.10 General
51 Attraction management 3.51 0.10 Specialized Areas
52 Property development 3.50 0.10 Tourism Specific
53 Community planning 3.47 0.11 Specialized Areas
54 Computer mapping 3.41 0.11 Information Technology
55 International relations 3.41 0.11 General
56 Grant writing 3.39 0.11 General
57 River/coastal management 3.34 0.12 Tourism Specific
58 Ecological principles 3.31 0.11 Specialized Areas
59 Land use regulations 3.19 0.11 Specialized Areas
60 Recreation area management 3.18 0.11 Specialized Areas
61 Environmental integration 3.18 0.12 Specialized Areas
62 Labor relations 3.12 0.16 Business
63 Countryside management 3.08 0.11 Specialized Areas
64 Understanding design plans 2.84 0.11 Specialized Areas
65 Indigenous languages 2.77 0.12 Language
66 Architectural design 2.70 0.11 Specialized Areas
67 Foreign languages 2.63 0.10 Language
68 Building design principles 2.5 0.10 Specialized Areas
69 Landscape design 2.27 9.77E-02 Specialized Areas
70 Engineering 2.15 0.10 Specialized Areas
 205

College/University Competency Rankings Compared to Tourism

Professionals’ Competency Rankings

Table 2 compares competencies addressed through Bachelor’s and

Master’s degree programs (N=160) in tourism with competencies identified as

important in the tourism planning and development profession. The

college/university rankings represent the total number of courses through which

the competency was addressed in the160 programs offered at institutions of

higher education in the United States. The tourism professionals’ rankings

represent data gathered from 104 respondents.

Table 2. 160 Bachelor’s and Master’s Programs Jointly Analyzed:

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
College/University Rankings Tourism Professional Rankings
________________________________________________________________________
Rank Competency # out of 160* Rank Competency M SE
1 Advertising/Sales/Marketing 94 1 Economic impact of tourism 4.78 5.51E-02
2 Tourism Plan and Development 81 2 Leadership 4.74 4.93E-02
3 Research 64 3 Public relations 4.74 0.05
4 Financial Management 63 4 Product knowledge 4.62 6.69E-02
5 Business Management 56 5 Basic computer 4.59 6.54E-02
6 Principles of Planning and Design 47 6 Decision making 4.58 6.51E-02
7 Tourism Law 44 7 Financial management 4.53 0.06
8 International Relations 40 8 Cultural & heritage tourism 4.49 7.34E-02
9 Structure of the Industry 38 9 General business knowledge 4.48 5.63E-02
10 Strategic Management 36 10 Sustainable tourism 4.47 7.72E-02
10 Economic Impact of Tourism 36 11 Tourism development 4.46 7.59E-02
12 Tourism Economics 34 12 Inter-governmental relations 4.45 7.21E-02
13 Tourism Facility Planning 33 13 Community involvement 4.44 8.49E-02
13 Recreation Area Management 33 14 Philosophy and ethics 4.42 6.51E-02
15 Philosophy/Psychology/Ethics 32 15 Community outreach 4.42 7.93E-02
15 Eco-tourism 32 16 Strategic management 4.42 7.03E-02
17 Resource Management 31 17 Understand. Comm. Needs/ Wants 4.4 9.17E-02
18 Development Policies 29 18 Advertising 4.38 0.09
19 Sustainable Tourism 28 19 Tourism economics 4.36 7.91E-02
20 Leadership 26 20 Business management 4.36 6.54E-02
20 General Tourism Operations 26 21 General tourism operations 4.31 0.06
22 Cultural & Heritage Tourism 24 22 Structure of the Industry 4.3 8.10E-02
23 Economics 21 23 Media database 4.29 9.38E-02
 206

24 Basic Computer 20 24 Web research skills 4.25 9.04E-02

24 Ecological Principles 20 25 Community database 4.16 9.41E-02
26 Web Research Skills 19 26 Research skills 4.14 8.17E-02
26 Public Relations 19 27 Development policies 4.13 0.07
26 Environmental Integration 19 28 Environmental impacts 4.1 9.28E-02
29 Labor Relations 17 29 Visitor safety issues 4.07 9.36E-02
30 Environmental Impacts 16 30 Education 4.02 9.90E-02
30 Attraction Management 16 31 Community engagement 4.02 9.55E-02
32 Social Responsibilities 15 32 Estimation and forecasting 4.02 8.85E-02
33 Product Knowledge 14 33 Social responsibilities 4.01 8.10E-02
33 Cultural Resource Protection 14 34 Entrepreneurship 4 0.09
35 Understand. Comm. Needs/Wants 13 35 Non-profit management 3.96 0.10
36 Estimation and Forecasting 12 36 Eco-tourism 3.92 9.91E-02
37 General Business Knowledge 10 37 Principles of planning and design 3.91 9.55E-02
37 Risk Management 10 38 Resource management 3.87 9.82E-02
37 Transportation Planning 10 39 Tourism facility planning 3.81 0.10
37 Property Development 10 40 Crisis management 3.8 0.10
37 Community Planning 10 41 Economics 3.79 0.10
37 Interpretive Skills 10 42 Transportation planning 3.77 0.10
37 Historic Preservation 10 43 Historic preservation 3.76 0.10
44 Interpretation of Resources 8 44 Fund development 3.73 0.10
44 Inter-Agency Regulations 8 45 Interpretive skills 3.7 0.12
46 Non-profit Management 7 46 Cultural resource protection 3.7 0.10
46 Community Involvement 7 47 Inter-agency regulations 3.69 0.12
48 Community Outreach 6 48 Interpretation of resources 3.62 0.11
48 Intergovernmental Relations 6 49 Risk management 3.62 0.11
48 Entrepreneurship 6 50 Tourism law 3.53 0.10
48 Landscape Design 6 51 Attraction management 3.51 0.10
52 Media Database 5 52 Property development 3.5 0.10
53 Decision Making 4 53 Community planning 3.47 0.11
53 River/Coastal Management 4 54 Computer mapping 3.42 0.11
53 Community Engagement 4 55 International relations 3.41 0.11
56 Foreign Languages 3 56 Grant writing 3.39 0.11
56 Understanding Design Plans 3 57 River/coastal management 3.35 0.12
56 Land Use Regulations 3 58 Ecological principles 3.31 0.11
59 Visitor Safety Issues 2 59 Land use regulations 3.2 0.11
59 Architectural Design 2 60 Recreation area management 3.18 0.11
59 Building Design Principles 2 61 Environmental integration 3.18 0.12
59 Countryside Management 2 62 Labor relations 3.12 0.16
63 Computer Mapping 1 63 Countryside management 3.09 0.11
63 Community Database 1 64 Understanding design plans 2.85 0.11
63 Education 1 65 Indigenous languages 2.77 0.12
63 Fund Development 1 66 Architectural design 2.71 0.11
67 Engineering 0 67 Foreign languages 2.64 0.10
67 Indigenous Languages 0 68 Building design principles 2.5 0.10
67 Crisis Management 0 69 Landscape design 2.27 9.77E-02
Grant Writing 0 70 Engineering 2.16 0.10
 207

67

“# Out of 160” indicates the total number of courses through which the competency was
addressed in the160 programs offered at institutions of higher education in the United
States.
________________________________________________________________________
 208

Table 3 illustrates ranking that tourism professionals indicated were important.

It indicates the Mean and the nearest rank that is significantly different from

each competency. The Economic Impact of Tourism ranked as the number one

competency reported important by tourism professionals. Its Mean is significantly

different from all competencies ranked at or below Philosophy and Ethics or the

14th ranking. The Mean for Leadership ranked as the second competency

reported important to tourism professionals. Its Mean is significantly different from

all competencies ranked at or below Tourism Economics, which ranked 19th.

Table 3. Competencies With Nearest Ranking Significant Difference

______________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
Rank Competency M is significantly different *
______________________________________________________________________________

1 Economic impact of tourism 4.77 14

2 Leadership 4.74 19
3 Public relations 4.73 19
4 Product knowledge 4.61 24
5 Basic computer 4.59 25
6 Decision making 4.57 25
7 Financial management 4.52 25
8 Cultural & heritage tourism 4.49 26
9 General business knowledge 4.48 27
10 Sustainable tourism 4.47 28
11 Tourism development 4.46 28
12 Inter-governmental relations 4.45 28
13 Community involvement 4.43 29
14 Philosophy and ethics 4.42 29
15 Community outreach 4.42 29
16 Strategic management 4.42 29
17 Understanding community needs and wants 4.40 31
18 Advertising 4.37 33
19 Tourism economics 4.35 34
20 Business management 4.35 33
21 General tourism operations 4.31 35
22 Structure of the Industry 4.30 36
23 Media database 4.28 36
24 Web research skills 4.25 38
25 Community database 4.15 42
 209

26 Research skills 4.13 42

27 Development policies 4.12 42
28 Environmental impacts 4.09 44
29 Visitor safety issues 4.06 46
30 Education 4.02 48
31 Community engagement 4.01 48
32 Estimation and forecasting 4.01 48
33 Social responsibilities 4.00 48
34 Entrepreneurship 4 48
35 Non-profit management 3.96 50
36 Eco-tourism 3.91 50
37 Principles of planning and design 3.91 50
38 Resource management 3.87 51
39 Tourism facility planning 3.81 54
40 Crisis management 3.80 54
41 Economics 3.79 54
42 Transportation planning 3.77 54
43 Historic preservation 3.75 55
44 Fund development 3.72 57
45 Interpretive skills 3.69 57
46 Cultural resource protection 3.69 57
47 Inter-agency regulations 3.68 58
48 Interpretation of resources 3.62 59
49 Risk management 3.62 59
50 Tourism law 3.53 60
51 Attraction management 3.51 63
52 Property development 3.50 63
53 Community planning 3.47 63
54 Computer mapping 3.41 64
55 International relations 3.41 64
56 Grant writing 3.39 64
57 River/coastal management 3.34 64
58 Ecological principles 3.31 64
59 Land use regulations 3.19 64
60 Recreation area management 3.18 65
61 Environmental integration 3.18 65
62 Labor relations 3.12 67
63 Countryside management 3.08 66
64 Understanding design plans 2.84 68
65 Indigenous languages 2.77 69
66 Architectural design 2.70 69
67 Foreign languages 2.63 69
68 Building design principles 2.5 None
69 Landscape design 2.27 None
70 Engineering 2.15 None
 210

Table 4 compared and ranked the graduate programs and how they relate

to what tourism professionals reported as important competencies.

Table 4. Graduate Degrees Analyzed - Based on 51 Master’s Programs

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
Program Rankings Tourism Professional Rankings
________________________________________________________________________
Rank Competency # out of 51* Rank Competency M Rating SE
1 Research 36 1 Economic impact of tourism 4.78 5.51E-02
2 Tourism Plan and Development 26 2 Leadership 4.74 4.93E-02
3 Advertising/Sales/Marketing 21 3 Public relations 4.74 0.05
4 Financial Management 20 4 Product knowledge 4.62 6.69E-02
5 Principles of Planning and Design 19 5 Basic computer 4.59 6.54E-02
6 International Relations 16 6 Decision making 4.58 6.51E-02
7 Strategic Management 15 7 Financial management 4.53 0.06
7 Development Policies 15 8 Cultural & heritage tourism 4.49 7.34E-02
9 Business Management 12 9 General business knowledge 4.48 5.63E-02
9 Tourism Economics 12 10 Sustainable tourism 4.47 7.72E-02
9 Recreation Area Management 12 11 Tourism development 4.46 7.59E-02
12 Web Research Skills 11 12 Inter-governmental relations 4.45 7.21E-02
12 Tourism Facility Planning 11 13 Community involvement 4.44 8.49E-02
14 Economic Impact of Tourism 10 14 Philosophy and ethics 4.42 6.51E-02
14 Resource Management 10 15 Community outreach 4.42 7.93E-02
14 General Tourism Operations 10 16 Strategic management 4.42 7.03E-02
17 Philosophy/Psychology/Ethics 9 17 Understand. Comm. Needs/ Wants 4.4 9.17E-02
17 Eco-tourism 9 18 Advertising 4.38 0.09
17 Ecological Principles 9 19 Tourism economics 4.36 7.91E-02
17 Environmental Integration 9 20 Business management 4.36 6.54E-02
21 Tourism Law 8 21 General tourism operations 4.31 0.06
21 Cultural & Heritage Tourism 8 22 Structure of the Industry 4.3 8.10E-02
21 Understand. Comm. Needs/Wants 8 23 Media database 4.29 9.38E-02
24 Economics 7 24 Web research skills 4.25 9.04E-02
24 Sustainable Tourism 7 25 Community database 4.16 9.41E-02
26 Leadership 6 26 Research skills 4.14 8.17E-02
26 Public Relations 6 27 Development policies 4.13 0.07
26 Environmental Impacts 6 28 Environmental impacts 4.1 9.28E-02
26 Community Planning 6 29 Visitor safety issues 4.07 9.36E-02
26 Inter-Agency Regulations 6 30 Education 4.02 9.90E-02
31 Basic Computer 5 31 Community engagement 4.02 9.55E-02
31 Risk Management 5 32 Estimation and forecasting 4.02 8.85E-02
31 Structure of the Industry 5 33 Social responsibilities 4.01 8.10E-02
31 Cultural Resource Protection 5 34 Entrepreneurship 4 0.09
35 General Business Knowledge 4 35 Non-profit management 3.96 0.10
35 Intergovernmental Relations 4 36 Eco-tourism 3.92 9.91E-02
35 Product Knowledge 4 37 Principles of planning and design 3.91 9.55E-02
35 Property Development 4 38 Resource management 3.87 9.82E-02
35 Interpretive Skills 4 39 Tourism facility planning 3.81 0.10
 211

35 Attraction Management 4 40 Crisis management 3.8 0.10

35 Community Engagement 4 41 Economics 3.79 0.10
42 Social Responsibilities 3 42 Transportation planning 3.77 0.10
42 Estimation and Forecasting 3 43 Historic preservation 3.76 0.10
42 Labor Relations 3 44 Fund development 3.73 0.10
42 Transportation Planning 3 45 Interpretive skills 3.7 0.12
42 Community Involvement 3 46 Cultural resource protection 3.7 0.10
42 Historic Preservation 3 47 Inter-agency regulations 3.69 0.12
42 Interpretation of Resources 3 48 Interpretation of resources 3.62 0.11
49 Community Outreach 2 49 Risk management 3.62 0.11
49 Decision Making 2 50 Tourism law 3.53 0.10
49 Media Database 2 51 Attraction management 3.51 0.10
49 Entrepreneurship 2 52 Property development 3.5 0.10
49 Non-profit Management 2 53 Community planning 3.47 0.11
49 Visitor Safety Issues 2 54 Computer mapping 3.42 0.11
49 River/Coastal Management 2 55 International relations 3.41 0.11
49 Landscape Design 2 56 Grant writing 3.39 0.11
49 Architectural Design 2 57 River/coastal management 3.35 0.12
49 Understanding Design Plans 2 58 Ecological principles 3.31 0.11
59 Community Database 1 59 Land use regulations 3.2 0.11
59 Education 1 60 Recreation area management 3.18 0.11
59 Countryside Management 1 61 Environmental integration 3.18 0.12
62 Engineering 0 62 Labor relations 3.12 0.16
62 Grant Writing 0 63 Countryside management 3.09 0.11
62 Foreign Languages 0 64 Understanding design plans 2.85 0.11
62 Indigenous Languages 0 65 Indigenous languages 2.77 0.12
62 Computer Mapping 0 66 Architectural design 2.71 0.11
62 Crisis Management 0 67 Foreign languages 2.64 0.10
62 Fund Development 0 68 Building design principles 2.5 0.10
62 Building Design Principles 0 69 Landscape design 2.27 9.77E-02
62 Land Use Regulations 0 70 Engineering 2.16 0.10

“#out of 51” indicates the number of courses where the competency was addressed in
the 51 graduate programs offered at higher education institutions in the United States.
 212

Table 5 compared and ranked the undergraduate programs and how they

relate to what tourism professionals reported as important competencies.

Table 5. Undergrad Degrees Analyzed - Based on 109 Bachelor’s Programs

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Program Rankings Tourism Professional Rankings

________________________________________________________________________
Rank Competency # out of 109* Rank Competency M Rating SE

1 Advertising/Sales/Marketing 73 1 Economic impact of tourism 4.78 5.51E-02

Tourism Planning and
2 Development 55 2 Leadership 4.74 4.93E-02
3 Business Management 44 3 Public relations 4.74 0.05
4 Financial Management 43 4 Product knowledge 4.62 6.69E-02
5 Tourism Law 36 5 Basic computer 4.59 6.54E-02
6 Structure of the Industry 33 6 Decision making 4.58 6.51E-02
7 Research 28 7 Financial management 4.53 0.06
7 Principles of Planning and Design 28 8 Cultural & heritage tourism 4.49 7.34E-02
9 Economic Impact of Tourism 26 9 General business knowledge 4.48 5.63E-02
10 International Relations 24 10 Sustainable tourism 4.47 7.72E-02
11 Philosophy/Psychology/Ethics 23 11 Tourism development 4.46 7.59E-02
11 Eco-tourism 23 12 Inter-governmental relations 4.45 7.21E-02
13 Tourism Facility Planning 22 13 Community involvement 4.44 8.49E-02
13 Tourism Economics 22 14 Philosophy and ethics 4.42 6.51E-02
15 Strategic Management 21 15 Community outreach 4.42 7.93E-02
15 Sustainable Tourism 21 16 Strategic management 4.42 7.03E-02
15 Resource Management 21 17 Understand. Comm. Needs/ Wants 4.4 9.17E-02
15 Recreation Area Management 21 18 Advertising 4.38 0.09
19 Leadership 20 19 Tourism economics 4.36 7.91E-02
20 Cultural & Heritage Tourism 16 20 Business management 4.36 6.54E-02
20 General Tourism Operations 16 21 General tourism operations 4.31 0.06
22 Basic Computer 15 22 Structure of the Industry 4.3 8.10E-02
23 Economics 14 23 Media database 4.29 9.38E-02
23 Labor Relations 14 24 Web research skills 4.25 9.04E-02
23 Development Policies 14 25 Community database 4.16 9.41E-02
26 Public Relations 13 26 Research skills 4.14 8.17E-02
27 Social Responsibilities 12 27 Development policies 4.13 0.07
27 Attraction Management 12 28 Environmental impacts 4.1 9.28E-02
29 Ecological Principles 11 29 Visitor safety issues 4.07 9.36E-02
30 Environmental Impacts 10 30 Education 4.02 9.90E-02
30 Product Knowledge 10 31 Community engagement 4.02 9.55E-02
30 Environmental Integration 10 32 Estimation and forecasting 4.02 8.85E-02
33 Estimation and Forecasting 9 33 Social responsibilities 4.01 8.10E-02
33 Cultural Resource Protection 9 34 Entrepreneurship 4 0.09
35 Web Research Skills 8 35 Non-profit management 3.96 0.10
36 Transportation Planning 7 36 Eco-tourism 3.92 9.91E-02
 213

36 Historic Preservation 7 37 Principles of planning and design 3.91 9.55E-02

38 General Business Knowledge 6 38 Resource management 3.87 9.82E-02
38 Property Development 6 39 Tourism facility planning 3.81 0.10
38 Interpretive Skills 6 40 Crisis management 3.8 0.10
41 Non-profit Management 5 41 Economics 3.79 0.10
41 Risk Management 5 42 Transportation planning 3.77 0.10
41 Interpretation of Resources 5 43 Historic preservation 3.76 0.10
41 Understand. Comm. Needs/Wants 5 44 Fund development 3.73 0.10
45 Community Outreach 4 45 Interpretive skills 3.7 0.12
45 Entrepreneurship 4 46 Cultural resource protection 3.7 0.10
45 Community Involvement 4 47 Inter-agency regulations 3.69 0.12
45 Landscape Design 4 48 Interpretation of resources 3.62 0.11
45 Community Planning 4 49 Risk management 3.62 0.11
50 Foreign Languages 3 50 Tourism law 3.53 0.10
50 Media Database 3 51 Attraction management 3.51 0.10
50 Land Use Regulations 3 52 Property development 3.5 0.10
53 Decision Making 2 53 Community planning 3.47 0.11
53 Intergovernmental Relations 2 54 Computer mapping 3.42 0.11
53 River/Coastal Management 2 55 International relations 3.41 0.11
53 Building Design Principles 2 56 Grant writing 3.39 0.11
53 Inter-Agency Regulations 2 57 River/coastal management 3.35 0.12
58 Computer Mapping 1 58 Ecological principles 3.31 0.11
58 Fund Development 1 59 Land use regulations 3.2 0.11
58 Understanding Design Plans 1 60 Recreation area management 3.18 0.11
58 Countryside Management 1 61 Environmental integration 3.18 0.12
62 Engineering 0 62 Labor relations 3.12 0.16
62 Grant Writing 0 63 Countryside management 3.09 0.11
62 Indigenous Languages 0 64 Understanding design plans 2.85 0.11
62 Community Database 0 65 Indigenous languages 2.77 0.12
62 Visitor Safety issues 0 66 Architectural design 2.71 0.11
62 Crisis Management 0 67 Foreign languages 2.64 0.10
62 Education 0 68 Building design principles 2.5 0.10
62 Architectural Design 0 69 Landscape design 2.27 9.77E-02
62 Community Engagement 0 70 Engineering 2.16 0.10

“# Out of 109” indicates the total number of courses through which the competency
was addressed in the 109 programs offered at institutions of higher education in the
United States.
 214

APPENDIX N

Tourism Professional Comparisons

Appendix N reports comparisons of responding tourism professional’s

education level, how the learned their competencies, U.S. regional differences

in opinions and analyzed the professionals with a Bachelor’s degree compared

to those with a Master’s degree.

Figure 1 illustrates (N=103) respondents answered the question about the highest

level of education they achieved. Of the respondents, 3.9% hold a high school

diploma, 26.2% have some college experience, 47.6%, (38.2%, 57.1%) a

Bachelor’s degree, 18.4% (12.1%, 27.1%) a Master’s degree, and 3.9% hold a

Doctorate degree.
 215

Figure 1. Highest level of Education Achieved. HS: High School, College: Some
College, BA/BS, PhD
__________________________________________________________________
HS Coll. BA/BS MA/MS PhD Total
Count 4 27 49 19 4 103
Percent 3.9 26.2 47.6 18.4 3.9 100
__________________________________________________________________

50 47.6

40

30
26.2
Percent

20 18.4

10
3.9 3.9

0
percent2
High School Some BA/BS MA/MS Doctorate
College

________________________________________________________________
 216

Figure 2 indicates of the 104 tourism professionals questioned (N=87) responded

and of those, almost 98% [(95% Confidence interval: (91.4%, 99.8%)] learned their

competencies on the job.

Figure 2. Learned Tourism Competencies on the Job

________________________________________________

100 97.7

80

60
Percent

40

20

2.3
0
Yes (85) No (2)

____________________________________________________
 217

Figure 3 represents the (N=83) tourism professional’s background in higher

education. The research showed that 66.3% of the respondents indicate their

education did prepare them for their position.

Figure 3. Higher Educational did Prepare me for my Position

______________________________________________________

80

66.3

60
Percent

40
33.7

20

0
Did (55) Did Not (28)

_______________________________________________________
 218

The next four figures sought to learn if there were regional differences in

opinions of tourism professionals.

Figure 4 represents (N=95) responses from tourism professionals from all regions of

the United States. Regional differences in average importance of competencies

across the five regions of the United States were identified. Differences in

average importance of competencies across the five regions of the country may

be important.

Figure 4. Responses From all Regions of the Country

________________________________________________________________

MW: Midwest, NE: Northeast, SE: Southeast, SW: Southwest, W: West

40 37.9

30
26.3
Percent

20
16.8
13.7

10
5.3

0
MW (16) NE (36) SE (25) SW (5) W (13)
 219

Figure 5 indicates that in the Media Database competency, the (N=87)

respondents indicate there are regional differences in opinion. The results

indicate that tourism professionals from the West have a difference in opinion

about this competency than those from the Northeast and the Southwest.

Figure 5. Media Database

ANOVA F = 2.58, p = 0.043721

Different From
Region Count Mean Region
W 13 3.84 NE, SW
SE 26 4.34
MW 16 4.37
NE 22 4.63 W
SW 5 4.8 W

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Media Database
Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
87 4.287356 0.8748162 9.379014E-02

_________________________________________________

Figure 6, Analysis of the Estimation and Forecasting competency, discovered

 220

regional differences in opinion. Northeast and Western tourism professionals had

differing opinions about this competency than Southeast professionals. There

were (N=86) respondents to this question.

Figure 6. Estimation and Forecasting

ANOVA F = 2.83, p = 0.029064

Different From
Region Count Mean Region
NE 36 3.83 SE
W 13 3.84 SE
MW 16 4.12
SW 5 4.4
SE 26 4.46 NE, W

5.0
Estimaton/Forcasting

4.7

4.3

4.0

3.6
MW NE SE SW W
Region

____________________________________________________

Figure 7, Ecological Principles, displays results indicating tourism professionals in

 221

the Midwest had a difference in opinion than those in the West, Northeast and

Southeast. There were (N=85) respondents to this question.

Figure 7. Ecological Principles

___________________________________________________

ANOVA F = 2.62, p = 0.040284

Different From
Region Count Mean Region
MW 16 2.62 W, NE, SE
SW 5 3.4
W 13 3.46 MW
NE 36 3.55 MW
SE 25 3.6 MW

4.0

3.5
Ecological Principals

3.0

2.5

2.0
MW NE SE SW W
Region
_________________________________________________________________

Figure 8, Media Database, indicates the importance those respondents with a

 222

Bachelor’s degree and those respondents with a Master’s degree placed on the

promotion of tourism. (N=65) respondents were analyzed.

Differences In Education Levels

Figure 8. Media Database

_________________________________________________________

T = -2.02, p = 0.04

Standard Standard
Variable Count Mean Deviation Error
Education=BA/BS 48 4.16 0.85 0.12
Education=MA/MS 17 4.64 0.78 0.19

5.0

4.8
Media Database

4.5

4.3

4.0
BA/BS MA/MS
Education

__________________________________________________________

Figure 9, Developmental policies, indicates that more education, from Bachelor’s

 223

to a Master’s degree shifts the Mean higher? (N=67) respondents were

analyzed.

Figure 9. Development Policies

_________________________________________________________
T = -2.67, p = 0.01

Standard Standard
Variable Count Mean Deviation Error
Education=BA/BS 48 3.89 0.85 0.12
Education=MA/MS 19 4.47 0.61 0.14

4.8

4.5
Dev. Policies

4.2

3.9

3.6
BA/BS MA/MS
Education

___________________________________________________________

Figure 10, Sustainable tourism, ranked as an important competency for both

 224

groups. A total of (N=67) respondents were analyzed.

Figure 10. Sustainable Tourism

__________________________________________________________

T = -2.15, p = 0.03

Standard Standard
Variable Count Mean Deviation Error
Education=BA/BS 48 4.47 0.74 0.10
Education=MA/MS 19 4.78 0.41 9.60E-02

4.9

4.8
Sustainable Tourism

4.6

4.5

4.3
BA/BS MA/MS
Education

___________________________________________________________

Figure 11, Visitor safety, is a competency that is necessary if tourism is to flourish.

 225

Visitors sensing an unsafe destination are likely to stay away. More education

and possibly more experience with a Master’s degree bring the Mean higher.

(N=67) Respondents were analyzed.

Figure 11. Visitor Safety

_________________________________________________________
T = -2.11, p = 0.03

Standard Standard
Variable Count Mean Deviation Error
Education=BA/BS 48 3.85 0.92 0.13
Education=MA/MS 19 4.36 0.83 0.19

4.6

4.4
Visitor Safety

4.1

3.9

3.6
BA/BS MA/MS
Education

__________________________________________________________

Figure 12, Eco-tourism is at the core of tourism planning and development.

 226

Eco-tourism is both an attraction and a manner of protection of a resource.

The higher level of education brings the Mean ranking higher. (N=64)

respondents were analyzed.

Figure 12. Eco-tourism

_________________________________________________________
T = -2.15, p = 0.03

Standard Standard
Variable Count Mean Deviation Error
Education=BA/BS 46 3.82 0.99 0.14
Education=MA/MS 18 4.38 0.77 0.18

4.6

4.4
Eco Tourism

4.1

3.9

3.6
BA/BS MA/MS
Education

__________________________________________________________

Figure 13, Architectural design does not achieve a Mean in the Important
 227

category. This competency is important to have a basic understanding of for

tourism planning and development professionals. (N=67) respondents were

analyzed.

Figure 13. Architectural Design

_________________________________________________________
T = -2.14, p = 0.03

Standard Standard
Variable Count Mean Deviation Error
Education=BA/BS 49 2.40 1.17 0.16
Education=MA/MS 18 3.11 1.23 0.29

3.6

3.3
Architect. Design

2.9

2.6

2.2
BA/BS MA/MS
Education

_____________________________________________________

Could the reason for the higher Mean with Master’s degree holders be that

increased education, or experience in Architectural Design, Eco-tourism, Sustainable

tourism, Visitor safety, Development policies or Media database, creates more

understanding of their importance to tourism planning and development?

Profiles of the Respondents

 228

Figure 14 queried tourism professionals about how long they have been in the

tourism industry. Respondent’s (N=103) range of years in the industry, are from 6

months to 34 years, with the Mean being 14.4 years in the tourism industry (Figure

14).

Figure 14. Number of Years in the Tourism Industry

______________________________________________________________________
Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error Minimum Maximum Range
103 14.36 8.57 0.84 0.5 35 34.5

10th 25th 50th 75th 90th

Percentile Percentile Percentile Percentile Percentile
3.4 6 14 20 26.2

25.0

16.7
Percent

8.3

0.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0

Years in Industry
_______________________________________________________________________

Figure 15 indicates that the average time in the work force was 24.84 years. The
 229

minimum years in the workforce was 7 with the maximum years was 49. It

appears the workforce in the tourism industry is not a young workforce. (N=86)

respondents were analyzed.

Figure 15. Number of Years in the Workforce

______________________________________________________________________
Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error Minimum Maximum Range
86 24.84 9.37 1.01 7 49 42

10th 25th 50th 75th 90th

Percentile Percentile Percentile Percentile Percentile
12.7 19 25 31 36

35.0

23.3
Percent

11.7

0.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0

Years in Workforce

_________________________________________________________________

Demographic Indications
 230

Figure 16 indicates that when the professionals were asked if there were

continuing tourism education courses available, the (N=102) responses to this

question were almost equal; 52.9% of the respondents indicated that education

was available and 47.1% indicated that no continuing education was available.

This suggests an opportunity for higher education.

Figure 16. Continuing Tourism Planning and Development Education

Programs

60
52.9

50 47.1

40
Percent

30

20

10

0
Yes (54) No (48)

Figure 17 illustrates that the Mean of the approximate population of the areas
 231

represented is 1,136,085. The range of responses to the population question

(N=98) was from 6,000 to 12 million people. One type of tourism agency certainly

does not fit all size communities.

Figure 17. Approximate Population Per Area

_______________________________________________________________________

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error Minimum Maximum Range
98 1136085 2216509 223901.3 6000 1.2E+07 1.19E+07

10th 25th 50th 75th 90th

Percentile Percentile Percentile Percentile Percentile
39500 93750 300000 1000000 3540000

50.0

40.0

30.0
Count

20.0

10.0

0.0
0 3000 6000 9000 12000
Area Population (in thousands)

___________________________________________________________________

Figure 18 indicates that ninety-seven tourism professionals reported that the area
 232

they represent as being Urban, Suburban, Rural, Urban/Suburban, Urban/Rural

and Urban/Suburban/Rural. Twenty-three respondents represent an Urban area,

14 represent Suburban areas, and 30 Rural areas. Five represent a combination

of Urban/Suburban areas, 1 represents Urban/Rural areas, 2 represent

Suburban/Rural areas, and 22 represent a combination of Urban/Suburban and

Rural areas. Some professional’s organizations represent areas that fell into more

than one area defined in the question. The researcher to clarify the result added

four more definitions for an area.

Figure 18. Urban, Sub-Urban or Rural Area Classification

_______________________________________________________________________

40

30.9
30

23.7
22.7
Percent

20

14.4

10
5.2
2.1
1.0
0
urban (23) rural (30) urb/rur (1) u/s/r (22)
suburb (14) urb/sub (5) sub/rur (2)

___________________________________________________

Figure 19, reports the responses when asked if their office has a separate tourism
 233

planning division. Of the (N=104) respondents 82.7% had no separate tourism

planning division.

Figure 19. Tourism Planning Division

_______________________________________________________

100

82.7
80

60
Percent

40

20 17.3

0
Yes (18) No (86)

_______________________________________________________

Figure 20, illustrates what percentage of tourism offices have tourism planning
 234

and development as part of their office’s responsibilities. Of the (N=100)

respondents, 77% indicated yes.

Figure 20. Tourism Planning and Development Responsibilities

_______________________________________________________

80 77

60
Percent

40

23
20

0
Yes (77) No (23)

____________________________________________________________________

Figure 21, asked if the professional’s community, region or state required a

 235

degree or certification to hold a position in tourism planning? Of the (N=94)

respondents, over eighty-eight percent had no formal certification

requirement.

Figure 21. Degree or Certification Requirement

___________________________________________________________________

100
88.3

80

60
Percent

40

20
11.7

0
Yes (11) No (83)

_______________________________________________________
 236

APPENDIX O

Additional Suggested Competencies by Respondents

Customer service Community Outreach

Full Commitment Understanding Your Region

Written Communication Public Speaking Skills

People Skills Long Term Sustainability

Interpersonal Skills Ability to Listen

Art of Listening Understanding of Other

Businesses Basic Professionalism

Levels of Tourism (Niche vs. Mass) Anxiety Control

Strategic Marketing Hospitality Training

Regional Cooperation Local Support

Lobbying Techniques Strategic Planning

Product Development Workforce Development

Smart Growth Technical Competencies

Dedication Community Relations

Politics Interpersonal Skills

Communication Knowledge of American

Interpersonal Skills History

Liberal Arts in History and Arts Economic Development

Know When Experts are Needed Attention to Detail

Authenticity in Redevelopment Best business practices

Understanding of Profit and Non-profit Common Sense Relationships

Strategic Planning
 237

APPENDIX P

Universities Attended by the Respondents

The questionnaire queried the name of the college or university attended.

While not every respondent answered the question, there was a variety of

institutions attended. Institutions were listed once even though some

respondents possibly attended the same institutions.

Assumption College Michigan State University

Ball State University Millersville University

Bryant College Northern Arizona University

California State University Purdue University

Clemson University Roger Williams University

College in Austria Southeastern MA University

Clemson University Truman University

Casper College, Institutes for Wallace State University

Organizational Management University of Arizona

Davenport University University of Colorado

Dr. Martin Luther College University of Florida

Eastern Illinois University University of Hawaii

Fort Hays State University University of LA

Florida Atlantic University University of Maine

Franklin College University of Maryland

Johnson & Wales University University of MO

Georgetown University University of New Hampshire

 238

George Washington University University of Pennsylvania

Grand Valley State University of Pittsburgh

GWU Tourism Destination Management University of Rhode Island

Hood College University of Tennessee

Ithaca College University of Seattle

Indiana University University of South Carolina

Malone College University of Vermont

Mankato State University Virginia Common University

Virginia Wesleyan College

Wallace State College

Western Kentucky University

 239

APPENDIX Q

Available Tourism Programs and Certifications Held

When asked if there were continuing tourism planning and development

education programs in their area tourism professionals responded with available

programs and industry designations.

State office of tourism has programs Certified Hospitality Management Exec

Chamber Accreditation George Washington University

IOM Our state hosts five seminars a year

Extension Service programs Certified Destination Management Exec

Local university tourism programs Tourism academy at our CVB

IACVB CDME program CAE certification

Governor’s Conference Illinois State Travel Conference and Workshop

MS Division of Tourism CTIS designation

CTP and CTAS College programs

Local colleges have tourism programs Kentucky Department of Travel

West Kentucky Corporation Wyoming Lodging and Restaurant Assn

Travel Montana program University of Tennessee

Travel Michigan program University of MN Tourism Center

Visit Florida Courses through ABA and NTA

Regional and State Tourism Offices Various Workshops, some state

University of New Haven Courses sponsored

 240

APPENDIX R

Competency Summaries

Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA) tests were performed for each of the 70

competencies of the survey to establish significant differences in Mean scores

across the groups. Post hoc Fisher’s LSD multiple comparisons gave an indication

of regional differences of competency responses. Only the competencies with a

significant F-test (p < 0.05) are shown in the analysis. Error bar charts show the

Sample Mean, plus or minus one Standard Error. Fisher’s LSD post-hoc tests were

conducted on all significant findings. The interval scale was assumed.

 241

Figure 22, asks respondents to offer their opinions about other competencies.

There were (N103) respondents. Two respondents suggested using

technology-mediated presentations. All other additional competencies were

singly suggested.

Figure 22. Social Responsibilities

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 7 7 63 25 103
Percent 1.0 6.8 6.8 61.2 24.3 100.0

100.0

75.0
Percent

50.0

25.0

0.0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Social Resp.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
103 4.00 0.82 8.10E-0

_____________________________________________________________________
 242

Figure 23, asked respondents to addresses the importance of Leadership.

Seventy-nine out of the (N=104) respondents ranked leadership as a Very Important

competency. Twenty-four ranked leadership as Important.

Figure 23. Leadership

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 0 1 0 24 79 104
Percent 0.0 1.0 0.0 23.1 76.0 100.0
100

75
Percent

50

25

0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Leadership

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
104 4.74 0.50 4.92E-02
_____________________________________________________
 243

Figure 24, Philosophy and ethics, according to approximately 100% of the

respondents, ranked either Important or Very Important. All the (N=104)

professionals responded to this question.

Figure 24. Philosophy and Ethics

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 0 4 48 51 104
Percent 1.0 0.0 3.8 46.2 49.0 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Philosphy/Ethics

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
104 4.42 0.66 6.50E-02
___________________________________________________________
 244

Figure 25, Research skills, ranked Important to 47% of the tourism professionals.

When added to the 36% that rank this competency as Very Important the

competency is clearly significant to the tourism professionals. A total of (N=103)

respondents were analyzed.

Figure 25. Research Skills

__________________________________________________________
1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 0 6 11 49 37 103
Percent 0.0 5.8 10.7 47.6 35.9 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Research Skills

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
103 4.13 0.82 8.16E-02
______________________________________________________
 245

Figure 26, International Relations ranked mixed among the (N=104) professionals

responding. Only 41% reported International Relations as an Important

competency in their position.

Figure 26. International Relations

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 6 20 19 43 16 104
Percent 5.8 19.2 18.3 41.3 15.4 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Int. Relations

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
104 3.41 1.13 0.11
_____________________________________________________
 246

Figure 27, Grant Writing, appears to have moderate interest to the (N=102)

respondents. Grant Writing rendered a Mean of 3.39.

Figure 27. Grant Writing

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 5 24 20 32 21 102
Percent 4.9 23.5 19.6 31.4 20.6 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Grant Writing

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
102 3.39 1.19 0.11
_____________________________________________________
 247

Figure 28, Community outreach is where the tourism professional works to

integrate the tourism industry and the community. This ranked as a Very

Important competency by 58% of the (N=104) respondents. The Mean is 4.42.

Figure 28. Community Outreach

_____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 2 9 32 60 104
Percent 1.0 1.9 8.7 30.8 57.7 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Comm. Outreach

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
104 4.42 0.80 7.93E-02

________________________________________________________________________
 248

Figure 29, Tourism Law, as it relates to tourism issues, received an Important

ranking by just over 1/3 of the (N=103) respondents.

Figure 29. Tourism Law

____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 3 16 27 37 20 103
Percent 2.9 15.5 26.2 35.9 19.4 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Tourism Law

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
103 3.53 1.06 0.10
_____________________________________________________
 249

Figure 30, Decision Making ranked Very Important by 66% of the respondents

and Important by another 33% of the (N=104) respondents.

Figure 30. Decision Making

_____________________________________________________
1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 0 2 3 33 66 104
Percent 0.0 1.9 2.9 31.7 63.5 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Decision Making

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
104 4.57 0.66 6.50E-02
______________________________________________________
 250

Figure 31, Foreign Languages, are considered to be of little importance to the

tourism professionals responding. The Mean is low at 2.63. Only three out of

(N=102) respondents ranked the competency as very important. Forty-one

ranked languages as Slightly Important.

Figure 31. Foreign Languages

_____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 13 41 21 24 3 102
Percent 12.7 40.2 20.6 23.5 2.9 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Foreign Lang.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
102 2.63 1.06 0.10
______________________________________________________
 251

Figure 32, Indigenous languages, received their highest ranking with 26% of the

professionals choosing Slightly Important as their response. The Mean is

considered low at 2.77. There were (N=101) respondents.

Figure 32. Indigenous Languages

_____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 20 26 24 19 12 101
Percent 19.8 25.7 23.8 18.8 11.9 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Indigenous Lang.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
101 2.77 1.29 0.12
_____________________________________________________
 252

Figure 33, Basic computer skills, ranked Very Important and Important by 66%

and 30% of the (N=103) respondents respectively.

Figure 33. Basic Computer Skills

_________________________________________________________
1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 0 3 1 31 68 103
Percent 0.0 2.9 1.0 30.1 66.0 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Basic Computer

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
103 4.59 0.66 6.53E-02
____________________________________________________
 253

Figure 34, Computer mapping, was not perceived as important as was basic

computer competencies. However 41% of those (N=103) responding did

consider it an Important competency. All other category percentages fall

below 18.4%.

Figure 34. Computer Mapping

_______________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 7 19 18 42 17 103
Percent 6.8 18.4 17.5 40.8 16.5 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Computer Mapping

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
103 3.41 1.167 0.11
_____________________________________________________
 254

Figure 35, Web Research Skills, are considered Important and Very Important

competencies, as ranked by nearly (N=80) of the (N=88) professionals

responding to this question.

Figure 35. Web Research Skills

____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 0 6 5 38 39 88
Percent 0.0 6.8 5.7 43.2 44.3 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Web Research

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
88 4.25 0.84 9.03E-02
____________________________________________________
 255

Figure 36, Media database maintenance, when combining Important and Very

Important rankings, rendered an interest level by 88.5% by the (N=87) tourism

professionals responding.

Figure 36. Media Database

____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 0 7 3 35 42 87
Percent 0.0 8.0 3.4 40.2 48.3 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Media Database

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
87 4.28 0.87 9.37E-02
_________________________________________________________
 256

Figure 37, indicates (N=88) tourism professionals responded to Community

database. Even with this low response, a majority of the professionals consider

maintaining a community database to accomplish their responsibilities at least

important.

Figure 37. Community Database

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 0 8 4 42 34 88
Percent 0.0 9.1 4.5 47.7 38.6 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Comm. Database

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
88 4.15 0.88 9.40E-02
____________________________________________________
 257

Figure 38, General business knowledge, is important to the (104) professionals

responding. Over half of the professionals reported general business was Very

Important another (N=46) reported general business competencies were

Important.

Figure 38. General Business Knowledge

_________________________________________________________
1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 0 0 4 46 54 104
Percent 0.0 0.0 3.8 44.2 51.9 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
3.0

4.0

5.0

Gen. Business

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
104 4.48 0.57 5.63E-02
_____________________________________________________
 258

Figure 39 reports how Business management showed a slight weakness

compared to General business. Both had the same number of respondents but

the Mean with Business Management slipped to 4.35 as compared to a Mean of

4.48 with the General Business competency. (N=104) responses were analyzed.

Figure 39. Business Management

_________________________________________________________
1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 0 1 8 48 47 104
Percent 0.0 1.0 7.7 46.2 45.2 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Bus. Management

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
104 4.35 0.66 6.54E-02
______________________________________________________
 259

Figure 40 reported that Estimating and forecasting had a Mean of 4.01. Exactly

50 percent of the (N=104) respondents report that estimating and forecasting

was Important. Forecasting and estimating does have a strong relationship to

tourism planning and development.

Figure 40. Estimation and Forecasting

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 8 11 52 32 104
Percent 1.0 7.7 10.6 50.0 30.8 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Estimaton/Forcasting

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
104 4.01 0.90 8.85E-02
_____________________________________________________
 260

Figure 41, Inter-governmental relations, render a high level of interest with a

Mean of 4.45 to the (104) respondents. This may be due to the fact that many

tourism agencies are sponsored by political subdivisions of governments.

Figure 41. Inter-Governmental Relations

_____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 0 4 3 39 58 104
Percent 0.0 3.8 2.9 37.5 55.8 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Intergovernmental Rel.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
104 4.45 0.73 7.21E-02
_____________________________________________________
 261

Figure 42, Financial management renders a Mean of 4.52. Sixty-three of the

(N=104) responding professionals ranked this competency Very Important.

Figure 42. Financial Management

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 2 1 37 63 104
Percent 1.0 1.9 1.0 35.6 60.6 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Fin. Management

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
104 4.52 0.70 0.06
____________________________________________________
 262

Figure 43, Entrepreneurship, rendered a Mean of 4.0. Fifty-four of the (N=102)

responding professionals report this competency as Important.

Figure 43. Entrepreneurship

____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 2 8 8 54 30 102
Percent 2.0 7.8 7.8 52.9 29.4 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Entrepreneurship

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
102 4 0.93 0.09
_____________________________________________________
 263

Figure 44, Strategic management, ranked either as Important or Very Important

by 98 of the (N=102) professionals responding.

Figure 44. Strategic Management

____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 2 1 47 51 102
Percent 1.0 2.0 1.0 46.1 50.0 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Strategic Mgt.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
102 4.42 0.70 7.02E-02
____________________________________________________
 264

Figure 45, Non-profit management, ranked with a Mean of 3.96. However 37.6%

of the (N=101) responding professionals ranked non-profit management as either

Important or Very Important.

Figure 45. Non-profit Management

____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 15 9 38 38 101
Percent 1.0 14.9 8.9 37.6 37.6 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Non-profit Mgt.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
101 3.96 1.07 0.10
____________________________________________________
 265

Figure 46, Economics, or the understanding of economics as a competency,

ranked Important by over 50% of the (N=87) respondents. The Mean is

considered low at 3.79.

Figure 46. Economics

____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 2 8 14 45 18 87
Percent 2.3 9.2 16.1 51.7 20.7 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Economics

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
87 3.79 0.95 0.10
_____________________________________________________
 266

Figure 47, Risk management, maintains a ranking of Important with over 41.4% of

the respondents. There was a low response rate of (N=87). While there is no

evidence, quite possibly the low number of responses may be due to not

understanding the meaning of the question. A clarification of the question may

have helped.

Figure 47. Risk Management

_______________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 16 16 36 18 87
Percent 1.1 18.4 18.4 41.4 20.7 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Risk Mgt.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
87 3.62 1.04 0.11
___________________________________________________
 267

Figure 48, Public relations, had a Mean of 4.73. This is a high rating, but not

surprising by this group of professionals who appear to be promotional oriented

in their interests. (N=87) respondents were analyzed.

Figure 48. Public Relations

____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 0 1 0 20 66 87
Percent 0.0 1.1 0.0 23.0 75.9 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Public Rel.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
87 4.73 0.51 0.05
____________________________________________________
 268

Figure 49, Advertising, ranks as a Very Important by 58% of the responding (N=87)

tourism professionals. Another 28% ranked this competency as Important. This is

not surprising since as the literature shows, much of the tourism industry and

tourism higher education is focused on promotion, marketing and advertising.

Figure 49. Advertising

____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 5 5 25 51 87
Percent 1.1 5.7 5.7 28.7 58.6 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Advertising

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
87 4.37 0.91 0.09
_________________________________________________________
 269

Figure 50, Labor relations, ranked Important by just 36% of the professionals.

However, only (N=49) professionals responded to this question. There is no

explanation for the low response rate other than most tourism agencies may not

deal with this type of issue.

Figure 50. Labor Relations

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 4 12 11 18 4 49
Percent 8.2 24.5 22.4 36.7 8.2 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Labor Rel

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
49 3.12 1.12 0.16
____________________________________________________
 270

Figure 51, Tourism Development, ranked with a 4.46 Mean. Over 50% of the

(N=102) professionals responding ranked this competency as Very Important.

Another 37% ranked the competency as Important. This rank is supportive of the

idea that Tourism Development is vital part of tourism planning.

Figure 51. Tourism Development

____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 3 2 38 58 102
Percent 1.0 2.9 2.0 37.3 56.9 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Tourism Dev.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
102 4.46 0.76 7.58E-02
____________________________________________________
 271

Figure 52, 47 professionals ranked this competency Important and 45

professionals ranked this competency Very Important. 102 professionals

responded. Professionals obviously consider that knowing the industry is a

necessary competency.

Figure 52. Structure of the Industry

_______________________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 4 5 45 47 102
Percent 1.0 3.9 4.9 44.1 46.1 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Industry Structure
Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
102 4.30 0.81 8.09E-02
_____________________________________________________
 272

Figure 53, Environmental impact ranked Important to 51% of the (N=101)

professionals responding. Tourism planning and development professionals

should consider environmental impacts as Very Important according to the

research.

Figure 53. Environmental Impacts

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 10 3 51 36 101
Percent 1.0 9.9 3.0 50.5 35.6 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Environmental Impact

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
101 4.09 0.93 9.28E-02
_________________________________________________________
 273

Figure 54, Product knowledge has a Mean of 4.61. Seventy of the (N=102)

tourism professionals responding ranked knowing what a tourism area has to

offer as Very Important.

Figure 54. Product Knowledge

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 1 2 28 70 102
Percent 1.0 1.0 2.0 27.5 68.6 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Product Knowl.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
102 4.61 0.67 6.68E02
__________________________________________________________
 274

Figure 55, Development policies, which are the essence of quality tourism

planning and development, ranked Important to slightly over 50% of the (N=101)

professionals responding. However, there is indifference in the findings. The

Mean is 4.12.

Figure 55. Development Policies

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 0 5 9 55 32 101
Percent 0.0 5.0 8.9 54.5 31.7 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Dev. Policies

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
101 4.12 0.77 0.07
_________________________________________________________
 275

Figure 56, Sustainable tourism reported a Mean of 4.47. Sixty-one of the (N=102)

professionals responding, ranked this competency as Very Important. Curiously,

while this competency is considered very important to tourism professionals,

there is no indication that the respondents are interested in the planning and

development competencies needed to carry out sustainable tourism.

Figure 56. Sustainable Tourism

______________________________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 0 5 3 33 61 102
Percent 0.0 4.9 2.9 32.4 59.8 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Sustainable Tourism

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
102 4.47 0.77 7.72E-02
_________________________________________________________
 276

Figure 57, Principles of planning and design, indicate a Mean of 3.91. Forty-three

percent of the (N=101) professionals consider this competency Important.

Planning and design according to the research should be key competencies for

tourism professionals involved in tourism planning and development.

Figure 57. Principles of Planning and Design

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 0 12 15 44 30 101
Percent 0.0 11.9 14.9 43.6 29.7 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Planning/Design

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
101 3.91 0.96 9.55E-02
_________________________________________________________
 277

Figure 58, Tourism facility planning is represented by a Mean of 3.81. This low

Mean reports indifference to the competency. Forty percent of the (N=102)

tourism professionals responding ranked the highest level of interest as Important.

Figure 58. Tourism Facility Planning

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 16 14 41 30 102
Percent 1.0 15.7 13.7 40.2 29.4 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Facility Planning

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
102 3.81 1.05 0.10
____________________________________________________
 278

Figure 59, Tourism economics rendered a Mean of 4.35 as ranked by the tourism

professionals. Economics is apparently of high interest to the (N=101)

professionals responding. Fifty percent of the professionals ranked tourism

economics as Very Important.

Figure 59. Tourism Economics

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 3 5 42 50 101
Percent 1.0 3.0 5.0 41.6 49.5 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Tourism Econ.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
101 4.35 0.79 7.90E-02
_________________________________________________________
 279

Figure 60, Visitor safety issues had a Mean of 4.06. It ranked Important to (N=47)

out of (N=101) respondents.

Figure 60. Visitor Safety Issues

__________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 9 8 47 36 101
Percent 1.0 8.9 7.9 46.5 35.6 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Visitor Safety

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
101 4.06 0.94 9.36E-02
__________________________________________________________
 280

Figure 61, Cultural & heritage tourism is a large motivator of travel in the United

States according to research of the Travel Industry Association of America. The

interest in being competent in this area is indicated by a Mean of 4.49 by the

(N=102) professionals responding.

Figure 61. Cultural & Heritage Tourism

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 1 6 33 61 102
Percent 1.0 1.0 5.9 32.4 59.8 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Cult./Heritage Tourism

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
102 4.49 0.74 7.33E-02
_____________________________________________________
 281

Figure 62, Transportation planning, reflected a Mean of 3.77. While

transportation is key to getting people to destinations and drives traffic

congestion, only (N=42) of the (N=102) professionals responding rated it as

Important.

Figure 62. Transportation Planning

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 17 14 42 28 102
Percent 1.0 16.7 13.7 41.2 27.5 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Transp. Planning

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
102 3.77 1.06 0.10
____________________________________________________
 282

Figure 63, Community involvement revealed a Mean of 4.43. Sixty percent of the

(N=101) respondents indicated that being involved in the community is Very

Important. This is an encouraging statistic for tourism planning interests.

Figure 63. Community Involvement

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 5 3 32 60 101
Percent 1.0 5.0 3.0 31.7 59.4 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Comm. Involvement

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
101 4.43 0.85 8.49E-02
_________________________________________________________
 283

Figure 64, Eco Tourism is both a concept of balancing resource protection and

promotion. Forty-eight of the (N=99) professionals responding reported the

competency was Important.

Figure 64. Eco-tourism

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 3 7 13 48 28 99
Percent 3.0 7.1 13.1 48.5 28.3 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Eco Tourism

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
99 3.91 0.98 9.91E-02
__________________________________________________________
 284

Figure 65, River/coastal management reported a Mean of 3.34. The highest level

of interest is Important with (N=37) professionals out of the (N=101) responding to

this question. Most communities deal with the issues of a coastline or a riverfront.

This is a competency that is strongly related to tourism planning and

development.

Figure 65. River/Coastal Management

_____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 9 22 14 37 19 101
Percent 8.9 21.8 13.9 36.6 18.8 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

River/Costal Mgt.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
101 3.34 1.26 0.12
__________________________________________________________
 285

Figure 66, Economic impact of tourism, ranked as one of the highest Means at

4.77. Nearly all (N=103) professionals responding, 84% - indicated this

competency as Very Important. While this is a good, the substance of economic

impact relates back to planning and development.

Figure 66. Economic Impact of Tourism

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 0 1 17 84 103
Percent 1.0 0.0 1.0 16.5 81.6 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Econ. Impacts

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
103 4.77 0.55 5.50E-02
_____________________________________________________
 286

Figure 67, Property development, with a Mean of 3.50 indicated somewhat of an

indifference to this competency. Only (N=40) of the (N=101) respondents

indicated this competency Important.

Figure 67. Property Development

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 2 23 17 40 19 101
Percent 2.0 22.8 16.8 39.6 18.8 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Property Dev.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
101 3.50 1.10 0.10
____________________________________________________
 287

Figure 68, Resource Management, indicated a Mean of 3.87. The resources of a

tourism destination are important and while the tourism professionals did not

indicate this Very Important competency, it ranked as Important to 53% of the

(N=101) respondents.

Figure 68. Resource Management

____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 2 12 8 54 25 101
Percent 2.0 11.9 7.9 53.5 24.8 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Resource Mgt.
Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
101 3.87 0.98 9.81E-02
_________________________________________________________
 288

Figure 69, General tourism operations reflected a Mean of 4.31. General tourism

operations would encompass knowledge of the tourism system. Not surprising,

over 50% of the (N=102) respondents reported being competent in tourism

operations is Important.

Figure 69. General Tourism Operations

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 0 3 4 53 42 102
Percent 0.0 2.9 3.9 52.0 41.2 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Tourism Ops.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
102 4.31 0.68 0.06
_________________________________________________________
 289

Figure 70, Crisis management, has a surprisingly Mean of just 3.80. Since all

destinations around the world could be impacted by a crisis, it would seem vital

to have a crisis management plan. Only 40% of the (N=101) professionals

responding reported they need to be competent in crisis management.

Figure 70. Crisis Management

__________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 2 16 12 41 30 101
Percent 2.0 15.8 11.9 40.6 29.7 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Crisis Mgt.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
101 3.80 1.09 0.10
_____________________________________________________
 290

Figure 71, Tourism education obtained a Mean of 4.02 by the tourism

professionals responding. The total responses were low at (N=85). 49% of those

that responded indicated that the competency was Important.

Figure 71. Tourism Education

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 0 9 7 42 27 85
Percent 0.0 10.6 8.2 49.4 31.8 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Education

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
85 4.02 0.91 9.89E-02
_____________________________________________________
 291

Figure 72, Landscape Design, as the literature research shows, is one of the more

important concepts in tourism planning and development. It ranked with one of

the lowest Means of 2.27. Forty-eight out of the (N=102) tourism professionals

responding ranked this competency as Slightly Important.

Figure 72. Landscape Design

____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 21 48 19 12 2 102
Percent 20.6 47.1 18.6 11.8 2.0 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Landscape Design
Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
102 2.27 0.98 9.76E-02
_____________________________________________________
 292

Figure 73, Engineering as a competency ranked lowest with a Mean of 2.15.

Forty professionals out of (N=103) ranked this competency as Slightly Important.

Figure 73. Engineering

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 31 40 20 9 3 103
Percent 30.1 38.8 19.4 8.7 2.9 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Engineering

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
103 2.15 1.04 0.10
_____________________________________________________
 293

Figure 74, Community planning reported a Mean of 3.47. Community planning,

the heart of tourism planning and development, ranked as Important to only 46

out of (N=102) tourism professionals.

Figure 74. Community Planning

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 3 26 10 46 17 102
Percent 2.9 25.5 9.8 45.1 16.7 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Comm. Planning

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
102 3.47 1.13 0.11
_________________________________________________________
 294

Figure 75, Interpretive skills are the competencies that tell the story of a

destination. The Mean is 3.69 with (N=44) out of (103) respondents ranked the

competency as Important.

Figure 75. Interpretive Skills

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 9 10 12 44 28 103
Percent 8.7 9.7 11.7 42.7 27.2 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Interpretive Skills

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
103 3.69 1.21 0.12
__________________________________________________________
 295

Figure 76, Historic preservation, had a low Mean of 3.75. This does not indicate a

high interest in tourism planning and development to the (N=104) respondents.

Figure 76. Historic Preservation

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 2 18 12 43 29 104
Percent 1.9 17.3 11.5 41.3 27.9 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Historic Pres.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
104 3.75 1.10 0.10
__________________________________________________________
 296

Figure 77, Architectural design, is of little interest to the tourism (N=103)

professionals responding. A Mean of 2.70 is an indicator of this level of interest.

Figure 77. Architectural Design

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 15 40 16 24 8 103
Percent 14.6 38.8 15.5 23.3 7.8 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Architect. Design

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
103 2.70 1.20 0.11
__________________________________________________________
 297

Figure 78, Fund development, relates to the creation of funds needed to grow

and operate a tourism program. Forty-five tourism professionals of the (103)

respondents indicated that Fund development is Important. The Mean is 3.72.

Figure 78. Fund Development

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 2 18 12 45 26 103
Percent 1.9 17.5 11.7 43.7 25.2 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Fund Dev.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
103 3.72 1.08 0.10
_________________________________________________________
 298

Figure 79, Understanding design plans, reports a Mean of 2.84 indicating a low

interest in this competency. Thirty-eight professionals out of (N=104) respondents

considered this competency Slightly Important. The understanding of design

plans allows tourism professionals to provide valuable input to new projects in the

community.

Figure 79. Understanding Design Plans

__________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 10 38 21 28 7 104
Percent 9.6 36.5 20.2 26.9 6.7 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Design Plans

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
104 2.84 1.13 0.11
__________________________________________________________
 299

Figure 80, Building design principles, ranked with a Mean of 2.5. Forty-seven

professionals out of the (N=104) respondents ranked this competency as Slightly

Important. Design of buildings is important to a tourism area.

Figure 80. Building Design Principles

__________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 16 47 18 19 4 104
Percent 15.4 45.2 17.3 18.3 3.8 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Building Design

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
104 2.5 1.07 0.10
__________________________________________________________
 300

Figure 81, Recreation area management indicated a low Mean of 3.18. Only

(N=39) out of (N=104) tourism professionals considered this an Important

competency. Recreation areas however, are important to tourism areas. Being

knowledgeable in this competency is necessary according to the literature

reviewed.

Figure 81. Recreation Area Management

_____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 6 32 15 39 12 104
Percent 5.8 30.8 14.4 37.5 11.5 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Rec. Area Mgt.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
104 3.18 1.16 0.11
__________________________________________________________
 301

Figure 82, Attraction management, had a Mean of 3.5. Forty-five of (N=103)

professionals responding indicated that knowledge in this area is Important.

Figure 82. Attraction Management

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 28 10 45 19 103
Percent 1.0 27.2 9.7 43.7 18.4 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Attraction Mgt.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
103 3.5 1.11 0.10
_________________________________________________________
 302

Figure 83, Interpretation of Resources ranked Important by (N=46) of the (N=102)

tourism professionals responding. The Mean is considered low at 3.62.

Understanding and interpreting the resources of an area is a key element of why

people visit a particular place.

Figure 83. Interpretation of Resources

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 4 18 13 46 22 103
Percent 3.9 17.5 12.6 44.7 21.4 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Interp. of Resources

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
103 3.62 1.12 0.11
_________________________________________________________
 303

Figure 84, Cultural Resource Protection, had a Mean of 3.69 by tourism

professionals. Forty-eight out of the (N=103) professionals responding to the

question, reported Cultural Resource Protection an Important competency. The

protection of cultural resources is a key competency for tourism planning and

development professionals according to the research.

Figure 84. Cultural Resource Protection

_________________________________________________________
1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 2 20 9 48 24 103
Percent 1.9 19.4 8.7 46.6 23.3 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Cult. Rescource Protection

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
103 3.69 1.09 0.10
_____________________________________________________
 304

Figure 85, Land Use Regulations indicates a Mean of 3.19. The responses ranged

from Not Important to Very Important. Approximately 1/3 of the (N=101)

professionals responding considered this competency Important. Research

shows tourism professionals need to be competent in understanding the

principles of Land Use regulations.

Figure 85. Land Use Regulations

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 4 31 19 35 12 101
Percent 4.0 30.7 18.8 34.7 11.9 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Land Use Regs.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
101 3.19 1.12 0.11
_________________________________________________________
 305

Figure 86, Ecological principles emerged with a Mean of 3.31. (N=43) of the

(N=103) respondents rank this as an Important competency.

Figure 86. Ecological Principles

____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 5 27 14 45 12 103
Percent 4.9 26.2 13.6 43.7 11.7 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Ecological Principals

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
103 3.31 1.12 0.11
_________________________________________________________
 306

Figure 87, Community engagement as a competency was ranked Important by

42% of the professionals responding. The Mean is 4.01, which is a strong

indication that although the Mean is not the top ranking, tourism professionals

value this competency. (N=102) respondents were analyzed.

Figure 87. Community Engagement

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 9 13 43 36 102
Percent 1.0 8.8 12.7 42.2 35.3 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Comm. Engagement

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
102 4.01 0.96 9.55E-02
_________________________________________________________
 307

Figure 88, Countryside management, ranked with a low Mean of 3.08. Being

competent in the understanding of the principles of countryside management is

a needed competency as indicated in the research. Thirty-four percent of the

(N=103) respondents indicated that this competency is Slightly Important.

Figure 88. Countryside Management

____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 7 35 18 28 15 103
Percent 6.8 34.0 17.5 27.2 14.6 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Countryside Mgt.
Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
103 3.08 1.21 0.11
_________________________________________________________
 308

Figure 89, Environmental integration addressed insuring tourism environmental

issues fit with economic, cultural, social and historic policies within the

community. A low Mean of 3.18 indicated indifference. This may not be a value

to the tourism professionals responding. (N=100) respondents were analyzed.

Figure 89. Environmental Integration

____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 7 31 11 39 12 100
Percent 7.0 31.0 11.0 39.0 12.0 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Environmental Integration

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
100 3.18 1.20 0.12
________________________________________________________
 309

Figure 90, Inter-Agency Regulations, addressed how well tourism professionals

work with local, state, federal and international organizations. This part of the

tourism professional’s work involves itself with tourism planning and development.

It ranked a Mean of 3.68. A low response rate indicates only 81 tourism

professionals responded. Thirty-seven of the respondents ranked this

competency as Important. (N=83) respondents were analyzed.

Figure 90. Inter-agency Regulations

_________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 4 14 7 37 21 83
Percent 4.8 16.9 8.4 44.6 25.3 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Inter Agency Regs.

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
83 3.68 1.16 0.12
__________________________________________________________
 310

Figure 91, Understanding community needs and wants is ranked Very Important

by 49 of the respondents. This question suggested tourism professionals are

sensitive to the community. The question received a lower response, with only

(N=87) tourism professionals answering.

Figure 91. Understanding Community Needs and Wants

____________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 1 4 3 30 49 87
Percent 1.1 4.6 3.4 34.5 56.3 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Comm. Needs/Wants

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
87 4.40 0.85 9.17E-02
_________________________________________________________
 311

ALL COMPETENCIES COMBINED

Figure 92, when all competencies questioned are combined, the Mean is 3.84.

Important is the highest ranking rendered by 38% of the professionals when

competencies are combined. No more than 33% of all the professionals

responding considered this question Very Important.

Figure 92. All Questioned Competencies Combined

________________________________________________________

1 2 3 4 5 Total
Count 250 980 697 2602 2326 6855
Percent 3.6 14.3 10.2 38.0 33.9 100.0

100

75
Percent

50

25

0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

GIA-GII,KLA-KLB,ITA-ITE,KBA-KBM,TSA-TSU,RAA-RAT

Overall

Standard Standard
Count Mean Deviation Error
6855 3.84 1.14 1.38E-02

_____________________________________________________________________