CAMBRIDGE yj CAMBRIDGE Tinga epee een ead Cerny Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide Robert HutchingsREVISION GUIDE Cambridge International AS and A Level Robert Hutchings 4 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESSCAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 SBS, United Kingdom Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of ‘edutcation, learning and reseazch at the highest international levels of excellence. ‘Information on this title: education.cambridge.org © Cambridge University Press 2015 ‘This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, zo reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. 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All Progress Check questions, sermples answers for Peagress Check questions and worked examples were written by the author. In examinations, the way that marks would be awarded for questions like these may be different.Contents How to use this Book FESSIEN Physical Quantities and Units Physical quantities ST units (Systéme International d'unités) Estimating physical quantities Scientific equations Vectors and scalars Combining vectors Resolution of vectors Progress Check EY Measurement Techniques Introduction Record taking Graphical work ‘Analogue scales and digital displays Experimental uncertainty Precision and accuracy Choice of measuring instrument Calibration curves Estimating uncertainties Progress Check Examination Questions ! EGE] Kinemetics Distance and displacement Speed and velocity ‘Acceleration Graphs for motion Distance-time graphs Velocity-time graphs Derivation of equations of motion for uniformly accelerated motion ina straight line Weight ‘Measurement ofthe acceleration of fee fall, g ‘The effect of air resistance an a falling body Objects moving under gravity in two dimensions Progress Check 2 14 “4 u 15 15 15 15 16 7 v7 18 20 SES Dynamics Introduction Newton’ laws of motion Mass Linear momentum Newton’ tied law Conservation of momentum “The deduction ofthe principle from Newtons third law “The use ofthe principle of conservation ‘of momentum Elastic and inelastic collisions Progress Check SEED Forces, Density and Pressure ‘Types of force Forces in fluids Resistive forces Centre of gravity ‘Turning forces Equilibrium: ‘The principle of moments Density Pressure Atmospheric pressure Pressure due to column of liquid of constant density Progress Check Examination Questions II SEA Work, Energy and Power Work and energy Work Energy ‘Examples of work done or energy supplied Power Efficiency Progress Check Examination Questions IL 2 a a 2 2 23 4 24 25 25 7 28 28 28 29 29 30 30 31 22 32 32 3B 3B 37 37 37 37 38 40 40 2 Biv Contents IEMA Deformation of Solids Introduction Tension and compression Springs Elastic and plastic deformation of a material ‘The Young modulus Categories of materials Strain energy Progress Check Examination Questions IV Introduet Wave motion Wave terminology Energy transfer by a progressive wave ‘Transverse and longitudinal waves Experimental techniques ‘The electromagnetic spectrum ‘The Doppler effect Progress Check Superposition Introduction Stationary waves Diffraction Interference ‘The diffraction grating Progress Check Examination Questions V SSE Elect: Electric field definition Electric field diagrams Potential difference ‘The movement of charges in electric fields Progress Check SEMAN Current of Electricity Charge and current Introduction Conductors and insulators Potential difference Resistance Equation summary Current-potential difference (JV) characteristics 1A wire at a constant temperature 2.A filament lamp 3. A semiconductor diode ‘Temperature characteristics Ohmi law Fields: Part A 47 a a a 48 48 50 31 52 33 56 36 56 58 60 61 62 8 64 64 66 68 70 72 2 2 3 B 5 Electrical resistivity 80 Progress Check 80 SSSA Direct Current (D.C.) Circuits 82 Introduction 2 Electromotive force, em and potential difference, pd. 83. Internal resistance 8 Kirchhof’s las 3 Kirchhof’ first law 84 Kirchhoff’s second lave a ‘Combinations of resistors 84 Resistors in series 84 Resistors in parallel 85 Electrical circuits 85 ‘Warning of common mistakes 85 Sample circuits 86 ‘The effect of a voltmeter being used 86 ‘The potentiometer 87 Progress Check 89 Examination Questions VI 90 (SIS Nuclear Physics: Part A 93 Introduction 93 Structure of the atom 93 Discovery of the nucleus of atoms 93 Isotopes 94 Definitions and data 94 Naclear reactions 95 Experiments with radioactive materials 96 Properties of alpha (a), beta (B) and gamma (y) radiations 97, Antiparticles 98 Fundamental particles 98 Beta decay 99 Progress Check 100 Examination Questions VIT 101 ISSEY Physical Quantities, Units and Measurement Techniques 103 Amount of substance 103 Experimental techniques 103 SSE Motion ina Circle 104 Angular measure 108 ‘Angular velocity 108 ‘The relationship between angular velocity @ and speed v 104. Small angle approximations for angles 105 Circular motion 105 Acceleration at constant speed 105 ‘Acceleration in circular motion at constant speed 106 “The force required for a centripetal acceleration 108 Progress Check 108EE Gravitational Field Introduction Gravitational field strength [Newton's law of gravitation ‘The relationship between g and G Gravitational potential Space travel Circular orbits Geostationary satellites Progress Check Examination Questions VIIL SSE 'deal Gases Introduction ‘The equation of state for an ideal gas Standard temperature and pressure, $.TP ‘The kinetic theory of gases ‘The Boltzmann constant, £ Progress Check SS Temperature Introduction Thermal equilibrium ‘Measurement of temperature ‘The potential divider in use ‘The thermistor Temperature scales Progress Check (SESE Thermal Properties of Materials Specific heat capacity Change of state Melting Boiling and evaporation Internal energy ‘The frst law of thermodynamics Progress Check Examination Questions IX SESE Oscillations Introduction Patterns of oscillation ‘Wave terminology Angular frequency () ‘The definition of simple harmonic motion (SHM) Damped oscillations Forced oscillations and resonance Progress Check Examination Questions X 109 109 109 109 110 110 ul 12 12 a4 44 17 7 7 us 118 19 120 121 121 11 ray 122 123 14 135 126 126 17 127 128 129 130 132 133 136 136 136 137 138 138 40 M41 44 M44 Contents v Ee Ultrasound 149 ‘he piezo-electric transducer 149 Ultrasound scanning 149 Absorption coefficients 131 Progress Check 152 (SESE Communicating Information 153 ‘The principles of modulation 153 Introduction 153 Signal modulation 153 Bandwidth 153 Comparison between amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) 155 Frequencies and wavelengths used in telecommunications 156 Digital information 156 Sampling rates 156 Modes of communication 158 Attenuation 158 Comparison of channels of communication 159 Satellite communication 160 Satelite orbits 160 Progress Check 162 Examination Questions XI 163 Electric Fields: Part B 164 Introduction 164 Coulomb’ law 164 “The electric field strength ata distance r from a point charge 164 Electrical potential 165 Comparison between electri fields and gravitational felés 165 “The definition of electrical potential 166 Progress Check 168 ES Capacitance 169 Introduction 169 ‘The definition of capacitance 169 Capacitors in series and in parallel 169 Capacitors in parallel 169 Capacitors in series 170 ‘The energy stored in a charged capacitor 172 Progress Check 173 ESET Sensing Devices 174 Sensing devices 174 ‘The light-dependent resistor 74 ‘he negative temperature coefficient thermistor 175 ‘The piezo-electric transducer 175 Strain gauges 175 Progress Check 17vi Contents Faia Electronics ‘The operational amplifier (op-amp) ‘The properties of an op-amp ‘The op-amp as a comparator Adjusting the gain of an op-amp ‘The non-inverting amplifier ‘Output devices Progress Check FEE Magnetic Fields Introduction Concept of a magnetic field Making magnets Magnetic flux density ‘The current balance The force on a charge q moving with velocity v in amagnetic feld Magnetic feld patterns of electric currents in wires and forces on the wires ‘The Hall probe ‘Velocity selection ‘A comparison between the effect on charges in electric and magnetic fields Magnetic resonance imaging, MEI Introduction Precession of nuclei ‘Nuclear resonance ‘The MRI scanner Progress Check ESSE Electromagnetic Induction Introduction Experiments on electromagnetic induction Definitions of terms used in electromagnetic induction Faraday’ law of electromagnetic induction ‘The ac. generator, often called an alternator Lenz’ law Progress Check [SIEEELY Alternating Currents Introduction Power inan ac. circuit “The transformer ‘The theory ofa transformer ‘Transformer Losses Rectification Hralf-wave rectification Fall-wave rectification 178 178 178 178 179 179 180 181 182 182 182 183 184 185 185 187 188 189 189 190 190 190 11 191 192 194 194 194 193 195 195 196 198 199 199 199 201 203, 204 204 Smoothing the output from a rectifier cit, 205 Progress Check 206 Examination Questions XIE 207 [SEE Quantum Physics 2 Introduction au The photoelectric effect 21 ‘The Planck constant, 212 ‘Wave particle duality 213 Spectra 213 Band theory 214 Variation of resistance with temperature 215 Variation of resistance with intensity of light 215 “Absorption spectra 216 ‘The production and use of X-rays 216 Introduction 216 ‘The production of X-rays 216 The use of X-rays 27 Computed tomography (CT) scan 218 Progress Check 220 SEEM Nuclear Physics: Part 8 221 Energy and mass am ‘Nuclear binding energy 221 ‘Variation of binding energy with nucleon number 22 ‘Nuclear fission 223 Activity and half-life 223 Half life 224 Progress Check 225 Examination Questions XI 225 ETERS Quick tips on exam preparation 228 EEEEIEEEY Physical quantities: symbols, definitions and equations 231 ESSER SI units, symbols and definitions 233 ESRI) Answers to Progress Check questions 235 Index 244How to use this Book Introduction ‘The aplieaton of apr of squeezing or stretching forces to solid willcausea change Inthe shape ‘ofa sold, Thischaper il dal ony with solids, ‘because for liguds and gases, changes in shape are dependent on the container hong them, Introduction Explains the layout of each chapter, helps with navigation through the book and gives a reminder of what is important about each topic. Eat . | Becher acting topes Teacher's tips |__| Kremer cane fet toe ‘Semen en ren Quick suggestions to remind you about SRT IO Ra ak Meter inea key facts and highlight important points. ‘rth ater salen he Nevins ae Sed You mart a8 0827 hen comeing temperturiatera Eeanple2 (nna airrack amas 120g treveling tethe ight wha lot of ame ealides ‘Sokal ana mans of 20g weigh ‘slaty 47min the oposite rection, a shown inFpiress, awe se ‘wth what eet dothe mate tel afer the Examples oie dawnt Seine alee ig, || A’Step by step approach to answering Sicnxesy ances) questions, guiding you through from start Atetiecetienonimencinme {| to inish, figh=(0i2x0) (03000) “That ers are egal bythe principle of ‘wera of neg 0 (0596 00840) 00086=0120'+0207 Sometimes worth mpg both ss ‘lan eston by large number to get al he ares. Malying though by 100 ges (096-940)=056= 1204200 ‘eter U or V cam be obtained fom hi ution ating the ft ha the velco approach cua the voy of epazaon ges (oxssoan=v-U Br sing hte et ution we get av 20(030+U)=056 12Us26s200=056 so 22U=-254hand U=-0798me'=-Adms' 2 igige and Vrosime'~Sieme tog tgsHow to use this Book 1M Acre dene catia mg on ‘ohana wats hve acececdeecrnmn more — Progress check questions = Check your own knowledge and see how — well you are getting on by answering regular questions. Sample answers for — = ‘these are provided at the back of the book. Pgweatt 22 Apter orcad ths nae Wabi dipaematt penton cute posildaper Examination questions Help prepare for examination by completing the questions taken from Cambridge past-examination papers. GE 1.8) Deeg pea a (Then pa ot dane fone Mun a sei ce grr {pm hese tr eget een Chapter summary At the end of each chapter so you can check off the topics as you revise them, [Newtons first law. Every object continues in ts state Weight isthe force of gravitational attraction acting of est or sate of uniform motion ina straight line ‘ona body. It is measured in newtons. unless acted upon by a resultant external free. Momentum is the product ofan objects mass and Newton’ second law. The rate of change of, velocity It is measured in Ns. To determine the time ‘momentum of a body is proportional tothe resultant an object takes to stop when a force Fis applied, use force acting on it Its momentum inthe equation v= Fr Newton’ third law. body A exerts force on body. The principle of conservation of momentum states Bthen body B exerts an equal and opposite farce on that in all collisions the total momentum is constant body A. provided that there is no resultant external force Mass sa measure of how dificult itis to accelerate a acting body: Ib is measured in kilegrams.Physical Quantities and Units ‘You are already familier with much of this chapter but it does contain a large amount of detail that you must use accurately. Using units and quantities correctly and showing your workings are very important skills to practice so that you avoid making errors, particularly when writing up practical work or when, writing answers to tests. Physical quantities ‘All measurements of physical quantities require both a numerical value and a unit in which the ‘measurement is made. For example, your height might be 1.73 metres. The number and the unit in which it is measured need to be kept together because it is meaningless to write ‘height = 1.73. ‘The numerical value is called the magnitude of the quantity and the magnitude has meaning only when the unit is attached. In this particular case it would be correct to write ‘height = 173 centimetres, since there are 100 centimetres in a metre. You can help avoid making mistakes when converting units by using this method. ‘Write the conversion as an equation. 1.73m=1.73m x 100 = 173cm ‘The m on the top cancels with an m on the bottom so you are certain the conversion is the right way round. Many students make the mistake of not, reviewing what they have written in an equation to make sure it makes sense. ene Look out for incorrect statements. Check you write numbers and units correctly and do not write, for example, 1.73em = 173m. Other conversions are not necessarily so obvious. Another matter of convention with units concerns the way they are written on graph axes and in tables of values, You might often use or see a statement such as ‘energy/joule’ or in an abbreviated form ‘E/J. This means the quantity energy divided by its SI unit, the joule. For example joule energy. joule vote = 780 ‘The figure 780 is now just a number with no unit, ‘That is what will appear in a table of values or on a graph so there is no need to add the unit to every value in tables or graphs, provided the unit is shown on the heading or axis. In order to answer the questions given, you will need to use the prefixes on multiples and sub- multiples of units. Table 1.1 shows the meaning of each term you might have to use. oz tera sign mega Kilo k 10 deci 4 ro enti € 10" sill m 10 micro W 10* nano 2 10 Pp 102 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide So, for example, light of wavelength 456nm is, a wavelength of 456 x 10m. This will equate to 4.56 x 10°’ m or 0.000 000 456m. Always be careful with any of these prefixes and double check to see that you are not using them the wrong way round. It is amazing how often some students will, for example, find the speed of a car as an unrealistic 0.0052m s" when it ought to be 52ms~, The reason for the difference is that at some stage in the calculation the student has divided by 100 when he or she should have multiplied. SI units (Systéme International d'unités) All the units you use during your AS course are called the SI units. They are derived from five base units. These are, together with the abbreviation used for each, as follows: the kilogram (kg) as the unit of mass, the metre (m) as the unit of length, the second (s) as the unit of time, the ampere (A) as the unit of electric current and the Kelvin (K) as the unit of absolute temperature. ‘The definition of these five units is amazingly complicated and you are not required to know the definitions. Each definition is very precise and enables national laboratories to measure physical quantities with a high degree of accuracy. Although you do not need to know these definitions, you will need to know how many other definitions of SI units are derived from the base units, All the definitions and their corresponding units are given in this book, when required in appropriate chapters. Knowledge of units is essential since every numerical question you might have to answer will be dependent upon using units ‘To find the expression of @ unit in base units it is necessary to use the definition of the quantity. For example, the newton (N), as the unit of force, is defined by using the equation force = mass x acceleration. So, IN=1kgxIms? or 1N=1kgms*. Estimating physical quantities In making estimates of physical quantities it is essential that you do not just guess a value and write it down. It is important to include the method You use, not just the numerical values. Answers you write might have numerical values stretching. from 10- to 10. You need to remember some important values, to one significant figure, in SI units. The following list is by no means complete but is a starting point. Do not forget that various atomic sizes and ‘masses may be given in the exam paper data, ‘mass of an adult a 70kg 7 mass of a car 1000kg height ofa tall man 2m height ofa mountain 5000m speed of car on a high-speed road 30oms! speed ofa plane 300ms"! speed of sound in air at sea level 300ms* weight of an adult 700 ae requirement foraperson for 569599) power of acar oxw power ofa person running 200W pressure of the atmosphere 100000 Pa density of water 1000 kgm A few astronomical values are useful too. distance from the Earth to the Moon 400000km distance from the Earth to the Sun 150000000km radius of the Earth 6000km ‘mass of the Earth 6x 10%kg ‘Once you have some basic data you can use it to find an approximate value for many quantities. As a general rule, always get your values into SI units, even though you may well remember some values in non-SI units. Never use non-SI units such as miles, yards, pounds, ete.For example, a question might ask you to estimate a value for the kinetic energy of a cruise liner. ‘Estimate’ means the values you choose do not have to be precise, but they should be sensible. A suitable answer to this question might look like this: Mass of cruise liner estimated as 20000 tonnes 1 tonne = 1000kg so mass of cruise liner = 20000 x 1000 = 2 x 10°kg Speed of cruise liner = 15 ms (half the speed of a car) Kinetic energy = 3 mv? =0.5%2x 10" x 15? =2X 10°] (to 1 significant, figure). Scientific equations You also need to be eble to check the homogeneity of any equation. This means that both sides of any equation must have the same units For example, consider the equation for kinetic energy E,=4 mv", The unit of energy (the joule) is the unit of force x distance, i, the unit of mass x acceleration x distance. So the unit of E, is kgx ms*x m, which simplifies to kg m's Looking at the right-hand side of the equation for kinetic energy, the unit of }mnv* is kg xm? xs, which is the same as the unit of &, (the } has no unit), ‘This means that the equation for kinetic energy is homogeneous. If you ever find that the units on both sides of an equation are not the same, then either the equation is incorrect or you have made a mistake somewhere. Vectors and scalars ‘A vector is a quantity that has direction as well as, magnitude; a scalar is a quantity with magnitude only. Table 1.2 lists quantities in their correct category. Physical Quantities and Units 3 mass displacement length velocity time acceleration area force volume ‘momentum density speed pressure work energy power Combining vectors Adding or subtracting scalars is just like adding or subtracting numbers, as long as you always remember to include the unit. Adding vectors can be difficult; subtracting vectors can be even more difficult. Forces are vector quantities. When adding two forces together the total force is called the resultant force. The resultant force is not an actual force at all. Its just the sum of all the forces acting on an object. The forces that we add might be caused by different things, for example one force could bea gravitational force and the other could be an electrical force. It might seem impossible for a force of 8N to be added toa force of 6N and get an answer 2, but it could be correct if the two forces acted in opposite directions on an object. In fact, for these two forces a resultant force can have any magnitude between a maximum of 14N and a minimum of 2N, depending on the angle that the forces have with one another. In order to find the resultant of these two forces, a triangle of forces is used, as shown in Figure 1.1. The two vectors are drawn to scale, with 1m representing 2N. ‘The mathematics of finding the resultant can be difficult but if there is a right angle in the triangle things can be much more straightforward,4 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide Resultant aN Resultant on 10N aK BN oN Resultant BN Figure 1.1. Addition of vectors Subtracting vectors also makes use of a vector triangle. Note that you can always do subtraction by addition. If you want to know how much money you can spend if you want to keep $20 out of a starting Figure 1.2 Subtraction of vectors ia Almost all physical quantities require a numerical value and a unit The units used throughout the book are Sl units. sum of $37, then instead of $37 - $20 = $17 you can think ‘what needs to be added to 20 to get 37: To subtract vector B from vector A,a triangle of vectors is used in which ~(vector B) is added to vector A. This is shown in Figure 1.2. Note that A + (-B) is the same as AB. Resolution of vectors Not only is it possible for you to add vectors, itis often useful to be able to split a single vector into two. This process is called resolution of a vector and almost always resolution means to split one vector into two components at right angles to one another, This is illustrated in Figure 1.3. In Figure 1.3(a) an object has velocity v at an angle @ to the horizontal. The velocity can be considered equivalent to the two other velocities shown. vsin @s its vertical component and vcos is its horizontal component. In Figure 1.3(b), force F is the force the sloping ground exerts on a stationary object resting on it. (This force will be equal and opposite to the weight of the object.) Fan be re- solved into two components. Fsin ¢ is the force along the slope and is the frictional force that prevents the object sliding down the slope. Fcos is the component at right angles to the slope. sin 7 @ » Figure 1.3 Resolution of a vector Some physical quantities have direction. These are called vectors and can be added using a vector triangle. Quantities without direction are called scalars. These are added arithmetically.Geko 1 12 13 14 15 16 Convert (@) 2.86 kilograms into grams, (b) 0.0543 kilograms into grams, (€) 48 grams into kilograms, (4) 38hours imo seconds, (6) 6500000 seconds into days Convert (4) 1.00 square metres into square centimetres, (b) 7.38 cubic metres into cubic centimetres, (©) 6.58 cubic centimetres into cubic metres, (@) adensity of 3.45 grams per cubic centimetre into kilograms per cubic metre, (©) a speed of 110 kilometres per hour into metres per second, Derive the base units for (a) the joule, the unit of energy (b) the pascal, the unit of pressure (©) the watt, the unit of power. Use base units to show whether or not these ‘equations balance in terms of units. (Note: this does not mean that the equations are correct.) (@) E=me (b) E=mgh (©) power= force x velocity (@) p= pgh Estimate the following quantities. (a) The energy required for you to go upstairs to bed. (b) The average speed of a winner of a marathon. (©) The power requirement of bird ina migration fight (@) ‘The vertical velocity of take-off for a good high jumper. (€) The acceleration of a sports car. (f) The density ofthe human body. (g) The pressure on a submarine at a depth of 1000m. Explain why these suggested estimates are incorrect. (@) The power ofa hot plate on a cooker is 2. (b) ‘The speed of a sub-atomic particle is 4 10*ms (©) The hot water ina domestic radiator is at a temperature of 28°C. (€) ‘he pressure ofthe arin a balloon is 15000 (©) The maximum possible acceleration of a racing earis98ims an Physical Quantities and Units 1.7 Using a copy of Figure 1.2, determine the value of vector B - vector A. 1.8 A car changes speed from 30ms" to 20ms* while ‘turning a corner and changing direction by 90°. What is the change in velocity of the car? State the angle of the resultant velocity of the car relative tothe initial velocity. 1.9 The Moon moves around the Earth in a circular orbit of radius 3.84% 10'm. Its speed is 1020ms"! Deduce (@) the time taken for a complete orbit of the Earth, (b) the angle the Moon moves through in 1.005, (c) the change in velocity of the Moon in 1.00, 1.40 An athlete, just after the start of a race, has a force of 780N exerted on her by the ground and acting at an angle of 35° to the vertical. What is the weight ofthe athlete and what isthe force causing her horizontal acceleration? A kite of weight 48N, shown in Figure 1.4, i being pulled bya force in the string of 6.3 acting in a direction of 27° to the vertical Forctaf wind A” Weight 3 4BN Figure 1.4 (a) Resolve the force in the string into horizontal and vertical components. () Assuming that the kite is yng steadily, deduce the upward lif on the kite and the horizontal force the wind exerts on the kite. 5Measurement Techniques Introduction ‘Throughout this book reference will be made to many experiments that you could carry out yourself It will also describe some of the experiments done in the past that have had a great influence on our understanding of the physical world. In all of these experiments, there are certain basic techniques that need to be used and in this chapter some of the principles of experimenting will be explained. ‘Much of the importance of all experiments depends on their reliability. An experiment will always be unreliable if the experimenter changes results to try to make the results fit what is expected. This does not mean that all measured data must be exact, as this is impossible. The data itself must be found honestly and an estimate made of its uncertainty. ‘This chapter will explain the way uncertainties can be evaluated, but first it will explain methods for recording readings, for evaluating results from graphs and with problems associated with obtaining information from a mixture of both analogue and digital equipment. Record taking ‘What should be a golden rule about recording the results of any experiment is that readings must be written in the form they are taken. In other words, do not do any arithmetic on readings before \writing them down. A simple example is when measuring the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum. If you are able to time 50 oscillations then the heading of the first column of your table should read ‘length of pendulum’ and the second ‘number of oscillations’ with 50 as the first entry. ‘The third column should be headed ‘total time/s? and the time might be e.g. 86.58. Only at the fourth column should you include the heading ‘period /s. ‘A complete table might look like Table 2.1, after applying the relationship between the period Tof a simple pendulum, its length | and the acceleration ¢ due to gravity. cor time/s 0980 50 93 1986 981 08s 50 9441888 9.80 0790 50 82 17849380 ass 40 2 1780983 0.665 40 G4 1635 982 54s 30 443 aT 986 0.460 30 408 1360 982 035 30 3481) 983 os 30 298 0993 9.8L A few points of detail should be noted. © The average value of gis 9.82ms* with an uncertainty explained later in this chapter. © Keep the number of significant figures constant in any column unless a figure is lost or gained. naturally, as with 0.993 in the fourth column. © Four significant figures are given in most of the fourth column in order not to reduce the accuracy given in the third column. 0.993 is given to about one part in a thousand. If T ‘were quoted only to three significant figures, the first of the period readings, for example, ‘would only be given as 1,99 and be known only to one part in 200.© Donot drop offfinal zeroes. In the first column, all the lengths are given to the nearest 5mm. If the first figure was quoted as 0.98, it would imply less accuracy than the second figure 0.885. © One important part of this experiment is to start and stop a stopwatch afier a complete number of cycles. The amplitude of swing has made it necessary in this experiment to reduce the number of swings when the length is reduced. © Whenever swings are being counted, avoid counting ‘one’ in your head at the start of the first swing; ensure you count ‘zero’ If you start at ‘one’ then all the periods will be too short. © It is preferable for you to time for a larger number of swings in one count rather than to make several repeats of a small number of swings. Repeating introduces starting and stopping errors; a larger number of swings reduce these errors, Graphical work Very frequently the best way of analysing results is to make use of a graph. Often an equation can be rearranged into a form that enables a straight line graph to be drawn, Graphs can be drawn very accurately. It is important for you to use a sensible scale and to mark the points on the graph accurately This does mean using the whole range the graph paper allows. Do use fractional parts of a small square when putting data on to the graph or when taking readings from the graph. ‘The general equation of a straight line graph is yemrte where xis the independent variable, y the dependent variable, m the gradient of the graph and c is the intercept on the y-axis, How this graphical technique can be used will be illustrated by using it for the pendulum experiment mentioned earlier. Since an g Tean/t , by squaring both sides we get T?= g ‘This will give a straight line graph provided T? is plotted against J. The gradient of this graph will be Measurement Techniques 7 4n*/g and since cis zero the graph will pass through the origin. ‘The graph is plotted in Figure 2.1. rie t 40 i 38 0 02 ok 06 Hm Figure 2.1 Graph of T? against ! When taking the gradient of a straight line graph, choose two values on major lines as far apart as possible. In this case, the obvious values of length to choose are 0 and 1. ‘The gradient of the graph is given by an radient = 2 a g Hence g = = =9.72ms? Analogue scales and digital displays A simple metre rule gives an analogue reading while a digital watch gives a digital reading. Do not, assume that a digital reading is more accurate than an analogue reading, Most digital readings come from analogue readings. A digital thermometer,8 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide for example, will probably be using a thermistor a its source of information. The potential difference (p.4.) across the thermistor will be measured; this will be combined with a calibration curve available from the manufacturer, that gives its resistance at different ‘temperatures. The value of the p.d. will then be digitised and finally displayed. It may seem to you that a reading from a digital balance of, say, 486 grams, means that the mass is exactly 486 grams. This is not the case for three reasons. The first is that the original calibration might not have been done correctly, the second is that the calibration might have changed as a result, of wear and tear or misuse and the third that any mass between 485.5 and 486.4 would result in the instrument reading 486 grams, if the instrument reads to just three significant figures. Experimental uncertainty Experimental uncertainty used to be called experimental error. However, the change was made because ‘error’ seems to imply that a mistake has been made and that is not the issue. All readings have uncertainties. A ruler might measure to the nearest millimetre, a clock to the nearest second, a thermometer to the nearest degree; so one person using a metre ruler might record the length as 86.0cm and another person measuring the same length might record it as 86.1 cm. This type of variation is called a random, uncertainty. It might come about through the limitations of the scale on an instrument or through the way the instrument is used. Checking ‘measurements will show up the random nature of readings and taking an average of readings will minimise the overall uncertainty. If the instrument itself is faulty or if it is being used incorrectly, there will be systematic uncertainty. This might be an error in the instrument. For example, its zero reading might be incorrect. Systematic uncertainties or errors are often much more difficult to detect. There is no easy way to account for systematic errors or uncertainties, though one check that can be made with electrical instruments would be to use a different meter and if it gives the same reading there is unlikely to be a serious systematic error. Precision and accuracy ‘Any readings taken to high precision have low random uncertainty. Any readings taken to high accuracy have low systematic uncertainty. ‘This is illustrated in Figure 2.2 where an archery target is marked with the position of arrows fired ati, © Figure 2.2(a) shows that the archer is very skilled, so there is little random uncertainty but that his equipment has a systematic error in it. © Figure 2.2(b) shows that the archer is unskilled, so there is considerable random uncertainty but that his equipment has no systematic error in it. The average position of his arrows is in the centre of the target. © Figure 2.2(c) shows that the archer is unskilled, so there is considerable random uncertainty, and that his equipment has a systematic error in it. © Figure 2.2(4) shows that an archer has high precision equipment and great accuracy, so there is minimal random uncertainty and no systematic error. @ © ‘ Figure 2.2 Archery targetChoice of measuring instrument To say that there is an uncertainty of 1mm in measuring a length is not very helpful by itself. The length being measured also needs to be given. For example, an uncertainty of 1 mm in a distance of 2km is of very high accuracy, the uncertainty is 1 part in 2000 000, a fractional uncertainty of only 0.000 000 5 or 0.000 03%, the same uncertainty of 1mm in a metre is a fraction of 0.001 or 0.1%. 1mm in 20mm is a fraction of 0.05 or 5%. A reading that is uncertain to 1mm when measuring a wires diameter of 0.2mm is useless. This shows that a choice of different instruments will be necessary for measuring different lengths. Figure 2.3 shows an instrument called a Vernier calliper. This instrument is useful in measuring the internal or external diameter of tubes, for example. It will give ¢ reading to the nearest 0.1mm or better. When the two jaws of the calliper are closed, the zeroes on both the scales coincide, The jaws are then opened and the object to be measured is placed between them as shown, From the diagram itis clear that the object has a diameter of between 1.9cm and 2.0cm, However, the size of the scale divisions on the sliding or moveable jaw is not quite the same size as those on the fixed jaw. They differ, for this calliper, by atenth of a millimetre. By looking along the Vernier scale you will see that at 5 divisions along the sliding scale both the main scale and the Vernier scale coincide. The distance arrowed, therefore, is 0.5mm and the diameter of the object is, therefore, 1.95cm. Iocan fr Sao, | of pipes Vernier scale Sing air Figure 2.3 A Vernier calliper Measurement Techniques 9 A Vernier calliper, however, would not be suitable for measuring the diameter of a wire. For ‘measurements such as this a micrometer is needed. ‘This is illustrated in Figure 2.4 Distance being Screw tnead with mossured pitch of |mam Rotaing thimble ‘lxed micrometer fame Figure 2.4 A micrometer screw gauge A micrometer uses a screw thread and, at its simplest, divides up one rotation of the screw into 100 divisions, If the pitch of the screw is 1mm then each division represents one hundredth of a millimetre. (The pitch of a screw thread is the distance the screw moves forward each rotation.) ‘The reading on the micrometer in Figure 2.4 is 9.74mm. Figure 2.5 shows the enlarged reading on a micrometer in which the pitch is only 0.5mm. This pitch is very common on micrometers but it does need careful use. The rotating scale only goes up to 50 but the main scale shows half millimetres, so you need to know whether the reading is under or over halfa millimetre, “The reading on this micrometer is 2.5mm on the main scale and 28 divisions on the rotating micrometer scale, The full reading is, therefore, 2.5mm + 0.28 mm = 2.78 mm. 3 Micrometer Figure 2.5 Reading on a micrometer10 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revision Guide Calibration curves ‘Many measuring devices are checked by the manufacturer against international standards of, length, temperature, electric current. Details are produced of how any particular instruments accuracy is dependent on external factors, such as temperature. ‘These details are available from the manufacturer on request. The information will often be in the form of a calibration curve in which the reading obtained under particular conditions, is ploted against a corrected value under standard conditions. The shapes of two particular calibration curves are shown in Figure 25.1 (the resistance of a light-dependent resistor at different levels of illumination) and Figure 25.4 (the resistance ofa thermistor at different temperatures). Estimating uncertainties If finding the value of a physical quantity is difficult, finding the uncertainty in that quantity is even more difficult. There is almost never any sense in quoting a result as, for example, density = (7.805 + 0.076) x 10°kg m™. This shows that the uncertainty is much greater than the final decimal place of the result and that densit) 7.80 + 0.08) x 10’ kgm™ would be more sensible. The third significant figure is very doubtful and density = (7.80.1) x 10°kgm™ can be stated with greater confidence. Any reading has uncertainty. As explained above, if measurement of length is made using a ruler, the length obtained will usually be measured to the nearest millimetre. If you measure a length as 249mm with an uncertainty of 1 mm at the zero and another Imm at the other end then the reading, together with its uncertainty is (249 + 2) mm. ‘his gives the actual uncertainty as 2mm, the fractional uncertainty as 2/249 or 0.0080 and the percentage uncertainty as 0.8%. In performing any experiment it is usual to make measurements of several quantities. In order to find the overall uncertainty of an experiment necessary to know the uncertainty of each quantity separately. If these uncertainties are estimated as percentages then they can be added together to determine the overall uncertainty of the experiment, Percentage uncertainties also make it easy to see which of the measurements causes the greatest uncertainty. The final result of this procedure should be expressed in numerical rather than percentage uncertainties, for example as (4.73 + 0.03) N for a force measurement, rather than (4.73 + 6%) N. ‘The question that needs answering is “How do you find the uncertainty of an experimental result?” The answer to the question comes in two stages. Stage 1. Estimate the uncertainty in each of the readings you take, The most straightforward way of doing this is to use the smallest division available on the instrument you are using. On a clock this will probably be a second, on a stop-watch it might well be 0.01. Unfortunately, this method does tend to underestimate uncertainty for the following reasons. © All systematic uncertainties will not be accounted for. © It might underestimate some uncertainties badly. A stop-watch might give a reading to a hundredth of a second but you might have pressed the stop button at the wrong moment. © Poor technique might make readings far less reliable than the instrument might otherwise have given. eg. If you hold a ruler in your hand without a firm support, it will not give reliable readings. © Aninstrument viewed from the wrong angle will give a parallax error. Keep your eye vertically above a needle on an ammeter so that the scale reading is the one directly beneath the needle. © Any mistaken reading from a scale will certainly increase uncertainty. The reading on the scale in Figure 2.6 is NOT 2.4 but 2.8. Figure 2.6 Stage 2 Combine these individual uncertainties to find the overall uncertainty. Here, examples can show you how to proceed.Example 1 (Uncertainty in addition of values.) An object with momentum (85 + 2)Nss catches up with, and sticks to another object with momentum (77 £3) Ns. Find the total momentum of the two objects and its uncerteinty after the collision. Answer (162%5)Nsisa straightforward calculation. The maximum value is 87 + 80 = 167Ns and the minimum is 83 +74= 157Ns. In percentage terms, the uncertainties of the initial values are 2.3% and 3.9%, respectively. The percentage uncertainty in the answer is 3.1% so you must not add percentage uncertainties, Here you just add values and uncertainties. Example 2 (Uncertainty in subtraction of values.) A reading on a balance of the mass of an empty beaker is (105 + 1) g. After some liquid is poured into the beaker, the reading becomes (112 + 1) g. Deduce the mass of liquid added and its uncertainty. Answer (7+2)g. 113-104 =9 is the maximum and 111 —106=5 is the minimum. ‘This is not straightforward. It shows that subtracting two nearly equal numbers increases the uncertainty appreciably. You must subtract the values but add the uncertainties. Two readings with percentage uncertainties about 1% give an uncertainty of 29% when subtracted. Example 3 (Uncertainty in multiplication or division of values.) ‘These are very common situations. A plane travels at a speed of (250 + 10) ms" for a time of (18 000 + 100). Determine the distance travelled and its uncertainty. When taking experimental readings, always record actual readings as oon as you take them. Keep the number of significant figures determined by the instrament you are using Plot graphs on as large a scale as possible but do not use awkward scales on the axes, Measurement Techniques 11 Answer ‘The maximum possible distance =260ms"x 18 100s=4.71 x 10°m. 250m "x 18 000s = 4.50 x 10°m so the uncertainty is 0.2 x 10°m, The answer should be written as (4.5 + 0.2) x 10°m. You can add percentage uncertainties here because it is a multiplication. The percentage uncertainty in the speed is 4%, the percentage uncertainty in the time is 0.6% and the percentage uncertainty in the distance is, therefore, 4.6% and 4.6% of 4.5 is 0.2. Example 4 (Uncertainty in values raised to a power.) Determine the value of the kinetic energy, and its uncertainty, of a cyclist of mass (63 + 1)kg when travelling with speed (12.0 + 0.5) ms" Answer Here the expression is kinetic energy = 4x m x vv. The thas no uncertainty. You must not divide your uncertainty figure by 2. The percentage uncertainties of the other three terms must be added together: This has the effect of doubling the uncertainty for », since it is squared. A cubic term would involve multiplying its uncertainty by 3. A square root is a power of a half, so uncertainty in a square root is halved. Percentage uncertainty in m = 1.5%, uncertainty in v= 4% so in vis 8%. This gives a total percentage uncertainty of 9.5%, round this up to 10%, therefore the result is kinetic energy = (4500 + 500)J Note that in quoting the uncertainty only one significant figure is used Y An instrument with incorrect calibration will result ina systematic uncertainty. Allreadings, even those given by a digital display, will additionally have random uncertainties a a result of the way the readings are taken,12 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revi Detieeenns 24 Anexperiment was performed to determine the resistivity p Plot a suitable graph and use the graph to deter of copper. The resistance R of a length of wire is related to the resistivity of copper. Estimate the uncertainty in its length | and area of cross-section A by the equation. the value you obtain. pt 2.2. A cuboid of metal has a measured mass of (4.70 0.2) kg. ea Its dimensions are: length (50.5 £ 0.2) cm, width £008) em, depth (6.02 = Terence of metelangthofcoper iodine Dee elume o tecabodogthe th diameters was measured, with the following results real "ing 7 its uncertainty, and (b) the density of the metal of the ‘cuboid. ova 2.8. Explain why the following statements of uncertainty are 0.559% 10" inappropriate. Give a possible correction. osisxi0> (a) g=981+03 Wehaxi® () g=9.81079403 (© g=9.8107944034781 cusealed (@) g=9.820.369 0.122% 10" (© g=9.814039 0.10210" 4. (@) Two ofthe $I base quantities are mass and time. State three other SI base quantities. Bl (0) sphere of radius ris moving at speed v through sir of density p. The resistive force F acting on the sphere is given by the expression F=Bripv' ‘where B and kare constants without units. (i). State the SL base units of F, p and v. BI (G8) Use base units to determine the valte of k. rl (Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics 9702 Paper 21 Question 1 October/November 2010) 2. ‘The volume of fuel in the tank ofa caris monitored usinga meters illustrated in Figure 1 FUEL ATS Figure 1 Fuel meter “The meter hasan analogue scale. The meter eading for diferent volumes of fuel in the tanks shown in Figure 2Measurement Techniques 13 0 wm an 3 1 copy fa Meter reading, Figure 2 ‘The meter is calibrated in terms of the fraction ofthe tank that remains filled with fue (a) The car uses 1.0 litre of fuel when travelling L4km. The car starts a journey with a full tank of fuel (i) Calculate the volume, in litres, of fuel remaining in the tank after a journey of 210km. by (Gi) Use your answer to (i) and Figure 2 to determine the change in the meter reading during the 210km journey. [1] (b) There is systematic error in the meter. (i) State the feature of Figure 2 that indicates that there isa systematic error. b) (Gi) Suggest why, for this meter, it isan advantage to have this systematic error. o] (Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics 9702 Paper 21 Question 1 October/November 2009) 3. Make reasonable estimates ofthe following quantities. (a) the frequency, in H, of an audible sound wave 0) (b) the wavelength, in nm, of ultraviolet radiation fl (©) the mass, in grems, ofa plastic 30cm ruler ul (@) the density of air,in kg mat atmospheric pressure a) (Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics 9702 Paper 02 Question 1 May/June 2008) 1. (a) The current in ¢ wire is . Charge Q passes one point in the wire in time f, State i) the relation between J, Qand f, a (i) which of the quantities 1, Q and t are base quantities. 2] (©) The current in the wire is due to electrons, each with charge q, that move with speed v along the wire. There ae n of these electrons 2er unit volume, For a wire having a cross-sectional area S, the current [is given by the equation T=nSqv where kis a constant, (i) State the units of J, , S, qand v in terms of the base units (3) Gi) By considering the homogeneity of the equation, determine the value of k. (2) (Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics 9702 ‘Paper 02 Question 1 October/November 2008)Kinematics Distance and displacement ‘The distance you travel by a car on a journey, or since the car was bought, is recorded on the instrument panel, The distance will be given in miles or kilometres, usually to the nearest tenth of a unit. This recorded distance makes no mention of the direction in which any distance travelled has taken place. In SI units, a distance such as this would be recorded using the standard unit of length, the metre. The metre is defined in a very accurate way, in terms of the speed of light, but you need to think of it just as being a very accurately defined leng:h, and metre rules approximate to that accurately defined distance. ‘The term displacement differs from distance in the sense that itis not only giving a distance but is also stating the direction in which any movement has taken place. Displacement is a vector quantity while distance isa scalar quantity. When a ball is thrown vertically upwards a distance of 3.0m, its displacement from its starting point, when it reaches the top of its movement, is 3.0m upwards. By the time it falls back to its point of throw, its displacement is zero. On the way down only, its displacement from the top is -3.0m upwards. When a ship sails a distance of 3700km between Mumbai and Kolkata, its displacement from its starting point on its arrival ia Kolkata will be 1700km ina direction N 75°E, This difference arises from the fact that the ship will have to travel right around the south of India, a much greater distance than a straight overland distance. Speed and velocity ‘As with distance and displacement, one of these terms, velocity, is a vector and other, speed, is a scalar quantity. Therefore, whenever velocity is used a direction must be given. Speed is defined as the distance travelled per unit time. It is a scalar quantity. ‘Velocity is defined as displacement per unit time. Itis a vector and so the direction must be stated. The defining equation for both of these terms is: yt ' where vis the speed or velocity, sis the distance or displacement, and tis the time interval. Example 1 What is the average speed on a journey of a car in which it travels 620km in 8h 25m? Answer Distance (s) = 620km = 6.2 10°m Time (#) = 8h 25min = (8 x 60) + 25 = 505min 505 min = 505 x 60 = 3.03 x 10's ©. average speed = = 820 x10'm e =20.5ms" x10's Many careless mistakes are made when using equations such as v= s/t. Some of these mistakes can be eliminated if you put units into the working equation. For example, a train travelling at 136kmh” for 6 hours travels a distance of 1362 x 6h=816km Itis clear that the unit of time, the hour, cancels out from the top and the bottom, leaving the answer in kilometres. A corresponding answer | for velocity can be worked out in exactly the same ‘way, but the answer needs to have a direction included. It could be 609km due south.Acceleration Acceleration is a vector and is defined as the rate of change of velocity. ‘The average acceleration a of an object is, therefore, given by where v is the final velocity, w is the starting velocity and tis the time interval. ‘The SI unit of acceleration is ms"'+ s or ms", Graphs for motion Distance-time graphs A distance-time graph can be used to find the speed of an object. Figure 3.1 shows a distance-time graph for an object travelling with speed 6.0ms" Time's Figure 3.1.4 distance-time graph After 1s the object has travelled 6.0m, after 2s 12m and so on until efter 5s it has travelled 30m. ‘The object is travelling at a constant speed. Figure 3.2 gives another graph where the object also travels 30:m in 5 but it has covered a greater distance in the last second than it did in the first second. Its speed is not constant. 30 Tas 8 5 Times Figure 3.2 Kinematics 15 To calculate the object’ speed after 4s of travel, the distance travelled in a small interval of time needs to be taken. This could be from 3.9s to 4.1 s or even 3.995 to 4.01 s. Each of these is getting closer to the gradient of the graph ata time of 4.0s, The slope (gradient) of a distance-time graph gives the speed. ‘The slope (gradient) of a displacement-time graph gives the velocity, provided the direction of the change in displacement is given. Velocity-time graphs As acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, the slope (gradient) of a velocity-time graph will be the acceleration. Consider an object accelerating uniformly ina straight line from a velocity of 8.0ms to a velocity of 23.0ms"' ina time of 5.0s. A graph of this motion is shown in Figure 3.3. Veloso “Timels Figure 3.3, ‘The slope of the graph, the acceleration, is given by increase in velocity acceleration However, this is not the only information that this graph of Figure 3.3 supplies. If the object had remained at a constant velocity of 8.0m" for all of the 5.05 of travel, it would have had a displacement of .0ms" x 5.0s= 40m, This is shown as area A, on Figure 3,3, Extending this idea to the accelerated motion, the total displacement will be area A plus area B.Area A=40m x base x height of the triangle x5.0sx 15ms" 7.5m. Total displacement = 40 m+37.5m 7.5m Derivation of equations of motion for uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line In this section, the symbols used have the following meanings: the displacement, u_ the velocity at the start of the motion, v_ the velocity at the end of the motion, tthe total time for the acceleration and @ the acceleration, Directly from the definition of acceleration as the increase in velocity per unit time, we get, which can be written as =u OR v=utat Equation I Figure 3.4 isa velocity-time graph that shows these terms as used with uniform acceleration and some connections between them. Tine Figure 3.4 A velocity-time graph Area Ais ut, Area Bis} xtxat=} ae This gives the total displacement s the area beneath the graph =ut+ hat Equation Il ‘The total area under the graph could equally be given by 16 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revi n Guide $ that Equation II or the average value of the velocity multiplied by the time, namely Equation IV If you look at Equations I to IV, you may notice that Equation I omits s, Equation I omits v, Equation III omits u and Equation IV omits a. All the equations require t, but this term may not be given. An equation that does omit ¢ can be obtained by some difficult algebra. v=i+2as Equation V ‘The five equations all refer to uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line. In other words, they do not apply if the acceleration is changing or if the object is going round a corner. Itis worthwhile for you to be able to quote all of, these equations. Two of them are given on the Data and Formulae page of the exam paper. Whenever you use any of these equations always carefully check the signs. For example, if movement upwards is positive then movement downwards is negative. Example 2 A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 28ms™ from a point 2.8m above the ground. Calculate (a) the maximum height reached, and (b) the time taken before it reaches the ground. The acceleration due to gravity is 9.8ms*, Air resistance can be neglected. Answer (a)u=28ms"', v=0, 98m. Note the minus sign; w is taken as positive for upwards so g must be negative as the acceleration due to gravity is downwards. Here sis required, so use equation v* = u2 + 2as to get 0= 28" + (2x (-9.8) xs) This gives 28?= 29.8 xs 28° 196 So, s= =40m(b) ‘The time taken to reach the top can be found using v=u-+at 8 + (-9.8 t) ‘The time to fall a total distance of 42.8m can now be found using s=ut-+ Sat? with all values in the downward direction 42.8=0+4x98xe 2.x 42.8/9. s0t=2.96 =8.73 From the start the total time will be (2.86+2.96)s =5.82s Part (b) could have been done in one step using ut+4 at and getting -2.8=28t+ 5 (9.8) But this does involve solving a quadratic equation. ‘What would the negative value of t give? Weight ‘The weight of any object is the gravitational pull on the object. Our human body does not have any sense organs that detect this pull but everybody knows that, there is a pull towards the Earth because if we drop something it moves towards the Earth until it hits something. When you stand on the Earth you can feel the contact force of the Earth acting upwards on you, because your body does have a sense of touch. The forces acting on you when you fall or when you stand on the ground are shown in Figures 3.5(a) and (b). Upward contact fences ofthe ground / aja cnyourfeer eight Weight Earth Earth @) cy Figure 3.5 Forces acting on you (a) when you fill and (b) when you stand on the ground ‘The forces involved in these diagrams will be considered in more detail in Chapter 4 but, at present, note that when falling in mid-air your weight causes you to accelerate downwards. At this stage you have no feeling for your weight, though you might feel a Kinematics 17 force from the air you are passing through. Similarly an astronaut in the space shuttle has no feeling for weight, In simulated free fall in a plane, people seem to be weightless. This, too, is because we cannot feel weight, When you are standing on the Earth you are not accelerating because the support force on you, provided by contact with the Earth balances your ‘weight. Your weight is the same in both Figure 3.5(a) and Figure 3.5(b).. ‘The weight of an object is defined as the product. of the object’s mass and the acceleration of free fall g. So, if your mass is 68.0kg and the acceleration of free fall is 9.81 ms* then your weight is given by, Weight = mass x acceleration of free fall = 68.0% 9.81 = 667N. Note that weight, being a force, will always be measured in newtons. Your weight will vary slightly from place to place on the Earth because the acceleration of free fall varies from place to place on the Earthis surface. Measurement of the acceleration of free fall, g ‘One way in which g can be measured in the laboratory is to release a ball as a timer is started. After falling through a distance s, the timer stops and records a time t for the fall. Using s=ut+ Lat, gives liad o+dge and hence g= 2s/t? One arrangement that will achieve this is shown in Figure 3.6. Switch closed before sat so electromagnet holds ball Keon! Sy fot onar 7 @ p=} tee soso ‘tell Figure 3.6 Laboratory set-up to measure g s18 Cambridge International AS and A Level Physics Revi When switch A is turned off the steel ball starts to fall and the timer starts. The ball falls onto switch B and when it breaks the circuit the timer stops. Some problems with the method are: © the ball is inclined to stick on the electromagnet after switching off, so the current in the electromagnet must be only just large enough to hold the ball, and © air resistance increases as the ball falls, reducing the acceleration. An improved method, using light gates, is suggested in Progress Check Question 3.10. The effect of air resistance ona falling body So far in this chapter, air resistance has largely been ignored. In practice there are situations in real life where air resistance is vitally necessary, a parachute being the best example. Air resistance on a falling sphere increases with velocity. It is a force that acts upwards, This is also true for most other falling bodies, but area of cross-section also affects the magnitude of air resistance. Sky divers, for example, usually spread themselves to give maximum air resistance because it increases the time they can be in freefall before they need to open their parachutes. Figure 3.7 shows how air resistance increases as downward velocity increases aTithy, tcreasing Figure 3.7 This causes the resultant downward force on the falling body to decrease and so there is less acceleration. Provided the length of drop is suficient, air resistance increases to become an upward force equal in ‘magnitude to the body's weight, at which point the object has zero acceleration and constant velocity. ‘The expression terminal velocity is used for this situation. For a falling person this happens at a velocity of around 50 to 60ms". A parachutist, in contrast, is slowed down by his parachute and usually hits the ground when travelling at about 2-3ms"!. Graphs showing how the downward acceleration and velocity change with time are given in Figures 3.8(a) and (b). t bce Timels @ Terminal vost Velocity Timels Figure 3.8 Objects moving under gravity in two dimensions Anything moving through the air near the Earth's surface is often moving sideways as well as up or down. When a golf ball is hit cleanly with a golf club, it will start by moving forwards and upwards and, before it hits the ground, by moving forwards and downwards. This is shown in Figure 3.9, where air resistance has again been ignored. Horizontal ground > Horizontal vlociy constant + | vertical velocity changing Figure 3.9 ‘The path ofa golf ball when air resistance is ignored n GuideIn this idealised case, once the ball has lost contact with the club there will be zero horizontal force on the ball. Its horizontal velocity, therefore, remains constant, This is shown by black arrows of constant length. Vertically, however, the weight of the ball will cause a downward acceleration of g. Its vertical velocity, therefore, falls at a constant rate of 9.81 ms* to 0 at the top of the flight and then increases at the same rate bringing the ball back to the ground. ‘The following example shows how to calculate the range of a golf ball in the absence of air resistance. Air resistance will decrease the range of the ball and the maximum height it reaches. Example 3 A golfer strikes a ball so that the ball has a velocity of 64m" at an angle of 37° to the horizontal. In the absence of air resistance, calculate for horizontal ground, (a) the maximum height reached, (b) the time taken to reach maximum height, and (c)_ the distance the ball travels horizontally before hitting the ground for the first time. Answer Start by finding the horizontal and vertical components of the initial velocity, using Figure 3.10. Crores Speed is 2 scalar and is distance travelled per unit time / Velocity isa vector and is speed in a stated direction. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. It is a vector. Equations of motion for uniform acceleration: Lveutat Lae 2. s=utsdat id 3. sevt—dar UH eg Kinematics 19 Initial velocity Vestal 1 ime ‘component ' of inital 1 ‘elocy } Horizontal component of initial velocity Figure 3.10 Horizontal component = 64cos37° = 51.1ms* Vertical component = 64 sin 37° = 38.5ms ? + 2as for the vertical motion only, at the top of the flight. This gives 05 (38.5 -2x9.81 xs where s is the vertical rise. ‘Therefore 2x 9.81 x s = 38.5" and s=75.5m. sov= (b) The time for this vertical rise can be obtained from s=vt—Lat* 75.5=0-4x(-981) xP and sof =2%75.5/9.81 = 15.4 and t=3.93s Since both halves of this path are symmetrical, the time taken to return to the ground will also be 3.935, The total time is, therefore, 7.86s. At a constant horizontal velocity of 51.1 ms", the ball will travel a total horizontal distance of 51.12 x 7.86s=400m (to 2 significant figures). The gradient of a distance-time graph gives the speed (or velocity). The gradient of velocity-time graph gives the acceleration. V-Thearea beneath a velocity-time graph gives the distance. Y-The pull of gravity on an object sits weight. Y- For motion in two dimensions, horizontal velocity is usually considered to be constant; vertical velocity will have acceleration due to gravity downwards. “These two velocities can be considered separately