Biology Notes

Animal Reproduction: Pairing Up for Sexual Reproduction

• Each earthworm produces sperm and eggs; new worms hatch from fertilized eggs in a few
weeks
• Animal reproduction takes many forms, and aspects of animal form and function can be viewed
as adaptations contributing to reproductive success
• Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom

Asexual Reproduction in Animals

• Asexual reproduction is the creation of offspring without the fusion of egg and sperm. One
parent clones offspring
• Many invertebrates reproduce asexually by fission, budding, fragmentation, or parthenogenesis

Sexual Reproduction: An Evolutionary Enigma

• Sexual females have half as many daughters as asexual females; this is the “twofold cost” of
sexual reproduction
• Despite this, almost all eukaryotic species reproduce sexually
• Sexual reproduction results in genetic recombination, providing potential advantages such as
increased variation in offspring, increase in the reproductive success of parents in changing
environments, increase in the rate of adaptation, and shuffling of genes and elimination of
harmful genes from a population

Reproductive Cycles and Patterns

• Ovulation is the release of mature eggs at the midpoint of a female cycle

• Most animals exhibit reproductive cycles related to changing seasons, controlled by hormones
and environmental cues
• Animals may reproduce asexually or sexually, or they may alternate these methods
• Sexual reproduction is a special problem for organisms that seldom encounter a mate, solved
by hermaphroditism, sex reversals, or other means

Fertilization and Ensuring the Survival of Offspring

• Fertilization depends on mechanisms that bring together sperm and eggs of the same species
• Species with external fertilization produce more gametes than species with internal fertilization
• Species with internal fertilization provide greater protection of the embryos and more parental
care
• All species produce more offspring than the environment can handle, and the proportion that
survives is quite small

Animal Gamete Production and Delivery

 • For sexual reproduction, animals have systems that produce gametes
• Most animals have gonads, which are sex organs that produce gametes
• Some simple systems do not have gonads, but gametes form from undifferentiated tissue
• Complex systems contain accessory tubes and glands that carry, nourish, and protect gametes
and developing embryos
• Most insects have separate sexes with complex reproductive systems
• In many insects, the female has a spermatheca in which sperm is stored during copulation

Reproductive Anatomy

• A cloaca is a common opening between the external environment and the digestive, excretory,
and reproductive systems
• A cloaca is common in nonmammalian vertebrates; mammals usually have a separate opening
to the digestive tract
• Reproductive organs produce and transport gametes
• The following section focuses on the human reproductive system

Female Reproductive Anatomy

• The female external reproductive structures include the clitoris and two sets of labia
• The internal organs are a pair of gonads and a system of ducts and chambers that carry gametes
and house the embryo and fetus

Reproductive anatomy of the human female

• The female gonads, the ovaries, lie in the abdominal cavity

• Each ovary contains many follicles, which are egg chambers consisting of a partially developed
egg, called an oocyte, surrounded by support cells
• Once a month, an oocyte develops into an ovum (egg) by the process of oogenesis
• Ovulation expels an egg cell from the follicle
• The remaining follicular tissue grows within the ovary, forming a mass called the corpus
luteum
• The corpus luteum secretes hormones that help to maintain pregnancy
• If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates

Male Reproductive Anatomy

• The male’s external reproductive organs are the scrotum and penis
• Internal organs are the gonads, which produce sperm and hormones, and accessory glands

Reproductive anatomy of the human male

• The testes consist of highly coiled tubes surrounded by connective tissue. Sperm form in these
seminiferous tubules. Leydig cells produce hormones and are scattered between the tubules
 • Production of normal sperm cannot occur at the body temperatures of most mammals. So the
testes are held outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotum, where the temperature is lower than
in the abdominal cavity
• From the seminiferous tubules of a testis, mature sperm pass into the coiled tubules of the
epididymis
• During ejaculation, sperm are propelled through the muscular vas deferens and the ejaculatory
duct, and then exit the penis through the urethra
• Semen is composed of sperm plus secretions from three sets of accessory glands

Mammary Glands

• The mammary glands are not part of the reproductive system but are important to mammalian
reproduction
• Within the glands, small sacs of epithelial tissue secrete milk

Anatomy of the Human Penis

• The human penis is composed of three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue

• During sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills with blood from the arteries, causing an erection
• The head of the penis has a thinner skin covering than the shaft, and is more sensitive to
stimulation

Gametogenesis in Males and Females

• Gametogenesis = the production of gametes by meiosis. This differs in females and males
• Sperm are small and motile and are produced throughout the life of a sexually mature male
• Spermatogenesis is production of mature sperm
• In oogenesis, one egg forms from each cycle of meiosis; in spermatogenesis four sperm
form from each cycle of meiosis
• Oogenesis ceases later in life in females; spermatogenesis continues throughout the
adult life of males
• Oogenesis has long interruptions; spermatogenesis produces sperm from precursor cells
in a continuous sequence

Hormonal Control of Mammalian Reproduction

• Human reproduction is coordinated by hormones from the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and
gonads
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is secreted by the hypothalamus and directs the
release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary
• FSH and LH regulate processes in the gonads and the production of sex hormones
• The sex hormones are androgens, estrogens, and progesterone
• The development of primary sex characteristics during embryogenesis
• The development of secondary sex characteristics at puberty
• Sexual behavior and sex drive
Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive System

• FSH promotes the activity of Sertoli cells, which nourish developing sperm and are located
within the seminiferous tubules
• LH regulates Leydig cells, which secrete testosterone and other androgen hormones, which in
turn promote spermatogenesis

Hormonal Control in the Male Hypothalamus

• Testosterone regulates the production of GnRH, FSH, and LH through negative feedback
mechanisms
• Sertoli cells secrete the hormone inhibin, which reduces FSH secretion from the anterior
pituitary

The Reproductive Cycles of Females

• In females, the secretion of hormones and the reproductive events they regulate are cyclic
• Prior to ovulation, the endometrium thickens with blood vessels in preparation for embryo
implantation
• If an embryo does not implant in the endometrium, the endometrium is shed in a process called
menstruation
• Changes in the uterus / uterine lining with blood vessels define the menstrual cycle (also
called the uterine cycle)
• Changes in the ovaries / follicle / egg chamber define the ovarian cycle

The Ovarian Cycle

• The sequential release of GnRH then FSH and LH stimulates follicle growth
• Follicle growth and an increase in the hormone estradiol characterize the follicular phase of the
ovarian cycle
• The follicular phase ends at ovulation, and the secondary oocyte is released
• Following ovulation, the follicular tissue left behind transforms into the corpus luteum; this is
the luteal phase
• The corpus luteum disintegrates, and ovarian steroid hormones decrease

The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

• Thickening of the endometrium during the proliferative phase coordinates with the
follicular phase
• Secretion of nutrients during the secretory phase coordinates with the luteal phase
• Shedding of the endometrium during the menstrual flow phase coordinates with the
growth of new ovarian follicles
• A new cycle begins if no embryo implants in the endometrium
• Cells of the uterine lining can sometimes migrate to an abnormal, or ectopic, location

Hormone stimulation and endometriosis

 • Hormone stimulation can result in a disorder called endometriosis

Menopause

• After about 500 cycles, human females undergo menopause, the cessation of ovulation and
menstruation
• Menopause is very unusual among animals
• Menopause might have evolved to allow a mother to provide better care for her children and
grandchildren

Menstrual vs Estrous Cycles

• Menstrual cycles are characteristic of humans and some other primates

• The endometrium is shed from the uterus in a bleeding called menstruation
• Sexual receptivity is not limited to a timeframe
• Estrous cycles are characteristic of most mammals
• The endometrium is reabsorbed by the uterus
• Sexual receptivity is limited to a “heat” period
• The length and frequency of estrus cycles varies from species to species

Placental mammals and embryo development

• An embryo develops fully within the mother’s uterus in placental mammals

Conception, Embryonic Development, and Birth

• Conception = fertilization of an egg by a sperm, occurs in the oviduct

• The resulting zygote begins to divide by mitosis in a process called cleavage
• Division of cells gives rise to a blastocyst, a ball of cells with a cavity
• After blastocyst formation, the embryo implants into the endometrium
• The embryo releases human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which prevents menstruation
• Pregnancy, or gestation, is the condition of carrying one or more embryos in the uterus
• Pregnancies can terminate spontaneously due to chromosomal or developmental abnormalities
• An ectopic pregnancy occurs when a fertilized egg begins to develop in the fallopian tube

First Trimester

• Human gestation can be divided into three trimesters of about three months each
• The first trimester is the time of most radical change for both the mother and the embryo
• During implantation, the endometrium grows over the blastocyst
• During its first 2 to 4 weeks, the embryo obtains nutrients directly from the endometrium
• Meanwhile, the outer layer of the blastocyst, called the trophoblast, mingles with the
endometrium and eventually forms the placenta
• Blood from the embryo travels to the placenta through arteries of the umbilical cord and returns
via the umbilical vein
 • Splitting of the embryo during the first month of development results in genetically identical
twins
• The first trimester is the main period of organogenesis = development of the body organs
• All the major structures are present by 8 weeks, and the embryo is called a fetus
• Changes occur in the mother: growth of the placenta, cessation of ovulation and the menstrual
cycle, breast enlargement, and nausea is also very common

Human fetal development

• Human fetal development at 5 weeks, 14 weeks, and 20 weeks

Second Trimester

• During the second trimester: the fetus grows and is very active, the mother may feel fetal
movements, and the uterus grows enough for the pregnancy to become obvious

Third Trimester

• During the third trimester, the fetus grows and fills the space within the embryonic membranes
• A complex interplay of local regulators and hormones induces and regulates labor, the process
by which childbirth occurs
• First the baby is delivered, and then the placenta

Lactation

• Lactation = the production of milk. This is unique to mammals

Maternal Immune Tolerance of the Embryo and Fetus

• A woman’s acceptance of her “foreign” offspring is not fully understood

• It may be due to suppression of the immune response in her uterus

Contraception

• Contraception, the deliberate prevention of pregnancy, can be achieved in a number of ways

• Contraceptive methods

Methods of Birth Control

• Preventing release of eggs and sperm

• Keeping sperm and egg apart
• Preventing implantation of an embryo

Invasive vs Noninvasive Genetic Testing

• Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling are invasive techniques in which amniotic fluid or
fetal cells are obtained for genetic analysis.
• Noninvasive procedures usually use ultrasound imaging to detect fetal condition.
 • Genetic testing of the fetus poses ethical questions and can present parents with difficult
decisions.

Treating Infertility

• Modern technology can provide infertile couples with assisted reproductive technologies.
• In vitro fertilization (IVF) mixes eggs with sperm in culture dishes and returns the embryo to
the uterus at the 8 cell stage.
• Sperm are injected directly into an egg in a type of IVF called intracytoplasmic sperm injection
(ICSI).