KNOWLEDGE AREA: Diversity,

change and continuity

TOPIC 1: Biodiversity of Plants
and Reproduction

Reproduction in Plants
 Asexual reproduction occurs in absence of
gametes.
 In this type of reproduction only one parent is
involved, and all offspring have the same genetic
composition as the parent.
 This process occurs through mitosis
ADVANTAGES:
 In favourable conditions – large amounts of
offspring are produced rapidly
 Energy expenditure is low
 The offspring will be successful in the
environment because they are identical to the
parents, who lived successfully in the same
environment.
DISADVANTAGE:
 If any changes occurs in the environment then all
the offspring in the environment will be affected
since they are genetically identical.
 All share the same characteristics and if the
environment changes, it can be fatal to the plants
 Some produce so many offspring which leads to
overpopulation and then competition for space
and food increases
 Sexual reproduction is reproduction that occurs
with two parents and their genetic material
combines.
 Gametes: the sperm and ova are produced by
Meiosis
 During sexual reproduction a sperm fertilizes a
single egg to produce a zygote that develops into
a new individual
Advantages:
 Sexual reproduction results in genetic variation.
This means that the offspring produced are
genetically different from each other. This allows
the species to survive because if something
changes in the environment then at least some of
the organisms would survive.
 It forms the basis of evolution because it can
result in formation of new species
 Since The genetic material is shuffled the chances
of inheriting a weak characteristic decreases.
DISADVNTAGES:
 Takes longer than asexual reproduction
 Fewer offspring are produced, decreasing the
chances of survival
 Energy expenditure is higher. Special reproductive
organs form
 Plants need agents to disperse seeds and pollen.
 The flower is the reproductive organ in a
plant.
 We shall look at a monocot and dicot flower.
DICOT FLOWER:
 We shall look at an example of a dicot flower.

 We will look at the Petunia as an example.

 The perianth in
dicotyledonous flowers is
differentiated into two
parts: calyx and corolla
 The petunia flower is
made up of 4 whorls.
 Calyx
 Corolla
 Androecium
 Gynoecium
The Calyx:
 The calyx is the
outermost whorl of
the flower.
 It is made up of 5
sepals
 Which protects the
inner whorls of the
flower, especially in
the bud stage.
The Corolla:
 This is the second whorl of
the flower.
 It is made up of 5 brightly
coloured petals.
 These petals in the Petunia
are joined to form a corolla
tube.
 The corolla tube is trumpet
shaped.
 The petals attracts
pollinating agents. (birds
and insects)
The Androecium:
 This is the male whorl of the
flower. Also called stamens
 In the Petunia there are 5
stamens.
 Each stamen is made up of 2
parts.
 These are the anther and the
filament.
 The anther contains pollen
sacs.
 The pollen sacs contain Stamen
pollen grains.
The Androecium
The Gynaecium:
 This is the female whorl of
the flower.
 It is made of floral whorls
called carpels.
 The gynaecium of the
Petunia has 2 carpels.
 The carpels go on to form
the pistil.
 Each pistil is made up of 3
parts.
 These 3 parts are the
stigma, style and ovary.
 The stigma is sticky to receive the pollen grains.
 The Petunia has a bi-lobed stigma.
 The style is a long tube like structure.
 Ithas 2 functions.
 They are:
 to hold the stigma in a favorable position to
receive pollen grains during pollination.
 To serve as a passage for the growth of the pollen
tube towards the egg.
A tissue occurs in the
centre of the ovary.
 This tissue is called the
Placentation
placenta.
 The ovules are attached to
the placenta.
 Since the ovules are
attached to the placenta
and the placenta is found in
the centre of the ovary, we
say that the ovule are
arranged in axile
placentation.
 The ovary also has
chambers or cavities.
 These chambers or
cavities are called
locules.
 The Petunia has 2
locules .
 Therefore it is called bi-
locular.
 The Petunia has a
superior ovary because
the ovary arises from
above the receptacle.
MONOCOT FLOWER:

 We shall look at an
example of a
monocot flower.
 We will look at the
Aloe as an
example.
 This is an example of an incomplete flower because is
made up of 3 whorls instead of 2.
 The 3 whorls are:
a. The perigone
b. Androecium
c. Gynoecium

 Lets look at each whorl…

a. The perigone
 The perigone is made up of a fused calyx and corolla.
 The perigone is made up of individual petal like
structures called the tepals.
 The Aloe is made up of 6
orange coloured tepals.
 These tepals are
arranged in 2 circles. tepals
 There are an outer ring
of 3 tepals that alternate
with an inner ring of 3
tepals.
 In most Aloe the tepals
are fused at the bottom
to form a perianth tube.
 The perianth tube
attracts pollinating
agents such as insects
and birds. Flower of Aloe
The Androecium
 This is the male whorl.
 It is made of stamens.
 Each stamen is made
up of an anther and
filament.
 In the Aloe there are 6
stamens.
 These stamens are
arranged in 2 circles Stamen of Aloe
of 3.
The Gynaecium:
 The gynaecium
consists of a simple
stigma, a long thin
style and an ovary
that consists of three
lobes. stigma

 There are three rows

of ovules
 The ovary is superior
Pollination is the transfer of ripe pollen
grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower.
 There are two types of
pollination.
 These are cross or self
pollination.
 Cross pollination is
when the pollen grains from
the anther of one flower is
transferred to the stigma of Self Pollination
another flower.
 Self pollination is
when the pollen grains from
the anther of one flower is
transferred to the stigma of
the same flower.

Cross Pollination
 The pollen grains are released form the anther,
when the anther bursts.
 The wind, water, insects or birds can be
pollinating agents.
 As the pollen grain develops it eventually contains
two sperms.
 At this stage it grows down into the style by
means of a pollen tube.
 One sperm would fuse with the egg to form a
zygote.
 This process is called fertilization.
 The zygote undergoes mitosis several times to
form an embryo.
 The embryo occurs
within the seed.
 The embryo is made up
of 3 parts.
 These are the radical,
the plumule and the
axis.
 The radical is the first
root and would develop
into the root system.
 The plumule is the first
leaves.
 The axis is the first
shoot.
 The embryo occurs within the ovary.
 The mature ovule develops into the seed.
 The ovary becomes the fruit.
 When the fruit ripens it splits and the seeds are
released.
 The seeds can be dispersed by the wind, water,
insects, birds and mammals.
 The seeds are adapted to their pollinating agent.
 For example seeds that are dispersed by animals
have hooks or bristles to stick onto the animals
coat.
 Seeds that have wings or parachutes are
dispersed by the wind.
 When the conditions are favorable the seed
germinates.
 The seed absorbs water and the testa breaks.
 The radical and plumule then emerges.
 The radical develops into the roots.
 The plumule develops into the first leaves.
 The cotyledon acts as the leaf until the true
leaves appear.
 We will look at how the flower is adapted for self
pollinating agents.
 The main agents of self pollination are wind,
insects and birds.
Wind Pollinated Flowers:
 These flowers are small and green.
 Their petals are not brightly coloured.
 They produce little nectar and do not have a very
strong scent.
 Some examples of such plants are maize, grass,
polar and oak tree.
Adaptations to Wind
Pollination:
 The filaments are long
and thin so that they can
sway in the wind.
 The anthers are attached
to the filament in such a
way so that they are
exposed and can be
moved easily.
 Stigma is large and
feathery to trap as many
pollen grains as possible.
 The stigma is also sticky to trap as many pollen
grains as possible.
A large amount of pollen grains are produced
to ensure at least some of them reach the
stigma.
 The pollen are light, dry and smooth so that they
can be easily carried by the wind over long
distances.
Insect Pollinated Flowers:
 These flowers are brightly
coloured.
 They give off a strong
fragrance and are usually
large.
 These flowers provide the
insect with pollen or nectar
for food.
 When the insect visits the
flower some of the pollen is
rubbed of onto its body.
 When it visits the next flower
the pollen from its body is
rubbed off onto the stigma
of the new flower.
 Butterflies, bees and moths are some of the
insects that are involved in pollinating flowers
 Some examples of flowers that are insect
pollinated are sunflowers and daises.

Adaptations of Insect pollinated Flowers:

 Flowers are brightly coloured to attract insects.
All brightly coloured flowers attract butterflies,
flowers that are blue, purple and red attract bees
and moths are attracted by white and yellow
flowers.
 Flowers are large, or
sometimes when
flowers are small the
are grouped together
to make them more
visible.
 Flowers with pleasant Small flowers cluster
together so they are more
scents attract bees, visible.
butterflies and moths.
Flowers with
unpleasant scents
attract flies.
 Some flowers have
hairs or markings
that lead the insect
to the nectaries
which produce the
nectar. Example Iris.
The yellow markings point
 Pollen grains are the Insects to the
sticky or rough so nectaries.
that they can
become attached to
the insect’s body.
 Some flowers have
structural adaptations
that help transfer the
pollen grains from the
flower to the insect.
One example is the
Salvia, when the insect
lands on the lower
petal (called a lip) the
stamens bend over
from above and press
down on the insects
back, transferring the
pollen onto the insects
back.