thermodynamics

SIGNAL
❑ The set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in relation R is
called the domain of the relation R.
❑ The set of all second elements in a relation R from A → B is
called the range of relation R. The whole set B is called the co-
domain of the relation R, where range is always a subset of co-
domain.

PHYSICS II
 engineering science

THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS

Kervie B. Beltran, ECE, ECT

Part-time Instructor I
Electronics Engineering Department
 thermodynamics
THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS is the branch of physics that deals with the
conversions, from one to another, of various forms of energy and
how these affect temperature, pressure, volume, mechanical
action, and work.

James Prescott Joule in 1849

Thermodynamics was coined by ___________________

Nicolas Sadi Carnot – Father of Thermodynamics

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
PHASES OF SUBSTANCE
❑ SOLID – in this phase the substance does not take the shape of
the container.
❑ SUBCOOLED LIQUID – in this phase the liquid is non-
saturated. Non-saturated means that it is not at its boiling point.
❑ SATURATED LIQUID – in this phase the liquid can absorb as
much heat as it can without vaporizing.
❑ LIQUID-VAPOR MIXTURE – in this phase the liquid and vapor
co-exist with the same temperature and pressure.
❑ SATURATED VAPOR – in this phase the vapor has absorbed
more heat than necessary to vaporize it.
PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
PHASES OF SUBSTANCE
❑ IDEAL GAS – in this phase the gas (a highly superheated vapor)
behaves in accordance with the ideal gas law.
❑ REAL GAS – in this phase the gas does not behave in
accordance with the ideal gas law.
❑ GAS MIXTURES – in this phase two or more gases mixed
together freely.
❑ VAPOR/GAS MIXTURES – in this phase two or more gases
mixed freely with vapor.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
PHASES OF SUBSTANCE
REAL GAS
❑ Does not meet the above conditions (including Kinetic
Molecular Theory).
❑ At laboratory pressure and temperature, they tend to behave
like ideal gas.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
PHASES OF SUBSTANCE
IDEAL GAS
❑ Follows the gas laws at all conditions of temperature and
pressure.
❑ Abides by the Kinetic-Molecular Theory.
❑ Gas particles should occupy zero volume and not exhibit any
attractive forces.
❑ Does not exist in real world.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
❑ Gases are composed of a large number of particles that behave
like hard, spherical objects in a state of constant, random
motion.
❑ These particles move in a straight line until they collide with
another particle or the walls of the container.
❑ These particles are much smaller than the distance between
particles. Most of the volume of a gas is therefore empty space.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY
❑ There is no force of attraction between gas particles or between
the particles and the walls of the container.
❑ Collisions between gas particles or collisions with the walls of
the container are perfectly elastic. None of the energy of a gas
particle is lost when it collides with another particle or with the
walls of the container.
❑ The average kinetic energy of a collection of gas particles
depends on the temperature of the gas and nothing else.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
❑ THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM or
simply a system refers to a
definite quantity of matter most
often contained within some
closed surface chosen for study.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
❑ SURROUNDING also called
ENVIRONMENT is the mass or
region outside the system.
❑ BOUNDARY is the real or
imaginary surface that separates
the system from its surroundings.
It can be either fixed or movable.
This is where most interaction of
energy happens.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
KINDS OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
❑ OPEN SYSTEM also known as Control volume is a system in
which mass is allowed to cross the boundary. Heat, work, and
matter can cross the boundary.
Examples: Jet engines, pumps.

❑ STEADY FLOW SYSTEM is a type of open system wherein

matter enters and leaves at the same rate. Examples: Boilers,
turbines.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
KINDS OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM
❑ CLOSED SYSTEM also known as control mass is a system
consisting of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its
boundary. That is, no mass can enter or leave a closed system.
However, energy in the form of heat or work, can cross the
boundary.

❑ ISOLATED SYSTEM is a system in which neither mass nor

energy is allowed to cross the boundary.

• DIATHERMIC SYSTEM is the term if energy crosses the system boundaries

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
KINDS OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
A PROPERTY is any quantity, which serves to describe a system.
It can be divided into two general types

❑ INTENSIVE PROPERTY is one, which does not depend on the

mass of the system such as temperature, pressure, and velocity.
❑ EXTENSIVE PROPERTY is one, which depends on the mass of
the system such as volume, and kinetic energy.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
The STATE OF SYSTEM is its condition as described by giving
values to its properties at a particular instant. At a given state, all
properties of a system have fixed values. If the value of even one
property changes, the state of the system will change to a
different one.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
EQUILIBRIUM implies a state of balance. Under equilibrium
state, there are no unbalanced potentials or driving forces within
the system. A system in equilibrium experiences no changes
when it is isolated from its surroundings.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
A system is in:

❑ THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM - if the temperature is the same

throughout the entire system.
❑ MECHANICAL EQUILIBRIUM - if there is no change in
pressure at any point on the system with time.
❑ PHASE EQUILIBRIUM - if the system involves two phases,
and the mass of each phase reaches equilibrium level and stays
there.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
STATE VARIABLES
TEMPERATURE is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
different particles in a sample of matter. It can also be defined as
the degree of hotness or coldness of a certain substance with
respect to some standard value.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
STATE VARIABLES
“The ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS states that if two
systems are in thermal equilibrium, they must be at the same
temperature. If both systems are in thermal equilibrium with a
third system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each
other.”
C

A B

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TEMPERATURE
THERMOMETER or a thermoscope is any device that
measures temperature. There are different types of
thermometers, but most of these are liquid
thermometers. These devices are based on the
principle of thermal expansion. When the liquid inside
the thermometer is being heated, it expands to a
greater volume. Since the liquid is enclosed in constant-
volume glass or plastic column, any increase in the
volume will translate to an increase in height of the
liquid proportional to the changes in temperature.
PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TEMPERATURE SCALES
CELSIUS SCALE – also known as
Centigrade scale (because the separation
of the freezing point and the boiling point
of water is 100 degrees), is perhaps the
most widely accepted temperature scale
globally. This temperature scale is named
after Swedish Astronomer Anders Celsius.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TEMPERATURE SCALES
FAHRENHEIT SCALE – it is another
common scale used in some countries
most notably in the United States. This is
named after the German physicist, Gabriel
Daniel Fahrenheit who is also the inventor
of the first mercury thermometer that we
use today.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TEMPERATURE SCALES
KELVIN SCALE – This is the SI unit of
temperature and the most common unit of
temperature adopted in scientific
community. Zero Kelvin is called the
absolute zero temperature and is the
lowest temperature that any matter can
reach or it is the temperature below which
any other value has no physical
significance.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TEMPERATURE SCALES
KELVIN SCALE – This is named after the
British Physicist Lord Kelvin or Sir William
Thomson. In writing values of
temperature in the Kelvin scale, the
symbol K is used without the degree
symbol.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TEMPERATURE SCALES
RANKINE SCALE – Named after William
John Rankine, this is the absolute
equivalent of the Fahrenheit scale.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SI UNITS
Base Quantity New
It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the caesium frequency ∆νCs , the
Time unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium 133 atom, to be
9192631770 when expressed in the unit Hz, which is equal to s−1 .
It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum c to be
Length 299792458 when expressed in the unit m s −1, where the second is defined in terms of
∆νCs
It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck constant h to be
Mass 6.62607015 × 10−34 when expressed in the unit J s, which is equal to kg m2 s −1 ,
where the metre and the second are defined in terms of c and ∆νCs .
It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge e to be
Electric Current 1.602176634×10−19 when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A s, where the
second is defined in terms of ∆νCs

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SI UNITS
Base Quantity New
It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Boltzmann constant k to be
Temperature 1.380649×10−23 when expressed in the unit 𝐽 𝐾 −1 , which is equal to kg m2 s−2 K −1 ,
where the kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ∆𝜈𝐶𝑠 .
One mole contains exactly 6.022 140 76 × 10^23 elementary entities. This number is the
Amount of Substance fixed numerical value of the Avogadro constant, NA, when expressed in the unit mol−1
and is called the Avogadro number.
It is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the luminous efficacy of
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540×10^12 Hz, 𝐾𝑐𝑑 , to be 683 when expressed in
Luminous Intensity
the unit lm 𝑊 −1 , which is equal to cd sr W −1 , or cd sr kg −1 m−2 s3 , where the
kilogram, metre and second are defined in terms of h, c and ∆νCs

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SI UNITS

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TEMPERATURE SCALES

Celsius Fahrenheit Rankine Kelvin

Boiling
point of 100° 212° 671.67° 373.15
water
Freezing
point of 0° 32° 459.67° 273.15
water
Absolute
-273.15° -459.67° 0° 0
zero

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
Celsius to Fahrenheit Celsius to kelvin Δ𝑇𝐾 = Δ𝑇℃
9 Δ𝑇°𝑅 = Δ𝑇℉
𝐹 = 𝐶 + 32 𝐾 = 𝐶 + 273.15
5
5
Fahrenheit to Celsius Fahrenheit to rankine Δ𝑇°𝐶 = Δ𝑇℉
9
5
𝐶 = (𝐹 − 32) 𝑅 = 𝐹 + 459.67
9 5
Δ𝑇𝐾 = Δ𝑇°𝑅
9

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Calculate the difference between 97˚F and 40˚F in both Celsius degrees and
Kelvin.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A new temperature scale is being developed in a certain laboratory. On this
new scale, the freezing point of water and the boiling point of water are
200°N and 400°N, respectively. What is the temperature in the Fahrenheit
scale that is equivalent to 570 °N?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
At what temperature does the Celsius and Fahrenheit Scale numerically
equal?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
STATE VARIABLES
The MASS DENSITY of a material is defined as the mass per unit
volume of the material:
m
ρm =
V

where:
ρm = mass density
m = mass
V = volume

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
STATE VARIABLES
The WEIGHT DENSITY of a material is defined as the weight per
unit volume of the material:

W
ρW =
V

where:
ρW = weight density
W = weight
V = volume

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
STATE VARIABLES
The SPECIFIC VOLUME is the volume per unit mass.

V 1
v= =
m ρm

where:
v = specific volume
V = volume
m = mass
ρm = mass density

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
STATE VARIABLES
The SPECIFIC GRAVITY (relative density) of a substance is the
ratio of the density of the substance to the density of some
standard substance. The standard is usually water (at 4℃) for
liquids and solids, while for gases, it is usually air.
ρsubstance
sp. gr. =
ρstandard
For solid: ρwater = 1000 kg/m^3
For gas: ρair = 1.4 kg/m^3

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
STATE VARIABLES
PRESSURE is a force per unit area.

F
P=
A

where:
F = force (N)
A = area (m2 )

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
STATE VARIABLES
GAUGE PRESSURE is the amount by which the absolute pressure
exceeds atmospheric pressure.

Pgauge = Pabs − Patm

where:
Pgauge = gauge pressure
Pabs = absolute pressure
Patm = atmospheric pressure

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
STATE VARIABLES
“ PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE states that the pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same
amount. “

P1 = P2

F1 F2
=
A1 A2

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
EXPANSION BY LENGTH
The change in length increases linearly with the change in
temperature.

ΔL = αL0 ΔT

LN = L0 + ΔL
where:
α = coefficient of linear expansion
L0 = initial length
ΔL = change in length
ΔT = change in temperature

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
EXPANSION BY LENGTH

Negative value of 𝛼 means that the material shrinks as the

temperature increases.
Example: Silicon and Quartz

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A copper bar is 80 cm long at 15℃. What is the increase in length when it is
heated to 35℃? The linear expansion coefficient for copper is
1.7×10^(−5)/℃.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A steel tape is calibrated at 20℃. On a cold day when the temperature is -
15℃, what will be the percent error in the tape? 𝛼𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 1.1 × 10−5 ℃−1

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A steel tape measures the length of a copper rod as 90.00 cm when both are
at 10℃, the calibration temperature for the tape. What would the tape read
for the length of the rod when both are at 30℃? 𝛼𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 1.1 × 10−5 ℃−1
and 𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 1.7 × 10−5 ℃−1 .

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
EXPANSION BY VOLUME
The change in temperature results to a change in volume. Usually,
for fluids, this is the only type of expansion that is considered.

ΔV = βV0 ΔT

VN = V0 + ΔV
where:
𝛽 = coefficient of volume expansion = 3𝛼
V = initial volume 𝛽 for almost all types of gases have the
Δ𝑉 = change in volume same value at standard temperature 0℃
Δ𝑇 = change in temperature
𝛽𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 3.66 × 10−3 /℃
PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A glass flask if filled “to the mark” with 50.00 cm3 of mercury at 18℃. If the
flask and its content are heated to 38℃, how much mercury will be above
the mark? αglass = 9.0 × 10−6 ℃−1 and βmercury = 182 × 10−6 ℃−1

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
The density of mercury at exactly 0℃ is 13600 kg/m3 , and its volume
expansion coefficient is 1.82 × 10−4 ℃−1 . Calculate the density of mercury
at 50℃.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
The density of gold is 19.30 g/cm3 at 20.0℃, and the coefficient of linear
expansion is 1.43 × 10−6 ℃−1 . Compute the density of gold at 90.0℃

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
HEAT
HEAT (Q) is a form of transferred energy that arises from the
random motion of molecules. Another definition, it is an internal
energy in transit from one body to another by virtue of a
temperature difference between them. The concept of heat is
related to the concept of temperature. If a body is hotter
compared to its surroundings, energy in the form of heat will
leave the body and transfer to the surroundings (from hotter to
colder). This transfer will continue until the temperature of the
body and surrounding reaches the same value (thermal
equilibrium).
PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
There are three modes of transfer of heat:

❑ CONDUCTION - in which heat transfer takes place from

molecule to molecule through a body or through bodies in
contact.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
FOURIER’S LAW OF THERMAL CONDUCTION
FOURIER’S LAW states that the time rate of heat transfer through
a material is proportional to the gradient in the temperature and
to the area, at right angles to that gradient, through which the
heat is flowing.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
FOURIER’S LAW OF THERMAL CONDUCTION
The rate of heat transfer through conduction is defined as:

Q kAΔT
=
t L
where:
Q
= rate of heat conduction
t
ΔT = change in temperature
L = thickness of material
A = area
ΔT/L= temperature gradient
k/L = R = thermal resistance
k = thermal conductivity – is measure of the
ability of a material to conduct heat.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
An aluminum rod has a diameter of 4 cm and a length of 8 cm. One end of
the rod is placed in boiling water and the other end is placed in an ice bath.
How much heat in calories is conducted through the bar in 1 minute? The
thermal conductivity of aluminum is 205 J/m-s-℃.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What temperature gradient must be applied to a gold bar (2 cm x 4 cm) if
the heat flow is to be 100 J/s? The thermal conductivity of gold is 397
J/m-s-℃.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
There are three modes of transfer of heat:

❑ CONVECTION - in which the transfer is due to the motion of

molecules of the medium. Convection is normally the heat
transfer mechanism attributed to most fluids (liquids and
gases).

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
CONVECTION
The rate of heat transfer through convection is defined as:
Q
= hAΔT
t

where:
Q
= rate of heat convection
t
h = convection coefficient
A = area
ΔT = change in temperature

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
There are three modes of transfer of heat:

❑ RADIATION - in which the heat transfer takes place without

any intervening medium.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
STEFFAN BOLTZMANN LAW
The rate of heat transfer through radiation at which object of
surface area A and absolute temperature T emits radiation:

Q 4 4
= σeA(T2 − T1 )
t
where:
Q
= rate of heat radiation
t
σ = Steffan-Boltzmann constant (5.67x10^-8 W/m^2-K^4)
e = emissivity (from 0 to 1)
A = area

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
EMISSIVITY
EMISSIVITY refers to the ability of an object to emit radiation.
❑ A perfect radiator has an emissivity of 1.
❑ Dark objects generally have high values of emissivity while
light or shiny objects have relatively low values of emissivity.
❑ A black body is an idealized object that absorbs all
electromagnetics radiation falling on it.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
An ordinary incandescent electric light bulb contains a fine tungsten wire
that is heated to a high temperature by passing an electric current through
it. A typical filament has a surface area about 1 square centimeter (10−4
square meters) and is heated to a temperature of approximately 2000℃. At
this temperature, the emissivity of tungsten is 0.30. What is the radiated
power of the light bulb?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
An unclothed person whose body has a surface area of 1.40 sq. m. with an
emissivity of 0.85 has a skin temperature of 37℃ and stands in a 20℃
room. How much energy does the person lose per minute?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TOTAL HEAT
The TOTAL HEAT entering a substance is the sum of the heat
that changes the phase of the substance (latent heat) and the heat
that changes the temperature of the substance (sensible heat).

Q = QL + QS

where:
QL = latent heat
QS = sensible heat

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
Heating and Cooling curves

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
LATENT HEAT
LATENT HEAT is the amount of heat necessary to change the
phase of the system without changing its temperature.
where:
QL = heat needed
Q L = ±mHf/v m = mass
H = latent heat of fusion or vaporization

✓ Use (+) if heat is absorbed by the substance (substance melts)

✓ Use (-) if heat is released by the substance (substance freezes)

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
LATENT HEAT
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION is the heat that is necessary to
change a unit mass of a substance from solid to liquid state at its
melting point.
For ice at its melting point:
Hf = 80 cal/g = 144 BTU/lb = 334 kJ/kg

LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION is the heat required to

change a unit mass of substance from liquid to vapor state.
For water at its boiling point
Hv = 540 cal/g = 970 BTU/lb = 2257 kJ/kg
PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
LATENT HEAT
LATENT HEAT OF SUBLIMATION is the heat that is necessary
to change a unit mass of a substance from solid to gas state
without becoming liquid and vice versa.

Hs = 667.8 cal/g = 1220 BTU/lbm = 2838 kJ/kg

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SENSIBLE HEAT
SENSIBLE HEAT is the amount of heat necessary to change the
temperature of the system without changing its phase.

Q = mcΔT

where:
Q = heat needed
m = mass
c = specific heat of the substance
ΔT = change in temperature

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SENSIBLE HEAT
SPECIFIC HEAT is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 g of the substance by 1°C

For water and ice:

cw = 1 cal/g-°C
ci = 0.5 cal/g-°C

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
(a) How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 250 mL of water
from 20℃ to 35℃? (b) How much heat is lost by the water as it cools back
down to 20.0℃?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A certain amount of heat is added to a mass of aluminum (c = 0.21 cal/g ∙
℃), and its temperature is raised 57℃. Suppose that the same amount of
heat is added to the same mass of copper (c = 0.093 cal/g ∙ ℃). How much
does the temperature of the copper rise?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A thermos bottle contains 250 g of coffee at 90℃. To this is added 20 g of
milk at 5℃. After equilibrium is established, what is the temperature of the
liquid? Assume no heat loss to the thermos bottle.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A 200-g copper calorimeter can contains 150 g of oil at 20℃. To the oil is
added 80 g of aluminum at 300℃. What will be the temperature of the
cal cal
system after equilibrium is established?cCu = 0.093 ; cAl = 0.21 ;
g∙℃ g∙℃
cal
coil = 0.37
g∙℃

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
How much heat is given up when 20 g of steam at 100℃ is condensed and
cooled to 20℃?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
An electric heater that produces 900 W of power is used to vaporize water.
How much water at 100℃ can be changed to steam in 3 mins by the water
heater? (For water at 100℃, Lv = 2.26 × 106 J/kg).

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What amount of heat is needed to change 80 g of ice at -10℃ to steam at
120℃?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
cal J
A 3.00-g bullet (c = 0.0305 = 128 ) moving at 180 m/s enters a bag
g∙℃ kg∙℃
of sand and stops. By what amount does the temperature of the bullet
change if all its KE becomes thermal energy that is added to the bullet?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
ABSOLUTE ENTROPY
ABSOLUTE ENTROPY is a measure of the energy that is no
longer available to perform useful work within the current
environment. Other definition is that is the measure of
randomness or disorder of the system

Q
S=
where:
TK
S = entropy (J/K)
Q = heat (J)
T = temperature (K)

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
2 kilograms of ice is melted into liquid water at 0℃. What is the change in
entropy in kJ/K?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
5 kilograms of water, initially at a temperature of 0℃, is heated until it
reaches 100℃. What is the change in entropy of the substance?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A 30 kg iron was put in a container with water. The water is at 10℃ and
the iron has an initial temperature of 493 K, until the iron was in thermal
equilibrium with the water. Find the change in entropy.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics

GAS LAWS
PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
IDEAL GAS LAW
The absolute pressure P of n kilomoles of gas contained in a
volume V is related to the absolute temperature T by

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
where: 𝐽
𝑅 = 8.314
R = universal gas constant 𝑚𝑜𝑙 − 𝐾
𝐵𝑇𝑈
P = absolute pressure = 1.986
T = absolute temperature 𝑚𝑜𝑙 − 𝑅
𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓
n = number of moles (m/M) = 1545
𝑚𝑜𝑙 − 𝑅
PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics

SPECIAL CASES
OF GAS LAWS
PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
BOYLE'S LAW
BOYLE'S LAW (n. T constant): PV = constant

At constant temperature and number moles,

the volume gas varies inversely with the
pressure. In other words, an increase in
pressure is accompanied by a decrease in
volume and vice versa.

𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
CHARLES LAW
CHARLES' LAW (n, P constant): V/T =
constant

At constant pressure and number of moles, the

volume of an ideally behaving gas is directly
proportional to the Kelvin temperature. In
other words, gas volume increases when the
temperature is raised.

𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
GAY-LUSSAC'S LAW
GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW (n, V constant): P/T =
constant

states that the pressure of a given mass of gas

varies directly with the absolute temperature
of the gas, when the volume is kept constant

𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
The combined Gas law

𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
Standard conditions STP

𝑇 = 273.15 𝐾 = 0 °𝐶

5
𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.013 × 10 𝑃𝑎

Note: Under standard conditions, 1 kmol of ideal gas

occupies a volume of 22.4 m^3

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
DALTONS LAW of partial pressure
DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE – the
total pressure of a mixture of ideal, nonreactive
gases is the sum of the partial pressures of the
component gases

𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑛

where:
𝑃𝑡 = total pressure of the mixture
𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , … , 𝑃𝑛 = partial pressure of component gases

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
AVOGADROS LAW
AVOGADRO’S LAW – at equal volume, under the
same pressure and temperature conditions, gases
contain the same number of molecules.

𝑚1 𝑀1 𝑅1
= =
𝑚2 𝑀2 𝑅2
where:
m = mass
M = molecular weight
R = gas constant

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A mass of oxygen occupies 0.0200 𝑚^3 at atmospheric pressure, 101
kPa, and 5.0℃. Determine its volume if its pressure is increased to 108
kPa while its temperature is changed to 30℃.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
The gauge pressure in a car tire is 305 kPa when its temperature is 15℃.
After running at high speed, the tire has heated up and its pressure is 360
kPa. What is then the temperature of the gas in the tire? Assume
atmospheric pressure to be 101 kPa.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
An ideal gas has a volume of exactly 1 liter at 1.00 atm and -20℃. To how
many atmospheres pressure must it be subjected to be compressed to 0.5
liters when the temperature is 40℃.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
The density of nitrogen is 1.25 kg/m^3 at STP. Determine the density of
nitrogen at 42℃ and 730 mm of mercury.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Determine the volume occupied by 4.0 g of oxygen (M = 32 kg/kmol) at
STP.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A 2.0-mg droplet of liquid nitrogen is present in a 30 mL tube as it is
sealed off at very low temperature. What will be the nitrogen pressure in
the tube when it is warmed to 20℃? Express the answer in atmosphere.
(M for nitrogen is 28 kg/kmol)

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the density of methane (M = 16 kg/kmol) at 20℃ and 5.0 atm.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Find the density of methane (M = 16 kg/kmol) at 20℃ and 5.0 atm.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A fish emits a 2.0 mm^3 bubble at a depth of 15 m in a lake. Find the
volume of the bubble as it reaches the surface. Assume its temperature
does not change.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
An ideal gas at 100℉ has a pressure of 32 psig. It is heated in a fixed,
rigid, and closed vessel to raise its temperature to 160℉. What is its final
pressure?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Assuming compression is according to the law PV = constant, calculate the
initial volume of gas at a pressure of 2 bar which will occupy a volume of
6 m^3 when it is compressed to a pressure of 42 bar.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
The pressure of the nitrogen has thermometer is 78 cm at 0℃. What is the
temperature of a liquid in which the bulb of the thermometer is immersed
when the pressure is seen to be 87.7 cm?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics

ENTHALPY AND
INTERNAL ENERGY
PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
Internal energy
The INTERNAL ENERGY (U) of a system is the total energy content of the
system. It is the sum of the kinetic, potential, chemical, electrical, nuclear,
and all other forms of energy possessed by the atoms and molecules of the
system. In thermodynamics analysis, total energy of a system is made up of
two groups, namely macroscopic and microscopic.

Macroscopic – a system possess as a whole with respect to some outside reference

frame (KE, PE)

Microscopic – related to molecular structure of a system and independent of outside

reference frames.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
“ The FIRST LAW OF THERODYNAMICS is a statement of the law of conservation
of energy. It states that: If an amount of heat that flows into a system, then this energy must
appear as increased internal energy for the system and/or work done by the system on its
surroundings. “
Total Energy Entering = Total Energy Leaving

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
FIRST LAW EQUATION
Note: The work done
by a system ∆𝑊 is
Δ𝑄 = Δ𝑈 + Δ𝑊 positive if the system
thereby loses energy
to its surroundings.
When the
surroundings do work
on the system, so as to
where:
give it energy, ∆𝑊 is a
Δ𝑄 = heat flow into a system
ΔU = change in internal energy of the system negative quantity.
ΔW = pΔ𝑉 (work done by the system)

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
Enthalpy

ENTHALPY represents the total useful energy of a substance. Useful

energy consists of two parts:

1. The internal energy, U

2. Flow energy also known as flow work, pV

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
ENTHALPY

𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑝𝑉

where:
H = enthalpy
U = internal energy
p = pressure
V = volume

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS
✓ ISOBARIC PROCESS (Constant Pressure) – is a process carried out
at constant pressure.
∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑝∆𝑉

✓ ISOVOLUMIC PROCESS (Constant Volume) – is a process carried

out at constant volume.

∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 → (∆𝑊 = 0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∆𝑉 = 0)

Note that for an isovolumic (also called isochoric or isometric) process, any heat flows into the system
appears as increased internal energy of the system

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS
✓ ISOTHERMAL PROCESS (Constant Temperature) – is a process
carried out a constant temperature.
∆𝑄 = ∆𝑊 → ∆𝑈 = 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
For ideal gas changing isothermally,
∆𝑄 = Δ𝑊 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ln(𝑉2 /𝑉1 )
✓ ADIABATIC PROCESS (No Heat Flow) – is a process in which no
heat is transferred to or from the system.
∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊 = 0

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS is about entropy. It
states that “ The total entropy of any isolated thermodynamic system tends to
increase over time, approaching a maximum value. ”
✓ Heat generally cannot flow spontaneously from a material at a lower temperature
to a material at higher temperature. – CLAUSIUS STATEMENT
✓ It is impossible to convert a heat completely into work in a cyclic process. –
KELVIN-PLANCK STATEMENT
✓ In the neighbourhood of any equilibrium state of a thermodynamic system,
there are equilibrium states that are adiabatically inaccessible. –
CARATHEODORY STATEMENT

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
“ The THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS (Nernst Theorem) states
that: the absolute entropy of a pure substance approaches zero as the
absolute thermodynamic temperature approaches zero. “

lim 𝑆 = 0
𝑇→0𝐾

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
PROCESS
A PROCESS is any change that a system undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another.

A PATH refers to the series of states through which a system passes

during a process

A REVERSIBLE PROCESS is one that is performed in such a way

that at the end of the process, both the system and the local
surroundings can be restored to their initial states. A process that
does not meet the requirements is said to be IRREVERSIBLE.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
REVERSIBLE PROCESS
A REVERSIBLE PROCESS must be a quasi-equilibrium process
and is subject to the following restrictions:

✓ No friction exists
✓ Heat transfer is due only to an infinitesimal temperature
difference
✓ Unrestrained expansion does not occur
✓ There is no mixing
✓ There is no turbulence
✓ There is no combustion or chemical reaction
PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TYPES OF PROCESSES
✓ ISOBARIC PROCESS is process by which the state variable
of a system is changed while the pressure is held constant.

✓ ISOVOLUMIC PROCESS also known as isometric or

isochoric process is a process carried out at constant volume.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TYPES OF PROCESSES
✓ ADIABATIC PROCESS is one in which no heat or other energy is
transferred to or from the system.
❑ ISENTROPIC PROCESS is an adiabatic process in which there
is no change in the system entropy.
❑ THROTTLING PROCESS is an adiabatic process in which there
is no change in the system enthalpy but for which there is a
significant pressure drop.

✓ ISOTHERMAL PROCESS is a process carried out at constant

temperature.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TYPES OF PROCESSES
✓ QUASISTATIC PROCESS is one which can be divided infinitesimally
from equilibrium.

✓ REVERSIBLE PROCESS the process in which its conclusion, both the

system and the local surroundings can be restored to their initial
state.

✓ IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS the process in which its conclusion, both

the system and the local surroundings cannot be restored to their
initial state. All actual process are irreversible processes.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TYPES OF PROCESSES
✓ POLYTROPIC PROCESS is one that obeys the polytropic equation of
state

𝑛 𝑛
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2

where: n = 0; Isobaric process

P = pressure n = 1; Isothermal process
V = volume n = k; Isentropic process
n = polytropic exponent n = ∞; Isometric process

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
TYPES OF PROCESSES
The POLYTROPIC SPECIFIC HEAT, c

𝑛−𝑘
𝑐𝑛 = 𝑐𝑣 ( )
𝑛−1

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐𝑛 Δ𝑇

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
CYCLE
A CYCLE is a series of processes that
eventually brings the system back to its
original condition.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
In a certain process, 8.00 kcal of heat is furnished to the system while the
system does 6.00 kJ of work. By how much does the internal energy of the
system changed during the process?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Find Δ𝑊 and Δ𝑈 for a 6 cm cube of iron as it is heated from 20℃ to
300℃ at atmospheric pressure. For iron, 𝑐 = 0.11 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑔 ∙ ℃ and the
volume coefficient of thermal expansion is 3.6 × 10−5 ℃−1 . The mass of the
cube is 1700 g.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
For each of the following adiabatic processes, find the change in internal
energy. (a) A gas does 5 J of work while expanding adiabatically. (b)
During an adiabatic compression, 80 J of work is done on a gas.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
For nitrogen gas, 𝑐𝑣 = 740 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾. Find its specific heat at constant
pressure. (The molecular mass of nitrogen gas is 28.0 kg/kmol).

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
How much work is done by an ideal gas in expanding isothermally from an
initial volume of 3.00 liters at 20.0 atm to a final volume of 24.0 liters?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Twenty cubic centimeters of monoatomic gas at 12℃ and 100 kPa is
suddenly (and adiabatically) compressed to 0.50 cu. cm. What are its new
pressure and temperature?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the change in internal energy of an ice with mass of 0.5 kg that is
melted at freezing point and is transformed to water at 10℃?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the change in internal energy of an ideal gas if it expands by 20
liter after applying 5 kJ of heat? Assume that this is a constant-pressure
process.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Determine the work done on a 0.5 𝑚3 gas if it is compressed at constant
temperature to 0.3 𝑚3 . When the gas was at its initial state, the pressure
was 5 atm while the temperature was at 20℃ room temperature.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
𝐽
A cylinder contains 5 mol of hydrogen gas (𝑐𝑣 = 12.5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑝 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙−𝐾
𝐽
20.8 )
at a temperature of 330 K. How much energy through heat is
𝑚𝑜𝑙−𝐾
applied to the system, for constant-volume process, to double the
temperature of the gas?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Twenty grams of oxygen gas (𝑂2 ) are compressed at constant temperature
of 30℃ to 5% of its original volume. Find the work done on the system?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics

HEAT ENGINES
and
HEAT PUMPS
PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
HEAT ENGINES

HEAT ENGINE is any device that converts

heat into mechanical energy or work. It gets
heat from a high-temperature reservoir or
source, and converts a fraction of it into a
mechanical energy or work as the output.
Since not all input heat is not converted into
work, by nature, heat engines are inefficient
thermodynamic devices.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
CARNOT ENGINE

CARNOT ENGINE is an idealized engine that is not subject to practical

difficulties such as friction or heat loss by conduction or radiation that
obeys all physical laws. No engine operating between the same two
temperatures can be more efficient than a Carnot engine operating
between them.

CARNOT’S THEOREM states that “ A Carnot engine, though only theoretical, is

always more efficient than an actual heat engine. “

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
THERMAL EFFICIENCY

THERMAL EFFICIENCY (Efficiency of a Heat Engine) – The thermal

efficiency of a power cycle is defined as the ratio of the useful work
output to the supplied input energy.

𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡

𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = =
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
THERMAL EFFICIENCY

In terms of heat variables,

𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 =
𝑄𝑖𝑛

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
CARNOT CYCLE
The CARNOT CYCLE is the most efficient power cycle. The efficiency of
a Carnot Cycle is the maximum possible for any power cycle.

𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿
𝜂= =1−
𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐻

where: Note that the efficiency is increased by rising

𝜂 = efficiency the temperature 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ at which heat is added
or by lowering the temperature 𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑤 at which
T = temperature in Kelvin
heat is rejected.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Compute the maximum possible efficiency of a heat engine operating
between the temperature limits of 100℃ and 400℃.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
A steam engine operating between a boiler temperature of 220℃ and a
condenser temperature of 35℃ delivers 8.00 hp. If its efficiency is 30% of
that for a Carnot engine operating between these temperature limits, how
many calories are absorbed each second by the boiler? How many calories
are exhausted to the condenser each second?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the efficiency of a Carnot engine operating between 500℉ and
1700℉?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
The highest theoretical efficiency of a steam engine is 40%. If this engine
uses the atmosphere (300 K) as the cold reservoir, what is the temperature
in Celsius of the hot reservoir?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
REFRIGERATION
REFRIGERATION is the process of transferring heat from a low-
temperature area to a high-temperature area. Since heat flows
spontaneously only from high to low temperature areas according to
the second law of thermodynamics, refrigeration needs an external
energy source to force the heat transfer to occur. This energy source is
a pump or compressor that does work in compressing the refrigerant. It
is necessary to perform this work on the refrigerant in order to get it to
discharge energy to the high-temperature area.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
HEAT PUMP
HEAT PUMP is a refrigeration system that can take heat from the cold
outdoors in winter and deliver it to the interior of a house.

REFRIGERATOR is a heat engine operating in reverse.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
Coefficient of performance
The COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (COP) is defined as the ratio
of the useful energy transfer to the work input.

𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = =
𝑊𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑄𝑖𝑛

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics

Coefficient of Performance for a

refrigerator is given by:
K R = Q low / (Q high – Q low )

For a reversible refrigerator, where Q 1 /

Q 2 = T 1 / T 2, the formula simplifies to:
K R = T low / (T high – T low )

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics

The Coefficient of Performance for a

heat pump is expressed as:
K H = Q high / (Q high – Q low )

In the case of a reversible heat pump,

Where Q 1/Q 2 = T 1 /T 2 , the formula
simplifies to:
K H = T high / (T high –T low )

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics

The ENERGY EFFICIENCY RATIO (EER) is defined as the useful energy

transfer in BTU/hr divided by the input power in watts.

𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝐸𝐸𝑅 =
𝑃𝑖𝑛
where:
EER = energy efficiency ratio
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = energy input in BTU/hr
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = power input in Watts

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the coefficient of performance of a brand-new refrigerator which
has a capacity of 3500 W and an input rating of 750 W?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM
An air conditioner extracts 100 J of heat from the interior of the house for
every 40 J of electric energy required to operate it. Determine the
coefficient of performance.

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM

QUESTIONS ?

PHYSICS II
 thermodynamics
SAMPLE PROBLEM

END

PHYSICS II